tag:theconversation.com,2011:/id/topics/drinking-culture-7731/articlesDrinking Culture – The Conversation2023-06-28T20:47:28Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2075712023-06-28T20:47:28Z2023-06-28T20:47:28ZAdolescent drinking rates remain high in China despite ban<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533573/original/file-20230622-15-lpw9jw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C616%2C6237%2C3529&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Improved efforts are needed to prevent underage drinking and challenge lenient attitudes toward alcohol. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>There are plenty of health concerns for teens to worry about these days: the effects of <a href="https://theconversation.com/vaping-is-an-urgent-threat-to-public-health-112131">e-cigarette</a> and <a href="https://nida.nih.gov/publications/research-reports/marijuana/there-link-between-marijuana-use-psychiatric-disorders">cannabis use</a>, and how <a href="https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.m4691">drinking could harm</a> their <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fwps.20786">developing brains</a>. </p>
<p>Although relatively more is known about youth drinking in the West, there is a significant knowledge gap when it comes to China, home to the world’s second-largest <a href="https://www.undp.org/china/youth">youth population</a>. </p>
<p>To learn more about how Chinese teens engage with alcohol, we conducted a systematic review of studies on teen drinking behaviours in China over a 30-year period from 1988 to 2018.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2023.107558">In our recently published study</a>, we found high levels of drinking among Chinese adolescents aged 12 to 17 years old. Around half of Chinese teens reported having consumed alcohol at some point. One in four reported drinking in the past month and one in 10 reported binge drinking. </p>
<p>These drinking rates, while significant, are in fact lower than those reported by <a href="https://www.emcdda.europa.eu/publications/joint-publications/espad-report-2019_en">European</a>, <a href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED611736.pdf">American</a> and <a href="https://statistique.quebec.ca/en/fichier/enquete-quebecoise-tabac-alcool-drogue-jeu-eleves-secondaire-2019.pdf">Canadian</a> teens.</p>
<p>A second key finding is that teen drinking has not declined since <a href="http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2006-01/06/content_510002.htm">China set the legal drinking age at 18 years old</a> in 2006. This suggests that efforts to reduce underage drinking have not been as effective as intended.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534697/original/file-20230628-21-8vvi61.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="People clinking beer glasses" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534697/original/file-20230628-21-8vvi61.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534697/original/file-20230628-21-8vvi61.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534697/original/file-20230628-21-8vvi61.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534697/original/file-20230628-21-8vvi61.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534697/original/file-20230628-21-8vvi61.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534697/original/file-20230628-21-8vvi61.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534697/original/file-20230628-21-8vvi61.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Teen drinking has not declined since China set the legal drinking age at 18 years old in 2006.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Underage drinking</h2>
<p>People who start drinking younger are much more likely to develop <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.2008.00806.x">alcohol-related</a> problems later in life. This means delaying the start of alcohol use should be a high priority for authorities. Drinking during adolescence, especially heavy drinking, can cause <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-016-0689-y">functional and structural</a> brain changes that have long-term consequences for a person’s <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK37610/">health and well-being</a>. Our analysis shows there is an urgent need for effective preventive measures to reduce underage drinking in China.</p>
<p>To examine drinking rates among Chinese teens, we reviewed all studies on teen drinking behaviours published in English and Chinese over the past three decades. We <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2023.107558">identified</a> 186 relevant studies. Nine different measures of drinking were examined, such as lifetime drinking, past month drinking, past year drinking and binge drinking.</p>
<p>We found that around 25 per cent of Chinese teens reported drinking in the past month. This is close to the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fwps.20786">worldwide average</a> for teens aged 15–19 years. However, it is lower than rates for European teens aged 15–16 years (48 per cent), American adolescents in grade 12 (29 per cent), and Québecois adolescents in grades 7 to 11 (32 per cent).</p>
<p>Another interesting finding was that Chinese male teens consistently reported higher rates of drinking than female teens. This pattern contrasts with trends observed in Europe and North America, where the gender gap in drinking behaviours has <a href="https://www.emcdda.europa.eu/publications/joint-publications/espad-report-2019_en">been narrowing</a>.</p>
<h2>Chinese teens still drinking</h2>
<p>We found no evidence that rates of teen drinking declined following China’s implementation of the ban on underage drinking. This contrasts with trends across 30 European countries, where the frequency of drinking among most teens has <a href="https://www.emcdda.europa.eu/publications/joint-publications/espad-report-2019_en">declined</a> over the past 25 years, though not when it comes to binge drinking.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534694/original/file-20230628-21-ycyzl9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A man's hand refusing to take a glass." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534694/original/file-20230628-21-ycyzl9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534694/original/file-20230628-21-ycyzl9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534694/original/file-20230628-21-ycyzl9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534694/original/file-20230628-21-ycyzl9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534694/original/file-20230628-21-ycyzl9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534694/original/file-20230628-21-ycyzl9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534694/original/file-20230628-21-ycyzl9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Tackling attitudes toward alcohol can help reduce drinking among teens.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Similar patterns have been observed in <a href="https://doi.org/10.9778%2Fcmajo.20150124">Canada</a>, where rates of binge drinking increased from 1996 to 2013, although no increase was observed for low-risk drinking behaviours. In the United States, <a href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED615087.pdf">drinking</a> among eighth to 12th grade students, including binge drinking, has <a href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED611736.pdf">declined</a> over the past three decades.</p>
<p>One important question is why the Chinese government’s approach has not succeeded when <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2022.103606">similar policies in other countries have</a>. One possibility is weak or inconsistent enforcement of the underage drinking ban. This may have to do with cultural norms, which are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2011.03514.x">more</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/alcalc/agg111">permissive</a> towards alcohol.</p>
<h2>Reducing teen drinking</h2>
<p>Prevention strategies that have proven effective in other countries should be adapted to the Chinese context. These could include <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2018.05.031%22%22">family-</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2007-2243E">school-based</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2016.06.021">programs</a>, along with public education campaigns.</p>
<p>Although rates of drinking are lower among Chinese adolescents than in some western countries, they do not show the same downward trend. Further efforts to reduce teen drinking are therefore needed.</p>
<p>Stricter policy enforcement should come with additional measures to reduce easy <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.amepre.2009.11.005">access to alcohol</a>. Reshaping lenient cultural norms and attitudes towards underage alcohol as well as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/13669877.2013.788545">risk perception</a> towards alcohol is also important.</p>
<p>Drinking can offer some benefits and is often a basis for social <a href="https://theconversation.com/canadas-new-drinking-guidelines-dont-consider-the-social-benefits-of-alcohol-but-should-they-198379">connection</a>. Getting teens to delay drinking is arguably a more <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0306-4603(02)00294-0">realistic</a> goal than advocating complete abstinence.</p>
<p>China has a large youth population and even small shifts in social policy and substance use norms could deliver large benefits for the health of individuals and society.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207571/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Teen drinking has not declined in the years since China banned underage drinking. Better enforcement and changes in attitudes to alcohol are needed.Francis Vergunst, Associate Professor, Psychosocial Difficulties, University of OsloYao Zheng, Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, University of AlbertaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2014602023-05-16T02:09:10Z2023-05-16T02:09:10ZAn expert’s guide to drinking beer for people who don’t do well with gluten<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525819/original/file-20230512-36633-a21m89.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C85%2C5184%2C3360&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s estimated coeliac disease affects <a href="https://www.cghjournal.org/article/s1542-3565(17)30783-8/fulltext">1.4% of the world’s population</a> – a staggering 112,000,000 people or so in total. </p>
<p>People with this condition develop an abnormal immune reaction when they consume gluten – a protein found in grains including barley, wheat and rye. It can damage the lining of their small intestine and lead to a range of (often debilitating) symptoms. </p>
<p>Coeliacs are forced to forgo glutenous food and drinks, including bread, pasta, cakes, biscuits, pastries and, of course, beer – which has malted barley as its main ingredient. Other alcoholic beverages are <a href="https://www.coeliac.org.au/s/article/A-gluten-free-diet-and-alcohol">considered gluten-free</a> (although diligence is still required since drinks can have flavours added after distillation).</p>
<p>Brewers around the world work on producing beers that can be enjoyed by people with coeliac disease, or general gluten sensitivity. They achieve this through two common approaches: </p>
<ol>
<li>making beer with grains that don’t contain gluten</li>
<li>breaking down the gluten into smaller compounds during the manufacturing process.</li>
</ol>
<p>The former approach is widely used in Australia and New Zealand. </p>
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<em>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/everything-you-need-to-know-about-coeliac-disease-and-whether-you-really-have-it-4928">Everything you need to know about coeliac disease (and whether you really have it)</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<h2>How they make gluten-free beer</h2>
<p>Consider your breakfast. Did you eat rice bubbles, corn flakes or puffed wheat? Each one of these cereals will give you energy to start your day, but only the last one contains gluten. </p>
<p>Similarly, brewers can use gluten-free grain such as sorghum, buckwheat or rice to try to replicate the flavour of beer, but without the gluten. Beers produced in this way are truly “gluten-free”. They contain none at all.</p>
<p>But brewing with these alternative grains isn’t as common or straightforward as brewing with barley. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525816/original/file-20230512-36129-59q94e.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A bowl of sorghum grains, with some plant strands taken from a sorghum crop next to it." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525816/original/file-20230512-36129-59q94e.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525816/original/file-20230512-36129-59q94e.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525816/original/file-20230512-36129-59q94e.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525816/original/file-20230512-36129-59q94e.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525816/original/file-20230512-36129-59q94e.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=583&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525816/original/file-20230512-36129-59q94e.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=583&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525816/original/file-20230512-36129-59q94e.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=583&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sorghum is related to sugar cane and is eaten by people in many parts of the world. In Australia it’s mainly used as cattle feed.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Think back to your breakfast: all three cereals are suitable enough, but they don’t taste the same. While there is plenty of diversity in beer flavours, all commonly consumed beer has the underlying flavour of malted barley. This is the taste beer drinkers have come to know and love.</p>
<p>Brewing processes for gluten-free beer must be modified to accommodate the unusual characteristics of alternative grains. For example, barley has a husk, which is used for filtration while making beer. Gluten-free grains tend to not have husks, so rice husks might be added in. </p>
<p>Also, if a particular brewery produces both gluten-free and gluten-containing beer, then gluten contamination is possible. That’s why most Australian breweries that produce gluten-free beer do so in a dedicated facility.</p>
<h2>How they make gluten-reduced beer</h2>
<p>The natural role of gluten in the barley plant is to provide nutrients to the seedling for germination. Given gluten’s importance to the life cycle of the plant, it’s inevitable some gluten will end up in beer that’s made using barley. In which case, the gluten must then be removed.</p>
<p>To do this, brewers treat the beer with an enzyme called a prolyl endopeptidase (PEP), which is traditionally used to clarify beer by removing hazes formed by proteins. </p>
<p>The PEP enzyme can “recognise” specific parts of the gluten protein and break them down into smaller compounds that don’t cause an immune response in coeliacs.</p>
<p>These beers can be considered “gluten-reduced”. They aren’t <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/acs.jafc.7b03742?src=recsys">completely gluten-free</a>. Whether they are safe to be consumed by coeliacs is a <a href="https://www.webmd.com/diet/what-to-know-about-gluten-free-beer#">matter of debate</a> among health professionals. Some coelics can tolerate one or two gluten-reduced beers, while others can’t tolerate any.</p>
<p>Research has found gluten-reduced beers would induce an immune response that could be detected through a blood test in <a href="https://gfco.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Beer-Study-JAOAC-Vol.-100-No.-2-Allred-et-al.pdf">two out of 31 coeliac patients</a>. </p>
<p>People who are very sensitive to gluten should exercise caution when considering gluten-reduced beers.</p>
<h2>Different countries, different standards</h2>
<p>The US Food and Drug Administration states that foods, including beer, with less than 20 parts per million (ppm) gluten can be labelled <a href="https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2020/08/13/2020-17088/food-labeling-gluten-free-labeling-of-fermented-or-hydrolyzed-foods">gluten-free</a>. </p>
<p>The rule in Europe is the same; products containing no more than 20 ppm are considered “<a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32014R0828">gluten-free</a>”. An additional category of “very low gluten” can be used to describe products containing up to 100 ppm.</p>
<p>Australia and New Zealand, by contrast, have some of the strictest legislation concerning gluten-free labelling. By Food Standards Australia New Zealand’s (FSANZ) <a href="https://www.foodstandards.gov.au/code/Documents/Sched%204%20Nutrition%20and%20health%20claims%20v159.pdf">criteria</a>, products containing 20 ppm or less can be labelled “low gluten”, but not gluten-free. To be labelled gluten-free, the beer must not contain any detectable gluten whatsoever.</p>
<p>In other words take note of where your beer was brewed, because it makes a difference. Products sold in Australia and New Zealand adhere to stricter labelling regulations than other countries. Low levels of gluten have been detected in <a href="https://www.mja.com.au/system/files/issues/205_07/10.5694mja16.00485.pdf">foods</a> produced overseas and sold as “gluten-free” in Australia. The same could be true for imported beers.</p>
<p>Fortunately, most gluten-free beers available in Australia and New Zealand are produced here, so country-specific labelling might be a bigger issue for the jet-setting beer drinker.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525817/original/file-20230512-37210-yvsl79.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Many rows of German beer bottles are lined up on a wooden table, with signs above them." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525817/original/file-20230512-37210-yvsl79.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525817/original/file-20230512-37210-yvsl79.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525817/original/file-20230512-37210-yvsl79.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525817/original/file-20230512-37210-yvsl79.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525817/original/file-20230512-37210-yvsl79.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525817/original/file-20230512-37210-yvsl79.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525817/original/file-20230512-37210-yvsl79.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Take note when travelling: different countries have different standards for what can be labelled as ‘gluten-free’ or ‘gluten-reduced’ beer.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Not just for coeliacs</h2>
<p>People who aren’t coeliacs can still have allergies and aversions to gluten – and this may be more common than you think. A 2020 <a href="https://www.mja.com.au/journal/2020/212/3/incidence-and-prevalence-self-reported-non-coeliac-wheat-sensitivity-and-gluten">study in Australia</a> found almost one-quarter of people interviewed chose to avoid gluten in their diet, even though only 1% of respondents were coeliacs.</p>
<p>Just like the boom in <a href="https://theconversation.com/were-getting-really-good-at-making-alcohol-free-beer-and-wine-heres-how-its-done-193318">alcohol-free beers</a>, the range of gluten-free beers is expanding. Brewers are producing exciting new beers not just for coeliacs but also for other people who may be conscious about their gluten intake.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/201460/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>What’s the difference between gluten-free and gluten-reduced? And why does the country of production make a difference?David Bean, Senior Lecturer in Microbiology and Fermentation Technology, Federation University AustraliaAndrew Greenhill, Associate Professor in Microbiology and Fermentation Technology, Federation University AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1950982022-12-15T22:21:29Z2022-12-15T22:21:29ZWant to pre-drink before going out? It probably won’t save you money, and can be risky to boot<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/497578/original/file-20221128-16-ee63oq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C194%2C4104%2C2544&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Louis Hansel/Unsplash</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>You’re catching up with a few friends before you go out. Everyone’s having a drink, listening to some tunes, and the mood is good. A ride share is pulling up in the driveway – everyone quickly finishes their drinks and piles into the car, headed to a gig where more alcohol will be consumed. </p>
<p>This is the typical pre-drinking scenario – drinking alcohol in one place, typically someone’s home, before drinking more somewhere else, such as a pub, club or event.</p>
<p>You might be familiar with pre-drinking (colloquially known as <a href="https://www.vichealth.vic.gov.au/media-and-resources/media-releases/experts-warn-against-preloading-on-alcohol-ahead-of-schoolies-week">pre-loading</a>) and think nothing much of doing it.</p>
<p>In reality, it’s a complex behaviour that has been of great interest to health psychologists and public health strategists <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/dar.12525">for the past 15 years</a>.</p>
<p>And as popular as it is, pre-drinking isn’t without risk.</p>
<h2>Why do people pre-drink?</h2>
<p>The considerable public health effort to reduce excessive drinking in licensed venues has meant some drinkers appear to have abandoned the traditional “pub to club” model in favour of a “<a href="https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/17459261211235119/full/html">home to pub to club” version</a>.</p>
<p>You can understand the appeal – compared to a busy venue, someone’s house is likely to be less noisy, less cramped, and probably doesn’t include a cover charge.</p>
<p>In Australia, a common reason people cite for pre-drinking is the relatively cheaper cost of pre-purchased alcohol compared with prices at a licensed venue.</p>
<p>Indeed, behavioural economists have observed <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/add.13254">we tend to be quite discerning</a> when figuring out the most cost-effective way to drink.</p>
<p>Add our <a href="https://www.ato.gov.au/business/excise-on-alcohol/lodging,-paying-and-rates---excisable-alcohol/excise-duty-rates-for-alcohol/">complex taxation system</a> and public health initiatives such as <a href="https://industry.nt.gov.au/publications/business/policies/floor-price">minimum unit pricing</a> to the mix, and it’s no surprise we are looking for ways to get a buzz on the cheap.</p>
<h2>More than money?</h2>
<p>Outside Australia, evidence shows alcohol price is less of a driver for pre-drinking. <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-66941-6_13">Other motivational themes</a> have emerged – mainly from psychological research in North America and Europe. </p>
<p>These include the “enhancement” aspect of pre-drinking itself (as the opening scenario illustrates), controlling alcohol consumption in situ (such as only drinking your preferred brand), or in anticipation of less access to alcohol later on (think long lines for beer at the footy).</p>
<p>Generally, the aim of pre-drinking appears to be getting “sufficiently intoxicated” before going out.</p>
<p>But one motive, commonly mentioned by men, has been labelled as “<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306460315000829">intimate pursuit</a>”. This is where hanging out during pre-drinks is used to built rapport with someone you might be romantically interested in. </p>
<p>Although these themes are generally endorsed by Australian pre-drinkers, cost is still an important driver of our pre-drinking, <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1753-6405.12138">especially among young Australians</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/trying-to-cut-back-on-alcohol-heres-what-works-179664">Trying to cut back on alcohol? Here's what works</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>In <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10865-014-9573-6">our research</a>, we asked participants about the cheaper cost of pre-drinking, alongside these other motives. It was the strongest predictor of pre-drinking, and also predicted participants’ experience of alcohol-related harm over the previous 12-month period.</p>
<p>Surprisingly, some people report that pre-drinking <a href="https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/DAT-12-2013-0055/full/html">doesn’t save them that much money</a>. </p>
<p>From a psychological perspective, this may be because alcohol affects our “<a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00213-008-1284-7">inhibitory control</a>”. Although our goal with having pre-drinks is to keep total alcohol expenditure down, the drunker we get, the harder it is to resist buying another round.</p>
<h2>The unique harm of pre-drinking</h2>
<p>Unfortunately, research consistently shows pre-drinking is uniquely linked to excessive alcohol consumption, and <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/dar.12274">alcohol-related harm</a>.</p>
<p>One reason may be that <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18387749/">we drink faster while pre-drinking</a>, relative to sitting on a pint at the pub. This means pre-drinkers may reach higher levels of intoxication, more quickly.</p>
<p>This can be <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306460312003334">highly dependent on a range of factors</a> – for instance, who we are pre-drinking with, and whether or not people are playing drinking games.</p>
<p>Adding to the risk, people tend to be pretty bad at <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1465-3362.2011.00374.x">estimating how much they are drinking</a>. </p>
<p>Sadly, the “sweet spot” of a buzz can quickly give way to increasing levels of alcohol intoxication – and increased risk of alcohol-related harm. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="close-up of friends clinking four beers together" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/497788/original/file-20221128-20-4gf988.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/497788/original/file-20221128-20-4gf988.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497788/original/file-20221128-20-4gf988.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497788/original/file-20221128-20-4gf988.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497788/original/file-20221128-20-4gf988.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497788/original/file-20221128-20-4gf988.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497788/original/file-20221128-20-4gf988.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The more you’ve had to drink, the harder it can be to keep track.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/_8KV86shhPo">Giovanna Gomes/Unsplash</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How can pre-drinking risks be minimised?</h2>
<p>Research shows pre-drinking serves important practical and social functions – catching up with friends in a more relaxed environment, and warming up for a night out.</p>
<p>As such, it is unlikely we will eliminate pre-drinking entirely, but we can try to make it a bit less risky. </p>
<p>One challenge for pre-drinking is that people may drink out of whatever vessel is around – say, a mug – and will <a href="https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/ben/cdar/2008/00000001/00000002/art00007">find it difficult</a> to keep track of their consumption.</p>
<p>Licensed premises serve alcohol in standardised containers such as pints and schooners, or use measured pours. So, having schooners or jiggers on hand when pre-drinking would be a good place to start.</p>
<p>Health psychologists often promote “protective behavioural strategies” – things that help keep our alcohol consumption under control. For example, we can set ourselves a drink limit, or set a timer between drinks to slow our intake. <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/10.1080/10826084.2019.1686025">Work is ongoing</a> to investigate how these strategies might be better tailored to the pre-drinking context.</p>
<p>Ultimately, if you’re planning a pre-drinking session before an event, it’s a good idea to make sure there are plenty of non-alcoholic or low-alcohol options, and food – <a href="http://www.safeparty.com.au/party-safe-for-hosts/">as you would with any party</a>.</p>
<p>The most important thing pre-drinkers can do is keep an eye on each other, making sure everyone makes it to the event, has a good time, and gets home safely.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australians-are-embracing-mindful-drinking-and-the-alcohol-industry-is-also-getting-sober-curious-160931">Australians are embracing 'mindful drinking' — and the alcohol industry is also getting sober curious</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/195098/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kim M Caudwell does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>You might think it’s fine to have a few with friends before heading for a night out, but alcohol-related harms actually increase with pre-drinking.Kim M Caudwell, Lecturer - Psychology | Chair, Researchers in Behavioural Addictions, Alcohol and Drugs (BAAD), Charles Darwin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1921792022-10-27T23:51:32Z2022-10-27T23:51:32Z‘I take it with a pinch of salt’: why women question health warnings linking alcohol with breast cancer<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/492025/original/file-20221027-13-3n7rkv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C28%2C6349%2C4191&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Up to <a href="https://adf.org.au/insights/alcohol-breast-cancer/#:%7E:text=There's%20a%20direct%20link%20between%20drinking%20alcohol%20and%20breast%20cancer.&text=In%20Australia%2C%20up%20to%201,cancers%20is%20related%20to%20drinking.&text=But%2C%20many%20people%20just%20don,cancer%20risk%20associated%20with%20drinking.">one in ten</a> cases of breast cancer in Australia is linked to drinking alcohol. Midlife women are already at increased risk for breast cancer because of their age, and <a href="https://www.aihw.gov.au/getmedia/77dbea6e-f071-495c-b71e-3a632237269d/aihw-phe-270.pdf.aspx?inline=true">tend to drink more than younger women</a>. That means this group is at even more risk for breast cancer. </p>
<p>Health authorities have mostly so far dealt with this by telling women not to drink. But does this approach – which positions drinking as an individual’s “problem” based on their own “bad” choices – actually work?</p>
<p>In fact, our recent <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36095014/">study</a> found women aren’t necessarily aware of the link between alcohol and breast cancer. And even when they are, they aren’t always able to “choose” to quit.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/488928/original/file-20221010-57785-g8xev5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A woman looks at her wine glass." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/488928/original/file-20221010-57785-g8xev5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/488928/original/file-20221010-57785-g8xev5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=456&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488928/original/file-20221010-57785-g8xev5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=456&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488928/original/file-20221010-57785-g8xev5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=456&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488928/original/file-20221010-57785-g8xev5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=573&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488928/original/file-20221010-57785-g8xev5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=573&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488928/original/file-20221010-57785-g8xev5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=573&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Women face mixed messages about alcohol and cancer risk.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://pixabay.com/photos/adult-people-portrait-woman-3183055/">Image by Thomas Rüdesheim from Pixabay</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What women told us</h2>
<p>We wanted to better understand where women sought health information, how they accessed information specific to breast cancer risk as it relates to alcohol, and how they determined whether (or not) such information was trustworthy.</p>
<p>We interviewed 50 “midlife” women (aged 45-64) living in South Australia from different social classes. </p>
<p>Previous <a href="https://theconversation.com/oh-well-wine-oclock-what-midlife-women-told-us-about-drinking-and-why-its-so-hard-to-stop-188882">research</a> has shown alcohol consumption performs a range of important functions for women, such as coping, socialising, networking and managing difficulties. Women often feel they cannot necessarily “choose” not to drink in these circumstances.</p>
<p>Women also face mixed messages about alcohol and cancer risk. Some alcohol brands <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26350708/">display pink ribbons</a> in an effort to “raise awareness” about breast cancer. And more broadly, media reports have come and gone over the years about the purported risks or benefits of alcohol for various illnesses.</p>
<p>Many women in our study did not know that alcohol causes breast cancer. But upon hearing about it, they mostly wanted to know more.</p>
<p>One woman told us:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I didn’t realise there was a link and I went on and interrogated it after that, because I do enjoy a glass of wine. And I wondered, what am I knowingly getting into here […] and to understand how alcohol affects your body, in terms of it increases the estrogen levels, and so that has a link to breast cancer.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Others thought if knowledge became more common, breast cancer risk messages might more likely be accepted (or, at least, be less likely to be rejected). One woman told us:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I think sometimes the more information comes out, or the more it’s repeated, the more it becomes common knowledge for people rather than easily dismissed.</p>
</blockquote>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/488926/original/file-20221010-58516-y23r1g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A woman drinks champagne." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/488926/original/file-20221010-58516-y23r1g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/488926/original/file-20221010-58516-y23r1g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488926/original/file-20221010-58516-y23r1g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488926/original/file-20221010-58516-y23r1g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488926/original/file-20221010-58516-y23r1g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488926/original/file-20221010-58516-y23r1g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488926/original/file-20221010-58516-y23r1g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Many women in our study did not know that alcohol causes breast cancer.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://pixabay.com/photos/woman-drink-glass-wine-alcohol-5943480/">Image by Bastian Riccardi from Pixabay</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/oh-well-wine-oclock-what-midlife-women-told-us-about-drinking-and-why-its-so-hard-to-stop-188882">'Oh well, wine o’clock': what midlife women told us about drinking – and why it's so hard to stop</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Questioning the message and the messenger</h2>
<p>But, even if women are aware, the message that alcohol causes breast cancer can be difficult and confusing to hear. In response, trust in the message can waver. As one woman said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I do question quite a lot because I do think the media play it up […] I take it with a pinch of salt.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Messages that seem exaggerated were also off-putting. As one woman put it:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>First of all, you just look at the tone of the way they wrote about things, you’d probably, if you thought it’d been sensationalised, or if they were axe-grinding.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Indeed, encountering conflicting information in daily life made some public health messages feel less believable to some women we spoke to. Some women instead preferred to rely on “gut feeling” to judge information.</p>
<p>Considering who and what to trust in terms of information about alcohol and breast cancer was key for women. Some want these complexities to be recognised and messages to be delivered in “even-handed” ways. As one woman told us:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>You just listen to it, see if they’re going to be harping on a certain theme, maybe without having any basis for saying so, if they’re trying to push a certain point of view without having any basis or back-up for that. Rather than someone being even-minded about, you know, even-handed about things.</p>
</blockquote>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/488925/original/file-20221010-58076-3ly4qx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C11%2C1894%2C1256&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A woman drinks beer outdoors." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/488925/original/file-20221010-58076-3ly4qx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C11%2C1894%2C1256&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/488925/original/file-20221010-58076-3ly4qx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488925/original/file-20221010-58076-3ly4qx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488925/original/file-20221010-58076-3ly4qx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488925/original/file-20221010-58076-3ly4qx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488925/original/file-20221010-58076-3ly4qx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488925/original/file-20221010-58076-3ly4qx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Health messaging for women around alcohol breast cancer risk must acknowledge the social and commercial factors that encourage alcohol consumption.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://pixabay.com/photos/beer-drink-alcohol-woman-girl-bar-4620372/">Image by Engin Akyurt from Pixabay</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Sceptical of experts</h2>
<p>Some women, especially those living with disadvantage, were more likely to be sceptical of information and information sources, even if it is based on research from experts. </p>
<p>They described needing time to consider messages and judge them as trustworthy, with some feeling research evidence can be skewed to serve different interests. As one put it:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Well, I know there’s been various research done but I have to admit I tend to be rather sceptical about certain research […] things can be found that really say “Oh, yes, this is what [has been found] and then someone will come along and [say] "No, it’s not like that at all”.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>We found women want to trust clear, consistent and non-judgemental messaging, otherwise distrust in the message and messenger might become the default position. </p>
<p>Health messaging for women around alcohol breast cancer risk must acknowledge the social and commercial factors that encourage alcohol consumption.</p>
<p>Too often, public health messaging asks women to take on the responsibility of reducing their alcohol consumption – without enough recognition that the same women are targeted by alcohol advertising and many <a href="https://theconversation.com/oh-well-wine-oclock-what-midlife-women-told-us-about-drinking-and-why-its-so-hard-to-stop-188882">see alcohol</a> as a reliable “friend” in the absence of other social support.</p>
<p>If we don’t acknowledge that, we risk perpetuating the same stigma and blame that drives women to drink in the first place.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/did-you-look-forward-to-last-nights-bottle-of-wine-a-bit-too-much-ladies-youre-not-alone-109078">Did you look forward to last night's bottle of wine a bit too much? Ladies, you're not alone</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/192179/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Belinda Lunnay receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Samantha Meyer receives funding from the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paul Ward does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Our study found women aren’t necessarily aware of the link between alcohol and breast cancer. And even when they are, they aren’t always able to ‘choose’ to quit.Belinda Lunnay, Post-doctoral researcher in Public Health , Torrens University AustraliaPaul Ward, Professor of Public Health, Torrens University AustraliaSamantha Meyer, Associate Professor in Public Health, University of WaterlooLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1401552020-06-11T20:06:12Z2020-06-11T20:06:12ZWhy the pleasure and meaning of mingling in bars can’t be matched by a table for 2<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/340923/original/file-20200610-34688-vq2p1l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=16%2C131%2C4112%2C2940&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Sociologist Marcus Anthony Hunter found that for Black patrons of a Black nightclub, the ‘nightly round’ mitigated the impacts of spatial and social isolation. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Unslpash/Tobias Nii Kwatei Quartey)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>As bars begin to <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2020/06/03/happy-days-return-paris-france-cafes-bars-restaurants-finally/">reopen across the world</a> <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/here-s-what-different-provinces-territories-are-planning-for-covid-19-reopenings-1.5601572">after coronavirus closures</a>, the question of how we will socialize within them remains perplexing. The traditional bar is a complex social space and serves so many functions.</p>
<p>Twenty years ago, a group of French anthropologists <a href="https://www.editions-harmattan.fr/index.asp?navig=catalogue&obj=livre&no=9704">studied the behaviour of young people in a bar called Café Oz</a>, located in the <a href="https://en.parisinfo.com/transport/118359/Quartier-des-Halles">Halles district</a> of Paris. </p>
<p>Café Oz had an Australian theme, as its name might suggest, but this was not its main appeal. The bar’s popularity among young people had more to do with the kinds of social encounters that were possible within its walls.</p>
<p>While <a href="https://www.pavillon-arsenal.com/fr/edition-e-boutique/collections/19-x-30/9214-paris-la-nuit.html">the traditional Parisian café or bistro</a> kept customers confined to a single table (which the server had probably chosen for them), Café Oz — like British-style pubs — was designed to encourage customers to walk around. The “cash-and-carry” system, foreign to traditional French drinking establishments, required that customers go to the bar to fetch their own drinks. </p>
<p>This encouraged people to hang around the bar, joining in conversations already underway or to sit down with strangers at the long tables installed for that precise purpose. Customers could pursue new connections as they wanted and avoid others.</p>
<p>To the young people interviewed by the anthropologists, these arrangements made possible a freedom that <a href="https://jhupbooks.press.jhu.edu/title/world-paris-caf%C3%A9">the age-old rituals of French drinking culture</a> discouraged.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/340722/original/file-20200609-21208-wrntam.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/340722/original/file-20200609-21208-wrntam.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340722/original/file-20200609-21208-wrntam.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340722/original/file-20200609-21208-wrntam.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340722/original/file-20200609-21208-wrntam.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340722/original/file-20200609-21208-wrntam.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340722/original/file-20200609-21208-wrntam.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A woman cleans the terrace of a restaurant in Paris, June 1, 2020. France is reopening its restaurants, bars and cafés as the country eases most restrictions amid the coronavirus crisis.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Christophe Ena)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Student mobility, tourism</h2>
<p>Café Oz was a space for meeting strangers, its risks reduced by the fact that one usually arrived with friends. An evening out was a long series of short-term exchanges with the friends one came with and the new acquaintances one made. Those interviewed for the study noted, in particular, their pleasure at meeting people of identities and backgrounds other than their own.</p>
<p>Café Oz is now the brand of a chain of bars, scattered across Paris, whose various <a href="https://www.facebook.com/CafeOzChatelet/">Facebook pages</a> either carry frozen announcements of events in early March or advise <a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/CAFJpsMod8B/">patrons to have patience</a> in the face of the ongoing quarantine. </p>
<p>Café Oz’s hazy present-day identity combines features of the Anglo-Irish pub, the American sports bar, the casual restaurant and the dance club. Like so many of its competitors, Café Oz now belongs to an international model for drinking places, one whose popularity has followed the enormous growth of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1086/671752">student mobility</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/17535069.2018.1449010">and night-life tourism</a> over the past decade. </p>
<p>With multiple functions and broad appeal, these spaces sell the possibility of casual, short-term sociability.</p>
<h2>Post-confinement future</h2>
<p>There are two principles that guide the future of bars post-lockdown.
The first is that to accommodate social distancing, <a href="https://www.euroweeklynews.com/2020/05/23/late-night-extensions-to-bar-and-restaurant-terraces-coming-to-city-in-spains-costa-blanca-south/">alcohol consumption outside of the home will be stretched out across time and space.</a> </p>
<p>Drinking hours will be extended forwards and backwards, and the spaces for drinking will spill out onto streets, squares and parks. Crowds of drinkers will be thinned out, over longer periods of time and more widely dispersed in space.</p>
<p>The second principle dictates that the mobility of customers be reduced. Drinkers will be confined to their tables, and the size of groups drinking together will be limited and enforced. Gimmicky innovations like <a href="https://www.thedrinksbusiness.com/2020/05/contactless-tableside-ordering-service-to-launch-in-uk/">remote ordering devices</a> and plexiglass separators are being hailed for their capacity to further reduce the chances of interpersonal contact.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/340724/original/file-20200609-21191-1xhfrts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/340724/original/file-20200609-21191-1xhfrts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340724/original/file-20200609-21191-1xhfrts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340724/original/file-20200609-21191-1xhfrts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340724/original/file-20200609-21191-1xhfrts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340724/original/file-20200609-21191-1xhfrts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340724/original/file-20200609-21191-1xhfrts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Patrons sit between plexiglass barriers on the patio of a restaurant and bar in Vancouver on May 31, 2020.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Darryl Dyck</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>‘Vertical drinking’</h2>
<p>Even as we accept these measures, we cannot help but wonder how the social function of bars will change. In the 1970s, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/13562570801969473">vertical drinking</a>” — consuming alcohol while standing up and moving around, as in Café Oz — was embraced by British bars as a lively alternative to the dull immobility of the traditional pub, where customers sat in groups faced inwards.</p>
<p>Standing up and moving around seemed to encourage higher levels of drinking and to instill a more sociable atmosphere. Its <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tmKjBHRze_k">detractors</a> saw vertical drinking as leading to boorish behaviour, more frequent sexual harassment and the death of meaningful conversation.</p>
<h2>Expressiveness spread</h2>
<p>A bar in which customers move around is a space that is constantly being redefined. In his <a href="https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/S/bo3632650.html">history of New York nightlife</a>,
historian Lewis A. Erenberg describes the ways in which, as restaurants added dance floors at the beginning of the past century, people went out to bars and eating establishments to look at each other rather than at professional performers engaged to entertain them. </p>
<p>“Expressiveness,” he suggests, “spread to the audience as well.” Getting up, moving around, looking at strangers and mingling with others — these made going to a nighttime drinking place a sociable, entertaining experience. </p>
<h2>The ‘nightly round’</h2>
<p>Sociology professor Marcus Anthony Hunter <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6040.2010.01320.x">studied what he calls “the nightly round,” in urban Black nightlife</a>. He found there were restorative effects of nightlife movements and interactions in a Black nightclub for Black patrons for whom the daytime is often marked by the violence of exclusion and oppression. Heterosexual, as well as lesbian and gay patrons (who patronized the bar, respectively, for a Saturday “straight night” and a Friday “gay night”) used their movements around a bar “to mediate racial segregation [and] sexual segregation.” </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/340935/original/file-20200610-34710-7jyf4u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/340935/original/file-20200610-34710-7jyf4u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340935/original/file-20200610-34710-7jyf4u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340935/original/file-20200610-34710-7jyf4u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340935/original/file-20200610-34710-7jyf4u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340935/original/file-20200610-34710-7jyf4u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340935/original/file-20200610-34710-7jyf4u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hunter found that Black patrons were exploring socio-economic opportunities while circulating in a Black nightclub.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Unsplash)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Hunter found their “rounds” were ways of shoring up social capital — one’s place within community — and a way of exploring socio-economic opportunities (and for the lesbian and gay patrons, developing social support). In Hunter’s words, such contacts mitigate “the effects of social and spatial isolation.”</p>
<p>In her extraordinary 1944 novel <a href="https://www.hmhco.com/shop/books/The-Street/9780358187547"><em>The Street</em></a>, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/2019/dec/14/the-street-the-1940s-african-american-thriller-that-became-a-huge-bestseller">about life in Harlem</a>, Ann Petry wrote that, for its Black clientele, a certain neighbourhood bar served as “a social club and a meeting place,” its talk and laughter replacing “the haunting silences of rented rooms and little apartments.”</p>
<h2>Celebration or lament?</h2>
<p>As the spatial-temporal limits on social drinking are extended, there will be much to celebrate in the coming months. </p>
<p>But if the price of this extension is that patrons are immobilized at assigned tables in small groups — and if these groups nervously eye each other rather than revelling in the spectacle of mingling strangers — bars will have lost some of their most important functions.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/140155/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>William Straw receives funding from McGill University under the James McGill Professor program. . </span></em></p>If bars are forced to restrict people’s movement in our post-coronavirus pandemic world, they will lose some of their most important social functions.William Straw, Professor of Urban Media Studies, Department of Art History and Communications Studies, McGill UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1330202020-03-10T12:03:18Z2020-03-10T12:03:18ZWhy young people are drinking less – and what older drinkers can learn from them<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/319372/original/file-20200309-118881-yfv6vg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Mocktail anyone?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/friends-having-fun-drinking-cocktails-outdoor-384652753">Jacob Lund / Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Young people are drinking less than ever before. Some reading this will be able to recall the 1990s – the decade of peak alcohol, when drinking was a key part of life for young people. The decade saw the rise of pub and club culture, public displays of drunkenness by young adults and the arrival of new kinds of alcoholic drinks you could buy (alcopops anyone?).</p>
<p>Flash forward to 2020 and the picture is very different. A range of studies from countries where drinking is a big part of the culture confirms a sharp decline in alcohol consumption among young people. <a href="https://academic.oup.com/alcalc/article/49/6/681/2888128">Research in Sweden</a>, for example, shows a decline across all types of consumption, from the heaviest to the lightest drinkers. Similarly, rates of binge drinking have gone down and people defining themselves as non-drinkers has increased. </p>
<p>There may be significant health benefits to this change in behaviour. Excessive alcohol consumption is the cause of a number of chronic diseases and bad drinking habits are <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/article/S0140-6736(18)31310-2/fulltext">often created between the ages of 16 and 25</a>. So there’s lots to be learnt from the young people who typify how drinking culture appears to be changing. </p>
<p>There are many reasons for the change, which I have recently brought together <a href="https://www.palgrave.com/gp/book/9783030286064">in a new book with my colleague Fiona Measham</a>. Economic factors, including a wider climate of constraint and austerity, may impinge the time and money young people have available to spend on alcohol. Young people may also be more aware of <a href="https://www.who.int/substance_abuse/publications/alcohol_2014/en/">alcohol’s health risks</a>. </p>
<p>But changes in drinking behaviour may be just one part of <a href="https://www.simonandschuster.com/books/iGen/Jean-M-Twenge/9781501152016">broader changes in today’s super-connected youth culture</a>. For example, online technology has made friends and family now instantly accessible via social media and smartphones, and the once central role of pubs and clubs for initiating and consolidating social networks appears to have changed.</p>
<p>The decline could also simply be a redressing of the balance that began with the surge in alcohol’s popularity during the 1990s. It is unclear what the definitive reason is for the change that has taken place. But there is still plenty to learn from these changes in terms of how to encourage others to adopt healthier drinking patterns.</p>
<h2>Pros and cons of not drinking</h2>
<p>Choosing not to drink alcohol can have implications for people’s social lives. I <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/dar.12610">carried out a study</a>, surveying 500 UK university students who were alcohol drinkers but who were asked about whether they had recently not drank alcohol on social occasions where their peers were drinking. </p>
<p>Nearly half (44%) of the students reported having socialised without drinking alcohol, and reported benefits including higher self-esteem and feeling more productive in life. The main downsides were concerns that not drinking might limit their social lives and fear of missing out. The high proportion of students who had abstained from social drinking in the previous week while in the company of alcohol-consuming friends suggests that going dry while socialising may be more widespread among young adults who do regularly consume alcohol than is typically acknowledged in popular culture.</p>
<p>Not drinking has gained cultural visibility in recent years with the rise of phenomena like <a href="https://theconversation.com/dry-january-is-it-worth-giving-up-alcohol-for-a-month-51956">Dry January</a>. But questions circle around these initiatives. There is currently limited evidence that these events translate into longer-term moderate drinking and whether or not they target those in the most need of curbing their alcohol consumption is also <a href="https://theconversation.com/dry-january-helps-us-control-our-drinking-but-its-no-excuse-to-binge-the-rest-of-the-year-36920">open to question</a>. So it seems we’re still some way off harnessing non-drinking as a way to promote moderate alcohol consumption over a sustained period.</p>
<h2>Beating the stigma</h2>
<p>One of the biggest roadblocks to encouraging young people to drink less is the stigma there still is around not drinking or even drinking in moderation. Many studies point to this, particularly among students. In <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11469-017-9848-6">one study I worked on</a>, interviewees have spoken of experiencing peer pressure to drink, and if they don’t drink alcohol feeling like they “don’t belong” or even excluded.</p>
<p>Another study suggests that male non-drinkers may face a double whammy of stigma. Their decision to not drink clashes with expectations of being both a young person (where drinking to excess demonstrates “living life to the full”) and gender role specific expectations (being told: “Why are you not having a drink? Man up!”). </p>
<p>Nonetheless, we can expect to see a growth in tolerance toward different drinking behaviour, as more people decide to drink less. This may unlock all sorts of possibilities when it comes to promoting moderate drinking across the population at large. The rise in interest in drink-free challenges, for example, and healthier lifestyles more generally, suggests the cultural climate is ripe for putting non-drinking centre stage in public health promotion materials. </p>
<p>Also, the emergence of “sober spaces” in young adult social environments is significant. For example, the rise of cafe culture, increased demand for <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-45171571">living accommodation where alcohol use is prohibited</a> and activities like <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-28607-1_12">sober raves and the “conscious clubbing” movement</a>. Pubs and clubs are no longer the go-to space for people to socialise, thanks to diverse cultural factors including increased numbers of young people who do not drink and the increased acceptability of non-drinking as a social option. </p>
<p>Understanding these changes is an ongoing process. But shifts in how alcohol is viewed by young adults shows that excessive drinking doesn’t have to be the default way of socialising and perhaps we can all have a healthier relationship with booze.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/133020/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dominic Conroy received funding from the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) for his PhD research in 2011-2014.</span></em></p>Shifts in how alcohol is viewed by young people shows that excessive drinking doesn’t have to be the default way of socialising.Dominic Conroy, Lecturer in Psychology, University of East LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1211152019-08-12T20:03:40Z2019-08-12T20:03:40ZQueenslanders are among our heaviest drinkers on nights out, and changing that culture is a challenge<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/287143/original/file-20190807-84240-1kugd6f.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Queenslanders are drinking heavily when they go out and breathalyser tests show most don't realise how drunk they are.</span> </figcaption></figure><p><em>This is the second in a <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/quantem-74665">series of articles</a> discussing a <a href="http://statements.qld.gov.au/Statement/2019/7/26/evaluation-of-measures-to-tackle-alcoholfuelled-violence">recently released</a> <a href="https://www.parliament.qld.gov.au/documents/tableOffice/TabledPapers/2019/5619T1074.pdf">comprehensive evaluation</a> of the Queensland government’s <a href="https://www.legislation.qld.gov.au/view/html/asmade/act-2016-004#">2016 policy reforms to tackle alcohol-fuelled violence</a> and the implications for liquor regulation and the night-time economy in Queensland and Australia. A <a href="http://quantem.info/">summary report</a> is also available.</em></p>
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<p><a href="https://www.parliament.qld.gov.au/documents/tableOffice/TabledPapers/2019/5619T1074.pdf">Our evaluation</a> of the Queensland government’s 2016 “<a href="https://www.thepremier.qld.gov.au/newsroom/alcohol-fuelled-violence.aspx">Tackling Alcohol-Fuelled Violence</a>” (TAFV) policy has found Queenslanders are still drinking more heavily than people in other states when going out at night. </p>
<p>Despite <a href="https://theconversation.com/lessons-from-queensland-on-alcohol-violence-and-the-night-time-economy-121114">significant reductions in serious assaults and other health-related outcomes</a>, reported levels of aggression are also high. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/lessons-from-queensland-on-alcohol-violence-and-the-night-time-economy-121114">Lessons from Queensland on alcohol, violence and the night-time economy</a>
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</em>
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<p>Queenslanders report much higher levels of aggression than reported in our previous studies, which asked the same question in <a href="http://www.deakinvpg.info/dashed">Canberra, Hobart</a>, <a href="http://www.deakinvpg.info/pointed">Melbourne, Sydney, Perth, Wollongong, Geelong</a> and <a href="http://www.deakinvpg.info/dante">Newcastle</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/287147/original/file-20190807-84210-39li2s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/287147/original/file-20190807-84210-39li2s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/287147/original/file-20190807-84210-39li2s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=331&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287147/original/file-20190807-84210-39li2s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=331&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287147/original/file-20190807-84210-39li2s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=331&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287147/original/file-20190807-84210-39li2s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287147/original/file-20190807-84210-39li2s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287147/original/file-20190807-84210-39li2s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Table 1. Percentage of interviewees who report being involved in aggression in and around night-time entertainment precincts in the previous three months.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.parliament.qld.gov.au/documents/tableOffice/TabledPapers/2019/5619T1074.pdf">QUANTEM final report</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Female patrons reported experiencing more of all types of aggression than men across all precincts. The next article in this series highlights the worrying number of women who experience unwanted sexual attention while out.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/unwanted-sexual-attention-plagues-young-women-going-out-at-night-121116">Unwanted sexual attention plagues young women going out at night</a>
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<p>To measure the impact of the 2016 policy changes on alcohol consumption, illicit drug use and aggression, our research teams conducted <a href="https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-017-4811-9">street intercept surveys</a> on Saturday nights in Fortitude Valley (Brisbane), Surfers Paradise and Cairns between 2016 and 2018. All participants were breathalysed. Every fifth person was invited to participate in a saliva drug swab. </p>
<p>Across the precincts, 4,401 people – 57% of them male – completed surveys. </p>
<h2>Blood alcohol concentration (BAC)</h2>
<p>Half of patrons’ blood alcohol concentration (BAC in g/dL) readings were over 0.077 (the median value, with a range of 0.000-0.300) in Fortitude Valley, 0.086 (range 0.000-0.290) in Surfers Paradise and 0.087 (range 0.000-0.289) in Cairns. The highest reading, 0.300, is six times the legal driving limit.</p>
<p>These median BAC levels are much higher than other, previously studied cities. The results highlight the challenges of achieving change in Queensland’s drinking culture.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/287337/original/file-20190808-144892-1m484o4.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/287337/original/file-20190808-144892-1m484o4.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/287337/original/file-20190808-144892-1m484o4.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=277&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287337/original/file-20190808-144892-1m484o4.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=277&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287337/original/file-20190808-144892-1m484o4.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=277&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287337/original/file-20190808-144892-1m484o4.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=348&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287337/original/file-20190808-144892-1m484o4.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=348&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287337/original/file-20190808-144892-1m484o4.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=348&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Table 2. Patrons’ median blood alcohol concentration (BAC in g/dL) and range of readings.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.parliament.qld.gov.au/documents/tableOffice/TabledPapers/2019/5619T1074.pdf">QUANTEM final report</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Interestingly, most patrons are more drunk than they <em>think</em> they are. Before undertaking a breath test patrons were asked to guess their level of intoxication. For example, in Cairns, patrons’ median guess of their BAC reading was 0.070, compared to the measured median of 0.087. </p>
<h2>Pre-drinking</h2>
<p>High alcohol consumption when going out to night-time entertainment precincts includes <a href="https://academic.oup.com/alcalc/article/54/4/378/5486344">pre-drinking</a> (drinking at home before going out; also known as pre-gaming, pre-partying or pre-loading in other countries). As our research teams have documented <a href="http://www.deakinvpg.info/pointed">since 2012</a>, pre-drinking has continued to increase. </p>
<p>With 84% of all patrons reporting pre-drinking before going out, Queensland shows higher levels than in most other previously studied cities. </p>
<p>Overall, male patrons drank significantly more than female patrons when pre-drinking. In Fortitude Valley, though, female patrons were significantly more likely to pre-drink than males.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/womens-alcohol-consumption-catching-up-to-men-why-this-matters-67454">Women's alcohol consumption catching up to men: why this matters</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>It’s a <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/dar.12525">common belief</a> that patrons choose to pre-drink to avoid buying more expensive drinks while they’re out in bars or clubs. But we found patrons who reported pre-drinking were more likely to drink more heavily across the night. They also reported drinking for longer than those who did not pre-drink.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.parliament.qld.gov.au/documents/tableOffice/TabledPapers/2019/5619T1074.pdf">Our report</a> also shows the rate of pre-drinking across the precincts remained mostly stable in the two years after the TAFV policy was introduced in 2016. This suggests it did not affect rates of pre-drinking.</p>
<h2>Illicit drug use</h2>
<p>Rates of self-reported illicit drug use varied between precincts, from 13% of patrons in Fortitude Valley to 25% of all patrons in Surfers Paradise.</p>
<p>Ecstasy was the most commonly used illicit substance reported by patrons (5.5%), followed by cannabis (4%).</p>
<p>Among those who completed saliva drug swabs, the most commonly detected substances were amphetamines in Fortitude Valley and Cairns. In Surfers Paradise, however, it was methamphetamine; with 23.5% of patrons interviewed in Surfers Paradise testing positive for the substance.</p>
<p>Although rates of illicit drug use fluctuated in the two years after the TAFV policy was introduced, overall rates remained largely stable. This indicates the policy did not result in a clear increase or decrease in illicit drug use.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/fact-check-only-drugs-and-alcohol-together-cause-violence-12466">Fact check: only drugs and alcohol together cause violence</a>
</strong>
</em>
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<hr>
<h2>So what does it all mean?</h2>
<p>Historically, Queensland has high levels of harmful consumption of alcohol, especially in high-risk groups. Around <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/by%20Subject/4364.0.55.001%7E2017-18%7EMain%20Features%7EAlcohol%20consumption%7E100">46% of Queenslanders</a> have exceeded single-occasion risk guidelines in the past year, higher than in New South Wales and Victoria. </p>
<p>There has been significant investment in education campaigns across social media and in schools. Despite this, Queenslanders continue to show hazardous levels of alcohol consumption, illicit drug use and experiences of aggression. </p>
<p>Changing cultural patterns relating to pre-drinking and alcohol-related harms will not be easy. <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/dar.12274">Previous research</a> suggests further tightening of licensed venues’ trading hours will help. Our report recommendations include introducing a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26098040">minimum unit price on alcohol</a> and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19594797">promoting low-risk drinking guidelines</a> at all points of sale across Queensland. </p>
<p>Our report also recommends trialling live music early in the night to try to bring people into entertainment districts earlier. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/tighter-alcohol-licensing-hasnt-killed-live-music-but-its-harder-for-emerging-artists-121117">Tighter alcohol licensing hasn't killed live music, but it's harder for emerging artists</a>
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<p>Despite the promising results of government policy efforts to date, our evaluation suggests the work to reduce alcohol-related harm across Queensland is not finished. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/factcheck-can-you-change-a-violent-drinking-culture-by-changing-how-people-drink-38426">FactCheck: can you change a violent drinking culture by changing how people drink?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/121115/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jason Ferris receives funding from from Australian Research Council and Australian National Health and Medical Research Council, grants from State (Tasmania, Victoria, Queensland) and Federal Governments, National Drug Law Enforcement Research Fund, Foundation for Alcohol Research and Education, University of Queensland, National Institute of Health, Global Drug Survey. He is affiliated with the Global Drug Survey and the Queensland Mental Health Commission.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cheneal Puljevic was a member of the research team led by Deakin University (Peter Miller) and The University of Queensland (Jason Ferris) to evaluate the Queensland Government’s “Tackling Alcohol-Fuelled Violence” (TAFV) legislation.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter Miller receives funding from Australian Research Council and Australian National Health and Medical Research Council, grants from NSW Government, National Drug Law Enforcement Research Fund, Foundation for Alcohol Research and Education, Cancer Council Victoria, Central Australian Aboriginal Congress, Northern Territory government, Australian Rechabites Foundation, Northern Territory Primary Health Network, Lives Lived Well, Queensland government and Australian Drug Foundation, travel and related costs from Queensland Police Service, Queensland Office of Liquor Gaming and Racing and the Australasian Drug Strategy Conference. He has acted as a paid expert witness on behalf of a licensed venue and a security firm. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Barbara Wood does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Even after ‘Tackling Alcohol-Fuelled Violence’ policies took effect in 2016, Queenslanders still drink more heavily on nights out. Reported levels of aggression are higher than in other states too.Jason Ferris, Associate Professor, Program Leader for Research and Statistical Support Service and Program Leader for Substance Use and Mental Health, Centre for Health Services Research, The University of QueenslandBarbara Wood, Research Assistant, The University of QueenslandCheneal Puljević, Research Fellow, Centre for Health Services Research, The University of QueenslandPeter Miller, Professor of Violence Prevention and Addiction Studies, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/882472017-11-30T03:59:37Z2017-11-30T03:59:37ZDo different drinks make you different drunk?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/197060/original/file-20171130-12027-p1jnjn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A recent study found people link different alcohol types to different emotional states.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/gj6THKvbm10">Photo by Mattias Diesel on Unsplash</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="http://www.bbc.com/news/av/health-42072497/how-different-drinks-alter-your-mood">Reports of a study</a> linking different kinds of alcoholic drinks with different mood states were making the rounds recently. The <a href="http://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/7/10/e016089">research used</a> 30,000 survey responses from the <a href="http://www.globaldrugsurvey.com">Global Drug Survey</a> and found that people attached different emotions to different alcoholic drinks. </p>
<p>For instance, more respondents reported feeling aggressive when drinking spirits than when drinking wine. </p>
<p>We all have friends who swear they feel differently when drinking different types of alcohol. But can different drinks really influence your mood in different ways?</p>
<h2>Alcohol is alcohol</h2>
<p>Let’s cut to the chase. No matter what the drink, the active ingredient is the same: ethanol. </p>
<p>When you have a drink, ethanol enters the bloodstream through the stomach and small intestine and is then processed in the liver. The liver can process only a limited amount of alcohol at a time so any excess remains in the blood and travels to other organs, including your brain where mood is regulated.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/197063/original/file-20171130-12072-1gzk6hv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/197063/original/file-20171130-12072-1gzk6hv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/197063/original/file-20171130-12072-1gzk6hv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197063/original/file-20171130-12072-1gzk6hv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197063/original/file-20171130-12072-1gzk6hv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197063/original/file-20171130-12072-1gzk6hv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197063/original/file-20171130-12072-1gzk6hv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197063/original/file-20171130-12072-1gzk6hv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Many people think drinking spirits makes them more aggressive.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/dmkmrNptMpw">Photo by Adam Jaime on Unsplash</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The direct effects of alcohol are the same whether you drink wine, beer or spirits. There’s no evidence that different types of alcohol cause different mood states. People aren’t even very good at recognising their <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/2167702616689780?journalCode=cpxa">mood states</a> when they have been drinking.</p>
<p>So where does the myth come from?</p>
<h2>Grape expectations</h2>
<p>Scientists have studied specific <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2965491/">alcohol-related beliefs</a> called “expectancies”. If you believe a particular type of drink makes you angry, sad or sexed up, then it is more likely to.</p>
<p>We develop expectancies from a number of sources, including our own and others’ experiences. If wine makes you relaxed, it’s probably because you usually sip it slowly in a calm and relaxed atmosphere. If tequila makes you crazy, maybe it’s because you usually drink it in shots, which is bound to be on a wild night out.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/197064/original/file-20171130-12069-sihxwq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/197064/original/file-20171130-12069-sihxwq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/197064/original/file-20171130-12069-sihxwq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=836&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197064/original/file-20171130-12069-sihxwq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=836&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197064/original/file-20171130-12069-sihxwq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=836&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197064/original/file-20171130-12069-sihxwq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1051&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197064/original/file-20171130-12069-sihxwq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1051&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197064/original/file-20171130-12069-sihxwq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1051&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">You might think wine is relaxing because you usually drink it in a relaxing atmosphere.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/asGtWUdJe2U">Photo by Willian West on Unsplash</a></span>
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<p>Or if you regularly saw your parents sitting around on a Sunday afternoon with their friends and a few beers, you might expect beer to make you more sociable. Kids as young as six have been <a href="http://www.jsad.com/doi/abs/10.15288/jsa.1990.51.343">found to have expectancies</a> about alcohol, well before any experience of drinking.</p>
<p>We build conscious and unconscious associations between alcohol and our emotions every time we drink or see someone else drinking.</p>
<p>We could even be influenced by music and art. “Tequila makes me crazy” is a common belief, which also happens to be a line in a <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q8XkLrErSHw">Kenny Chesney</a> song, and Billy Joel’s <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gxEPV4kolz0">Piano Man</a> might reinforce the idea that gin makes you melancholy.</p>
<h2>It’s the ‘how’ more than the ‘what’</h2>
<p>Other chemicals, called congeners, can be produced in the process of making alcohol. Different drinks produce different congeners. Some argue these could have different effects on mood, but the only real effect of these chemicals is on the taste and smell of a beverage. They can also contribute to a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20712591">cracker of a hangover</a>.</p>
<p>But there is no evidence that these congeners produce specific mood or behavioural effects while you are drinking.</p>
<p>The critical factor in the physical and psychological effects you experience when drinking really comes down to how you drink rather than what you drink. Different drinks have different alcohol content and the more alcohol you ingest – and the faster you ingest it – the stronger the effects.</p>
<p>Spirits have a higher concentration of alcohol (40%) than beer (5%) or wine (12%) and are often downed quickly, either in shots or with a sweet mixer. This rapidly increases blood alcohol concentration, and therefore alcohol’s effects, including changes in mood.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/197065/original/file-20171130-12040-1lzjx90.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/197065/original/file-20171130-12040-1lzjx90.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/197065/original/file-20171130-12040-1lzjx90.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=622&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197065/original/file-20171130-12040-1lzjx90.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=622&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197065/original/file-20171130-12040-1lzjx90.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=622&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197065/original/file-20171130-12040-1lzjx90.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=782&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197065/original/file-20171130-12040-1lzjx90.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=782&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197065/original/file-20171130-12040-1lzjx90.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=782&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Spirits are higher in alcohol than beer, and are usually drunk much more quickly.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/MxfcoxycH_Y">Photo by Michael Discenza on Unsplash</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<p>The same goes for mixing drinks. You might have heard the saying “Beer before liquor, never been sicker; liquor before beer, you’re in the clear”, but again it’s the amount of alcohol that might get you into trouble rather than mixing different types. </p>
<p>Mixing a stimulant (like an energy drink) with alcohol can also mask how intoxicated you feel, allowing you to drink more.</p>
<p>You can reduce the risk of extreme mood changes by drinking slowly, eating food before and while you drink, and spacing alcoholic drinks with water, juice or soft drink. Stick to drinking within the Australian <a href="https://www.nhmrc.gov.au/health-topics/alcohol-guidelines">alcohol guidelines</a> of no more than four standard drinks on a single occasion.</p>
<h2>Party animals and bad eggs</h2>
<p>Alcohol is a central nervous system depressant, which means it slows the brain’s functioning. Alcohol’s effects include reducing activity in the part of the brain that regulates thinking, reasoning and decision-making, known as the <a href="http://universe-review.ca/I10-80-prefrontal.jpg">prefrontal cortex</a>. Alcohol also decreases inhibitions and our ability to regulate emotions.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/197067/original/file-20171130-12069-ho1337.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/197067/original/file-20171130-12069-ho1337.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/197067/original/file-20171130-12069-ho1337.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197067/original/file-20171130-12069-ho1337.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197067/original/file-20171130-12069-ho1337.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197067/original/file-20171130-12069-ho1337.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197067/original/file-20171130-12069-ho1337.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197067/original/file-20171130-12069-ho1337.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The effect of alcohol depends on many factors, including where you’re drinking it and how you’re feeling at the time.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/mY4VrLwciQk">Photo by Cassiano Barletta on Unsplash</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>“In vino veritas” (in wine there is truth) is a saying that suggests that when drinking we are more likely to reveal our true selves. While that’s not completely accurate, the changes in mood when someone is drinking often reflect underlying personal styles that become less regulated with alcohol on board.</p>
<p>Studies of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2791902/">aggression and alcohol</a>, for example, show that people who are normally irritable, cranky or low in empathy when they are not drinking are more likely to be aggressive when their inhibitions are lowered while drinking.</p>
<p>As with all drugs, the effect alcohol has on your mood is a combination of the alcohol itself, where you are drinking it and how you’re feeling at the time.</p>
<p>So does alcohol make you crazy, mean or sad? If it does, you were probably a bit that way inclined already, and if you believe it enough it may just come true.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/88247/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nicole Lee works as a paid consultant in the public, private and not for profit alcohol and other drug sector and to commonwealth and state governments. She has previously been awarded grants by the state and federal government, NHMRC and other public funding bodies for alcohol and other drug research.</span></em></p>Some people believe different drinks make them feel differently. But the effect alcohol has on your mood depends on factors like where you are drinking it and how you’re feeling at the time.Nicole Lee, Professor at the National Drug Research Institute, Curtin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/674542016-10-24T22:33:52Z2016-10-24T22:33:52ZWomen’s alcohol consumption catching up to men: why this matters<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/142989/original/image-20161024-28380-wrtsvz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Alcohol use is traditionally higher among men than women but new evidence suggests this is changing.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com.au</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Women are catching up to men in rates of alcohol consumption and this has important implications for how we think about our community response to harmful alcohol use.</p>
<p>Historically, men have been more likely to drink alcohol than women and to drink in quantities that damage their health. However, evidence points to a significant shift in the drinking landscape with <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0376871607003559">rates of alcohol use appearing to converge</a> among men and women born more recently. In a bid to quantify this trend, <a href="http://bmjopen.bmj.com/lookup/doi/10.1136/bmjopen-2016-011827">we pooled data</a> from 68 studies in 36 countries with a total sample size of over four million men and women.</p>
<p>All of the studies we looked at reported data on both men’s and women’s drinking across at least two time periods. Some data were available from men and women born in the early 1900s, other data from men and women born in the late 1900s, but each data point represented the ratio of men’s to women’s alcohol use for those born within a specific five-year time window. Taken together we were able to map ratios across the entire period from as early as 1891 right up to the year 2000 and everything in between. </p>
<p>We grouped data according to three broad definitions: any alcohol use (in other words being a drinker or not), problematic alcohol use (binge or heavy episodic drinking) and alcohol-related harms (negative consequences as a result of drinking such as accidents or injuries or a diagnosis of an alcohol use disorder).</p>
<p>What we found was that the gap between the sexes has narrowed over time. Among cohorts born in the early 1900s men were just over two times more likely than women to drink, three times more likely to drink in ways suggesting problematic alcohol use and three-and-a-half times more likely to experience alcohol-related harms. </p>
<p>Among those born in the late 1900s these ratios had decreased to almost one. This means that by the end of the last century men’s and women’s drinking had almost reached parity.</p>
<p>We did not seek to quantify by how much alcohol use is falling among men and/or increasing among women. However, of the 42 studies that showed converging alcohol use, most reported this was driven by increases in the rates of female drinking. </p>
<p>A small proportion (5%) of the individual sex ratios was less than one, the majority of which came from cohorts born after 1981. This suggests women born after this time may, in fact, be drinking at <em>higher</em> rates and in <em>more</em> harmful ways than their male counterparts. </p>
<h2>What’s changed in the last 100 years?</h2>
<p>We don’t have a definitive answer to what has driven the rise in alcohol consumption among women but in many countries around the world we have seen substantial developments in broader social, cultural and economic factors for women and increasingly accepting societal norms around female drinking. </p>
<p>It is likely <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.2147/SAR.S21343">sex differences in alcohol use are linked</a>, probably in complex ways, to these societal changes. Most people would argue these changes have been positive. However, increased exposure to alcohol for women also means increased exposure to the <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0376871615016166">physical and mental health risks associated</a> with drinking too much.</p>
<p>Regardless of the reasons behind these changes, it’s clear alcohol use and associated problems are not problems that only affect men. </p>
<p>This matters because often the focus in the media and public debate is on young men and alcohol. It matters because universal prevention can be an effective strategy to reduce harmful alcohol use among women. It matters because, while women seek treatment for almost every other physical and mental health problem at higher rates than men, women who experience problems related to alcohol generally don’t seek treatment. </p>
<p>The sooner we structure our education campaigns as well as our prevention, early intervention and treatment programs around this notion, the better our community response to harmful alcohol use will be. </p>
<p>We need to ensure education campaigns addressing the harms of alcohol use are <a href="http://www.positivechoices.org.au">designed to appeal to both men and women</a>. We need to target adolescents before drinking patterns are entrenched and deliver high quality, evidence-based <a href="http://anp.sagepub.com/content/50/1/64.abstract">universal prevention and early intervention programs</a>. We need to reduce the structural barriers (such as cost and location) as well as negative attitudes that get in the way of women <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0376871614019735">seeking treatment for alcohol problems</a>. </p>
<p>Many of the men and women who are contributing to these changing drinking patterns are only now in their 20s or 30s. We need to keep tracking population trends in drinking as these cohorts age into their 40s, 50s and beyond. We need to keep asking the question: how can we do better to prevent alcohol related harms?</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/67454/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tim Slade receives funding from the NHMRC, the ARC and the Australian government.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cath Chapman receives funding from the NHMRC and the Australian government.
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Maree Teesson is a director of CLIMATESchools Pty Ltd. An Australian company that distributes evidence based educational materials to schools. She receives funding from the NHMRC, the Australian government and the NSW government.</span></em></p>Women are catching up to men in rates of alcohol consumption and this has important implications for how we think about our community response to harmful alcohol use.Tim Slade, Associate Professor, UNSW SydneyCath Chapman, Senior Research Fellow, UNSW SydneyMaree Teesson, Professor at the National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/618572016-09-19T04:36:37Z2016-09-19T04:36:37ZHealth Check: how do I know if I drink too much?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/133619/original/image-20160810-18014-gx37ex.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Alcohol is a big part of our culture, but how do you know if you're drinking too much?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/neilmoralee/25419802686/">Neil Moralee/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>While alcohol is a legal and common way many societies stimulate social interaction, when consumed at high levels over long periods it can undermine physical health and cause cancers and other disease. Most people know excessive drinking isn’t good for our health, but how do we know when we’re drinking too much?</p>
<p>Alcohol consumption is associated with long- and short-term consequences. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11509842">Long-term health consequences include</a>: alcohol-related diseases such as cirrhosis of the liver; stroke; high blood pressure; heart disease; and <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19560604">more than 60 cancers</a>, including of the mouth, lips, throat, oesophagus, stomach, pancreas, liver, bowel and breast.</p>
<p><a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/mpr.259/abstract">Short-term health consequences</a> include fatalities, physical injury or road accidents due to impaired cognitive performance and diminished reaction times. </p>
<p>Social consequences may include domestic violence, absenteeism, violence and crime.</p>
<h2>How much is safe to drink?</h2>
<p>It’s important to know the recommendations on drinking to ensure we’re not drinking too much for our own health and for the safety of others. </p>
<p>In 2009, the National Health and Medical Research Council updated the <a href="https://www.nhmrc.gov.au/guidelines-publications/ds10">Australian drinking guidelines</a>. The guidelines contain four recommendations to ensure our drinking is “low risk”. Low risk is defined as drinking at a level that reduces the chance an individual will suffer from short-term injury or long-term disease.</p>
<p>Healthy men and women are advised not to drink more than two standard drinks on any one day. If a person drinks less than that, the probability he or she will suffer from long-term alcohol-related disease (such as cancer) is <a href="https://www.nhmrc.gov.au/guidelines-publications/ds10">approximately one in 100</a>.</p>
<p>For both men and women, drinking no more than four standard drinks on a single occasion reduces the risk of alcohol-related injury to one in 100. Risk of injury includes physical injury, or road accidents due to impaired cognitive performance and diminished reaction times. </p>
<p>Short-term risky drinking is most often associated with intoxication. Intoxication in its mildest form produces slight changes in inhibition, reduced co-ordination and decreased alertness. More extreme forms may involve slurred speech, boisterous or aggressive behaviour, inappropriate sexual behaviour, swaying, rambling conversation and difficulty concentrating.</p>
<h2>Who can drink?</h2>
<p>Pregnant women are advised to avoid alcohol because of the possibility of alcohol passing through the placenta into the embryo. This may affect brain and other developments of the child.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15251893">Evidence shows</a> the <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11104119">brains of children</a> under the age of 18 are <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16205359">still developing</a>. Thus it is <a href="http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ%3A116302">recommended children</a> under the age of 18 should <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1196/annals.1308.026/abstract">avoid consuming alcohol</a>. Consuming alcohol before the age of 18 <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1196/annals.1308.025/abstract">also increases the risk</a> of numerous poor developmental and social outcomes. </p>
<p>Settings and their associated customs and norms can influence how much alcohol we consume. People will often consume more alcohol in settings like bars, nightclubs and sports clubs, for example. This is usually because alcohol in these settings is sold, managed and marketed in ways that encourage easier or greater consumption. </p>
<p>People should be aware of this phenomoneon and try to consciously consume moderate amounts in these types of settings.</p>
<h2>Symptoms of drinking too much</h2>
<p>While all drinking has elements of long- and short-term risk, consistent drinking can lead to dependence and other alcohol-related problems. If you find it hard to stop drinking after you have started, you do things that are not normally expected of you because of your drinking, or you feel you sometimes need a drink in the morning, you may be showing signs of dependence and should consult your GP or a health practitioner.</p>
<p>Another sign of dependence is that, over time, greater amounts of alcohol are required to achieve intoxication. Persistent use and being preoccupied with your consumption, despite evidence of harm, is another sign your drinking might be unhealthily habitual. </p>
<p>If you feel guilty after drinking, have injured someone because of your drinking, or someone has suggested you reduce your drinking, you should also consider talking to someone about your alcohol consumption.</p>
<h2>Steps to reduce alcohol consumption</h2>
<p>While alcohol is part of our world, we can reduce the risk of short-term harm, disease and dependence. For adults, it is advised you have no more than two standard drinks a day. On any one day it is advised adults should not consume more than four standard drinks in a session. </p>
<p>A good way to cut down on your drinking is to start by ensuring you are having at least one to two alcohol-free days. On these days, you may want to substitute an alcoholic drink with something else, like sugar-free tonic water. This has a sophisticated taste but has no calories or alcohol. </p>
<p>Because of the long- and short-term risks, there should always be room to reduce your alcohol consumption. Perhaps in the long term you could try to avoid consumption during weekdays.</p>
<p>When going to functions where alcohol will be available, have a strategy rehearsed in your mind as to how and why you will not consume alcohol. You may say it is one of your alcohol-free days, you are not drinking today, or you are pacing yourself this week. </p>
<p>People are more health-conscious these days so tend to be more open about not drinking for health and well-being reasons. A non-alcoholic substitute drink will help you feel more socially integrated in these settings. </p>
<p>We should also ensure our children avoid alcohol before the age of 18. This is the safest way of maximising their health and human potential.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/61857/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bosco Rowland does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>It’s important to know the recommendations on drinking to ensure we’re not drinking too much for our own health and for the safety of others.Bosco Rowland, Senior Research Fellow, School of Psychology, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/607252016-06-27T14:42:31Z2016-06-27T14:42:31ZDoes drink really make you happy?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/128293/original/image-20160627-28373-wlhmuz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binge_drinking#/media/File:William_Hogarth_-_A_Midnight_Modern_Conversation.jpg">William Hogarth/Yale Center for British Art</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>For those of us that partake, drinking alcohol is often seen as a balancing act that weighs up the pleasures of drinking against the pains. Government regulation is often seen the same way, weighing the benefits of pleasure and freedom of the individual on one hand against the cost of crime and health harms on the other. Yet while such simplicity has its charms, it might actually lead to bad alcohol policies that don’t achieve the best balance between pleasure and pain.</p>
<p>For example, in the eyes of some – including simplistic versions of cost-benefit models used by some governments - every time you have a drink you make a fully rational decision to <a href="http://www.investopedia.com/terms/t/totalutility.asp">maximise your own utility</a>. This ignores issues of alcohol addiction and the fact that it’s quite a stretch to describe yourself as “fully rational” at 2am after ten pints when a friend has just suggested a round of tequila. But because pleasure is not generally something that alcohol researchers examine, the alcohol debate is dominated by either these naive models or optimistic assertions by lobbyists about alcohol’s happiness-inducing effects.</p>
<p>In a new paper published in <a href="http://www.benbaumberg.com/files/2016%20SSM%20post-print%20%20-%20alcohol%20policy%20and%20wellbeing%20paper.docx">Social Science and Medicine</a>, <a href="http://www.sussex.ac.uk/profiles/302100">George MacKerron</a> and I examined what evidence there was to tease out the relationship between alcohol and happiness. To try to capture some of the complexities, we took two approaches:</p>
<p>One study collected data from iPhone users through the <a href="http://www.mappiness.org.uk/">Mappiness app</a> app George created, which buzzed people a couple of times a day to ask how happy they were, what they were doing, and who they were doing it with. This is a huge study, with over 2m observations from more than 30,000 people.</p>
<p>The other study was more traditional, using the <a href="http://www.cls.ioe.ac.uk/page.aspx?&sitesectionid=795&sitesectiontitle=Welcome+to+the+1970+British+Cohort+Study">1970 British Cohort Study</a> to see how the cohort’s members’ alcohol consumption changed between the ages of 30, 34 and 42, and what links we can see between changes in their life satisfaction and their drinking.</p>
<p>What we found is that alcohol does make you happier in the moment, by about three to four points on a zero to 100 scale. These models look at changes within individuals over time, and ignore differences between different sorts of people. There’s also no sign of a hangover effect on happiness, although people tend to be less awake the morning after drinking.</p>
<p>But there are several substantial caveats to this evidence of a pleasurable effect. There is a relatively small overspill of happiness into moments when people are not drinking (a difference of less than 0.5 points on a zero to 100 scale between those weeks or months in which people drink more versus less often). What’s more, looking at year-to-year changes, people are no more satisfied with life in heavier-drinking years than in lighter-drinking years. Indeed, if they develop a drink problem, then they become noticeably less satisfied with life (by about 0.2 points on a zero to ten scale). </p>
<p>These are the effects on average, and there is good reason to think that different patterns of drinking in different settings will have different effects on different types of people. The iPhone users in the Mappiness study, for example, are much younger and richer than average, and we only know whether people are drinking, not the amount they drink or indeed what they’re drinking. Anecdotally, most of us can think of drinks that we particularly enjoyed, and others that, in retrospect (or even at the time), made us less happy.</p>
<p>To return to alcohol policies, these findings challenge the naive assumption that all drinking makes us more happy in every way, and prompts us to think more carefully about what we might mean by “pleasure” or “happiness” in this context. Instead, it should make us consider whether there are possible policies that could help us cut down only the drinks that don’t make us happy. It might even be the case that – <a href="https://ideas.repec.org/a/bpj/bejeap/vadvances.5y2005i1n4.html">as found for cigarette taxes</a> – certain regulation may make us happier as well as healthier than we were before.</p>
<p>Most of all, we need to stop reducing the whole spectrum of human pleasure to naive economic models or the vested interests of governments, companies or lobby groups, and actually think about how much we value different aspects of pleasure and enjoyment – including how we drink alcohol – and which policies best balance alcohol’s pleasures against its harms.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/60725/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ben Baumberg Geiger has received funding from the Medical Research Council and Economic and Social Research Council (related to this work), and from the European Commission and World Health Organization for other projects. He previously worked at the Institute of Alcohol Studies,
(IAS), which is primarily funded by the Alliance House Foundation (formerly the UK
Temperance Alliance); further detail can be found from <a href="http://www.ias.org.uk/Who-we-are.aspx">http://www.ias.org.uk/Who-we-are.aspx</a>. He is also a member of the Labour Party, Compass, and the Fabian Society, and has previously worked on secondment at the Department of Work and Pensions (under the present Government). BBG is writing in a personal and non party-political capacity, and the views expressed in this article should not be interpreted as the official position of any of the above organisations.</span></em></p>Mere economic models don’t take into account the full complexity of our relationship with alcohol.Ben Baumberg Geiger, Senior Lecturer in Sociology and Social Policy, University of KentLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/562712016-03-16T04:59:23Z2016-03-16T04:59:23ZThe 24/7 city, creativity and the lockout laws<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115206/original/image-20160316-25496-1qawo6i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Our visions of the future embrace huge, glittering cities, but Sydney has a case of the little town blues.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Warner Bros.</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>A city, especially in the global age, is active, night and day. Some cities particularly – New York or Hong Kong or Tokyo – are commonly presented at night. They are magic lands lit with public television screens, flashing neon and LED text.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0083658/?ref_=fn_al_tt_1">Blade Runner</a> uses this night-time city as a picture of the future; its buildings become nodes of constant flows of information and electricity. Unlike the pre-modern village, which structured its days on the sun, the perfected modern metropolis is a 24-hour city, which “never sleeps”.</p>
<p>When the West wanted to demonstrate the backwardness of North Korea, the Western media proliferated a satellite image of a blackness – the size of a country – just above a shimmering South Korea.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115240/original/image-20160316-8485-9s25ve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115240/original/image-20160316-8485-9s25ve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115240/original/image-20160316-8485-9s25ve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115240/original/image-20160316-8485-9s25ve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115240/original/image-20160316-8485-9s25ve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115240/original/image-20160316-8485-9s25ve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115240/original/image-20160316-8485-9s25ve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115240/original/image-20160316-8485-9s25ve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">NASA image taken by the Expedition 38 crew aboard the ISS shows night view of the Korean Peninsula.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA/Reuter</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This vision from space was also used in Star Wars to introduce, in <a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0120915/">The Phantom Menace</a> (Episode 1), the city planet Coruscant. It is New York scaled up, not just the administrative and cultural centre of a world but of the universe. The planet’s name, from the Latin, means glittering. </p>
<p>Coruscant is vital, powerful and beautiful (in some shots it looks like Brasilia meets Renaissance Venice). But it is also artificial and sickly: civilisation covers the whole planet, nature is a pot plant and the smog covered ground level has been uninhabitable for 1,000 years. Life is above ground in skyscrapers, recalling the class divide of another early vision of the future, contained in the film <a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0017136/?ref_=fn_al_tt_1">Metropolis</a>.</p>
<p>This paradox of the city has haunted culture since its invention in the mid-19th century. As soon as the city came into being, middle class urbanites started putting pictures of praying peasants on their walls and hiring wholesome milkmaids as wet-nurses. There was something worryingly immoral and dirty about cities.</p>
<p>The first City of Light was of course Paris; it is the model that everyone followed. The nickname was earned because it was almost uniquely, at that time, lit up. Streetlights first appeared under Louis XIV but the planning vision was completed under <a href="http://www.britannica.com/biography/Georges-Eugene-Baron-Haussmann">Baron Haussmann</a> in the 1850s. The design facilitated a complex life after dark. But it also allowed for better surveillance and scrutiny — all the better to see into the dark corners of lurking revolutionaries and criminals. </p>
<p>In their effort to picture modernity, Impressionists painted all the new daytime activities of Paris: from walking the freshly laid promenades to peering through the industrialised glass panes of shops. But they also began to paint the nightlife: the absinthe drinker; the lady of the night; the theatre; the bar girl; the singer. The Impressionists were just as interested in the magical ambience of gaslight and the limelight as the effects of sunlight on a haystack. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115212/original/image-20160316-25487-1i3av2a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115212/original/image-20160316-25487-1i3av2a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115212/original/image-20160316-25487-1i3av2a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=695&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115212/original/image-20160316-25487-1i3av2a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=695&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115212/original/image-20160316-25487-1i3av2a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=695&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115212/original/image-20160316-25487-1i3av2a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=874&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115212/original/image-20160316-25487-1i3av2a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=874&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115212/original/image-20160316-25487-1i3av2a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=874&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">At Gennelle, Absinthe Drinker by Toulouse-Lautrec.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.wikiart.org/">via Wikiart.</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When Sydney was preparing to debut itself to the world in the 1879 World Fair, it looked to Paris. Its Second Empire Style Town Hall, based on French models, not English ones, stood for the future, the new.</p>
<p>It is not a coincidence that Gustave Eiffel not only designed a tower but also the logo for Noilly Prat Vermouth (which is still used today). Both are in their own way symbols of the city and of modern progress. Industrialisation and its certainties allowed for the tower to stand up and for the barman to be assured that every martini he mixed would be the same, and good. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115231/original/image-20160316-8492-18ghhh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115231/original/image-20160316-8492-18ghhh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115231/original/image-20160316-8492-18ghhh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115231/original/image-20160316-8492-18ghhh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115231/original/image-20160316-8492-18ghhh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115231/original/image-20160316-8492-18ghhh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115231/original/image-20160316-8492-18ghhh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115231/original/image-20160316-8492-18ghhh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Noilly Prat Vermouth logo.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Chris</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A big city, as the centre of states, has traditionally accommodated all comers, almost as a defining feature. That is why, even on the extremes, we need planning laws that stipulate where our (legal) brothels go, where the erotic book shop is sited (right next to Abbey’s in Sydney), and where the bar precinct is. </p>
<p>The modern utopian dream of the model city wants to stay open, totally. In this place there are no curfews; transport runs all night; bankers working foreign stock exchanges go to dinner after trading; comedy writers drink litres of coffee and order takeout; and live music plays through the evening.</p>
<p>In 2001, Tony Blair ran for PM on a platform of keeping London open. New Labour sent an email to primarily prospective young voters that said “couldn’t give a ‘four x’ for last orders? Vote Labour on Thursday for extra time.” The new laws came into effect in 2005.</p>
<p>Last year, a report from the free market leaning Institute of Economics lauded the success of the laws. Its author, Chris Snowdon, <a href="http://www.iea.org.uk/in-the-media/press-release/longer-opening-hours-have-been-a-success">noted</a>, “The hysteria about so-called 24-hour drinking ranks as one of the great moral panics of our time, but the evidence is now clear: the doom-mongers were wrong … The biggest consequence of relaxing licensing laws has been that the public are now better able to enjoy a drink at the time and location of their choice.” </p>
<p>The report goes on to say that the diversity of offerings has gone up, including small bars and clubs. Statistically, too, assaults and other binge drinking related crime have gone down in London. This may not be a direct cause of the legislation, but at least indicated that the 24-hour city had not “made matters worse”.</p>
<p>Back in Sydney, we have a terrible case of little town blues. We are seeing a perfect case study for illustrating Michel Foucault’s political theory of “micropower”. Instead of merely laws, Foucault suggests that we are primarily controlled in modern society by smaller more socially embedded modes of control. These include our education systems, science and health experts and even the buildings we live and work in. </p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.justice.nsw.gov.au/Pages/media-news/media-releases/2016/mr-liquorlawreview.aspx">Ian Callinan review</a> will no doubt bring together a phalanx of experts (emergency doctors, drug experts, criminologists and police) arguing for the lockout laws on the grounds that they save lives.</p>
<p>The experts’ information is presented to us as neutral, when it cannot help but have some subjectivity and ideology (even a disciplinary bias for example) underpinning it. What we are seeing in the lockout laws is primarily a neoliberal point of view: we are kept safe to be better workers, gentrification leads to rising property prices and as Richard Cooke in The Monthly has highlighted, baby boomers (i.e. those in power) are <a href="https://www.themonthly.com.au/issue/2016/march/1456750800/richard-cooke/boomer-supremacy">not really concerned anymore with the issues of the young</a>. </p>
<p>I do not believe the instrumentalist claims of those tweeting at <a href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/casinomike">#CasinoMike.</a> who argue the laws are part of a conspiracy to boost casino business. The lockout laws are not born from Machiavellian complexity; they are a result of merely thoughtless, harried governance.</p>
<p>These laws represent what Foucault would see as a form of control through care; the care seems well-meaning but obviously delimits freedom. By reducing the debate to the overly simplistic terms of drinking versus safety, the discussion fails to take into account the whole social infrastructure at stake. The concern for our safety does not even meet the sober professionalism of the nanny (state). Instead we have the thin-lipped nervousness of the helicopter parent.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115199/original/image-20160315-25492-3sk5ak.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115199/original/image-20160315-25492-3sk5ak.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115199/original/image-20160315-25492-3sk5ak.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=796&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115199/original/image-20160315-25492-3sk5ak.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=796&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115199/original/image-20160315-25492-3sk5ak.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=796&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115199/original/image-20160315-25492-3sk5ak.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1000&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115199/original/image-20160315-25492-3sk5ak.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1000&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115199/original/image-20160315-25492-3sk5ak.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1000&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Toulouse Lautrec’s La Goulue arriving at the Moulin Rouge with two women.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">via Wikiart</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>So intent on securing us from risk, the laws infantilises us all and stifles our activity. The argument that we are a binge-drinking culture that cannot be trusted actually ossifies the situation and never allows for the growth into a mature culture. There is a limit to risk management. </p>
<p>The blinkered debate also closes down alternative methods and solutions (like the London 24-hour model or better transport options). In a recent <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-03-16/fact-check-do-other-world-cities-have-lockout-laws/7225790">ABC fact check</a> this problem was exemplified. The check seemed to work hard to find cities that proved Sydney’s laws had precedent (Glasgow, Whangarei, “a city of around 50,000 people” in New Zealand). What about “world cities” such as Paris or London or Hong Kong? </p>
<p>Gilles Deleuze coined the term “society of control,” which moves Foucault’s analysis away from the policing of our health and safety towards the policing of exits and entrances, through ID and other screening, which he sees as the general new approach to law and order.</p>
<p>The lockout is the perfect example of this new order. It treats people as guilty before they can prove that they should be let in. The whole citizenry is being treated as a class of potential hooligan. That may be efficient policing but it is not good policing.</p>
<p>The modern city wants to accommodate a broad spectrum of life, from work to carnivalesque excesses. Bars, clubs and other places of mischief have an enormously important role in our societies and not just for the young. </p>
<p>They are the places of play, of celebration, of dance and imagination. The birth of the city saw a huge explosion of cultural and artistic pursuits (for all the new theatres, bars, galleries and halls) all driven by the energy and appetites of the residents. The city itself became not only a venue but a muse. </p>
<p>So to the strains of the clarinet in the opening of <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ynEOo28lsbc">Rhapsody in Blue</a>, day begins in the big smoke. The city is the perfect place for clubbers to share a coffee with early rising suits. They should have an equal right to see the sunrise.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/56271/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Oliver Watts does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The city, with its carnivalesque excesses, has long been a muse for artists. But Sydney’s lockout laws infantilise its citizens and stifle activity.Oliver Watts, Lecturer, Sydney College of Arts, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/353082014-12-23T10:44:15Z2014-12-23T10:44:15Z‘Let us adore and drink!’ A brief history of wine and religion<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/67961/original/image-20141222-31573-ndz6l1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Caravaggio's 1595 masterpiece Bacchus. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bacchus-Caravaggio_(1595).jpg">Wikimedia Commons</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In a letter to the Abbe Morellet in 1779, Benjamin Franklin mused that the strategic location of the elbow is proof that God desires us to drink wine. After all, had God placed the elbow lower on the arm, our wine glass would never make it all the way to our mouths. Had the elbow been placed higher, our glass would shoot straight past our lips. </p>
<p>“From the actual situation of the elbow,” Franklin <a href="http://www.amazon.com/The-Fireside-book-wine-anthology/dp/0671224662">wrote</a>, “we are enabled to drink at our ease, the glass going directly to the mouth. Let us, then, with glass in hand adore this benevolent wisdom; – let us adore and drink!” </p>
<p>Franklin’s contention was offered as lighthearted fun. But it does remind us that wine, more than other beverage, is intimately connected to celebration and worship.</p>
<h2>Wine and religion: ageless companions</h2>
<p>The Egyptians, for example, associated several gods with wine as early as 4,000 BCE. Hathor, the Egyptians’ patron god of wine, was duly honored on a monthly “Day of Intoxication.” </p>
<p>Similarly, the Greeks hailed Dionysus as the giver of all good gifts and identified him as the patron of wine. Dionysus was said to offer ecstasy and spiritual vision to his devotees. The Romans, meanwhile, believed that wine was bestowed upon the human race by Jupiter, the great god of air, light, and heat. </p>
<p>Nearly all Roman religious festivals coincided with important phases of the grape-growing and wine-producing agricultural cycle. Asian cultures, too, associate wine with the spiritual, as seen in the large casks of sake located at Japanese Shinto shrines and the placement of wine on the ceremonial altars honoring the Chinese god of prosperity.</p>
<p>The “cult of wine” has permeated both Judaism and Christianity since ancient times. In ancient Mediterranean culture, wine wasn’t a luxury – <a href="http://www.amazon.com/Dionysus-Social-History-Wine-Vine/dp/B001U8ZPPQ">it was a staple of life</a>, drunk by people of all classes and all ages. For this reason, it’s no surprise that Hebrew scripture depicts wine as a sign of God’s blessing (Genesis 27:28, Deuteronomy 7:13, Amos 9:24). </p>
<p>The Christian New Testament reports that Jesus’ first public miracle occurred at the wedding at Cana, where he turned water into wine. The Christian sacrament of communion illustrates how fully the subtle pleasures of wine drinking became associated with the spiritual urge to find both union with God and fellowship in a community of love. For centuries, Catholic priests preserved and propagated the skills of winemaking as they supplied sacramental wine to worshipers in the Old and New Worlds.</p>
<h2>One nation, under God – with wine for all</h2>
<p>The intimate association of wine and religion carried over to the American colonies. The Pilgrims began making wine <a href="http://www.amazon.com/History-Wine-America-Volume-Prohibition/dp/0520254309">shortly after they landed at Plymouth</a> and used their wine to celebrate the first Thanksgiving in 1623. <a href="http://books.google.com/books/about/Early_History_of_Wine_Production_in_Cali.html?id=g6FEAAAAIAAJ">In 1697</a>, Father Juan Ugarte led a small group of Jesuit priests from Mexico into the Baja region of California, where they immediately planted grapes to supply the mission with a reliable source of wine for celebrating Communion and to supplement the priests’ otherwise meager meals. New missions were eventually built in San Diego, Los Angeles, Santa Barbara, Monterey, and San Francisco – which, together, resulted in California becoming the wine-producing nucleus of the nation.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/67964/original/image-20141222-31551-1nlmw1n.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/67964/original/image-20141222-31551-1nlmw1n.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67964/original/image-20141222-31551-1nlmw1n.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67964/original/image-20141222-31551-1nlmw1n.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67964/original/image-20141222-31551-1nlmw1n.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=947&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67964/original/image-20141222-31551-1nlmw1n.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=947&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67964/original/image-20141222-31551-1nlmw1n.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=947&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Wine, Benjamin Franklin wrote, is ‘proof that God loves us, and loves to see us happy.’</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Benjamin_Franklin.PNG">Wikimedia Commons</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The religious settlers of America’s Midwest were no less interested in sharing wine as a way of forging community. The German Protestants who settled in Missouri, as well as <a href="http://www.amazon.com/Story-Amana-Winemaker-George-Kraus/dp/0941016153">those who founded Iowa’s Amana Colonies</a>, discovered that drinking wine provided a sense of camaraderie and festivity that bonded them together in Christian community. Meanwhile – in what may come as a surprise to readers – during its early years, when congregations existed in places like Kirtland, Ohio and Nauvoo, Illinois, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints <a href="http://www.amazon.com/Religion-Wine-Cultural-History-Drinking/dp/0870499114/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1419283581&sr=1-1&keywords=robert+fuller+wine+and+religion">found that drinking wine produced altered moods conducive to religious fervor</a>. </p>
<h2>Nectar of the gods or ‘cup of devils’?</h2>
<p>It’s no wonder, then, that the “wine question” was a point of debate among temperance advocates who pushed for the total prohibition of alcohol. </p>
<p>There were many social and cultural reasons for Prohibition, like concerns about economic efficiency, protecting women and children from alcoholic men, and safeguarding the nation’s Protestant heritage from Irish Catholic immigrants. </p>
<p>Still, lawmakers ensured that the “Medicine of Life to the Nations” would be protected. The passage of the Volstead Act that enforced Prohibition in the United States from 1920 until its repeal in 1933 was <a href="http://www.amazon.com/Alcoholic-Republic-American-Tradition/dp/0195029909/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1419283633&sr=1-1&keywords=the+alcoholic+republic">politically possible only by making provisions</a> for the continued production of wine for both Christian and Jewish congregations. </p>
<p>Interestingly, in their zeal to promote Prohibition, many conservative Protestants <a href="http://www.amazon.com/Liquor-Problem-All-Ages/dp/1290474095/ref=sr_1_sc_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1419283673&sr=1-1-spell&keywords=the+liquor+problem+in+all+agese">argued that scriptural references to wine had mistranslated original texts</a>: they claimed that scripture had intended to refer to simple, unfermented grape juice. While virtually no serious scholars support this view, it does remind us that many Christians find the consumption of alcohol to be a vice and substitute grape juice for wine in their religious services.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/67962/original/image-20141222-31229-cjllz3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/67962/original/image-20141222-31229-cjllz3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=738&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67962/original/image-20141222-31229-cjllz3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=738&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67962/original/image-20141222-31229-cjllz3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=738&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67962/original/image-20141222-31229-cjllz3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=927&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67962/original/image-20141222-31229-cjllz3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=927&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67962/original/image-20141222-31229-cjllz3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=927&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">To the Welches, wine was ‘the cup of devils.’</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Thomas_Bramwell_Welch.jpg">Wikimedia Commons</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Thomas Welch, a Methodist minister turned dentist, was so strident in his opposition to alcohol that he perfected a process for removing the alcohol-producing yeast from grape juice. <a href="http://www.abebooks.com/Welchs-Grape-Juice-Chazanof-William-Syracuse/8496998113/bd">As his son, Charles, reflected</a>, the Welch Company “was born in 1869 out of a passion to serve God by helping His Church to give its communion the ‘fruit of the vine,’ instead of the ‘cup of devils.’”</p>
<p>But Benjamin Franklin would have likely disagreed with Thomas Welch. Wine, Franklin wrote, is “proof that God loves us, and loves to see us happy.”</p>
<p><em>This article is part of The Conversation’s running series on wine.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/35308/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Robert Fuller does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>In a letter to the Abbe Morellet in 1779, Benjamin Franklin mused that the strategic location of the elbow is proof that God desires us to drink wine. After all, had God placed the elbow lower on the arm…Robert Fuller, Professor of Philosophy and Religious Studies, Bradley UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/278492014-06-11T09:23:58Z2014-06-11T09:23:58ZHard Evidence: has Scotland had enough to drink?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/50740/original/hxx2y64t-1402432244.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Attitudes towards alcohol in Scotland are changing</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/marcs-album/4763112773/in/photolist-dxVyNr-bAeomf-8EUDNh-9VT31K-9UbetT-9Ubetr-2bgDi-8S3cUH-C4NPh-dxVwyi-bJuZN-8BKEp6-7kP1wM-4EZ6aA-4EZ4Gs-8fUcu2-hJFbrP-6G9EdD-7oUVxR-ibg7st-4TffbF-9UbjCD-kBBf2-a97BFV-52AG3w-52wrCg-j17VG9-em7yud-5R4vkY-cyXLQj-gWCddK-2AGuYc-iXknb8-9a34cf-aXw7sn-gG1w52-53BmJu-bAj16-em7yx1-4vcJhh-9VTbFx-9UbfUc-8PDiAW-4EUPgB-4EUMW4-4EUMZ8-4EUMre-4EUN5R-4EZ59G-4EUNDk">Marc Roberts</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Scotland is often portrayed as a place where heavy drinking comes as part of the furniture, yet it seems the Scottish public are less and less inclined to agree. New results from the <a href="http://whatscotlandthinks.org/ssa">Scottish Social Attitudes (SSA) 2013 survey</a> suggest they are growing tired of the stereotyping of the Scots as a hard-drinking nation and are well aware of some the problems it’s causing society. </p>
<p>Only 19% of Scots think that, “getting drunk is a perfectly acceptable thing to do on the weekends”. Admittedly this is not much different to 10 years ago, when we started measuring attitudes to alcohol, but the proportion of young people of that opinion has dropped sharply over that period (from 53% in 2004 to 40% in 2013). </p>
<p>Just 16% of all people agreed with the statement: “getting drunk occasionally is all part of being Scottish”, while most (62%) disagreed and around one in five (21%) had no strong view either way. This is the first time that we asked this question. </p>
<p>So most don’t approve of getting drunk and most reject the claim that getting drunk is an innate part of being a Scot. Yet it is known that many Scots continue to drink excessively. The <a href="http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Topics/Statistics/Browse/Health/scottish-health-survey">Scottish Health Survey</a> reports that 41% drink more than the government guidelines. </p>
<p>We also know that how we perceive our own drinking can be pretty wide of the mark sometimes. Only 10% of those exceeding the government guidelines described themselves as “heavy drinkers”. While getting drunk might be perceived as a particularly harmful or serious behaviour, people may still not be aware of what it means to drink at excessive levels and the harms associated with this. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/50825/original/bzhy9rjz-1402477471.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/50825/original/bzhy9rjz-1402477471.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/50825/original/bzhy9rjz-1402477471.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/50825/original/bzhy9rjz-1402477471.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/50825/original/bzhy9rjz-1402477471.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/50825/original/bzhy9rjz-1402477471.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=562&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/50825/original/bzhy9rjz-1402477471.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=562&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/50825/original/bzhy9rjz-1402477471.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=562&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Figure 1: Agree/ agree strongly that “Getting drunk is a perfectly acceptable thing to do on the weekends”, by age (2004, 2007, 2013)</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">ScotCen</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Rising awareness</h2>
<p>The latest findings also suggest a growing view that alcohol is problematic to Scottish society, even more so than hard drugs like heroin, cocaine and crack. Six in ten (60%) Scots chose alcohol as the drug that caused the most problems for Scotland in 2013, according to the latest results. This represents a significant increase over time – increasing from 46% in 2004 and from 51% in 2007. </p>
<p>As in previous years of SSA, the proportion that chose alcohol as causing the most problems far outweighs other types of drugs, with only 19% choosing heroin, 6%, tobacco and 3% cocaine. Interestingly this trend was apparent across all age brackets –- not just in the older age groups. The percentage of 18–29 year olds who thought alcohol was the drug that causes the most problems for Scotland increased from 44% in 2004 to 55% in 2013.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/50826/original/2ts4c222-1402477540.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/50826/original/2ts4c222-1402477540.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/50826/original/2ts4c222-1402477540.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/50826/original/2ts4c222-1402477540.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/50826/original/2ts4c222-1402477540.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/50826/original/2ts4c222-1402477540.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=531&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/50826/original/2ts4c222-1402477540.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=531&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/50826/original/2ts4c222-1402477540.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=531&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Figure 2: Which drug causes the most problems for Scotland as a whole? (2004, 2007, 2013)</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">ScotCen</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Further evidence of public awareness came from a new question posed to participants for the first time in 2013. When asked how much harm, if any, they thought alcohol causes in Scotland, around half (49%) were of the view that alcohol causes “a great deal” of harm. A further 35% viewed it as causing “quite a lot” of harm. </p>
<h2>More to do</h2>
<p>It’s estimated that alcohol is responsible for around 20 deaths a week in Scotland. Scottish health minister Alex Neil has described this as “Scotland’s Shame” –- and it also comes expensive: alcohol abuse is said to cost every adult in Scotland the equivalent of £900 per year. It would be difficult to refute that alcohol is damaging the nation. </p>
<p>The long-term strategy for dealing with alcohol problems is partly premised on the idea that fostering more positive attitudes to alcohol will help reduce consumption. But while the increasing awareness of the problematic and harmful nature of alcohol is encouraging, it hasn’t been coupled with a shift in some attitudes to alcohol. For example drinkers increasingly believe that others would think it odd if they didn’t drink at all (31% in 2007 to 41% in 2013). </p>
<p>Some in society hold particularly permissive views towards drinking. For example a sizeable proportion (33%) did not see a problem with a student binge drinking. And as well as the fact that most people remain unaware of what constitutes sensible drinking, many people are unclear about how many units are contained in alcoholic drinks. </p>
<p>One in three were unaware of the current guidance on daily alcohol consumption and around half were unaware of the unit content of a pint of beer. The challenge to increase awareness and foster more positive attitudes towards alcohol continues. </p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/27849/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Clare Sharp does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Scotland is often portrayed as a place where heavy drinking comes as part of the furniture, yet it seems the Scottish public are less and less inclined to agree. New results from the Scottish Social Attitudes…Clare Sharp, Senior Researcher, ScotCen Social ResearchLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/228602014-02-06T19:06:43Z2014-02-06T19:06:43ZDown in one: simple maths shows neknomination can’t last<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/40930/original/5xw9f3sr-1391704426.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">de c f cca k</span> </figcaption></figure><figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/40930/original/5xw9f3sr-1391704426.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/40930/original/5xw9f3sr-1391704426.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/40930/original/5xw9f3sr-1391704426.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/40930/original/5xw9f3sr-1391704426.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/40930/original/5xw9f3sr-1391704426.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/40930/original/5xw9f3sr-1391704426.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/40930/original/5xw9f3sr-1391704426.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">So who’s next?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">cbeck527</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The media are aflutter about a new drinking game. The aim of “neknomination” is to down a pint, then tell some of your friends to do the same. Or as students call it, Wednesday night.</p>
<p>This time, however, the results are posted online, which has raised plenty of questions. What does it tell us about <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/men/thinking-man/10616973/NekNominate-dont-demonise-this-dumb-drinking-game.html">drinking culture</a>? How do <a href="https://theconversation.com/neknomination-the-internet-has-changed-the-drinking-game-22786">social media</a> influence things? How long will it last?</p>
<p>It is easy to over-analyse the social and political impact of trends, but the last question is actually an interesting one from a scientific point of view. Neknomination has all the marks of an epidemic, so it makes sense to look at the phenomenon as if it were an infection.</p>
<p>When faced with a new disease outbreak, there are two numbers that epidemiologists use to judge transmission. One is the reproduction number, denoted <em>R</em>. This is the average number of secondary cases generated by a typical infectious person.</p>
<p>If <em>R</em> is less than one, each person will produce less than one secondary case, and the infection will fizzle out into extinction. If <em>R</em> is greater than one, the disease could go on to cause a major outbreak. Judging by the neknominations currently littering my Facebook feed, each downed pint produces two or three nominations. Hence the reproduction number for neknomination is between two and three, similar to what it was for the 1918 influenza pandemic and 2003 SARS outbreak.</p>
<p>The reproduction number isn’t the full story, though. When studying an outbreak, we also need to know how quickly the infection spreads. The “generation time” of an infection is the average time between an initial case displaying symptoms (or necking a pint) and the person they infect becoming symptomatic. The smaller the generation time, the faster the disease spreads. Again, neknomination is nice and easy to quantify: nominees have 24 hours to down their drink.</p>
<p>So what might the outbreak look like? Let us say the reproduction number is two. If we start with one downed pint, we might expect to see two the following day. These two would generate two more, making four in total. Then eight then next day, and so on. This would suggest that the amount of pint necking would increase exponentially. Within 32 days, all 7 billion people on Earth would have necked a pint and stuck the video on Facebook.</p>
<p>But in reality that obviously won’t happen. Once someone has downed a pint, they might not be so keen to do another. In other words, the number of susceptible individuals – the people willing to play the game – declines over time.</p>
<p>For simplicity, let’s assume that once someone has necked a pint, they won’t do another. We can therefore simulate the epidemic using a so-called <a href="http://plus.maths.org/content/mathematics-diseases">SIR model</a> (this stands for Susceptible-Infective-Recovered). If we assume that 1% of a susceptible population – such as a friendship group – are infected initially, we obtain the following epidemic curve:</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/40802/original/x7fzhth2-1391611667.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/40802/original/x7fzhth2-1391611667.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/40802/original/x7fzhth2-1391611667.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/40802/original/x7fzhth2-1391611667.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/40802/original/x7fzhth2-1391611667.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/40802/original/x7fzhth2-1391611667.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/40802/original/x7fzhth2-1391611667.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/cbeck527/8403878920/">cbeck527</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The blue line is when R=2, and the red line when R=3. In both cases, the infection burns itself out within a week or so. Note that this isn’t because everyone has been infected: it is because there aren’t enough susceptible people left to sustain transmission.</p>
<p>If we assume that people get bored of the game after necking two pints rather than one, we get a similar picture, albeit with a slightly larger outbreak:</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/40803/original/yhdk7yc2-1391611685.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/40803/original/yhdk7yc2-1391611685.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/40803/original/yhdk7yc2-1391611685.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/40803/original/yhdk7yc2-1391611685.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/40803/original/yhdk7yc2-1391611685.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/40803/original/yhdk7yc2-1391611685.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/40803/original/yhdk7yc2-1391611685.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These simulations are a good starting point, but there is another factor we must consider. In the SIR model, we assume that nominations are aimed randomly at the available pool of susceptible people. In real life, however, people cluster together, and so will probably have mutual friends. This means that two people might nominate the same person. Such social network structure will <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1578276/">reduce the reproduction number</a>, leading to smaller outbreaks.</p>
<p>All this theory suggests that rather than being one large epidemic, neknomination is instead a series of smaller, independently introduced outbreaks, each of which burns out very quickly. So if you are tired of all these nominations appearing on your newsfeed, don’t worry. It should all be over soon.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Disclaimer: It is worth pointing out that these are just back-of-the-envelope calculations using simple models. Hence this analysis shouldn’t be taken as an exact prediction. Rather, it should be seen as a light-hearted illustration of some important concepts in disease outbreak analysis.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/22860/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
The media are aflutter about a new drinking game. The aim of “neknomination” is to down a pint, then tell some of your friends to do the same. Or as students call it, Wednesday night. This time, however…Adam Kucharski, Research Fellow in Mathematical Epidemiology, London School of Hygiene & Tropical MedicineLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.