tag:theconversation.com,2011:/id/topics/dairy-products-20478/articlesDairy products – The Conversation2022-06-28T11:57:43Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1762232022-06-28T11:57:43Z2022-06-28T11:57:43ZFeeding insects to cattle could make meat and milk production more sustainable<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/471183/original/file-20220627-26-73hjk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=25%2C0%2C5582%2C3715&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Cows eating hay and soy-based feed.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/fEhGSn">United Soybean Board/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The world’s population is growing, and so is the challenge of feeding everyone. Current projections indicate that by 2050, global food demand could increase by <a href="https://doi.org/10.4060/cb4474en">59%-98% above current levels</a>. In particular, there will be increased demand for high-quality protein foods, such as meat and dairy products. </p>
<p>Livestock producers in the U.S. and other exporting countries are looking for ways to increase their output while also being sensitive to the environmental impacts of agricultural production. One important leverage point is finding ingredients for animal feed that can substitute for grains, freeing more farmland to grow crops for human consumption.</p>
<p>Cattle are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/tas/txy086">natural upcyclers</a>: Their specialized digestive systems allow them to convert low-quality sources of nutrients that humans cannot digest, such as grass and hay, into <a href="https://animalscience.tamu.edu/2020/02/10/beefs-greatest-talent-is-protein-upcycling/">high-quality protein foods like meat and milk</a> that meet human nutritional requirements. But when the protein content of grass and hay becomes too low, typically in winter, producers feed their animals an additional protein source – often soybean meal.
This strategy helps cattle grow, but it also drives up the cost of meat and leaves less farmland to grow crops for human consumption. </p>
<p>Growing grains also has environmental impacts: For example, large-scale soybean production is a driver of <a href="https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/publications/research/2016-01-28-agricultural-commodities-brack-glover-wellesley.pdf">deforestation in the Amazon</a>. For all of these reasons, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=hwgBLNAAAAAJ&hl=en">our laboratory</a> is working to identify alternative, novel protein sources for cattle. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/wFz0gF9i5a0?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Insect farming is a growing industry, producing alternative protein sources for human and animal feed.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Black soldier fly larvae</h2>
<p>An <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/insect-farming">insect farming industry</a> is emerging rapidly across the globe. Producers are growing insects for animal feed because of their nutritional profile and ability to grow quickly. Data also suggests that feeding insects to livestock <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.09.244">has a smaller environmental footprint</a> than conventional feed crops such as soybean meal. </p>
<p>Among thousands of edible insect species, one that’s attracting attention is the black soldier fly (<em>Hermetia illucens</em>). In their larval form, black soldier flies <a href="https://extension.oregonstate.edu/sites/default/files/documents/10911/september-cl-2018.pdf">are 45% protein and 35% fat</a>. They can be <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/foods6100091">fed efficiently on wastes</a> from many industries, such as pre-consumer food waste. The larvae can be raised on a large scale in <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/scottcarpenter/2021/12/31/worlds-largest-insect-protein-farm-signals-future-of-food-supply/?sh=16a9ed114606can%20be%20raised%20easily%20on%20a%20large%20scale">factory-sized facilities</a> and are shelf-stable after they are dried.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/471241/original/file-20220627-22-yz8asg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A graduate student with cupped hands filled with small brown larval pods." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/471241/original/file-20220627-22-yz8asg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/471241/original/file-20220627-22-yz8asg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=709&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471241/original/file-20220627-22-yz8asg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=709&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471241/original/file-20220627-22-yz8asg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=709&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471241/original/file-20220627-22-yz8asg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=891&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471241/original/file-20220627-22-yz8asg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=891&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471241/original/file-20220627-22-yz8asg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=891&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Texas State University graduate student Kayra Tasci holds dried black soldier fly larvae.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Merritt Drewery</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Most adults in the U.S. aren’t ready to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2020.104119">put black soldier fly larvae on their plates</a> but are much more willing to consume meat from livestock that are fed black soldier fly larvae. This has sparked research into using black soldier fly larvae as livestock feed. </p>
<h2>Already approved for other livestock</h2>
<p>Extensive research has shown that black soldier fly larvae can be fed to <a href="https://doi.org/10.3920/JIFF2015.0071">chickens</a>, <a href="http://scholar.sun.ac.za/handle/10019.1/100283">pigs</a> and <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2012.08.041">fish</a> as a replacement for conventional protein feeds such as soybean meal and fish meal. The <a href="https://www.aafco.org/">American Association of Feed Control Officials</a>, whose members regulate the sale and distribution of animal feeds in the U.S., has <a href="https://www.aafco.org/Portals/0/SiteContent/Meetings/Annual/2021/Committee-Reports/Ingredient_Definitions_Minutes_2021_Midyear.pdf">approved the larvae as feed</a> for poultry, pigs and certain fish. </p>
<p>So far, however, there has been scant research on feeding black soldier fly larvae to cattle. This is important for several reasons. First, <a href="https://usda.library.cornell.edu/concern/publications/h702q636h?locale=en">more than 14 million cattle and calves are fed grain or feed</a> in the U.S. Second, cattle’s specialized digestive system may allow them to utilize black soldier fly larvae as feed more efficiently than other livestock. </p>
<h2>Promising results in cattle</h2>
<p>Early in 2022, our laboratory published results from the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/tas/txac018">first trial of feeding black soldier fly larvae to cattle</a>. We used cattle that had been surgically fitted with small, porthole-like devices called cannulas, which allowed us to study and analyze the animals’ rumens – the portion of their stomach that is primarily responsible for converting fiber feeds, such as grass and hay, into energy that they can use. </p>
<p>Cannulation is <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani11071870">widely used to study digestion in cattle, sheep and goats</a>, including the amount of methane they burp, which contributes to climate change. The procedure is carried out by veterinary professionals following strict protocols to protect the animals’ well-being. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/471203/original/file-20220627-14-wk5675.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A black steer with a donut-sized ring implanted in its side." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/471203/original/file-20220627-14-wk5675.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/471203/original/file-20220627-14-wk5675.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471203/original/file-20220627-14-wk5675.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471203/original/file-20220627-14-wk5675.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471203/original/file-20220627-14-wk5675.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471203/original/file-20220627-14-wk5675.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471203/original/file-20220627-14-wk5675.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A steer fitted with a cannula that allows scientists to study digestion in its rumen.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Merritt Drewery</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In our study, the cattle consumed a base diet of hay plus a protein supplement based on either black soldier fly larvae or conventional cattle industry protein feeds. We know that feeding cows a protein supplement along with grass or hay <a href="https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2014-7795">increases the amount of grass and hay they consume</a>, so we hoped the insect-based supplement would have the same effect. </p>
<p>That was exactly what we observed: The insect-based protein supplement increased animals’ hay intake and digestion similarly to the conventional protein supplement. This indicates that black soldier fly larvae have potential as an alternative protein supplement for cattle. </p>
<h2>Costs and byproducts</h2>
<p>We have since conducted three additional trials evaluating black soldier fly larvae in cattle, including <a href="https://content.govdelivery.com/accounts/USDANIFA/bulletins/2cf5474">two funded by the U.S. Department of Agriculture</a>. We are especially interested in feeding cattle larvae that have had their fat removed. Data suggest that the fat can be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2010.11.016">converted to biodiesel</a>, yielding two sustainable products from black soldier flies. </p>
<p>We are also studying how consuming the larvae will affect methane-producing microbes that live in cattle’s stomachs. If our current research on this question, which is scheduled for publication in the spring of 2023, indicates that consuming black soldier fly larvae can reduce the amount of methane cows produce, we hope it will motivate regulators to approve the larvae as cattle feed. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/471205/original/file-20220627-12-pkfyr0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A researcher holding a gauge samples vials of fluid." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/471205/original/file-20220627-12-pkfyr0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/471205/original/file-20220627-12-pkfyr0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=618&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471205/original/file-20220627-12-pkfyr0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=618&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471205/original/file-20220627-12-pkfyr0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=618&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471205/original/file-20220627-12-pkfyr0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=776&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471205/original/file-20220627-12-pkfyr0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=776&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471205/original/file-20220627-12-pkfyr0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=776&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Texas State University student Brady Williams tests the pH of fluid from the rumens of cattle fed black soldier fly larvae.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Merritt Drewery</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Economics also matter. How much will beef and dairy cattle producers pay for insect-based feed, and can the insects be raised at that price point? To begin answering these questions, we conducted an <a href="https://doi.org/10.3920/JIFF2021.0166">economic analysis of black soldier fly larvae</a> for the U.S. cattle industry, also published early in 2022. </p>
<p>We found that the larvae would be priced slightly higher than current protein sources normally fed to cattle, including soybean meal. This higher price reflects the superior nutritional profile of black soldier fly larvae. However, it is not yet known if the insect farming industry can grow black soldier fly larvae at this price point, or if cattle producers would pay it. </p>
<p>The global market for edible insects is <a href="https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/global-edible-insects-market-2021-to-2027---environmental-benefits-is-driving-growth-301206304.html">growing quickly</a>, and advocates contend that using insects as ingredients can make <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/07/why-we-need-to-give-insects-the-role-they-deserve-in-our-food-systems/">human and animal food more sustainable</a>. In my view, the cattle feeding industry is an ideal market, and I hope to see further research that engages both insect and cattle producers.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/176223/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Merritt Drewery receives funding from the U.S. Department of Agriculture. </span></em></p>Feeding insects instead of grain to animals is an inexpensive, sustainable way to increase the world food supply. An animal scientist explains what’s involved in developing insect feed for cattle.Merritt Drewery, Assistant Professor of Animal Science, Texas State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1760172022-02-13T07:14:55Z2022-02-13T07:14:55ZKenya’s dairy sector is failing to meet domestic demand. How it can raise its game<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443382/original/file-20220131-19-zr8ug8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A consumer shops for milk products in a Nairobi supermarket. Simon Maina/ AFP via</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/consumer-shops-for-brookside-dairy-milk-products-in-a-news-photo/452832836?adppopup=true">Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Kenya’s dairy sector is estimated at <a href="https://climatefocus.com/sites/default/files/brief_3_-_enhancing_investment_attractiveness_of_kenya_dairy_sector.pdf">14% of Kenya’s agricultural GDP</a>. Milk is primarily produced by smallholder dairy farmers who account for 56% of total output. It is estimated that the sector has 1.8 million smallholder farmers (about 80% of producers). The remaining 44% of milk output comes from large commercial farmers. </p>
<p>Kenya has three main production systems. Intensive production where animals are fully housed (zero-grazed); open grazing where animals roam fields; and semi-intensive systems where animals are partly zero-grazed and taken to fields.</p>
<p>Dairy cattle in Kenya consist of indigenous and exotic breeds; as well as crosses between the two varieties. There are more than <a href="https://globalresearchalliance.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/2020-09-02_Livestock-sub-sector-NDC-report_FINAL.pdf">five million dairy cattle</a> producing an estimated <a href="https://www.knbs.or.ke/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/Economic-Survey-2021.pdf">four billion litres</a> of milk annually. Milk production is projected to grow by <a href="https://www.ilri.org/news/kenyan-livestock-sector-grow-%E2%80%98exponentially%E2%80%99%E2%80%94kenya-national-bureau-statistics">about 150% by 2050</a>. </p>
<p>Kenya has the highest per capita <a href="https://climatefocus.com/sites/default/files/brief_3_-_enhancing_investment_attractiveness_of_kenya_dairy_sector.pdf">milk consumption</a> in sub-Saharan Africa, at 110 litres. The demand, currently at 8 billion litres, is also expected to grow with the population increase. </p>
<p>The government has therefore prioritised the industry in national strategy and plans, such as the Agricultural Sector Transformation and Growth Strategy (2019-2029) and the president’s <a href="https://big4.delivery.go.ke/">Big Four Agenda</a>. There’s also a <a href="https://kilimo.go.ke/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/DMP-VOL-ll-STRATEGIES-AND-ACTION-PLANS.pdf">dairy master plan</a> to guide the development of the industry up to 2030. </p>
<p>But the sector faces significant challenges that affect the realisation of its full potential. As a result, Kenya has to <a href="https://infotradekenya.go.ke/procedure/830?l=en">import</a> from neighbouring countries to meet demand.</p>
<p>One of the reasons is the low average annual <a href="https://www.kdb.go.ke/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/Cost-of-milk-production-report..pdf">dairy productivity</a> which ranges between six to eight litres per cow per day. It is important to highlight that productivity varies with production systems. The highest productivity is attained under intensive production systems. A low level of productivity increases the cost of production and affects the competitiveness of the industry.</p>
<h2>Choice of breeds</h2>
<p>Based on our <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Timothy-Njagi-2">studies</a> at the Egerton University’s <a href="https://www.tegemeo.org/working-papers">Tegemeo Institute</a>, the dairy industry in Kenya is yet to reach its potential. To make it competitive, all players must work together to improve productivity at farm and improve efficiency of dairy markets.</p>
<p>Firstly, a dairy animal’s milk yield is determined by its genetic composition. Exotic cows produce much higher volumes compared to indigenous breeds. But indigenous breeds are hardier and are able to withstand harsh conditions.</p>
<p>The choice of breed is informed by production system, ability, experience or expertise of the farmer, and environmental factors such as climate. Artificial Insemination is the most preferred method to improve animal breeds. The artificial insemination was previously offered by the government but the service was privatised in the late 1980s as part of Kenya’s <a href="https://aercafrica.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/RP124.pdf">Structural Adjustment Programs</a>. This was meant to improve the reach to farmers by private service providers. </p>
<p>The government supports the AI service providers by subsidising prices. The number of service providers has significantly improved, cost of the service has dropped and the access distance reduced. However, the quality of services still varies across regions. </p>
<p>Improving regulation and supervision of insemination, and enhancing the supply of supporting infrastructure such as semen storage, will improve the genetic composition of dairy animals. </p>
<h2>Feed quality and cost</h2>
<p>Secondly, feeds are essential to dairy productivity. Dairy farmers grapple with low quality and high cost of feeds. <a href="https://www.hindawi.com/journals/vmi/2020/3262370/">Studies</a> show that improving the quality of fodder significantly improves milk productivity. </p>
<p>Fodder varies in quality based on nutrients. <a href="https://www.kalro.org/sites/default/files/Proceeding-Climate-Smart-Brachiaria-Grasses-Dec2016.pdf">High quality fodder</a> are grown. Fodder yield depends on seed quality and farm level agronomic practices. Furthermore, a farmer must have know-how on mixing different types of fodder to attain the nutrition level required by the animal. Therefore, improving farmers’ knowledge is critical. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.kdb.go.ke/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/Cost-of-milk-production-report..pdf">cost</a> of feed and fodder varies by the production system. In intensive production systems, feed and fodder account for 55% of the cost of producing a litre of milk, while it’s 44% in open grazing systems and 37% in semi-intensive systems. For producers under intensive systems, the high costs erode profitability despite productivity being highest.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/business/business/article/2001422908/high-cost-of-feeds-drives-farmers-out-of-dairy-and-poultry-business">Rising costs of commercial feeds</a> drive the cost of production up. <a href="https://www.businessdailyafrica.com/bd/data-hub/farmers-anguish-as-feed-costs-go-through-the-roof-3696476">Feed prices have continued to rise</a> even after government <a href="https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/national/article/2001431676/government-allows-importation-of-duty-free-livestock-raw-feeds">waived</a> the duty on imported raw materials.</p>
<p>There’s also policies such as the ban on genetically modified products which <a href="https://www.businessdailyafrica.com/bd/markets/market-news/imports-of-yellow-maize-for-feeds-stall-on-gmo-free-rule-3672406">prevent feed manufacturers from accessing cheaper raw materials</a>.</p>
<h2>Extension services</h2>
<p>Animal husbandry plays a critical factor in improving productivity. This is directly affected by farmers’ access to extension services. Farmers in high potential dairy production areas have formed cooperatives. These provide extension services in some areas following the collapse of government services. </p>
<p>However, this strategy primarily benefits farmers in high dairy production areas, mainly under extensive systems and partly in semi-extensive systems. Development partners and civil society organisations have further strengthened the role of cooperatives in delivering knowledge and technologies to farmers.</p>
<p>Cooperatives have suffered from governance problems, causing exit of members. The Ministry of agriculture in December 2021, reviewed the Cooperative Act in a bid to tighten the policy framework. But a stricter supervision and punishment for those abusing position of trust, can improve appeal of the societies.</p>
<h2>Animal health</h2>
<p>Animal health affects both productivity of milking heads and the quality of milk. Responsibility for animal health is shared between the national and county governments. Both have been working to enhance disease monitoring and surveillance by launching vaccination campaigns, especially in the open grazing areas. Regulation of veterinary service providers remains critical, especially as it pertains to safety.</p>
<p>Issues such as <a href="https://www.aasciences.africa/news/antimicrobial-status-human-animal-interface-kenya">microbial</a> resistance in both humans and animals has been linked to misuse of medicines. The government has a <a href="https://www.health.go.ke/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/Kenya-AMR-Containment-Policy-_Final_April.pdf">policy</a> to address this. However, stringent implementation of measures on animal health and food safety is required. </p>
<h2>Marketing</h2>
<p>The marketing of milk and dairy products remains a key talking point for the industry. The informal market dominates the raw milk segment. This is because there are a large number of smallholder producers who are not organised in groups or cooperatives. </p>
<p>The informal market, however, offers a higher return to producers. A key criticism is that the milk is unsafe due to poor handling or adulteration. Defining and enforcing food safety standards for milk value chain can improve safety. </p>
<p>The standards should define how milk is handled, transported and packaged. Awareness among actors and consumers in the informal market could have greater results in ensuring the safety of milk to consumers. </p>
<p>Government policy encourages value addition and processing by cooperatives, but progress has been slow because of market concentration at processing. The largest processor controls more than a <a href="https://www.tegemeo.org/images/_tegemeo_institute/downloads/publications/policy_briefs/policy%20brief_%20no.%2024%20-%20dairy.pdf">third of the market</a>, and two processors control two-thirds of the market. The regulator should regularly monitor changes in market structure to ensure farmers receive competitive prices. </p>
<p>To support cooperatives in value addition, both the national and county governments have distributed milk coolers to cooperatives. However, most of these remain collection centres for processors, and few have engaged in processing. Besides, milk imports and dairy products from neighbouring countries such as Uganda, are favoured by consumers because of lower prices.</p>
<h2>Capital</h2>
<p>Other key challenges affecting the sector include access to capital for both farmers and value chain actors. This prevents critical investments in the industry. Furthermore, supply of public goods such as improved rural roads adversely affects the collection and delivery of milk, especially during the rainy seasons. </p>
<p>To revitalise the dairy industry, improving coordination across the government and stakeholders in the industry is a first step. Next, the government must address the policy incoherence in the industry.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/176017/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Timothy Njagi Njeru does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The industry is in the hands of smallholder farmers who struggle to raise capital and practise good farming.Timothy Njagi Njeru, Research Fellow, Tegemeo Institute, Egerton UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1167542019-06-12T11:58:43Z2019-06-12T11:58:43ZVegan is the new vegetarian – why supermarkets need to go ‘plant-based’ to help save the planet<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/277221/original/file-20190530-69079-1uozmb5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Veganism is arguably the biggest food trend of the moment. This has led to a massive <a href="https://www.thegrocer.co.uk/category-reports/quick-draw-plant-based-category-report-2018/573359.article">expansion of meat-free brands and own-label offerings</a>. In fact, the UK is now the nation with the <a href="https://www.mintel.com/press-centre/food-and-drink/veganuary-uk-overtakes-germany-as-worlds-leader-for-vegan-food-launches">highest number of vegan food products launched</a>. And with major news outlets such as <a href="https://worldin2019.economist.com/theyearofthevegan">The Economist</a> and <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidebanis/2018/12/31/everything-is-ready-to-make-2019-the-year-of-the-vegan-are-you/#302f78f757df">Forbes</a> declaring 2019 the “year of the vegan”, the trend promises to continue – a third of people in the UK have already <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2018/nov/01/third-of-britons-have-stopped-or-reduced-meat-eating-vegan-vegetarian-report">stopped or reduced eating meat</a>. </p>
<p>Long-established brands tend to receive great publicity for <a href="https://www.joe.ie/news/forms-guinness-worldwide-draught-bottle-can-now-officially-vegan-613586">reformulating their products</a> to be vegan and newly launched meat-free products prove to be incredibly <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2019/jan/09/greggs-unveils-extra-profit-vegan-sausage-roll">popular and fast selling</a>. This is great news, considering that a decrease in animal product consumption constitutes the “<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/may/31/avoiding-meat-and-dairy-is-single-biggest-way-to-reduce-your-impact-on-earth">single biggest way</a>” to respond to environmental challenges such as the climate crisis, soil degradation and biodiversity loss. </p>
<p>Providing only 37% of our protein and 18% of our calories, meat, aquaculture, eggs, and dairy use 83% of the world’s farmland and <a href="https://josephpoore.com/Science%20360%206392%20987%20-%20Accepted%20Manuscript.pdf">make up 57% of all food emissions</a>. A shift from animal to plant-based food production would help to <a href="http://animal.law.harvard.edu/wp-content/uploads/Eating-Away-at-Climate-Change-with-Negative-Emissions%E2%80%93%E2%80%93Harwatt-Hayek.pdf">reduce UK greenhouse gas emissions</a>. It would also help to tackle some of the <a href="https://www.health.harvard.edu/healthbeat/whats-the-beef-with-red-meat">major health issues facing society</a>, while still meeting protein and calorie requirements. </p>
<h2>Meat-free vs vegan</h2>
<p>But despite this trend for plant-based food, not all meat-free innovations sold in the shops are free from ingredients of animal origin. While “vegan” implies that products are fully plant-based and free from animal produce, “meat-free” or “vegetarian” products may still contain milk, dairy or other animal-based ingredients. </p>
<p>Alongside the emergence of plant-based newcomer brands, in recent years, established meat-alternative companies such as the meat-free giant <a href="https://www.quorn.co.uk/products/vegan">Quorn</a> and the traditionally vegetarian brand <a href="https://lindamccartneyfoods.co.uk/our-food/vegan-range/">Linda McCartney</a> have started to reformulate their products to offer a bigger range of vegan options.</p>
<p>But many other producers of “meat alternatives” still rely on animal-based substances such as eggs and dairy. That said, many established and new product ranges that are labelled and promoted as vegetarian are, in fact, vegan, so what’s going on here?</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/277178/original/file-20190530-69063-lbuxiy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/277178/original/file-20190530-69063-lbuxiy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/277178/original/file-20190530-69063-lbuxiy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/277178/original/file-20190530-69063-lbuxiy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/277178/original/file-20190530-69063-lbuxiy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=468&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/277178/original/file-20190530-69063-lbuxiy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=468&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/277178/original/file-20190530-69063-lbuxiy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=468&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The number of vegans in Great Britain quadrupled between 2014 and 2018.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It may well be that manufacturers still hesitate to market their products in the vegan category – vegetarian feels like a safer alternative. Indeed, it’s estimated that <a href="https://uk.kantar.com/consumer/shoppers/2019/only-3-of-uk-self-define-as-vegan/">92% of plant-based meals</a> were eaten by non-vegans in 2018. Vegans make up only a small minority of consumers buying <a href="https://uk.kantar.com/consumer/shoppers/2019/grocery-market-share-february-new-year%E2%80%99s-resolutions-lead-to-healthy-grocery-sales/">meat-free meals</a>. </p>
<p>But it seems that when it comes to what people actually want to buy, vegan products are in high demand. <a href="https://www.just-food.com/news/nestles-garden-gourmet-veggie-brand-withdrawn-from-uk-sale_id141309.aspx">Nestle’s meat-free range</a>, which was meant to “revolutionise the vegetarian category”, was <a href="https://www.thegrocer.co.uk/new-product-development/seven-veggie-products-that-prove-plant-based-cant-guarantee-sales/592594.article">withdrawn from British supermarket shelves after just a few months</a>. Also, <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-6265573/Linda-McCartneys-new-vegetarian-pizza-range-branded-disappointing-fans.html">Linda McCartney’s pizzas</a> topped with “fake-meat” alongside dairy-based cheese <a href="https://www.thegrocer.co.uk/new-product-development/seven-veggie-products-that-prove-plant-based-cant-guarantee-sales/592594.article">proved unsuccessful</a>.</p>
<h2>Environmental impact</h2>
<p>Looking at the numbers, the production of dairy and eggs might <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10584-014-1169-1%EF%BB%BF">not be as harmful</a> as the production of meat, but it still has a <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11367-015-0931-6">significant impact</a> on the environment. And more importantly, it is built on the same <a href="https://theconversation.com/go-vegan-because-of-mass-exploitation-of-animals-not-because-eating-them-is-wrong-110628">unsustainable farming practices</a> as meat production.</p>
<p>It’s not just products marketed as meat-free that might contain ingredients of animal origin either. In the demand for more wellness products, recent innovations have led to a number of items using by-products of animal origin. These may be milk powder or fat, but can also be products or by-products of slaughter – such as animal fats, rennet or collagen. Marks and Spencer, for example, sells a “Super Water” which uses <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/food-and-drink/marks-and-spencer-vegetarian-juice-beef-collagen-vegan-super-waters-protein-a8872866.html">beef collagen to boost protein content</a> – much to the outcry of shoppers.</p>
<p>So given the severe impact animal-based food production has on the environment, and the trend for vegan products, wouldn’t it make sense for all new vegetarian product ranges simply be made vegan? </p>
<h2>The problem with ‘vegetarian’</h2>
<p>Traditional vegetarianism rejects meat as unethical for taking the life of an animal, whereas eggs and dairy are seen as staples and essentials for good health. This understanding goes back to the post-World War II context when factory farming was still in its infancy and milk surpluses were pushed through <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329921052_Milk_Is_Life_Nutritional_Interventions_and_Child_Welfare_The_Italian_Case_and_Post-War_International_Aid">public health and school milk campaigns</a>. But in today’s age of factory farming, meat and dairy are two sides of the same coin. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/277179/original/file-20190530-69091-m57tq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/277179/original/file-20190530-69091-m57tq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/277179/original/file-20190530-69091-m57tq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/277179/original/file-20190530-69091-m57tq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/277179/original/file-20190530-69091-m57tq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/277179/original/file-20190530-69091-m57tq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/277179/original/file-20190530-69091-m57tq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Major supermarkets have added multiple vegan products to their shelves this year in a bid to meet growing demand.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Even if vegans currently only make up <a href="https://uk.kantar.com/consumer/shoppers/2019/only-3-of-uk-self-define-as-vegan/">3% of the UK population</a>, there is a clear consumer push for plant-based produce. Awareness of the environmental and ethical impacts of our food system is growing and “veganism” provides a context to view the problem in its entirety. Shoppers are also keen to vary their proteins and explore plant-based milks. Vegetarians are comfortable with vegan products and products such as meat-free sausages – and crisps or chocolate chip cookies work without milk and eggs as additives. </p>
<p>So with the food industry continuously innovating in this market, it would make more sense for the label “vegetarian” to become redundant and to be instead replaced by “vegan”. This is important because a “vegan” approach goes beyond the environmental aspects to shed light on factory farming and how it is not just cruel, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/oct/04/factory-farming-destructive-wasteful-cruel-says-philip-lymbery-farmageddon-author">but a threat to all life on the planet</a>. And in this sense vegetarian product launches and meat-free product innovations that rely on animal-derived substances are quite clearly a step backwards.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/116754/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ulrike Ehgartner does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Given the severe impact animal-based food production has on the environment, and the trend for vegan products, wouldn’t it make sense for all new vegetarian product ranges simply to be made vegan?Ulrike Ehgartner, Research Associate in the Sustainable Consumption Institute, University of ManchesterLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1179632019-06-11T23:09:02Z2019-06-11T23:09:02ZLab-grown dairy: The next food frontier<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/278583/original/file-20190609-52748-3q3tgx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=45%2C0%2C5053%2C3305&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Could dairy products soon be produced in labs?</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Lab-grown meat is getting a lot of attention along with plant-based meat substitutes. Technology is driving the industry toward providing alternatives to conventionally produced food products. Dairy proteins may be the next product produced in a lab, for use in fluid “milk” production and processed dairy products like yogurt and cheese, to name a few.</p>
<p>Winston Churchill predicted the rise of <a href="https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/ezzeye/winston-churchill-predicted-synthetic-lab-grown-meat-in-1931">synthetic foods</a> in 1931.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“We shall escape the absurdity of growing a whole chicken in order to eat the breast or wing, by growing these parts separately under a suitable medium. Synthetic food will, of course, also be used in the future.” </p>
</blockquote>
<p>While it took longer than 50 years, his prediction is coming true with meat proteins and now dairy proteins.</p>
<h2>What is synthetic dairy?</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.perfectdayfoods.com/">Perfect Day Inc.,</a> a California-based start-up, has recreated the proteins found in conventional cow’s milk without the use of animals. The company developed a form of genetically modified microflora that produces both <a href="https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/casein-vs-whey">whey and casein</a> through a fermentation process. </p>
<p>The approach can be loosely compared to the use of brewer’s yeast to produce alcohol. Yeast is used in controlled environments to create fermentation byproducts and the two processes simply employ different yeasts for a different purpose and output.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/278584/original/file-20190609-52785-g8w4k8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/278584/original/file-20190609-52785-g8w4k8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278584/original/file-20190609-52785-g8w4k8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278584/original/file-20190609-52785-g8w4k8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278584/original/file-20190609-52785-g8w4k8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278584/original/file-20190609-52785-g8w4k8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278584/original/file-20190609-52785-g8w4k8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Could she be headed for an early retirement?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Amanda Kerr/Unsplash</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Perfect Day says their product is the exact same as the protein found in cow’s milk. <a href="http://milkfacts.info/Nutrition%20Facts/Nutritional%20Components.htm">Conventional milk</a> is approximately 3.3 per cent protein, of which 82 per is casein and 18 per cent is whey. The other main elements are water, fat and carbohydrates. </p>
<p>Perfect Day has the technology to remake the small fraction of milk that is protein, arguably the most important component to produce other foods. The company suggests that its dairy protein is vegan and lactose-free, while providing the same high-quality nutrition as conventional dairy protein. This could have significant appeal for consumers.</p>
<h2>Tough to mimic full-fat milks</h2>
<p>Milk produced by dairy cattle is a versatile ingredient used in various products worldwide. More than <a href="https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=3210011301">70 per cent of milk sold</a> from Canadian farms in 2019 is used for further processing, leaving the remainder to be consumed as fluid milk.</p>
<p>It may be difficult to produce full-fat milks that mimic the taste and texture of cow’s milk. Protein is just one component of fluid milk; milk fat is another, which would likely be the most difficult to mimic with plant-based alternatives. The structure of milk fat provides a specific taste and mouth feel when drinking milk, and this may be a tougher formulation challenge than creating proteins to be used in cheese or yogurt. </p>
<p>The early focus of Perfect Day’s communication was on fluid milk — the kind we drink —but the company has shifted its focus to processed products. </p>
<p>Perfect Day has partnered with food production powerhouse <a href="https://www.adm.com/">Archer Daniels Midland (ADM)</a>, among others, to move towards full-scale production. The company is one of the world’s largest agricultural processors and food ingredient providers with more than 330 manufacturing facilities in almost 200 countries. ADM supplies a vast list of ingredients for both human and animal consumption; synthetic dairy protein may be a perfect addition to their offerings.</p>
<p>Products such as yogurt and cheese are different than fluid milk, and may be more suitable for using lab-grown casein and whey. The synthetic proteins could be used to replace dairy milk ingredients or to complement them.</p>
<p>In <a href="http://www.milkfacts.info/Milk%20Processing/Yogurt%20Production.htm">yogurt production</a>, for example, protein is often added to improve texture. There are differing proportions of milk components in various processed products. This means that fermented casein and whey proteins could augment or replace conventional protein ingredients. This is easier to do in products with high-protein ingredients.</p>
<p>That said, the potential use of animal-free dairy protein goes far beyond traditional dairy products such as cheese and yogurt. Hot dogs that contain milk powder and granola bars that contain modified milk ingredients are examples of the many foods that could use this alternative dairy protein.</p>
<h2>Tackling malnutrition?</h2>
<p>Perfect Day CEO Ryan Pandya <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/perfect-day-2018-ryan-pandya?trk=related_artice_Perfect%20Day%20in%202018_article-card_title">said last year</a>: “We began to look into how we can use our protein to prevent stunted growth and malnutrition in the developing world.” This suggests Perfect Day’s focus is on providing ingredients rather than producing milk.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/278586/original/file-20190609-52776-1tfww9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/278586/original/file-20190609-52776-1tfww9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278586/original/file-20190609-52776-1tfww9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278586/original/file-20190609-52776-1tfww9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278586/original/file-20190609-52776-1tfww9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278586/original/file-20190609-52776-1tfww9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278586/original/file-20190609-52776-1tfww9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">We’ve long had an alternative to butter – margarine. But a lot of consumers prefer butter.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Some products aren’t well-suited to this approach. Butter, for example, is made from milk fat and has almost no protein. We’ve long had a plant-based alternative to butter — margarine. But many consumers moved away from margarine and back to butter. </p>
<p>The Canadian <a href="http://www.cdc-ccl.gc.ca/CDC/index-eng.php?id=3800">per capita consumption of butter</a> increased from 2.72 kilograms to 3.21 kilograms from 2007 to 2016. This increase in butter demand has led to an <a href="http://www.agrifoodecon.ca/uploads/userfiles/files/logic%20of%20milk%20marketing%20trends%20briefing%20note-%20may%2025%202016.pdf">excess of milk protein</a> in the marketplace in both Canada and the United States.</p>
<p>While it remains to be seen if these fermented proteins can be produced economically, their introduction into the marketplace could cause significant disruption to the dairy industry. The disruption would be due in part to switching some processed products away from conventional dairy proteins.</p>
<p>There would be additional disruption because of the change in relative demand for protein and other milk components. We would likely end up with more significant surpluses of proteins from both conventional dairy and synthetic production.</p>
<h2>The future</h2>
<p>Many issues need to be resolved before these products arrive in our supermarkets. The economics of production have to work. Products need to be reformulated to incorporate the fermented proteins with other ingredients to replace the milk components.</p>
<p>The Canadian Food Inspection Agency currently <a href="http://www.inspection.gc.ca/about-the-cfia/acts-and-regulations/list-of-acts-and-regulations/documents-incorporated-by-reference/canadian-standards-of-identity-volume-1/eng/1521473554991/1521473555532">describes milk</a> as being produced by an animal. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has not yet made a policy statement on classifying synthetic milk proteins. </p>
<p>Milk in Canada is also subject to a supply management system that includes quota for production. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-the-dairy-lobbys-cash-grab-put-canada-in-trumps-crosshairs-102974">How the dairy lobby's cash grab put Canada in Trump’s crosshairs</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Will synthetic casein and whey be subject to the same system? The regulatory environment will require significant clarification, and any changes will be vigorously debated by various interests.</p>
<p>Some consumers will highly value the fact that animals are not required to produce these proteins, creating a vegan, lactose-free product. There will also be a perception that synthetic dairy proteins will have a smaller environmental footprint. </p>
<p>Other consumers will likely have concerns that the proteins are produced using a genetically modified yeast.</p>
<p>Despite these uncertainties, we will likely see synthetic dairy products on grocery shelves within a few years.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/117963/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>
Michael von Massow receives funding from the Ontario Ministry of Agriculture and Food to research issues in food waste and nutrition labeling for restaurant menus. He has received funding from the Walmart Foundation to explore food waste at the household level. He has received money from the Tim Hortons Sustainable Food Management Fund to explore consumer attitudes to antibiotic use and animal welfare. He has also received funding from Longo's Brothers Markets in support of research into consumer behaviour in food retail.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mitchell Gingerich does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Dairy proteins may be the next product to be mass produced in labs, for use in fluid “milk” production and processed dairy products like yogurt and cheese.Michael von Massow, Associate Professor, Food Economics, University of GuelphMitchell Gingerich, Graduate Research Assistant, Department of Food, Agriculture and Resource Economics, University of GuelphLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1029742018-09-11T21:39:08Z2018-09-11T21:39:08ZHow the dairy lobby’s cash grab put Canada in Trump’s crosshairs<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/235822/original/file-20180911-144473-1ngrgw0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">In this April 2017 photo, Wisconsin dairy farmer Tim Prosser is seen with his cows. Canada's tough stance on diafiltered milk via its supply-management system has caused hardship for farmers like Prosser, forced to consider selling their milking cows and shutting down family businesses. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Cara Lombardo)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Remember the early days of the NAFTA renegotiations, when all Donald Trump wanted to do was <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/trudeau-trump-sit-down-in-oval-office-for-first-face-to-face-meeting/article33998164/">“tweak”</a> the agreement as far as Canada was concerned? </p>
<p>That seems like a century ago now. A lot has happened to poison the well between then and now, including the U.S. president’s <a href="https://www.thestar.com/news/world/2018/06/12/we-just-shook-hands-trump-confused-by-trudeaus-pushed-around-comment-after-g7-summit.html">over-the-top reaction</a> to Prime Minister Justin Trudeau’s comments after the G7 Summit in Charlevoix, but one of the biggest obstacles has been the rise to prominence of Canada’s dairy supply management system.</p>
<p>Trump may not have a sophisticated understanding of international trade, but he understands numbers and politics. </p>
<p>When a small group of Wisconsin farmers pointed out that the nice little export niche they had carved out selling <a href="https://www.dairyfarmers.ca/farmers-voice/dairy-products/what-is-diafiltered-milk">diafiltered milk protein</a> to Canadian food processors had been shut down, and that Canada maintained tariffs of up to 300 per cent to prevent access to its dairy market, “The Donald” got the message. </p>
<p>After all, Wisconsin was a swing state that he was not expected to win during the 2016 U.S. presidential election. And “300 per cent tariffs” makes a great sound bite.</p>
<p>And now, with Foreign Affairs Minister Chrystia Freeland <a href="https://www.cp24.com/news/freeland-to-head-back-to-washington-for-high-level-nafta-negotiations-1.4088684">back in Washington to resume NAFTA renegotiations</a>, the key to success is spelled <a href="https://www.huffingtonpost.ca/2018/09/07/larry-kudlow-nafta-canada_a_23520365">M-I-L-K</a>, according to a top Trump economic official. </p>
<h2>Dairy farmers demonstrate</h2>
<p>Meanwhile, Canada’s dairy farmers have been up to their usual antics, demonstrating in Montréal and demanding “<a href="https://ipolitics.ca/2018/09/06/dairy-farmers-protest-as-nafta-talks-continue/">absolutely no concessions</a>.”</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1038064415466246144"}"></div></p>
<p>With a Québec election underway, it would be a brave Québec politician to call their bluff. Look what happened when Maxime Bernier stuck to his principles. It cost him the leadership of the Conservative Party, which instead went to <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/editorials/article-globe-editorial-andrew-scheers-cheesy-trade-war-politics/">milk-slurping</a> Andrew Scheer.</p>
<p>How did we get into this box? </p>
<p>Supply management has been around for decades, since the early 1970s. Introduced as a means to ensure stable markets by controlling supply, it is built on a system of quotas that allows quota-holders (licensed dairy producers) to produce a set quantity of milk. </p>
<p>The price for that milk at the wholesale level is set by provincial boards. The price of raw milk will drive the cost of all other dairy products from butter to ice cream, cheese and yogurt. The result has been a price structure that has rewarded dairy quota-holders handsomely but has meant expensive dairy products for consumers.</p>
<p>The annual cost to consumers of inflated dairy is in the <a href="https://nationalpost.com/news/politics/supply-management-costs-poor-families-five-times-more-relative-to-household-income-study">hundreds of dollars per family</a>, affecting poorer families disproportionally. And it’s all designed to prop up a system that has made, according to Statistics Canada, Canada’s 11,000 dairy farmers <a href="https://www.thestar.com/opinion/contributors/thebigdebate/2018/07/10/should-canada-scrap-its-supply-management-system-yes.html">on average worth over $5 million each</a>. </p>
<h2>Barriers erected</h2>
<p>To maintain the artificial, walled garden of the Canadian dairy market and the “made-in-Canada” prices, barriers have been erected to keep out more competitively priced dairy products from other countries. </p>
<p>Diafiltered milk — milk that has been filtered through a membrane to concentrate it and raise its protein content — is the biggest issue for the United States. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/235873/original/file-20180911-144470-1o8u1dx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/235873/original/file-20180911-144470-1o8u1dx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=884&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/235873/original/file-20180911-144470-1o8u1dx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=884&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/235873/original/file-20180911-144470-1o8u1dx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=884&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/235873/original/file-20180911-144470-1o8u1dx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1111&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/235873/original/file-20180911-144470-1o8u1dx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1111&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/235873/original/file-20180911-144470-1o8u1dx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1111&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Former prime minister Brian Mulroney signs the North American Free Trade Agreement during a signing ceremony in Ottawa in 1992 as Michael Wilson, the international trade minister, looks on.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(THE CANADIAN PRESS/Frank Gunn)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The product did not exist when NAFTA was first negotiated in the 1990s, so it was not included on the list of blocked items that Canada negotiated as part of its protection of supply management in the original agreement. It was a new product developed in the U.S. and sold into Canada at the lower American price, since it was classified as a protein ingredient and avoided NAFTA dairy tariffs.</p>
<p>Wisconsin dairy producers invested in plants to produce diafiltered milk for the Canadian market. It proved to be popular with Canadian food processors — even farmer-owned dairy co-ops — because it lowered their costs.</p>
<p>The market for the product gave the U.S. a <a href="https://business.financialpost.com/pmn/business-pmn/ap-fact-check-trump-partly-right-on-canad">surplus in dairy trade</a> with Canada of $475 million in 2017. </p>
<h2>A crack in the armour</h2>
<p>The arrangement seemed to be working well until the Canadian dairy industry in 2016 decided that the sale of diafiltered milk protein was a crack in the armour of supply management and had to be fixed. </p>
<p>Failing previously to get the product reclassified as milk, they established a new category of milk product in Canada under the supply management system, called Class 7, that would be sold (to Canadian processors) at the lower world price rather than the “made-in-Canada” price that consumers pay.</p>
<p>This effectively shut the door on the market for U.S. diafiltered milk exports. But that wasn’t all.</p>
<p>Because of the nature of the dairy industry, as demand for butterfat (butter, cream) goes up, so does the production of unwanted skim milk, the byproduct of butterfat production. </p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/235869/original/file-20180911-144470-zmt3u0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/235869/original/file-20180911-144470-zmt3u0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/235869/original/file-20180911-144470-zmt3u0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/235869/original/file-20180911-144470-zmt3u0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/235869/original/file-20180911-144470-zmt3u0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/235869/original/file-20180911-144470-zmt3u0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/235869/original/file-20180911-144470-zmt3u0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">As the demand increases for dairy products containing butterfat, including cheese and yogurt, there’s a glut of skim milk.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>After many years of flat-lining, butterfat demand in Canada is going up. Since foreign producers are not allowed to help meet that demand, Canadian production of milk has increased, leading in turn to a surplus of skim milk. </p>
<p>Some of that surplus is turned into diafiltered milk protein and sold in Canada. The rest is sold on the world market at discounted prices. The alternative is to simply pour it down the drain, an outcome that is a regular occurrence under supply management as the system struggles to match supply and demand.</p>
<h2>An over-abundance of milk</h2>
<p>Since there is a glut of milk on the world market, these sales often displace U.S. exporters. American producers complain that the Canadian exports are the result of a closed system that subsidizes the production of a dumped product. Their argument is that you can’t have a closed market restricting imports while at the same time depressing world prices for others by <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/prince-edward-island/pei-agriculture-secretary-sonny-perdue-supply-management-1.4707463">dumping milk solids</a> into export markets.</p>
<p>Canada’s supply management system would likely have flown under the radar in the NAFTA talks, but for the determination of the Canadian dairy lobby to close the door to the import of diafiltered milk protein. Because of this money grab, milk has become the bee in Donald Trump’s bonnet, and Canada and the rest of the Canadian economy is now a prime Trump target. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/in-trade-war-with-trump-canada-should-stop-defending-the-indefensible-on-dairy-products-98127">In trade war with Trump, Canada should stop defending the indefensible on dairy products</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>It’s ironic that the government will almost certainly have to give on Class 7 milk if it’s to ink a deal with the U.S. </p>
<p>A deal on diafiltered milk protein will allow the Trudeau government to claim that it protected the essence of supply management, but at least the system will be further eroded. No doubt the industry will be bought off with “adjustment payments.” </p>
<p>One way or the other we we all have to pay. However, I would rather pay as a taxpayer to wean Canada off supply management than pay through punitive U.S. trade actions against other sectors of the economy in order to retain a system that has long outlived its usefulness.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/102974/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hugh Stephens is affiliated with School of Public Policy, University of Calgary as Executive Fellow</span></em></p>Canadian dairy farmers were already well-heeled and well-protected from world market forces, but their cash grab over something called diafiltered milk has put the entire Canadian economy at risk.Hugh Stephens, Executive Fellow, School of Public Policy, University of Calgary; Fellow, Canadian Global Affairs Institute; Associate Faculty, School of Business, Royal Roads University, University of CalgaryLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/886102017-12-15T15:45:12Z2017-12-15T15:45:12ZWhat type of milk is best? The answer is follow your tastebuds<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198551/original/file-20171211-27698-fu3dn6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Milk had a rather bad press in the 1970s and 1980s. In the UK, for example, there has been a <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/597667/Family_Food_2015-09mar17.pdf">marked decline</a> in milk consumption from about 2,700ml per person per week in the early 1970s to 1,400ml per person per week in 2014.</p>
<p>The particular problem was the milk fat or cream, which accounts for 3.6% of the weight of whole milk and of which 65% is saturated fat. <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jhmas/article/63/2/139/772615">More and more scientific evidence</a> was showing that diets high in fat, particularly saturated fat could lead to elevated blood cholesterol. High blood cholesterol had been implicated as an important factor that increased risk of heart disease, deaths from which were at an <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18452595">all-time high</a> in the UK in the 1970s.</p>
<p>As a result of this, in 1984 the UK <a href="https://archive.org/stream/op1276561-1001/op1276561-1001_djvu.txt">government introduced</a> dietary targets to lower the national fat intake, including saturated fat intake. The dairy industry responded by promoting reduced-fat milks. Semi-skimmed has about half the fat content of whole milk (1.5% to 1.8%) and skimmed is virtually fat-free (often less than 0.1%). More recently, reduced-fat milk with 1% fat has been introduced. Consumers have embraced these alternatives and sales of reduced-fat milks have steadily increased, currently outpacing <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/597667/Family_Food_2015-09mar17.pdf">sales of whole milk</a>.</p>
<p>But how do these reduced-fat milks rate nutritionally? The main difference is that they contain fewer calories than whole milk, since removing fat lowers the calorie count. The <a href="http://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/ebook/978-1-84973-636-7">calorie content</a> of a 200ml glass of whole milk is 126kcal. The corresponding figures for semi-skimmed, 1% and skimmed milk are 92kcal, 82kcal and 68kcal, respectively. So if you’re consuming too many calories, reduced-fat milks could help you reduce them.</p>
<p>In theory, this should mean reduced-fat milks can help people manage their weight and decrease obesity risk. But studies that have investigated this issue are inconclusive. A <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17158433">study of Swedish women</a> reported that consuming more reduced-fat milk had no impact on obesity risk, while consuming more whole milk was actually associated with a slightly decreased obesity risk. A <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26912496">recent study of US women</a> found that consuming either more whole or reduced-fat milk didn’t relate to subsequent weight change.</p>
<p>The problem is that switching from whole to reduced-fat milk provides a relatively minor cut in calories. This can easily be counterbalanced by eating just a small extra amount of energy-dense foods such as cakes and biscuits.</p>
<p>Similarly, research into how whole or reduced-fat milk affects type-2 diabetes risk has provided contradictory results. And a <a href="http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/103/4/1111.full">recent study</a> found that neither type was associated with a lower or higher risk of developing the disease. More generally, many studies into the links between drinking milk and the risk of chronic disease haven’t differentiated between whole and low-fat types, so we don’t have enough data to know one way or the other.</p>
<p>What about other nutrients? Removing milk fat also reduces vitamin A content because vitamin A is a fat-soluble nutrient. But this reduction is minor – and in any case vitamin A is <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/551352/NDNS_Y5_6_UK_Main_Text.pdf">plentiful in UK diets</a>. Vitamin A has critical roles in supporting a good immune system, ensuring vision in dim light and maintaining healthy skin.</p>
<p>For other nutrients, the reduced-fat milks are identical to whole milk. All milk types have a good nutrient complement of protein, B vitamins, calcium, potassium and iodine. These nutrients have <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/vitamins-and-minerals/">important roles</a> in keeping your body healthy. Milk protein provides all the amino acids needed for building and repairing cells. B vitamins help your body absorb nutrients and energy. Potassium is important in controlling blood pressure and iodine prevents a wide range of disorders especially affecting foetal development.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198552/original/file-20171211-27674-1qj3b5g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198552/original/file-20171211-27674-1qj3b5g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198552/original/file-20171211-27674-1qj3b5g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198552/original/file-20171211-27674-1qj3b5g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198552/original/file-20171211-27674-1qj3b5g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198552/original/file-20171211-27674-1qj3b5g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198552/original/file-20171211-27674-1qj3b5g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Your daily dose.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Drinking milk has long been lauded as way to promote healthy bones. Milk is certainly a major source of calcium in our diets, and we know that increasing the amount of calcium you eat can slightly <a href="http://www.bmj.com/lookup/doi/10.1136/bmj.h4183">increase the mineral density</a> of bones. But the jury is out on whether this small increase actually <a href="http://www.bmj.com/content/351/bmj.h4580">reduces the risk of bone fractures</a> as there have been few large, long-term studies on the subject.</p>
<p>Raw (unpasteurised milk) has a growing number of devotees. It is <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2017/may/30/raw-milk-health-superfood-safety-goop#img-1">perceived as more “natural”</a> and reportedly tastes better. There is <a href="http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/j.1365-2222.2006.02640.x">some evidence</a> that it may protect against asthma and allergy. But drinking raw milk carries the risk of food poisoning from the bacteria in it – and the consequences can be <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28518026">extremely serious</a>.</p>
<p>The other big factor affecting most people’s choice of milk is taste, which can be significantly affected by fat content. Most people will be familiar with the varying degrees of creaminess experienced when drinking whole, semi-skimmed or skimmed milk and this experience is backed up by <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.idairyj.2012.04.003">formal consumer taste tests</a>. Lowering the fat content also affects other properties such as appearance and mouth-feel.</p>
<p>So as you ponder at the dairy counter, first and foremost follow your tastebuds. The health advantages of consuming reduced-fat milks are marginal, especially if you also tend to linger at the biscuit aisle.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/88610/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Margo Barker worked as a consultant to the UK dairy industry in the 1990s. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cecile Morris does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Whole milk has more calories but there’s little evidence skimmed is healthier.Margo E Barker, Reader in Nutritional Epidemiology, Sheffield Hallam UniversityCecile Morris, Subject Group Leader for Food and Nutrition, Sheffield Hallam UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/794692017-12-13T11:23:51Z2017-12-13T11:23:51ZGold rush opportunists, hippie goat ladies, Latino newcomers: California entrepreneurs dream of cheese<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198638/original/file-20171211-9396-2ppeyd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=182%2C82%2C3245%2C2443&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Humboldt Fog chèvre, born in a dream.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.cypressgrovecheese.com/resources/press-kit.html">T.Depaepe</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The idea for Humboldt Fog goat’s milk cheese first came to Mary Keehn in a dream. She fell asleep on an airplane and awoke with a vivid picture in her mind of how the cheese looked. And then she set out to realize her vision – in the process, helping to launch a late-20th-century American renaissance in artisan cheese-making.</p>
<p>But the dream didn’t come from nowhere. In Keehn’s telling, the revelation occurred on a transatlantic flight home from France, where she’d gone in 1992 as a young cheese-maker looking for new inspiration by tasting traditional French cheeses and visiting their makers. Indeed, a wheel of Humboldt Fog melds elements of two iconic French cheeses, with a Morbier-like ribbon of ash running through chalky paste more reminiscent of a soft-ripened Valançay. The result is thoroughly distinct.</p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.cypressgrovecheese.com/about-us/our-story.html">story of Keehn’s Cypress Grove Cheese</a> is a quintessential telling of the California dream. Not merely an entrepreneurial success story, it is a narrative of self-reinvention. The California dream is about moving west (or, as in Keehn’s case, farther north, to Humboldt County from Sonoma) to start anew, seeking not so much to get rich quick as to envision and inhabit a new identity. Cypress Grove’s heroine embodies characteristics that could describe the American artisan cheese industry as a whole: scrappy, innovative and unapologetically indebted to European tastes and know-how – condensing themes that emerged through anthropological research I conducted across the United States for my book, “<a href="https://www.ucpress.edu/book.php?isbn=9780520270183">The Life of Cheese</a>.”</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/vWqH0SXhEEM?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A day in the life of Humboldt Fog.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Back to the land, making cheese</h2>
<p>Mary Keehn acquired her first goats in 1970, wanting to feed fresh goat’s milk to her first daughter, whom she was herself then weaning. For years, Keehn and her family lived as self-sufficiently as possible. Overwhelmed with more goat’s milk than her human companions could or were willing to drink, she began experimenting in her kitchen and learned to make fresh cheese, or chèvre. </p>
<p>A friend who was opening a restaurant told Keehn, now a divorced mother of four, “If you start a [licensed] cheese factory, I’ll buy your cheese.” And in 1983 – without any official training, apprenticeship or business experience beyond selling her goats’ breed stock – Keehn launched <a href="http://www.cypressgrovecheese.com/cheese/">Cypress Grove</a>. For nine years, prior to the trip to France and subsequent introduction of Humboldt Fog, Cypress Grove sold fresh chèvre and fromage blanc, cheeses more wholesome than gourmet.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198633/original/file-20171211-9383-5vvabh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198633/original/file-20171211-9383-5vvabh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198633/original/file-20171211-9383-5vvabh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=904&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198633/original/file-20171211-9383-5vvabh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=904&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198633/original/file-20171211-9383-5vvabh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=904&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198633/original/file-20171211-9383-5vvabh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1136&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198633/original/file-20171211-9383-5vvabh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1136&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198633/original/file-20171211-9383-5vvabh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1136&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Mary Keehn with a new wheel of Humboldt Fog.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.cypressgrovecheese.com/resources/press-kit.html">Cyprus Grove</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Indeed, Keehn was one of a number of Americans involved in the back-to-the-land movement who, in the early ‘80s, began making cheese by hand for commercial sale. Located in the Northern California coastal town of Arcata, Keehn grew Cypress Grove into a successful business with national distribution and name recognition that employs over 40 workers – a far cry from its modest origins. In 2010, Keehn sold the company to the Swiss corporation Emmi, although her daily involvement continues.</p>
<p>Today’s cheese lovers can drive (or internet browse) along the <a href="http://cheesetrail.org/trail-map/">California Cheese Trail</a>, stretching from Crescent City near the Oregon border south to Los Angeles. It leads to artisan microdairies as well as Kraft Foods subsidiaries. Created in 2010 by a Marin County dairy farmer’s daughter on the model of wine-tasting maps, the California Cheese Trail today features 72 cheese-making operations. Nationwide, the <a href="http://www.cheesesociety.org/events-education/state-of-the-industry/">American Cheese Society</a> counts more than 900 artisan and specialty cheese operations.</p>
<p>Reflective of the state’s cultural diversity, the variety in California cheese-making is neither new nor unique to the state. But it is indicative of how <a href="https://www.crcpress.com/Edible-Identities-Food-as-Cultural-Heritage/Brulotte-Giovine/p/book/9781138634947">food-making traditions</a> in the United States are often animated by personal narratives of innovation rather than, as in Europe, adherence to customary tradition.</p>
<p>Since 2000, the number of California’s artisan cheese producers has grown exponentially. But while hippie goat ladies have been celebrated as cheese-making pioneers, they are not without precedent. The California dream of a century earlier saw a similar flourishing of cheese-making activity in port cities up and down the Pacific Coast.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198642/original/file-20171211-9451-okw1jj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198642/original/file-20171211-9451-okw1jj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198642/original/file-20171211-9451-okw1jj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198642/original/file-20171211-9451-okw1jj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198642/original/file-20171211-9451-okw1jj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198642/original/file-20171211-9451-okw1jj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198642/original/file-20171211-9451-okw1jj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198642/original/file-20171211-9451-okw1jj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">San Francisco harbor at Yerba Buena Cove was so busy during the Gold Rush that ships could wait days to unload.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2004664511/">Sterling C. McIntyre, Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Gold rush roots for new cheese markets</h2>
<p>The <a href="http://www.marinfrenchcheese.com/">Marin French Cheese Company</a>, in Petaluma, California, claims to be the oldest continuously operating cheese factory in the United States. In 1865, with Lincoln in the White House and the Civil War coming to an end, Marin French (originally Thompson Brothers Cheese Co.) got its start when Jefferson Thompson, a dairy farmer, recognized an emergent market niche in the nearby port town of San Francisco. </p>
<p>The now late Jim Boyce, who purchased Marin French in 1998 from Thompson’s descendants, related the company’s history to me in the course of my <a href="https://www.ucpress.edu/book.php?isbn=9780520270183">own research</a>. During the California Gold Rush between 1849 and 1855, European stevedores who sailed into what’s now called San Francisco Bay delivering goods to support the mining enterprises got “caught up in the fever” themselves. Many abandoned ship to seek their own fortunes mining.</p>
<p>After the gold rush went bust, workers returned to the bay to make a living at the dockyards. As Boyce said to me, “Now, in any workman’s bar or inn… the beer gives them hydration and carbohydrate but no protein,” so “typically in a workman’s bar there’s a jar of pickled eggs or something like that – pig knuckles, sausage.” But in the Bay Area at that time agriculture had yet to be fully developed. “There weren’t any eggs,” Boyce explained, as there were no commercial hen farms. So according to Boyce, enterprising dairy farmer Jefferson Thompson said to himself:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“in a moment of marketing brilliance, ‘I wonder if they’d eat cheese, instead?’ So he starts making these little cheeses, three-ounce cheeses, more or less. And he hauls them off to the docks, and they put them on the table in a bowl, and they were an immediate hit! Why? Because these are European stevedores: They knew cheese! They ate it breakfast, lunch and dinner. And that was the origin of the company.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/_Te1OHOtLk","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<h2>With new migrants come new tastes</h2>
<p>If Mary Keehn’s Humboldt Fog exemplifies personal insight and passion, Jefferson Thompson’s Breakfast Cheese (now Marin French’s <a href="http://www.marinfrenchcheese.com/history/petite-breakfast/">Petite Breakfast</a>) celebrates the generation of new markets. It’s a reminder that the California dream of entrepreneurial reinvention requires not only creative genius but also the appreciative taste of willing consumers.</p>
<p>The Gold Rush brought European deckhands eager to eat soft-ripened cheeses. Marin French was at the ready, hand-ladling Camembert. In the late-20th century, hippie eaters of “health foods” gave way to American Europhiles who valued a diversity of distinctive tastes.</p>
<p>Here it is worth remembering that California, nearly all the up way to present-day Arcata, was until 1848 part of Mexico. Cross-cutting immigrant histories have long underwritten the California dream – and they still do.</p>
<p>The California Cheese Trail declares <a href="http://ariza-cheese.com/">Ariza Cheese</a>, established in 1970, to be “the oldest artisan Mexican cheese-maker in Southern California.” It specializes in Salvadoran cheeses in addition to crumbly Mexican Cotija. You will find Ariza just off Alondra Blvd. in the city of Paramont, east of Compton in LA County.</p>
<p>In 2015, four of the company’s long-term employees – immigrants from Mexico and El Salvador – <a href="https://laopinion.com/2015/02/01/ariza-la-adquisicion-de-un-sueno/">purchased</a> the company with the aid of <a href="http://www.concernedcapital.org/">Concerned Capital</a>, a social benefit corporation that invests in low- to moderate-income communities by helping to transfer business ownership to workers.</p>
<p>In 21st-century narratives of new beginnings are echoes of earlier immigrant worlds. Dreams upon dreams – while consumers continue to savor California cheeses with wide-ranging inspirations.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/79469/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Heather Paxson receives funding from the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research. She is on the Academic Advisory Committee of Oldways Cheese Coalition.</span></em></p>California’s artisan cheese-making industry has followed the changing tastes of the state’s population waves, from the mid-1800s through today.Heather Paxson, Professor of Anthropology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/801782017-06-29T01:05:58Z2017-06-29T01:05:58ZTake that chocolate milk survey with a grain of salt<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175921/original/file-20170627-24760-mrp8tm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=1310%2C0%2C3784%2C2383&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">And don't expect chocolate ice cream, either.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/barneymoss/15207454576">Barney Moss</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s been all over the news lately: a survey by <a href="http://www.usdairy.com/">the Innovation Center for U.S. Dairy</a> suggests that <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2017/06/15/seven-percent-of-americans-think-chocolate-milk-comes-from-brown-cows-and-thats-not-even-the-scary-part/">7 percent of American adults</a> believe <a href="http://www.foodandwine.com/news/survey-finds-too-many-people-still-think-chocolate-milk-comes-brown-cows">chocolate milk comes from brown cows</a>.</p>
<p>The takeaway of much of this reporting is that Americans are science illiterate as well as <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/how-is-chocolate-milk-made-survey-brown-cows-2017-6">uninformed about how their food is produced</a>. This interpretation is intuitive: research has suggested that <a href="http://www.pewinternet.org/2015/09/10/what-the-public-knows-and-does-not-know-about-science/">Americans lack understanding of many scientific concepts</a> and the <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/energy-environment/wp/2015/01/29/americans-are-still-scientifically-illiterate-and-scientists-still-need-a-pr-team/">story line of Americans as woefully ignorant of science</a> is perennial. As a society, we are also urbanizing and <a href="https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/farm-economy/farm-labor/">fewer people work in agriculture</a>, so it’s unsurprising that many don’t know how food is made. These survey results line up with this prevailing wisdom.</p>
<p>But is this what the survey is actually telling us? To us as researchers studying science communication and public understanding of science, factors in the survey itself and in the way the media report on it raise questions about how much to read into these findings.</p>
<h2>Survey’s results aren’t publicly available</h2>
<p>Researchers are trained to look for the original methods whenever they read a new study, especially if the results are surprising. Learning how the study was done provides information that helps determine whether the science is sound and what to make of it.</p>
<p>The chocolate milk survey is described as a nationally representative survey of 1,000 American adults, but this is impossible to verify without seeing how respondents were selected. Likewise, how the survey was conducted – whether it was a phone or online survey, for instance – can have significant impacts on its accuracy. Research suggests that <a href="http://www.pewresearch.org/2015/05/13/from-telephone-to-the-web-the-challenge-of-mode-of-interview-effects-in-public-opinion-polls/">phone surveys may be less accurate than online surveys</a> because they require people to give their responses out loud to another person instead of quietly clicking away in privacy.</p>
<p>For instance, someone who holds racist views may feel comfortable checking a box about it but might avoid openly professing those opinions on the phone to a stranger. It’s unlikely the chocolate milk survey ran into such problems, but depending on the questions asked, other challenges may have presented themselves.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175922/original/file-20170627-7455-1fqesmw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175922/original/file-20170627-7455-1fqesmw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175922/original/file-20170627-7455-1fqesmw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175922/original/file-20170627-7455-1fqesmw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175922/original/file-20170627-7455-1fqesmw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175922/original/file-20170627-7455-1fqesmw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175922/original/file-20170627-7455-1fqesmw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175922/original/file-20170627-7455-1fqesmw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Just to clarify, the recipe includes chocolate and milk.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/shutterbean/6757209625">tracy benjamin</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Likewise, it’s difficult to interpret the results of the chocolate milk question without seeing how it was worded. Poorly phrased or confusing questions abound in survey research and complicate the process of interpreting findings.</p>
<p>An NPR interview with Jean Ragalie-Carr, president of the National Dairy Council, is the closest we can get to the actual wording of potential responses: “<a href="http://www.npr.org/2017/06/16/533255590/alarming-number-of-americans-believe-chocolate-milk-comes-from-brown-cows">there was brown cows, or black-and-white cows, or they didn’t know</a>.” But as Glendora Meikle of the Columbia Journalism Review points out, we don’t know <a href="https://www.cjr.org/analysis/brown-milk-study-cows.php">if those were the only options presented</a> to respondents.</p>
<p>This matters. For instance, if respondents associate <a href="http://www.dairyspot.com/dairy-farming/dairy-farming-facts/types-of-cows/">some color cows with dairy production</a> and other color cows with beef production, it’s easy to see how <a href="http://www.cattlenetwork.com/cattle-news/Differences-between-beef-and-dairy-are-not-always-black-and-white-212016371.html">people could become confused</a>. If this is the case, they’re not confused about where chocolate milk comes from, but about the difference between dairy cows and beef cows.</p>
<p>Social scientists call this a <a href="http://psc.dss.ucdavis.edu/sommerb/sommerdemo/intro/validity.htm">problem with validity</a>: the question doesn’t really measure what it’s supposed to measure. Of course, without seeing how the question was worded, we can’t know whether the chocolate milk question had validity.</p>
<p>Indeed, early media coverage focused on the 7 percent statistic but left out the fact that 48 percent of respondents said they don’t know where chocolate milk comes from. This gives context to the 7 percent number. While it’s conceivable that 7 percent of the population doesn’t know that chocolate milk is just milk with chocolate, the idea that a full 55 percent — over half of adults — don’t know or gave an incorrect response begins to strain credulity. This points toward a confusing survey question.</p>
<p>We reached out to Lisa McComb, the senior vice president of communications for Dairy Management, Inc., about the survey. She confirmed that it’s not publicly available. “The purpose of the survey was to gauge some interesting and fun facts about consumers’ perceptions of dairy, not a scientific or academic study intended to be published,” she told us.</p>
<h2>Story feeds a popular narrative — and media missed it</h2>
<p>Questions about the original findings aside, there’s reason to explore how the media covered the chocolate milk survey.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175925/original/file-20170627-24798-gp73ez.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175925/original/file-20170627-24798-gp73ez.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175925/original/file-20170627-24798-gp73ez.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=903&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175925/original/file-20170627-24798-gp73ez.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=903&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175925/original/file-20170627-24798-gp73ez.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=903&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175925/original/file-20170627-24798-gp73ez.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1135&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175925/original/file-20170627-24798-gp73ez.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1135&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175925/original/file-20170627-24798-gp73ez.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1135&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">At least they knew cows produce milk?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/usdagov/9733479421">USDA Photo by Bob Nichols</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The results were instantly shared and republished by a mind-boggling number of outlets (<a href="https://trends.google.com/trends/explore?date=today%201-m&q=%22chocolate%20milk%22%20%22brown%20cows%22">a Google Trends search</a> for “chocolate milk” and “brown cows” shows a spike beginning June 15th). This factoid likely garnered such massive attention because it feeds into a popular narrative about American ignorance and science illiteracy.</p>
<p>Our research suggests that people who are often accused of being <a href="https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/guest-blog/who-are-you-calling-anti-science/">“anti-science” are not necessarily as unscientific</a> as one might think. The rapid spread of this story is likely related to the desire, <a href="http://www.huffingtonpost.com/bob-burnett/the-birth-of-the-stupid-p_b_10127988.html">unfortunately prominent among many liberals</a>, to see and label other people as ignorant.</p>
<p>Studies suggest we are <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28557511">more likely to accept new information when it confirms</a> what we already want to believe. In this case, the chocolate milk statistic fits well with the notion that Americans are fools, so it’s accepted and republished widely despite the numerous red flags that should give scientifically minded people pause.</p>
<p>But the fact remains that many reporters and news outlets decided to run the story without having seen the original results, instead citing one another’s reporting. This led to some interesting challenges when trying to fact-check the survey: <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2017/06/15/seven-percent-of-americans-think-chocolate-milk-comes-from-brown-cows-and-thats-not-even-the-scary-part/">The Washington Post</a> links to <a href="http://www.foodandwine.com/news/survey-finds-too-many-people-still-think-chocolate-milk-comes-brown-cows">Food & Wine’s</a> coverage, which linked to the <a href="https://dairygood.org/undeniably-dairy">Innovation Center’s website</a>, which originally publicized the survey results. The Innovation Center, in turn, links to a story on <a href="http://www.today.com/food/does-chocolate-milk-comes-brown-cows-t112772">Today.com</a>, which linked right back to the Food & Wine article. This type of circular reporting without seeking out the original source can lead to the spread of misinformation. Unfortunately, as news stories quickly pop up and go viral online, it’s all too likely that we will continue to see such problems in the future. </p>
<p>Importantly, none of this disproves the notion that some adults believe chocolate milk comes from brown cows. It certainly does nothing to undermine the need for increased science education in the United States or suggests that a better understanding of our food production system wouldn’t be beneficial to society. All of these points are still valid. Likewise, this isn’t necessarily evidence that the survey itself is flawed. As McComb notes, the survey is not a scientific one and isn’t meant to be taken as evidence of Americans’ knowledge (or lack thereof) of dairy products. The problem is that it’s being reported on as though it is.</p>
<p>So this survey did point out a lack of science understanding. Ironically, rather than showing Americans’ ignorance of chocolate milk’s origins, the fact that media coverage of this survey was reported so widely and with so few caveats instead showed that many people are not skeptical of the science they read.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/80178/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Millions of Americans believe brown cows produce chocolate milk? The way the media reported this factoid raises questions about science literacy – but different ones than you may think.Lauren Griffin, Director of External Research for frank, College of Journalism and Communications, University of FloridaTroy Campbell, Assistant Professor of Marketing, University of OregonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/403182015-10-07T19:24:44Z2015-10-07T19:24:44ZWhat are allergies and why are we getting more of them?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/95161/original/image-20150917-7521-3ppdou.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Allergies are becoming more frequent in the western world. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/al-stan/3475946574/">Al Fed/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Allergies are reactions caused by the immune system as it responds to environmental substances that are usually harmless to most people. They may occur in response to a range of different material (called allergens), such as food, pollen, dust mites, animals, insect stings, or medicines.</p>
<p>An allergy can <a href="http://www.allergy.org.au">affect different parts of the body</a>. Allergic rhinitis, or hay fever, for instance, affects the nose and eyes, while eczema affects the skin. Food allergies affect the gut, skin, airways, lungs, and sometimes the entire body through the blood vessels. </p>
<p>Other conditions such as asthma, which affects the lungs, and eosinophilic oesophagitis, which affects the tube from the throat to the stomach, are closely related to allergy. But they have slightly different underlying causes. </p>
<h2>A range of reactions</h2>
<p>While most reactions are only mild to moderate in severity (and can be treated with antihistamines), some can be life-threatening and require emergency medical treatment. The most severe, systemic allergic reactions are known as anaphylaxis. People with known severe allergies should have an <a href="http://www.allergy.org.au">emergency management plan</a> that includes an adrenaline auto-injector for emergency use. </p>
<p>We can confirm whether someone has an allergy by doing a skin-prick testing or a blood test that checks whether their immune system has produced antibodies to an allergen. If the immune system has developed antibodies, it will remember the allergen as a potential threat and is likely to mount a strong immune response on subsequent exposure. </p>
<p>The likelihood of someone having an allergic reaction from future exposures to the allergen is determined by taking their clinical history and these test results into account. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/95141/original/image-20150917-12695-2a4xns.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/95141/original/image-20150917-12695-2a4xns.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=265&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/95141/original/image-20150917-12695-2a4xns.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=265&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/95141/original/image-20150917-12695-2a4xns.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=265&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/95141/original/image-20150917-12695-2a4xns.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=333&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/95141/original/image-20150917-12695-2a4xns.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=333&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/95141/original/image-20150917-12695-2a4xns.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=333&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Allergic rhinitis, or hay fever, affects the nose and eyes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/14353437@N06/4515249683/">parrchristy/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the case of food allergy, if the probability of an allergic reaction is low, people are given a food challenge. This is when increasing amounts of the offending food are administered while the person is closely observed for any signs of an allergic reaction. Of course, it can result in a reaction.</p>
<p>Allergies are becoming more frequent in Australia and the rest of the western world. <a href="http://www.allergy.org.au/">One in three people in Australia</a> will develop allergies at some time in their life. One in 20 will develop a food allergy and one in 100 will have a life-threatening allergic reaction known as anaphylaxis .</p>
<p>Hospital admissions for anaphylaxis <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26187235">doubled in the ten years</a> from 1994 to 2004, and were five times higher in children under five years old over the same period. This suggests the development of allergy in early life is increasing at a faster rate than in adults.</p>
<p>Children are <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-07-15/number-of-children-hospitalised-with-food-allergies-on-the-rise/6619752">more likely to develop allergies</a> to eggs, dairy products or peanuts, while adults are more likely to develop an allergy to seafood. </p>
<h2>Possible reasons why</h2>
<p>The reasons for the rising number of allergies are not fully understood, but here are six theories.</p>
<p>1) Decreased exposure to infections or microbes – or both – in early life could lead to an increased risk of allergy. This is commonly referred to as the hygiene hypothesis, <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1838109/">first suggested in 1989</a>. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21060319">Research showing</a> children who have close contact with pets or livestock and those who come from larger families are less likely to develop allergies have indirectly supported the hygiene hypothesis.</p>
<p>2) Delayed introduction of allergenic foods, such as eggs and nuts, until later in childhood could also have an impact. This is one of the most recent theories resulting from the <a href="http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1414850">LEAP study</a>, published in 2015. This randomised trial for early life peanut consumption in a population at increased risk of developing peanut allergies demonstrated that exposure to the nut early in life is protective against developing the allergy.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/95162/original/image-20150917-7517-3j4zx9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/95162/original/image-20150917-7517-3j4zx9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=385&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/95162/original/image-20150917-7517-3j4zx9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=385&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/95162/original/image-20150917-7517-3j4zx9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=385&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/95162/original/image-20150917-7517-3j4zx9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/95162/original/image-20150917-7517-3j4zx9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/95162/original/image-20150917-7517-3j4zx9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A child with a nut allergy only has a 20% chance of the allergy resolving by the time she reaches adulthood.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/aoifemac/8424630783/">Aoife Mac/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>3) Different methods of preparing foods can <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19000582">impact the degree</a> to which they invoke an allergic response; roasting peanuts, for instance, greatly increases allergenicity while boiling reduces it. This may in part explain difference in incidence of in peanut allergy between certain countries.</p>
<p>4) Vitamin D deficiency may increase the risk to develop allergies. Several studies show that the further away you live from the equator (hence your lower level of sunlight exposure, which is needed to make Vitamin D) – or <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/health/features/stories/2013/03/07/3710140.htm">low vitamin D blood levels increase your risk</a> of developing allergies. But the value of vitamin D treatment for preventing allergies has yet to be demonstrated. </p>
<p>5) Allergies may develop after exposure to allergens, such as dairy products or nut oils in skin moisturisers, particularly on inflamed sites, such as eczema.</p>
<p>6) Altered gut bacterial species due to low-fibre diets and widespread antibiotic usage may alter the body’s immune function and create an allergy.</p>
<p>Whether your allergy improves over time often depends on the type of allergy you have. A child with eczema, for instance, will often find her eczema improves by the time she’s a teenager. But some people will have eczema even into their adult years. In contrast, a child with peanut allergy only has a 20% chance of the allergy resolving by the time she reaches adulthood.</p>
<p>While we have treatments for the symptoms of allergy, we do not yet have a cure or the ability to prevent them from developing in the first place. We also don’t have a good test for predicting food allergy, unless we feed the person the suspected food allergen. For now, the best you can do is to manage your allergy.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/40318/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Adam Collison receives funding from the NHMRC, Hunter Children's Research Foundation and the Thrasher Research Fund. He is an inventor on a provisional patent that describes a marker for peanut allergy.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joerg Mattes receives/received funding from the National Health&Medical Research Council, the Hunter Medical Research Institute, the Hunter Children's Research Foundation, Asthma Australia, Rebecca L. Cooper Medical Research Foundation. He is a listed inventor on a patent describing a peanut anaphylaxis blood biomarker.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rani Bhatia receives funding from the Hunter Children's Research Foundation. She is an inventor on a provisional patent that describes a marker for peanut allergy.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elizabeth Percival does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Allergies are reactions caused by the immune system as it responds to environmental substances that are usually harmless. But we don’t yet have a cure or the ability to prevent them from developing.Adam Collison, Post Doctoral researcher - Experimental and Translational Respiratory Medicine Research Group, University of NewcastleElizabeth Percival, Staff Specialist General Paediatrician at John Hunter Children's Hospital, Newcastle, Australia. Conjoint Lecturer & PhD student, University of NewcastleJoerg Mattes, Professor&Chair of Paediatrics | HMRI, University of Newcastle, Australia | Senior Staff Specialist Paediatric Respiratory&Sleep Medicine | John Hunter Children's Hospital, Australia, University of NewcastleRani Bhatia, Senior Staff Specialist in Paediatric Allergy and Immunology at John Hunter Children's Hospital Newcastle NSW Conjoint Lecturer in Paediatrics, University of NewcastleLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.