tag:theconversation.com,2011:/id/topics/emotional-abuse-18359/articlesemotional abuse – The Conversation2023-10-09T16:32:21Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2149022023-10-09T16:32:21Z2023-10-09T16:32:21ZShouting at children linked to depression – but defining what counts as verbal abuse is what will help prevent harmful parenting<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552747/original/file-20231009-19-26bxmy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C5%2C4008%2C2771&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/upset-boy-116109028">fasphotographic/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A recent <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0145213423003824">research paper</a> has found that verbal abuse of children, including shouting at them and calling them names, is linked to low mood, drug abuse and delinquency (antisocial behaviour).</p>
<p>The authors of the new study argue that because verbal abuse is considered as a part of <a href="https://www.nspcc.org.uk/what-is-child-abuse/types-of-abuse/emotional-abuse/">emotional abuse</a> (a category which includes many different types of harmful behaviour towards children, such as manipulating them, humiliating them and giving them the silent treatment) it is overlooked and a “hidden problem”. They state that childhood verbal abuse should be recognised as its own category of child maltreatment.</p>
<p>While there are limitations to the research study, it’s well designed and important, especially in helping to define this type of emotional abuse.</p>
<h2>Understanding maltreatment</h2>
<p>Children who <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/child-maltreatment#:%7E:text=It%20includes%20all%20types%20of,of%20responsibility%2C%20trust%20or%20power">are maltreated</a> – who suffer abuse and neglect – are more likely to encounter issues such as <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7081433/">poor mental health</a> later in life. <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/psychological-medicine/article/maltreatment-in-childhood-substantially-increases-the-risk-of-adult-depression-and-anxiety-in-prospective-cohort-studies-systematic-review-metaanalysis-and-proportional-attributable-fractions/1901150B6CE79593FC1E03621913BAE3">One study</a> has suggested that a global reduction of maltreatment by 25% could prevent 80 million cases of anxiety and depression worldwide. </p>
<p>Governments have tried to reduce maltreatment by making certain types of harsh parenting practices illegal. For instance, smacking is banned in <a href="https://www.gov.scot/publications/physical-punishment-and-discipline-of-children-how-the-law-is-changing/">Scotland</a> and <a href="https://www.gov.wales/ending-physical-punishment-children">Wales</a>. However, smacking is a fairly easily defined behaviour. It’s less easy to tackle the behaviour that makes up emotional abuse. </p>
<p>But when we ask adults whether they experienced abuse or neglect while growing up, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267103498_The_Prevalence_of_Child_Maltreatment_across_the_Globe_Review_of_a_Series_of_Meta-Analyses">more than a third</a> will say that they experienced emotional abuse. This makes it the most common type of abuse reported by adults.</p>
<p>The study authors argue that by defining the behaviour from adults that counts as childhood verbal abuse, this behaviour can be changed – for instance through parent training programs. </p>
<h2>Defining the problem</h2>
<p>The research study is a systematic review – a scholarly study which gathers together and summarises the results of existing research findings on a particular subject. </p>
<p>Individual research studies can arrive at different conclusions. This can be confusing, especially when there are hundreds of studies in a field of research. A systematic review helps to make sense of all the available evidence and find patterns. </p>
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<img alt="Small girl and mother talking" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552757/original/file-20231009-17-7mlbd0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552757/original/file-20231009-17-7mlbd0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552757/original/file-20231009-17-7mlbd0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552757/original/file-20231009-17-7mlbd0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552757/original/file-20231009-17-7mlbd0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552757/original/file-20231009-17-7mlbd0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552757/original/file-20231009-17-7mlbd0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Understanding what child verbal abuse is and the effect it can have could lead to better parenting.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/little-asian-girl-talking-her-parents-1793497366">takayuki/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>The authors included 149 quantitative and six qualitative studies on the topic, and found they used 21 different terms to define child verbal abuse. The most common behaviour included yelling and screaming. Threatening words, name calling and criticising were other common behaviour. Hardly any studies included behaviour where adults did not raise their voice.</p>
<p>The authors also identified the most common standardised questionnaires used by researchers to measure verbal abuse. Standardised measures have the advantage of having been <a href="https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-1-4419-1005-9_480">tried and tested</a> as reliable measures – for instance, on whether people will respond in a similar way when given the same questionnaire twice within a couple of weeks. </p>
<p>One problem the researchers identified was that half of the studies they surveyed used a non-standardised questionnaire, where it wasn’t clear how good the measure was.</p>
<p>As results from research studies can be affected by other factors such as <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanpsy/article/PIIS2215-0366(20)30569-1/fulltext">genetic risk</a> or <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2818150/">other types of abuse</a>, it is important that multiple studies come to the same conclusion if scientists are to make recommendations. </p>
<p>In this research study, for the age group including children and younger teenagers, only four studies linked verbal abuse to delinquent behaviour. Across all age groups, eight studies reported a link between verbal abuse and depression. It is therefore important that more research is carried out to back up these findings. </p>
<p>Another problem is that most studies were cross-sectional instead of longitudinal. Cross-sectional studies only assess people at one point in time. From these studies, we cannot really tell what came first – the verbal abuse or the mental health problems. It could be that parents did not know how to deal with, for instance, delinquent behaviour, and used harsh parenting techniques as a result. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/development-and-psychopathology/article/longitudinal-association-between-infant-negative-emotionality-childhood-maltreatment-and-adhd-symptoms-a-secondary-analysis-of-data-from-the-fragile-families-and-child-wellbeing-study/9269896DD313E1B23259053B3445478F">My own research</a> together with Dr Valerie Brandt examined the relationship between maltreatment of children and symptoms of inattention and hyperactivity. We found that it works in two directions. Maltreatment increased these symptoms, but these symptoms also made it more likely that the child would experience future maltreatment. </p>
<p>Overall, though, this well-designed systematic review is an important step towards a unified definition of child verbal abuse. Understanding what the problem is will help prevent harmful parenting in the future.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/214902/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dennis Golm is affiliated with CoramBAAF. </span></em></p>Shouting at children or calling them names is a kind of emotional abuse.Dennis Golm, Lecturer in Psychology, University of SouthamptonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2091282023-07-06T19:10:25Z2023-07-06T19:10:25ZWith another case of abuse in elite sport, why are we still waiting to protect NZ’s sportswomen from harm?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535947/original/file-20230706-27-7trhq6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=15%2C7%2C4993%2C3326&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The ten-year coaching ban handed down this week by Athletics New Zealand to national pole vault coach Jeremy McColl is merely the latest in a long line of investigations to reveal the failure of sports organisations to protect sportswomen.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://athletics.org.nz/statement-on-the-resignation-of-jeremy-mccoll/">independent investigation</a> into McColl found “serious misconduct” over a “number of years” with women athletes under his supervision. This included harassment, “inappropriate sexual references” (including through social media and texting) and poor response to injuries. </p>
<p>The case is both unique and sadly familiar. At least 12 New Zealand sports bodies have come under scrutiny in recent times for cultures where sportswomen experienced abuse. These include <a href="https://cdn.hpsnz.org.nz/content/uploads/2022/05/08025928/Final-report-9-May-2022.pdf">Cycling New Zealand</a>, <a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/national/programmes/checkpoint/audio/2018837811/nz-rugby-releases-report-into-culture-in-black-ferns">Rugby New Zealand</a>, <a href="https://www.stuff.co.nz/sport/other-sports/300225661/gymnastics-review-calls-for-massive-shakeup-following-abuse-allegations">Gymnastics New Zealand</a>, <a href="https://www.stuff.co.nz/sport/122604637/canoe-racing-nz-facing-athlete-welfare-crisis-as-two-thirds-of-elite-womens-team-quit">Canoe Racing New Zealand</a>, <a href="https://www.stuff.co.nz/sport/football/domestic/107560554/review-into-nz-footballs-conduct-and-culture-set-to-be-released">NZ Football</a> and <a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/sport/383323/black-sticks-had-serious-concerns-about-team-environment">Hockey New Zealand</a>. </p>
<p>This surely suggests there has been – and likely still is – systemic gendered abuse across New Zealand’s sport system. Urgent action is clearly needed.</p>
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<h2>High rates of abuse</h2>
<p><a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/08862605211045096?icid=int.sj-full-text.similar-articles.1">Maltreatment</a> and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352250X16301531?casa_token=Vj9fng1DplsAAAAA:orwK51LFtrygBU2wC7T3ola6CEZR4q1a93MrrFRWSpgfzAIWkEskZTti4Pd70nwoJUuuiRzz">interpersonal violence</a> – including neglect and physical, psychological and sexual violence – are common at all levels of sport for women, men and <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0760/3/3/326">children</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17461391.2020.1781266?src=recsys">One study</a> of 1,665 elite athletes in Germany, the Netherlands and Belgium found extremely high rates of reported physical violence (25%), sexual violence (31%) and psychological or emotional violence (72%). </p>
<p>Sportswomen were found to experience abuse more than men, particularly sexual violence. An <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/08862605221114155?casa_token=tHE1zUcTxgoAAAAA%3Alsg07ugZ3mKdMd8FrrIQkra66AU1xXwLYUgmuYin-vUpixYZ-f0qRWllxDbb5KHnsNXFATYu6H4P">Australian study</a> found 82% of 886 people surveyed had experienced some form of interpersonal violence in sport as a child. Rates were higher among girls and gender-diverse individuals.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-price-of-gold-what-high-performance-sport-in-nz-must-learn-from-the-olivia-podmore-tragedy-166020">The price of gold — what high-performance sport in NZ must learn from the Olivia Podmore tragedy</a>
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<p>Over the past three decades, researchers have examined various forms of <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7051/3/2/20">gender-based</a> and <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/101269097032002001?icid=int.sj-abstract.similar-articles.1">sexual violence in sport</a>, usually perpetrated by <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13573320802614950?casa_token=IsHzIVsgBB4AAAAA%3ADVmlkOQypQbnACr2-bt5BhbcZJpGNYW0w5v7X_2HRzt_VrsANH_e5Odvnnxvq0BvVYge2tVpRCqg">male coaches</a>, but <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13573322.2021.1890571?casa_token=h7FnIYK0J5cAAAAA%3A8ufYQDFw1AxONhlH1gPQ8zzNLEGhXd5pKK9kR3GIMy08TxgDW3ixigRHMEaUp2OyULtYsDOahhOl">also by others</a> in the wider “support” teams.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/019372397021002003?casa_token=-8yNcIaDWo8AAAAA:Zps0YGmgLm4BECTe5-5qE3D5dbOrWI2sjgyrGt3csLHw_bNDQrOV22Q0dsv_uxsGxuFr6w5FxQHF">coach-athlete relationship</a> inevitably involves an uneven balance of power. Abuse of that imbalance leads to significant harm and <a href="https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/jcsp/9/3/article-p213.xml">negative health impacts</a>, with women athletes often <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17430430802591019?casa_token=33y1Lc5UvdYAAAAA%3AWYaTUKw6RAciEP6TPPYPNi7Pfo9dfinZ3XDjgy9s53Sw4mc-qNRhUBBeZnaOC8fUWXvcYIG7TRAg">reluctant to report the abuse</a>. Some simply <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13552600208413338?src=recsys">withdraw from sport</a> altogether. </p>
<h2>A global problem</h2>
<p>These abusive relationships tend to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1441352318304455">exist within</a> hierarchical, patriarchal and “win at all costs” sporting cultures. Organisational structures and systems often work to <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/2159676X.2021.1920456">enable harmful practices</a>.</p>
<p>But <a href="https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/ijsc/12/4/article-p552.xml">research shows</a> gender-based violence is also increasingly happening online. And it is not only women athletes who experience it, but also <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/10126902221137802">women in other roles</a>, such as officials, administrators and volunteers.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/toxic-sport-cultures-are-damaging-female-athletes-health-but-we-can-do-better-128376">Toxic sport cultures are damaging female athletes' health, but we can do better</a>
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<p>None of this is specific to New Zealand. Investigations have revealed gender-based violence across a <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/23750472.2022.2116089">range of sports internationally</a>, where systems consistently fail to protect and support women.</p>
<p>Furthermore, it remains a <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-022-01742-8">significant blind spot</a> for many sports organisations and professionals. Legal liability and protecting the sport rather than the athlete become priorities. Change can be sluggish, often <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0760/9/5/68">lacking transparency and accountability</a>. </p>
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<h2>Slow progress</h2>
<p>The better news is that some governments and international sports organisations are developing safeguarding policies, procedures and toolkits. </p>
<p>An EU-led initiative has produced a <a href="http://voicesfortruthanddignity.eu/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/VOICE-GOOD-PRACTISE-GUIDE_Einzelseiten_final.pdf">good practice guide</a> for sports bodies wanting to support athletes affected by sexual violence. And earlier this week, UNESCO published a <a href="https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000385850.locale=en">handbook</a> offering practical ways to address violence against women and girls in sport.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/abuse-in-canadian-sports-highlights-gender-and-racial-inequities-198869">Abuse in Canadian sports highlights gender and racial inequities</a>
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<p>The International Olympic Committee also offers a “<a href="https://stillmed.olympics.com/media/Document%20Library/OlympicOrg/IOC/What-We-Do/Promote-Olympism/Women-And-Sport/Boxes%20CTA/IOC_Safeguarding_Toolkit_ENG_Screen_Full1.pdf">toolkit</a>” to help national Olympic committees and international sports federations develop better policies and procedures. Various <a href="https://www.safesportinternational.com/">other organisations</a> are working towards the same goals.</p>
<p>Despite such initiatives, many sports organisations still <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02701367.2020.1844857?casa_token=sRm18ZtbOk0AAAAA%3AxwqXGDRdgIoTZQA4b1qe9qIYb3K4vrBNSmAnv5RQ-2YYUzRvxTZl_9QdkTltLIKdqVEDs4es6ki1">struggle to respond appropriately</a>. In particular, it is vital that <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fspor.2022.840221/full?&field=&journalName=Frontiers_in_Sports_and_Active_Living&id=840221">athletes themselves are involved</a> in developing safeguarding policies. </p>
<p><a href="https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/early/2023/06/28/bjsports-2023-106754.abstract">Researchers</a> and health professionals are increasingly calling for initiatives that centre the athlete and integrate holistic knowledge about trauma into policies, procedures and practices. We also cannot ignore the ways race, ethnicity, disability, gender identities and sexuality may <a href="https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/56/19/1064.abstract">amplify</a> the risks and harms of abuse in sport.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-black-ferns-review-shows-again-why-real-change-in-womens-high-performance-sport-is-urgently-overdue-181144">The Black Ferns review shows – again – why real change in women’s high performance sport is urgently overdue</a>
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<h2>Change has to be urgent</h2>
<p>Meaningful change will require <a href="https://www.proquest.com/docview/2183019886?pq-origsite=gscholar&fromopenview=true">education</a> for all those working in sport, athlete-centred policy and practice, and safe reporting pathways. Redress has to prioritise the needs of the abused. </p>
<p>Because women can be so reluctant to report abuse in the first place, it has been suggested a “<a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fspor.2021.625410/full#B39">carrot not stick</a>” approach might work best. Teams and organisations that can show evidence of a positive, safe and healthy culture might be rewarded in future funding cycles, for example.</p>
<p>To that end, High Performance Sport New Zealand has launched a <a href="https://hpsnz.org.nz/about-us/news-media/high-performance-sport-nz-to-invest-273-million-in-new-strategy/">NZ$273 million strategy</a> that includes prioritising athlete wellbeing. Yet it still doesn’t address the gender dynamics at play here. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/long-range-goals-can-the-fifa-world-cup-help-level-the-playing-field-for-all-women-footballers-205213">Long-range goals: can the FIFA World Cup help level the playing field for all women footballers?</a>
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<p>Education programmes aimed at coaches and support staff working with women should be mandatory. Sportswomen must be able to report any concerns without fear for their careers or wellbeing. And anyone who observes questionable behaviour must have appropriate channels to report their concerns.</p>
<p>Minister of Sport Grant Robertson announced an independent <a href="https://www.beehive.govt.nz/release/new-standalone-integrity-entity-sport">Sport Integrity Working Group</a> last year. So far, though, we’ve seen no actions or stated commitment to safeguarding women.</p>
<p>Everyone deserves access to a safe sporting environment, and safeguarding women in sport is an urgent issue. We can’t sit back and wait for the next headline about another national sports organisation or another male coach under investigation. The time for change is now.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/209128/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kirsty Forsdike receives funding from the Department of Jobs, Skills, Industry and Regions of the State Government of Victoria. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Holly Thorpe does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Athletics New Zealand joins a long list of sports bodies dealing with abuse of female athletes. But systemic reform is taking far too long.Holly Thorpe, Professor in Sociology of Sport and Gender, University of WaikatoKirsty Forsdike, Senior Lecturer, La Trobe Business School, and Senior Researcher, Centre for Sport & Social Impact, La Trobe UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2036642023-04-17T00:03:18Z2023-04-17T00:03:18ZWhy do people crave the approval of an abusive or narcissistic parent? And what can they do about it?<p>In the phenomenally successful TV show <a href="https://www.hbo.com/succession">Succession</a>, wealthy media magnate Logan Roy (played by Brian Cox) is frequently cruel to his adult children. He insults them, pits them against each other and can be cold or menacing. Despite the years of torment, the Roy children clearly crave their father’s approval.</p>
<p>The show highlights a struggle some adult children face: the need for approval from an abusive parent. </p>
<p>Some would suggest the solution is simple: cut ties with the parent, limit contact, rid your life of this difficult relationship. But this is often not realistic. </p>
<p>Research into relationships can help us understand why some people desire the approval of a parent who is abusive, insensitive or inconsistent in their love – or who rate high on what’s known as “<a href="https://theconversation.com/heres-what-to-do-when-you-encounter-people-with-dark-personality-traits-at-work-192316">dark trait</a>” tendencies (narcissism, psychopathy and Machiavellianism).</p>
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<h2>Attachment anxiety</h2>
<p>Studies into parent-child relationships based in <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=1h89j7-Oe5kC&oi=fnd&pg=PR13&dq=ATTACHMENT+AND+LOSS&ots=8ILzmfJnOy&sig=WFNQLcfE7AzJX8L9P4VnwpaHvV4&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=ATTACHMENT%20AND%20LOSS&f=false">attachment theory</a> (a widely researched theory of human bonding) suggest the need for approval is a feature of people who experience an insecure attachment style known as attachment anxiety.</p>
<p>People experiencing <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=69acBAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=adult+attachment:+a+concise+introduction&ots=0R9sSvfVkX&sig=xLnpojz8LmlGO02dj56j7-pT6B4&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=adult%20attachment%3A%20a%20concise%20introduction&f=false">attachment anxiety</a> tend to crave relationship closeness, which includes obsessing over a parent or romantic partner, and can hold strong fears of being rejected or abandoned.</p>
<p>According to attachment theory, attachment anxiety can develop when the care provided by parents or guardians early in life is inept or inconsistent.</p>
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<h2>Inept or inconsistent care</h2>
<p>Inept care is when a parent provides some type of help, but the care provided does not meet the needs of the child. </p>
<p>For example, a child may need encouragement in achieving a challenging task. Instead, the parent provides sympathy and says the task is too hard for the child. The parent may even try to do the task for the child, which can make them feel helpless or even incompetent.</p>
<p>Inconsistent care is when the parent <em>sometimes</em> provides care that meets the child’s needs, triggering happiness or relief in the child. They feel seen, validated, and understood. </p>
<p>On other occasions, however, the parent may respond in ways that do not meet the child’s needs.</p>
<p>The parent may withdraw, avoid, or neglect the child in their time of need. On other occasions, the parent may blame the child for asking for help – or make them feel guilty by framing their request for help as a burden that affects the parent’s own well-being.</p>
<h2>Parenting and the dark traits</h2>
<p>Some believe these responses by parents are methods to manipulate their children to behave or feel a certain way. <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12144-023-04457-9">Research</a> into the dark traits suggests those who score high on these qualities lack emotional warmth, act in hostile ways, and exert control over their <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01602-8">children</a>. </p>
<p>People with these tendencies have been <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352250X22000276">shown</a> to dehumanise others, even those closest to them. This can involve treating family and romantic partners as if they have no feelings, as if they are irrational, stupid, rigid like a robot, or as a means to an end. </p>
<p>Our own <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1948550620974892?journalCode=sppa">work</a> has shown people can act this way because their own parents were hostile towards them some 20 years prior.</p>
<h2>Intergenerational transmission</h2>
<p>For some parents, however, engaging in inept and inconsistent care is not driven by conscious motivations to manipulate and hurt their children. </p>
<p>Rather, they may not know how to parent differently. It may be that they too had parents who provided inept or inconsistent care.</p>
<p>Many of these parents have difficulties controlling their own distress when parenting their children. For some, their own worries and concerns become so intense they end up focusing on their own worries over those of their children.</p>
<p>This is an example of <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fbul0000038">intergenerational transmission</a>, where patterns of attachment and parenting can be passed from one generation to the next.</p>
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<h2>A ‘partial reinforcement schedule’</h2>
<p>Irrespective of the reason, the fallout of inept or inconsistent caregiving is that children are placed on what’s known as a <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=5egODAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR1&dq=mikulincer+%26+shaver+2007&ots=IQUv6hURct&sig=hKoEL58Y0eBbKgCcFCeerca28AI&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=mikulincer%20%26%20shaver%202007&f=false">partial reinforcement schedule</a>. </p>
<p>This is where the child’s cries for help are <em>sometimes</em> attended to. They <em>sometimes</em> receive the love and support they require. But other times, the child experiences invalidation, neglect, or gets the message they are not understood or are harming their parent. </p>
<p>Because of this partial reinforcement schedule, children work harder to gain the attention and love of their parents. The child might think: “If I try that little harder to get their attention and approval, they’ll see what I really need, and they’ll provide me with the love, comfort, acknowledgement I desire”. </p>
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<h2>How can we break the spell?</h2>
<p>The need for approval is powerful for good reason, rooted in a long relationship history with our caregivers. Addressing this need often requires psychological intervention.</p>
<p>Therapies with a strong <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/therapy-types/relational-therapy">relational focus</a> can be especially useful in working through issues such as a chronic need for approval. Such therapies include <a href="https://psychmed.com.au/interpersonal-psychotherapy/">interpersonal therapy</a> and <a href="https://www.psychologytools.com/professional/therapies/schema-therapy/#:%7E:text=Schema%20therapy%20(ST)%20is%20an,developed%20and%20refined%20since%20then.">schema therapy</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=-9lTTxdyZoMC&oi=fnd&pg=PA317&dq=young+et+al+(2003)&ots=F1QXnHEiOw&sig=CtrMyHwMcrXS9SIBXRarvr9fHUw&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=young%20et%20al%20(2003)&f=false">Schema therapy</a> aims to help people understand why they have such a strong need for approval.</p>
<p>It uses cognitive, behavioural and emotion-focused strategies to help increase a person’s tolerance of disapproval. It might involve helping someone develop a better sense of their own identity, or use imagery techniques and affirmations to help clients validate themselves rather than seeking approval from an insensitive parent.</p>
<p>For people facing these struggles with a parent, try to identify when your need for approval is triggered, the emotions you feel, and what approval-seeking behaviours you engage in. It can help to write a pros and cons list about how the need for approval affects your life. Self-awareness can help lead to behaviour change.</p>
<p>It can also help to celebrate your own successes and identify your own skills and achievements. Doing so can provide you with evidence that challenges your need for approval from others. Developing <a href="https://self-compassion.org/self-compassion-kristin-neff/#">self-compassion</a> can also help.</p>
<p>Finally, positive affirmations can help challenge your own negative self-beliefs and increase your tendency to be self-approving. This can be as simple as writing down a series of truthful positive statements about yourself. You can refer to these statements when self-doubt creeps in, or when the need for approval of others becomes loud in your mind.</p>
<p><em>If this article has raised issues for you, or if you’re concerned about someone you know, call Lifeline on 13 11 14.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/203664/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gery Karantzas receives funding from the Australian Research Council. He is a couples therapist and founder of <a href="http://www.relationshipscienceonline.com">www.relationshipscienceonline.com</a></span></em></p>Some would suggest the solution is simple: cut ties with the parent, limit contact, rid your life of this difficult relationship. But this is often not realistic.Gery Karantzas, Professor in Social Psychology / Relationship Science, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2020332023-04-02T22:53:44Z2023-04-02T22:53:44ZMajor study reveals two-thirds of people who suffer childhood maltreatment suffer more than one kind<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518109/original/file-20230329-16-hekky8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=23%2C15%2C5152%2C3430&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/asian-girl-hug-her-doll-cry-694035790">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The following story deals with reports of childhood maltreatment, including neglect and physical and sexual abuse.</em></p>
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<p>This week, we released results from the <a href="https://www.acms.au">Australian Child Maltreatment Study</a>. It is the first national survey of the population aged 16 years and older about their experiences of child maltreatment. It’s also the first study globally to examine combined exposure to all five specific domains of child maltreatment and associated family risk factors for multiple types of child maltreatment.</p>
<p>We surveyed 8,500 randomly selected Australians aged 16 and over. <a href="https://insightplus.mja.com.au/2023/11/australian-child-maltreatment-study-the-shocking-findings">We found</a> 8.9% had experienced neglect; 28.5% sexual abuse; 30.9% emotional abuse; 32.0% physical abuse; and 39.6% exposure to domestic violence. </p>
<p>While it is shocking to learn more than three in five Australians have experienced child abuse or neglect, there’s more to consider. Many Australians have experienced more than one type. This is critical to understanding the burden of maltreatment and its impacts across life.</p>
<h2>What does ‘maltreatment’ mean?</h2>
<p>We explored <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2023.106093">five types of maltreatment</a> that participants experienced up to age 18:</p>
<ul>
<li><p><strong>physical abuse</strong>: the use of force likely to cause injury, harm, pain, or breach of dignity</p></li>
<li><p><strong>sexual abuse</strong>: contact and non-contact non-consensual sexual acts inflicted on a child by another person (adult or child)</p></li>
<li><p><strong>emotional abuse</strong>: acts by parents or carers that convey to a child they are worthless, flawed, unloved, unwanted</p></li>
<li><p><strong>neglect</strong>: when parents or carers repeatedly fail to provide the basic developmentally appropriate necessities of life such as food, shelter or health care</p></li>
<li><p><strong>exposure to domestic violence</strong>: hearing or seeing acts of violence towards parents or carers in the home.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>For Australians who experience any childhood maltreatment, experiencing more than one type is the “typical” experience (almost two out of three who report any maltreatment). Our data show Australian children are more likely to experience <a href="https://insightplus.mja.com.au/2023/11/australian-child-maltreatment-study-the-shocking-findings">multi-type maltreatment</a> (reported by 39.4% of our participants) than single-type maltreatment (22.8%).</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/paramedics-could-sound-early-warnings-of-child-abuse-or-neglect-but-they-need-support-and-more-training-197900">Paramedics could sound early warnings of child abuse or neglect – but they need support and more training</a>
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</em>
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<h2>Four family factors that double the risk</h2>
<p>Four types of family adversity each more than doubles the risk of multi-type maltreatment: </p>
<ul>
<li>parental separation/divorce</li>
<li>living with someone who is mentally ill, suicidal, or severely depressed</li>
<li>living with someone who had a problem with alcohol or drugs</li>
<li>family economic hardship.</li>
</ul>
<p>Girls are more likely to experience multi-type maltreatment (43.2%) than boys (34.9%). The highest prevalence was for those with diverse gender identitites: two-thirds experienced multi-type maltreatment (66.1%). </p>
<p>Although harrowing, our data also reported rates of physical and sexual abuse (in some contexts) are showing some recent declines. One way we determined this was that the younger participants in our study (aged 16–24) had a lower prevalence of sexual abuse (25.7%) than the full sample (28.6%). Similarly, fewer participants aged 16–24 reported physical abuse (28.2%) than all those surveyed (32.0%).</p>
<p>This suggests current policies might be helping. But the continued high rates of most forms of maltreatment, and of experiencing multiple types, shows the need for greater investment in <a href="https://www.who.int/activities/preventing-violence-against-children">prevention</a> to stop harm from occurring in the first place.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/our-child-protection-system-is-clearly-broken-is-it-time-to-abolish-it-for-a-better-model-200716">Our child protection system is clearly broken. Is it time to abolish it for a better model?</a>
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<h2>We need to stop focusing on single types of abuse</h2>
<p>Our view of child maltreatment has typically focused on the experience of individual types, without considering the possibility of their overlap. We <a href="https://insightplus.mja.com.au/2023/11/australian-child-maltreatment-study-the-shocking-findings">now know</a> multi-type maltreatment is common.</p>
<p>We also found girls were at greater risk of most forms of child maltreatment, but particularly multiple types of maltreatment and their associated health consequences. So, as well as population-wide strategies, we need to put extra effort into ensuring the safety of girls, and those who are gender diverse. </p>
<p>We can approach childhood maltreatment on three fronts:</p>
<p><strong>1. Prevention</strong></p>
<p>Child protection services are overwhelmed, so simply asking them to do more is destined to fail. Instead, we need to shift our focus to <a href="https://www.napcan.org.au/prevention/">primary prevention strategies</a> across the community. Global evidence shows violence against children is <a href="https://www.who.int/teams/social-determinants-of-health/violence-prevention/inspire-technical-package">preventable</a>.</p>
<p>Our <a href="https://www.end-violence.org/knowledge/social-norms-atlas">attitudes</a> towards children must change, to <a href="https://valuingchildreninitiative.com.au">value them</a>, uphold their <a href="https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/3863406?ln=en">rights</a>, and prioritise their safety. </p>
<p>Parents and caregivers need access to <a href="https://www.policyforum.net/parents-need-more-support-for-the-sake-of-all-families/">evidence-based supports</a> to improve <a href="https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240065505">parenting skills</a>, provide safe environments for children and young people, to stop maltreatment from happening in the first place. </p>
<p>Australia’s strategies for creating <a href="https://childsafe.humanrights.gov.au/national-principles">child-safe organisations</a> to prevent institutional child sexual abuse needs to be adapted for creating safety for children in the home too. Parents could “assess” the suitability of adults to care safely, to understand and address situational risks (depending on the places, the people, and the activities involved), to equip their children with knowledge about sexuality and skills regarding consent and respect, and be prepared to listen and respond to all safety concerns – including harmful sexual behaviour from <a href="https://theconversation.com/one-third-of-childhood-sexual-abuse-is-perpetrated-by-another-child-shannon-molloy-tells-his-story-and-urges-us-not-to-look-away-199203">other children</a>.</p>
<p>National strategies for addressing <a href="https://www.childsafety.gov.au/resources/national-strategy-prevent-and-respond-child-sexual-abuse-2021-2030">sexual abuse</a>, <a href="https://www.dss.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/12_2021/dess5016-national-framework-protecting-childrenaccessible.pdf">child maltreatment</a> and <a href="https://www.dss.gov.au/ending-violence">domestic and family violence</a> need to recognise the high likelihood of exposure to multiple harm types. Child maltreatment prevention efforts need to link with points of vulnerability, including when parents separate, suffer mental illness, substance misuse, economic hardship, or family violence.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518110/original/file-20230329-20-huvxwy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="woman sits with hands on head in domestic setting" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518110/original/file-20230329-20-huvxwy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518110/original/file-20230329-20-huvxwy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518110/original/file-20230329-20-huvxwy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518110/original/file-20230329-20-huvxwy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518110/original/file-20230329-20-huvxwy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=509&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518110/original/file-20230329-20-huvxwy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=509&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518110/original/file-20230329-20-huvxwy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=509&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Families need evidence-based parenting support.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/sad-mother-child-sitting-on-floor-1823496155">Shutterstock</a></span>
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</figure>
<p><strong>2. Responding to adversity</strong></p>
<p>When we see families struggling, we need to keep the focus on children as well as their parents. When working with families who are going through adversities – including mental illness, addiction, poverty, family violence, or separation – we need to ask child-centred questions about parents’ care responsibilities. </p>
<p>If we pay closer attention to what’s going on in young people’s lives, we can identify vulnerability early. We can gently convey information about the increased risk of multiple types of maltreatment. And we can provide families with <a href="https://rdcu.be/cEvhu">support that works</a>, tailored to their circumstances and challenges. </p>
<p><strong>3. Better treatment for adult survivors</strong></p>
<p>Clinicians need <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-workforce-in-the-child-protection-system-needs-urgent-reform-180950">better training</a> to <a href="https://theconversation.com/paramedics-could-sound-early-warnings-of-child-abuse-or-neglect-but-they-need-support-and-more-training-197900">identify and respond</a> to risks. </p>
<p>When working with clients struggling with mental health issues or substance misuse, practitioners should recognise this group is likely to be primarily victim-survivors of <a href="https://insightplus.mja.com.au/2023/11/australian-child-maltreatment-study-the-shocking-findings">multiple forms of child maltreatment</a>. </p>
<p>Teachers, doctors, therapists, parents and carers should <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-universal-childhood-trauma-screenings-could-backfire-127420">learn about</a> how child maltreatment impacts on health throughout life.</p>
<p>Prevention, protection, and treatment services must coordinate to create safety and recovery from all forms of child maltreatment, particularly when they occur in combination. Our results make it clear we need urgent action. </p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/infographic-a-snapshot-of-australias-child-protection-services-33090">Infographic: a snapshot of Australia's child protection services</a>
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<p><em>If this article has raised issues for you, or if you’re concerned about someone you know, call <a href="https://www.lifeline.org.au/">Lifeline</a> on 13 11 14 or contact <a href="https://kidshelpline.com.au/">Kids Helpline</a> on 1800 55 1800.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/202033/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Daryl Higgins receives funding from the Australian Research Council, the National Health and Medical Research Council and a range of government departments, agencies, and service providers. He is a Chief Investigator on the Australian Child Maltreatment Study, which is supported by a National Health and Medical Research Council Project Grant (APP1158750). The ACMS receives additional funding and contributions from the Australian Government Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet; the Department of Social Services; and the Australian Institute of Criminology The lead Chief Investigator on the ACMS is Ben Mathews, from QUT. Other Chief Investigators are: Rosana Pacella, James G. Scott, David Finkelhor, Franziska Meinck, Holly E. Erskine, Hannah J. Thomas, David Lawrence & Michael P. Dunne. Thanks to Divna M. Haslam & Eva Malacova for assistance with project management and data analysis.</span></em></p>Ours is the first national survey of the population aged 16 years and older about their experiences of child maltreatment.Daryl Higgins, Professor & Director, Institute of Child Protection Studies, Australian Catholic UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1941642022-11-13T12:46:25Z2022-11-13T12:46:25ZAbuse is widely accepted as part of organized sports culture but it should not be tolerated<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/494553/original/file-20221110-24-n2ja5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C38%2C5184%2C3383&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Different forms of abuse are quite common in organized sports.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/abuse-is-widely-accepted-as-part-of-organized-sports-culture-but-it-should-not-be-tolerated" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Participating in sports as a child or adolescent can have many benefits, including improvements in both physical and mental health with positive impacts into adulthood. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, various forms of abuse within sports appear to be common, negating benefits in participating in sports and resulting in long-term negative impacts. Greater recognition that verbal and emotional abuse in sports is abuse and harmful regardless of victim or perpetrator gender is necessary.</p>
<p>Daniel Carcillo, former NHL player and two-time Stanley Cup winner, is the lead plaintiff in a <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/sports/hockey/canadian-hockey-league-class-action-lawsuit-1.5834716">class action abuse lawsuit filed against the Canadian Hockey League in 2020</a>.</p>
<p>Carcillo <a href="https://www.espn.com/nhl/story/_/id/29330583/daniel-carcillo-leads-class-action-lawsuit-canadian-hockey-league-physical-sexual-abuse">alleges abuse by teammates when he was a 17-year-old player with the Ontario Hockey League</a>. He retired in 2015, and is involved in activism that lets kids know that hazing rituals — whether physical, sexual, verbal or emotional — are abuse.</p>
<p>Canadian figure skater Elizabeth Manley, a silver-medalist Olympian, reported years of verbal abuse as a young skater that included <a href="https://www.besthealthmag.ca/article/figure-skating-olympics-body-image-sports/">being fat-shamed and told she wasn’t “tough enough” to be a winner</a>.</p>
<p>Recently, players in the National Women’s Soccer league have <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/10/04/sports/soccer/soccer-abuse-power.html">come forward to report the abuse they experienced at the hands of some of their coaches</a>. One player was so frightened about the potential fallout that it took her six years to report the abuse. </p>
<p>Similar stories of abuse abound. Larry Nassar, a former doctor with USA Gymnastics, may be the most prolific sex abuser in sports: <a href="https://time.com/5629228/larry-nassar-victim-speaks-out/">over 500 girls and women reported being abused by him</a>.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Global News looks at abuse and mistreatment in sports.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Types of abuse</h2>
<p>Abuse is defined as behaviours that “<a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/corporate/publications-manuals/operational-bulletins-manuals/service-delivery/abuse/types-abuse.html">scare, isolate or control another person. Abuse may be a pattern or a single incident</a>.” The Canadian government has identified five categories of abuse:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Physical abuse is behaviour that includes assault and forcible confinement, for example, hitting, strangling or physically restraining.</p></li>
<li><p>Sexual abuse is sexual contact without consent — forced sexual acts.</p></li>
<li><p>Psychological abuse refers to threats and intimidation, such as gaslighting or making the victim doubt their own sanity.</p></li>
<li><p>Financial abuse is abuse that involves fraud and extortion by withholding money or controlling the budget.</p></li>
<li><p>Neglect is abuse where the necessities of life causing harm are withheld, <a href="https://www.dshs.wa.gov/altsa/home-and-community-services/types-and-signs-abuse">causing malnutrition, unsanitary living conditions and more</a>.</p></li>
</ul>
<h2>The benefits of sports</h2>
<p>Sports can help an individual’s development beyond just the physical aspects of exercise. Playing sports can <a href="https://doi.org/10.4103/0973-1229.153335">build character, develop analytical skills, foster leadership qualities and help with goal-setting skills</a>. </p>
<p>According to <a href="https://health.gov/sites/default/files/2020-09/YSS_Report_OnePager_2020-08-31_web.pdf">the U.S. President’s Council on Sports, Fitness, and Nutrition (PCSFN) Science Board</a>, 73 per cent of parents believe that their children’s mental, emotional and social health benefits from participating in sports. In terms of physical health, 88 per cent of parents believe that participating in sports benefits their child’s physical health. </p>
<p>Additional benefits can last into adulthood — 73 per cent of adults who play sports also participated in sports when they were younger.</p>
<h2>Abuse in sports</h2>
<p>In a survey of 370 elite and club athletes, <a href="https://canada.humankinetics.com/blogs/excerpt/sexual-abuse-in-sport">31 per cent of female athletes and 21 per cent of male athletes indicated that they had experienced sexual abuse before they were 18</a>. </p>
<p>Research shows that <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2022.840221">athletes experience abuse in sports</a>, with rates ranging from 38 to 72 per cent for psychological abuse, nine and 30 per cent for sexual abuse, and 11 to 21 per cent for physical abuse.</p>
<p>Although many may think of abuse in sport as sexual or physical, verbal and emotional abuse is exceedingly common. Emotional abuse is an <a href="https://kempe.org/2019/08/14/hidden-scars-a-look-at-emotional-abuse-in-sports/">under-reported form of abuse that occurs across all levels of sport</a>. Emotional abuse can be in the form of shaming, insults, and threats and can be perpetrated by coaches, team members and parents.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/494554/original/file-20221110-2908-qamwu2.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="official looking people sit around a conference table" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/494554/original/file-20221110-2908-qamwu2.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/494554/original/file-20221110-2908-qamwu2.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494554/original/file-20221110-2908-qamwu2.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494554/original/file-20221110-2908-qamwu2.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494554/original/file-20221110-2908-qamwu2.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494554/original/file-20221110-2908-qamwu2.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494554/original/file-20221110-2908-qamwu2.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Witnesses from Hockey Canada appear at the standing committee on Canadian Heritage in Ottawa on July 27, 2022. The committee is looking into how Hockey Canada handled allegations of sexual assault and a subsequent lawsuit.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Sean Kilpatrick</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Impact of abuse</h2>
<p>In our research, we examined whether defendant gender, victim gender and type of abuse (emotional, physical) influenced mock-jurors’ decisions when the abuse happened in a sports domain. We asked 239 people to act as jurors and read through <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-022-09553-3">a mock-case vignette describing an alleged emotional or physical abuse situation</a>.</p>
<p>First, participants were asked whether the case should proceed to trial. Following this, participants rated their perceptions of the defendant and the victim, and then answered questions related to sexism. When the abuse was physical, participants were more likely to state the case should go to trial, and participants also had more positive perceptions of the victim.</p>
<p>However, when the abuse was emotional, victims were perceived less positively. There may be a misguided acceptance of emotional abuse in sports. While gender had little influence on mock-jurors’ decisions, the type of abuse greatly influenced their decisions. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, when the abuse was emotional, mock-jurors were more likely to believe that the victim fabricated the story as opposed to when the abuse was physical. Again, this feeds into the notion that emotional abuse is part of the “game.” </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/addressing-athlete-abuse-in-canadian-sport-requires-internal-change-and-external-investigators-188783">Addressing athlete abuse in Canadian sport requires internal change and external investigators</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Zero tolerance</h2>
<p>There may be a lack of awareness of the detrimental effects of emotional abuse. Research has found that <a href="https://www.utoronto.ca/news/psychological-abuse-most-common-form-maltreatment-experienced-national-team-athletes-u-t-study">emotional abuse is the most common type of abuse in sports</a>.</p>
<p>A sports culture that does not tolerate abuse of any kind needs to be cultivated to ensure that the benefits of participating in sports are achieved.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/194164/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joanna Pozzulo receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Emily Pica does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A sports culture that does not tolerate abuse of any kind needs to be cultivated to ensure that the benefits of participating in sports are achieved.Joanna Pozzulo, Chancellor's Professor, Psychology, Carleton UniversityEmily Pica, Associate Professor, Psychological Science and Counseling, Austin Peay State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1919722022-10-06T12:17:06Z2022-10-06T12:17:06ZAbuse in women’s professional soccer was an ‘open secret’ – the ‘bystander effect’ and structural barriers prevented more players from speaking out<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/488302/original/file-20221005-26-e96y9j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C7%2C4727%2C2816&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Fans of the Portland Thorns hold protest signs during a game in 2021.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/NWSLInvestigationSoccer/58c8718fb762417fbaa3c206e66073ac/photo?Query=women%27s%20soccer%20report&mediaType=photo&sortBy=arrivaldatetime:desc&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=43&currentItemNo=2">AP Photo/Steve Dipaola</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/10/04/sports/soccer/soccer-abuse-power.html">An investigation has found</a> that widespread abuse of players in U.S. women’s professional soccer existed despite some of the behavior of coaches being “an open secret.”</p>
<p>Based on more than 200 interviews, <a href="https://www.kslaw.com/attachments/000/009/931/original/King___Spalding_-_Full_Report_to_USSF.pdf?1664809048">the report</a> – led by former acting U.S. Attorney General Sally Yates – highlighted systemic verbal and emotional abuse against players, and sexual misconduct by coaches.</p>
<p>The allegations open a number of important questions regarding how such behavior was allowed to continue in a post-#MeToo society and after high-profile instances of abuse in other U.S. sports, notably <a href="https://www.npr.org/2021/12/13/1063798289/nassar-abuse-survivors-settlement-gymnastics-olympics">women’s gymnastics</a>.</p>
<p>However, as <a href="https://www.clemson.edu/cbshs/about/profiles/index.html?userid=hkettre">social scientists who</a> <a href="https://www.sjsu.edu/people/robert.marx/">study sexuality and violence</a>, we have another question: What are the barriers preventing people from reporting instances of abuse? </p>
<h2>The role of bystanders</h2>
<p>The report into women’s soccer notes that although certain players did “doggedly” report misconduct, others were hesitant to come forward. Many players <a href="https://www.kslaw.com/attachments/000/009/931/original/King___Spalding_-_Full_Report_to_USSF.pdf?1664809048">mentioned structural barriers</a> to reporting. For example, some said that even if they had wanted to report misconduct, “they did not know how or where to make their report.” Others thought it was “futile” to report misconduct, given the failure by teams and the league to address the issue. These statements indicate serious structural issues within women’s soccer that need to be addressed by those in power.</p>
<p>Still, some players did not feel a sense of responsibility for taking action. These players said <a href="https://www.kslaw.com/attachments/000/009/931/original/King___Spalding_-_Full_Report_to_USSF.pdf?1664809048">they thought it was</a> “not their story to tell” or they did not want to act on “rumors.”</p>
<p>This reflects what the research tells us about a phenomenon known as the “bystander effect.”</p>
<p>Over 50 years of research has documented a <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/buy/2011-08829-001">bystander effect</a> in which witnesses fail to intervene, often because they assume someone else will take action. Research applying the bystander effect specifically to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-008-9581-5">sexual assault</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260518777555">and misconduct</a> has revealed that witnesses fail to intervene for a number of common reasons: they do not notice the misconduct; do not believe it is their responsibility to intervene; do not believe they have the skills to intervene; or are inhibited by the belief that those around them will negatively judge them for intervening. </p>
<p>Witnesses to sexual misconduct often fail to intervene for one or more of those reasons. </p>
<p>The report on women’s soccer found that <a href="https://www.kslaw.com/attachments/000/009/931/original/King___Spalding_-_Full_Report_to_USSF.pdf?1664809048">players</a> often didn’t think it was their responsibility to report, or they feared retaliation if they did – often through unfavorable trades to other teams. </p>
<p>What is clear from the report is that some sort of “bystander training” is needed in women’s soccer to help stop further abuse. Such training has proved to be effective with other populations, such as college students.</p>
<p>Bystander training programs strive to sensitize people to the warning signs of sexual assault and misconduct – like a young man leading a young woman into an isolated place – and provide them with skills so that they will know how to intervene when necessary. For example, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.10078">these programs</a> might teach participants to speak up when hearing sexist jokes or witnessing sexual harassment, walk a friend home when he or she has had too much to drink, start a conversation with a young woman who appears to be uncomfortable with her date, or call the police.</p>
<h2>Bystander training appears to help</h2>
<p>We were curious about the effects these bystander programs have on the behavior of witnesses to sexual misconduct. So in a 2018 study, <a href="http://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-018-0927-1">we analyzed data</a> from over 6,000 college students across the United States and found that programs designed to prevent sexual assault by increasing onlookers’ interventions do have a meaningful effect on bystander behavior. Compared to peers who did not participate in a bystander program, college students who did participate reported a greater ability to intervene and greater intentions to intervene, should a situation require it.</p>
<p>Most important, those who participated in a bystander program reported actually engaging in more bystander intervention behaviors than those who did not participate in a program. On average, these participants reported two more instances of bystander intervention in the months following the bystander program than their peers who did not attend a bystander program. Simply put, bystander programs are successful at encouraging bystanders to intervene when witnessing sexual misconduct or its warning signs. </p>
<p>Although we looked specifically at college students, we believe the findings apply to other populations.</p>
<p>The report of widespread abuse in women’s soccer reminds us that sexual misconduct is common in society and that its prevention is a communal responsibility. </p>
<p>As researchers who study sexuality, violence and prosocial behavior, we believe that bystanders need to keep their eyes open and speak up on behalf of potential victims. Our research demonstrates that having been educated about bystander strategies leads to greater intervention. As a society, we should strive to become better bystanders by noticing warning signs, knowing strategies to intervene and remembering that we have a collective responsibility to prevent sexual misconduct and assault.</p>
<p><em>Editor’s note: Portions of this article originally appeared in a <a href="https://theconversation.com/bystander-effect-and-sexual-assault-what-the-research-says-104360">previous article published</a> on Oct. 5, 2018.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/191972/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Heather Hensman Kettrey has received funding from the Department of Justice Office on Violence Against Women. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Robert Marx does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A new report has highlighted ‘systemic’ verbal, emotional and sexual abuse of women’s soccer players. Many feared retaliation if they spoke out, while others didn’t think it was their place.Heather Hensman Kettrey, Assistant Professor of Sociology, Clemson UniversityRobert Marx, Assistant Professor of Child and Adolescent Development, San José State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1900472022-09-13T20:04:11Z2022-09-13T20:04:11ZWomen who suffer domestic violence fare much worse financially after separating from their partner: new data<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483151/original/file-20220907-22-f86cf9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5643%2C3759&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>We recently published <a href="https://paulramsayfoundation.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/TheChoice-violence-or-poverty-web.pdf">two</a> <a href="https://csrm.cass.anu.edu.au/sites/default/files/docs/2022/5/HILDAResultsMay122022.pdf">reports</a> that highlight the devastating financial consequences borne by women who leave their partners after suffering domestic violence.</p>
<p>We found women who experienced domestic violence fared much worse financially after separating from their partner compared to those who didn’t face such violence, for women both with and without children.</p>
<p>Before separation, mothers who experienced domestic violence had about the same household income as mothers who didn’t. But after separation, the mothers who experienced domestic violence on average suffered a significantly higher drop in income of 34%, compared with a 20% decrease for mothers who didn’t experience domestic violence.</p>
<p>It’s the first time in Australia (to the best of our knowledge) that we have specific data on what happens financially to these women.</p>
<p>Our results highlight the terrible option facing those who are experiencing domestic violence: to stay in a violent relationship, or leave and face a major decline in financial wellbeing.</p>
<h2>What we studied</h2>
<p>The first report, <a href="https://www.violenceorpoverty.com/">The Choice: Violence or Poverty</a> by Anne Summers, presents previously unreported data from the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) 2016 Personal Safety Survey.</p>
<p>The data reveal that of all women who’d ever been in a partnership, 22% have experienced violence from a current or previous partner. And, of single mothers living with children under 18 years of age, a staggering 60% had experienced physical violence, and 70% emotional abuse, from a partner they had previously cohabited with.</p>
<p>The data also show 50% of these now single mothers live in poverty, relying on government benefits such as JobSeeker as their main source of income.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1555433771951738880"}"></div></p>
<p>It’s important to note the ABS figures come from what’s known as a “cross-section”, which means they reflect circumstances at a given point in time (2016). They can’t tell us what happens to women over time, or the immediate effects of domestic violence on their separation and/or income. This is a critical issue for domestic violence policy.</p>
<p>Understanding the dynamics of the financial situation of victim-survivors requires what’s known as “panel data”. This issue is addressed in the <a href="https://csrm.cass.anu.edu.au/sites/default/files/docs/2022/5/HILDAResultsMay122022.pdf">second report</a> by Bruce Chapman and Matthew Taylor, where we analyse the Household Income and Labour Dynamics of Australia (HILDA) survey. HILDA is Australia’s best longitudinal data set, meaning it surveys the same people over time. To date, HILDA has followed around 19,000 people from 2002 to 2021. </p>
<p>We analysed HILDA data looking at the financial consequences for women likely to have experienced domestic violence. We covered both mothers and women who don’t have children.</p>
<p>HILDA doesn’t ask questions about the origins of violence experienced directly. So we had to devise a method of identifying separation due to domestic violence by linking the date of separation to reporting of an incident of violence: the presumption being that the incident was domestic violence (rather than, say, a street crime).</p>
<p>The report uses averages before and after separation of the three income categories, all measured in annual terms:</p>
<ul>
<li>the partner’s contribution to household income</li>
<li>the woman’s wages and salaries</li>
<li>and total government financial support received by women.</li>
</ul>
<h2>What we found</h2>
<p>In dollar terms, the drop in household income (which measures the total of all income) for mothers who experienced domestic violence after separation was from $54,648 to $35,921 a year.</p>
<p>There was also a fall in the household income for separating mothers not subject to domestic violence. But this fall is about $7,500 less compared to mothers who experienced domestic violence. </p>
<p>We also looked at the changes to a particular component of household income, the wages and salaries of the mothers (again, following separation). Similarly, we found those who’d gone through domestic violence fared far worse than those who didn’t.</p>
<p>It was expected the wages and salaries of women would increase on average after separation because of their need to compensate for the loss of the former partner’s income. But the extent to which this happened is quite different depending on whether or not the women experienced domestic violence.</p>
<p>Specifically, the wage and salary increase for mothers who’d experienced domestic violence was just 19% (from $11,526 to $13,747). But the wage and salary increase for mothers who hadn’t experienced domestic violence was much greater at 45% (from $14,414 to $20,838). </p>
<p>This means that these now single mothers who experienced domestic violence are considerably worse off financially than single mothers who didn’t face such violence.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1552919705593483265"}"></div></p>
<p>When the pre- and post-separation incomes of women without children are examined, the findings are similar to those for mothers, but with even greater losses for childless women who’d experienced domestic violence compared to childless women who hadn’t. Childless women who experienced domestic violence suffered an extraordinary 45% drop in household incomes, compared with 18% for childless women who didn’t experience domestic violence.</p>
<p>The relatively large loss in household income for childless women is the result of significant differences in the post-separation income levels between childless women, depending on their experience of domestic violence.</p>
<p>Childless women who hadn’t experienced domestic violence had an average increase of 68% in their wage and salary incomes (to about $38,000) after separation. But childless women who’d experienced domestic violence had an actual decrease in wage and salary incomes of around 20% on average (to about $13,000).</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-victims-of-domestic-abuse-dont-leave-four-experts-explain-176212">Why victims of domestic abuse don't leave – four experts explain</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>A different way of illustrating the issue is the recognition that experiencing domestic violence doubles the likelihood of victim-survivors ending up in the bottom quarter of the income distribution.</p>
<p>We found around 50% of the women included in the data who have faced domestic violence and separated from their partners end up in the bottom quarter of the income distribution.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://paulramsayfoundation.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/TheChoice-violence-or-poverty-web.pdf">ABS data</a> reports a similar outcome, with 48.1% of now single mothers with children being in the lowest fifth of the income distribution.</p>
<h2>More research and better data needed</h2>
<p>These two reports have dug deeply into available data and unearthed findings of tremendous significance, results that reinforce each other. </p>
<p>While these findings have been rigorously tested and found to be statistically significant, the sample sizes for the longitudinal data are small.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1028763153579089920"}"></div></p>
<p>This is currently the best available longitudinal data capturing incomes. But as both reports have highlighted, data collection in the field of domestic violence needs to be expanded considerably if we’re to have more comprehensive information on longer-term outcomes.</p>
<p>We urgently need a national longitudinal study of social behaviour and experience that probes the consequences of domestic violence (with respect to perpetrators as well as victims) and the financial, employment and health outcomes for all concerned, including the children caught up in these violent relationships.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/190047/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anne Summers receives funding from the Paul Ramsay Foundation.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bruce Chapman and Matthew Taylor do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>After separation, mothers who experienced domestic violence on average suffered a drop in income of 34%, compared with a 20% decrease for mothers who didn’t experience domestic violence.Bruce Chapman, Director, Policy Impact, College of Business and Economics, Australian National UniversityAnne Summers, Professor, UTS Business School, University of Technology SydneyMatthew Taylor, Senior Research Specialist and PhD Candidate, Australian National UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1815692022-06-14T12:29:56Z2022-06-14T12:29:56ZElder abuse comes in many forms – appropriate Adult Protective Services referrals can help reduce mistreatment<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/467845/original/file-20220608-16-u7z954.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2121%2C1412&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Elder abuse can take many forms, including financial, emotional, physical and sexual abuse, along with neglect.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/helping-the-needy-royalty-free-image/499062115">Barcin/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Before the pandemic, around <a href="https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2009.163089">1 in 10</a> older adults in the U.S. experienced elder mistreatment. In 2020, this number doubled to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jagp.2021.01.007">1 in 5</a> – a nearly 84% increase.</p>
<p>Mistreatment comes in many forms, including various types of abuse, neglect, exploitation and fraud. <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2021.659640">Adult Protective Services</a> agencies exist in every U.S. state and territory to investigate adult mistreatment reports and work with clients to address their needs. APS staff members gather information from clients, alleged abusers and third parties such as family members, friends or neighbors to determine whether there is enough evidence to support a mistreatment claim. They also use this information to match clients to social, health care, legal or other services as desired. </p>
<p>Since APS agencies do not receive dedicated federal funding, and regulations vary by state and local jurisdiction, standardized assessment of APS involvement in mistreatment cases has been challenging. As an <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=lHP5_JAAAAAJ&hl=en">elder justice researcher</a>, I wanted to examine what differences APS agencies make in their clients’ lives and, more specifically, what services can help ameliorate mistreatment.</p>
<p>In our recently published study, my colleagues and I identified the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnac040">four most common types of elder mistreatment</a> and found that while APS can help ameliorate abusive situations for older adults, different types of elder mistreatment require different services to address them.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/OQN7Lz-_1Ww?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Elder abuse can happen to anyone.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Matching service to mistreatment</h2>
<p>We collaborated with San Francisco and Napa APS agencies in California to identify which services decreased the severity of elder mistreatment. In California, county APS agencies focus on <a href="https://www.cdss.ca.gov/inforesources/adult-protective-services">nine types of mistreatment</a>: emotional abuse (called “mental suffering” by the California APS), physical abuse, financial abuse, neglect, sexual abuse, isolation, abandonment, abduction and self-neglect.</p>
<p>We trained San Francisco and Napa APS staff members to evaluate and measure how effective provided services are at reducing mistreatment. Staffers documented what types of services were given for each type of mistreatment and recorded how severe mistreatment was before and after services were provided.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/467846/original/file-20220608-23-gzym6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Nurse talking to older adult in home" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/467846/original/file-20220608-23-gzym6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/467846/original/file-20220608-23-gzym6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/467846/original/file-20220608-23-gzym6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/467846/original/file-20220608-23-gzym6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/467846/original/file-20220608-23-gzym6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/467846/original/file-20220608-23-gzym6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/467846/original/file-20220608-23-gzym6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Adult Protective Services can provide or refer clients to specific services according to their needs.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/senior-man-having-a-health-exam-royalty-free-image/1282163901">Marko Geber/DigitalVision via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We found that APS interventions were able to decrease abuse severity for four of the most common types of elder mistreatment: 43% for emotional abuse, 62% for physical abuse, 31% for financial abuse and 72% for neglect.</p>
<p>Not surprisingly, we found that services targeting the specific problem worked best. Victims and survivors of physical and emotional abuse benefited most from care and case management services. Emotional abuse victims benefited from additional legal services. Financial abuse victims had better outcomes with financial planning services. Finally, victims of neglect benefited most from care and case management as well as language translation and services provided to their alleged abusers, such as counseling and behavioral health treatments.</p>
<h2>Shedding light on APS service outcomes</h2>
<p>There are still many unknowns about Adult Protective Services report outcomes.</p>
<p>Notably, APS agencies cannot force their clients to accept services they do not want unless a health professional determines that they don’t have decision-making capacity. And once an APS case is closed, agencies will not know what happens to these older adults unless they or someone else sends another report. </p>
<p>My colleagues and I are currently conducting another study following up with APS clients after case closure. In addition to tracking mistreatment severity across time, we will also track other longer-term factors that affect one’s ability to live independently and safely, such as physical and mental health. Those who decline services will be a natural comparison group.</p>
<p>In addition to their elderly clients, many APS agencies also work with dependent adults, often younger people with physical, mental or intellectual disabilities. Not much is known about mistreatment in this vulnerable group. While our study did not have a large enough sample size to focus on this population, we would like to do so in the future as we collect more data.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/467840/original/file-20220608-302-bau4g5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Close-up of younger person holding hand of older person" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/467840/original/file-20220608-302-bau4g5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/467840/original/file-20220608-302-bau4g5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/467840/original/file-20220608-302-bau4g5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/467840/original/file-20220608-302-bau4g5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/467840/original/file-20220608-302-bau4g5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/467840/original/file-20220608-302-bau4g5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/467840/original/file-20220608-302-bau4g5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Everyone can play a part in ending elder abuse.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/44514681@N06/33397293554">Avansa regio Gent vzw/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Finally, <a href="https://namrs.acl.gov/Learning-Resources/Adult-Maltreatment-Reports/2020-Adult-Maltreatment-Report.aspx">self-neglect</a>, in which an older or dependent adult puts their own health or safety at risk, makes up the majority of mistreatment cases APS receives. My colleagues and I are also working to identify subtypes of self-neglect and which services would best address them. </p>
<p>Adult Protective Services agencies are the only governmental entities dedicated to addressing older and dependent adult mistreatment. However, even with APS staffers ready to connect older and dependent adults with service providers, clients need to be willing to accept help. APS is not a silver bullet that makes elder mistreatment magically disappear. </p>
<p>It takes a village – starting with recognizing when elder mistreatment is happening, and taking action to stop it.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/181569/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marian Liu receives funding from the Administration for Community Living, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. </span></em></p>World Elder Abuse Awareness Day highlights the increasing population of older adults around the world and the accompanying rise in elder mistreatment.Marian Liu, Assistant Professor of Nursing, Purdue UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1762122022-02-15T16:12:22Z2022-02-15T16:12:22ZWhy victims of domestic abuse don’t leave – four experts explain<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446533/original/file-20220215-23-1avhi0p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Leaving the family home when children are involved brings psychological and practical barriers.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/frustrated-stressed-single-african-mom-having-1413108830">fizkes | Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>For anyone aware of someone – a friend, a colleague, a family member – experiencing abuse and violence at home, one of the biggest questions is often why don’t they just walk away? It can be difficult to understand the extent of the coercive control and the practical hurdles in getting out, not to mention the complex feelings a survivor of abuse has to unpack. Four experts discuss why survivors might not ask for help, or feel unable to leave.</p>
<h2>Fear and control</h2>
<p><strong>Cassandra Wiener, Senior Lecturer in Law, City, University of London</strong></p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/how-claims-of-consensual-rough-sex-hide-abuse-and-coercive-control-from-courts-173683">Coercive control</a> is a calculated strategy of domination. A perpetrator begins by grooming their victim, thereby gaining trust and access. They then <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/hojo.12227">make their victim afraid</a> – usually, but not always, by instigating the fear of physical or sexual violence. Fear is what makes threats credible. And it is when a threat is credible that a demand becomes coercive. </p>
<p>Research has shown that an abuser will exert control by restricting access to family and friends, money and transport, thereby isolating the victim and making it harder for them to resist. The victim experiences constant, generalised anxiety – what psychologists term a <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227252624_Coercion_in_Intimate_Partner_Violence_Toward_a_New_Conceptualization">state of siege</a> – that they have not moderated their behaviour sufficiently to avert catastrophe.</p>
<p>Contrary to what people often assume – that the victim chooses to stay; that they have options; that employing those options would keep them safe – <a href="https://academic.oup.com/policing/article-abstract/10/4/456/2742978?redirectedFrom=fulltext">research has shown</a> that leaving is in fact dangerous. The control continues once the relationship is over but changes in emphasis from attempting to keep the victim in the relationship to <a href="https://academic.oup.com/policing/article-abstract/10/4/456/2742978?redirectedFrom=fulltext">trying to destroy them</a> for leaving it. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A woman sits at a desk with papers and a calculator." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446541/original/file-20220215-21-qxykuw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446541/original/file-20220215-21-qxykuw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446541/original/file-20220215-21-qxykuw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446541/original/file-20220215-21-qxykuw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446541/original/file-20220215-21-qxykuw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446541/original/file-20220215-21-qxykuw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446541/original/file-20220215-21-qxykuw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">When abusers wrest control of a victim’s finances, they are often left without the skills needed to support themselves.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/business-woman-using-calculator-do-math-1500592778">Natee Meepian | Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Accommodation, childcare, support and finances</h2>
<p><strong>Michaela Rogers, Senior Lecturer in Social Work, University of Sheffield</strong> </p>
<p>For victims with children, practical and psychological <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0886260519900939">barriers</a> to ending an abusive relationship can overlap. <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1524838018764160">Economic abuse</a> often means the victim is left with low confidence and <a href="https://theconversation.com/tackling-economic-abuse-of-women-must-be-part-of-our-domestic-violence-response-48376">without the knowledge</a> they need to manage their own finances and support themselves and their children. They feel guilty for removing children from their parent, their home, pets and school. They worry about <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcp080">moving them away</a> from family and friends. </p>
<p>There may be delays in securing appropriate housing and a new school due to a shortage of social housing. There may also be a lack of affordable childcare or poor transport links. Conversely, some survivors may be tasked with daily trips back to their former neighbourhood to take children to school with the attendant risk each journey brings that they encounter their abuser. </p>
<p><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29514473/">Research shows</a> that survivors of domestic abuse who have insecure immigration status may fear being deported. They may have little or no spoken English or access to interpreters. And they may hold concerns about managing day-to-day if they have no independent income or the right to <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2724370">access</a> benefits or appropriate state funded accommodation. </p>
<p>For survivors who identify as LGBTQ+, meanwhile, there are myriad barriers. They might not recognise their experiences as abuse. They may fear being outed and they may worry about <a href="https://www.galop.org.uk/lgbt-peoplesexperiences-of-domestic-abuse/">social services intervening</a>, especially in terms of child protection measures. </p>
<p>LGBTQ+ people often also don’t know of, or think they’re ineligible for, mainstream domestic violence support services. Speialist services do exist but provision across the country is very modest, particularly in rural areas.</p>
<p>Victims with disabilities or health conditions face further <a href="https://safelives.org.uk/sites/default/files/resources/Disabled%20Survivors%20Too%20CORRECTED.pdf">practical hurdles</a>, particularly in terms of accommodation. For some, the abuser might also be the care giver. Those with multiple and complex needs (such as mental ill health, substance use, homelessness or offending) also often struggle to access <a href="https://avaproject.org.uk/breaking-down-the-barriers-findings-of-the-national-commission-on-domestic-and-sexual-violence-and-multiple-disadvantage/">specialist support services</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two men are sitting in a living room, with one holding his head in his hands." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446542/original/file-20220215-15-1joahqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446542/original/file-20220215-15-1joahqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=200&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446542/original/file-20220215-15-1joahqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=200&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446542/original/file-20220215-15-1joahqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=200&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446542/original/file-20220215-15-1joahqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=251&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446542/original/file-20220215-15-1joahqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=251&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446542/original/file-20220215-15-1joahqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=251&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Specialist LGBTQ+ support services can be difficult to access.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/sad-angry-couple-conflict-gay-people-2021186258">Andrey_Popov | Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Stigma and shame</h2>
<p><strong>Alison Gregory, Research Fellow (Traumatised and Vulnerable Populations), University of Bristol</strong></p>
<p>Domestic abuse occurs in <a href="http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/77432/WHO_RHR_12.36_eng.pdf;jsessionid=A60E2506847B026F327CB4893DD4587E?sequence=1">every society and culture</a>. And yet, despite changes over the past 50 years, we are still <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Allison-Crowe/publication/282546055_How_Can_We_End_the_Stigma_Surrounding_Domestic_and_Sexual_Violence_A_Modified_Delphi_Study_with_National_Advocacy_Leaders/links/5616d89508ae1a8880033c8a/How-Can-We-End-the-Stigma-Surrounding-Domestic-and-Sexual-Violence-A-Modified-Delphi-Study-with-National-Advocacy-Leaders.pdf">woefully underprepared</a> to be confronted by the idea that domestic abuse happens to people just like us. </p>
<p>Many survivors feel <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25556776/">embarrassed or ashamed</a> that they have experienced domestic abuse. They may fear that, in deciding to end an abusive relationship, their experiences will become known to others and they will risk exposing themselves to outside opinion and judgement – that they will be treated <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdfdirect/10.1111/jocn.13501">differently</a> as a result. </p>
<p>Research shows <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdfdirect/10.1111/jocn.13501">survivors</a> are concerned, in particular, about letting their parents down. Equally, ending an abusive relationship means that a survivor is confronted with their own experiences, and they may fear having to make sense of those experiences.</p>
<h2>Love</h2>
<p><strong>Alison Gregory and Sandra Walklate, Chair of Sociology, University of Liverpool</strong></p>
<p>Love can be an <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10926771.2021.2019154">incredibly powerful reason</a> why people remain in an abusive relationship, why they don’t feel they can leave, or why they leave and then return. And it is, perhaps, one of the hardest reasons to understand. Research shows that survivors themselves become frustrated that their love, concern and care for the abuser has kept them ensnared. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A woman cries on another woman's shoulder." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446543/original/file-20220215-25-lcqheo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446543/original/file-20220215-25-lcqheo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446543/original/file-20220215-25-lcqheo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446543/original/file-20220215-25-lcqheo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446543/original/file-20220215-25-lcqheo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446543/original/file-20220215-25-lcqheo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446543/original/file-20220215-25-lcqheo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Victims may fear being treated differently when they speak out about the abuse they have suffered.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/close-young-woman-consoling-crying-female-567413689">wavebreakmedia | Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0886260518816325">A 2021 analysis</a> of responses to the #WhyIStayed Twitter campaign reveals how <a href="http://www.arizonalawreview.org/pdf/56-4/56arizlrev977.pdf">complex</a> these feelings can be. It also speaks to the powerful influence that social commentaries around relationships, marriage and the family have. Some women tweeted, “Marriage is forever”, “I didn’t wanna run when we hit a rough patch” and “Children need a father”.</p>
<p>Further, the study shows the power that social expectations on romance and love exert. As one person tweeted, “The first time he hits you, you tell yourself it was an isolated incident. He’s remorseful. You forgive. Life is normal again.” Research <a href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1057/9781137008817">has shown</a> that that forgiveness stems from a victim’s desire to maintain the relationship, as being a primary life goal, even at the expense of their own safety. </p>
<p>Abusers, conversely, can be wily and skilful when it comes to manipulating a survivor’s feelings of love. They will premise coercive edicts with, “If you loved me, you would …”. They will also use survivors’ feelings of care and concern to try to prevent them from leaving, <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10896-014-9597-2">commonly</a> making threats to harm or kill themselves if they do. Abusers know that the thought of potential harm to the abuser will cause the survivor distress and possibly feelings of guilt (even though the survivor has done nothing wrong).</p>
<p>Survivors may be asked by incredulous friends, relatives and professionals, “How can you still love them after what they’ve done?” This sees many survivors stay silent about their residual feelings, which, in itself, is dangerous. Love is a strong motivator, and if we don’t give permission for it to be voiced, we risk alienating survivors and further isolating them – which is <a href="https://www.theduluthmodel.org/wheels/">just what abusers want</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/176212/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cassandra Wiener previously received funding from the ESRC to conduct research into the implementation of section 76 Serious Crime Act in England and Wales. Cassandra is co-founder and trustee of the Treebeard Trust, an organisation that seeks to address inequality and climate change.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alison Gregory currently receives fellowship funding from the AXA Research Fund to develop an intervention for informal supporters (friends, family members, neighbours, and colleagues) of domestic abuse survivors.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michaela Rogers is affiliated with Vida Sheffield.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sandra Walklate received funding from the ESRC 2020-21 grant number ES/V00476X/1 to examine policing and court responses to domestic abuse under Covid-19</span></em></p>Coercive control seeks to disempower victims of domestic abuse on every level. Leaving the family home – and disentangling feelings of care – is a complex process.Cassandra Wiener, Senior Lecturer in Law, City, University of LondonAlison Gregory, Research Fellow, University of BristolMichaela Rogers, Senior Lecturer in Social Work, University of SheffieldSandra Walklate, Eleanor Rathbone Chair of Sociology, University of LiverpoolLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1687252021-10-19T20:51:07Z2021-10-19T20:51:07ZAdolescent dating violence affects 1 in 3, but murky policies mean most adults don’t know how to help<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/427344/original/file-20211019-18921-4p368j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=278%2C8%2C2717%2C1657&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">There is a clear need for youth-centred policy at the federal and provincial levels that specifically addresses dating violence.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Adolescent dating violence is a serious public health problem in Canada. Dating violence is also a <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/canadian-heritage/services/rights-children.html">children’s rights</a> issue, because it violates youths’ right to safe and healthy development.</p>
<p>Adolescent dating violence is the experience of physical, sexual and/or psychological aggression in romantic and sexual relationships between the ages of 11 and 18. It is very important that caregivers, educators and other adults who work with youth understand dating violence. </p>
<p>As researchers who work on preventing dating violence, we wanted to specifically understand if there was policy in Canada specific to dating violence. Our findings demonstrate that we are currently failing to protect youths’ right to be safe in their relationships.</p>
<h2>Prevalence and outcomes</h2>
<p>In Canada, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2021.01.032">one in three</a> youth experience dating violence. However, parents and caregivers are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2011.05.005">unlikely to discuss dating violence</a> with their children. In fact, we find that most people are surprised by how common dating violence is. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Non-binary young person looking at a phone." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/427345/original/file-20211019-25-kasylw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/427345/original/file-20211019-25-kasylw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427345/original/file-20211019-25-kasylw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427345/original/file-20211019-25-kasylw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427345/original/file-20211019-25-kasylw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427345/original/file-20211019-25-kasylw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427345/original/file-20211019-25-kasylw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dating violence disproportionately affects youth who are marginalized, including trans and non-binary youth, youth living in poverty and racialized youth.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Families are more likely to discuss issues that are actually less common than dating violence. For example, family communication about substance use is a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2001.00048.x">popular topic</a>, but alcohol and tobacco use affects fewer young people than dating violence. About <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/canadian-student-tobacco-alcohol-drugs-survey/2018-2019-summary.html">one in four</a> youth in Canada report that they drank heavily in the past year. <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/canadian-student-tobacco-alcohol-drugs-survey/2018-2019-summary.html">One in five</a> report e-cigarette use in the past 30 days. </p>
<p>To break down dating violence statistics, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2021.01.032">we conducted a study</a> with a national sample of over 3,000 Canadian youth. We found that, in the past year, 12 per cent were physically hurt on purpose by someone they were dating or going out with. Another 18 per cent had a dating partner use social media to hurt, embarrass or monitor them. And, 28 per cent reported that a dating partner had tried to control them or emotionally hurt them. </p>
<p>Other research from Québec also found that sexual dating violence is a common experience for Canadian youth. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-020-01328-5">In this study</a>, 20 per cent of female participants and seven per cent of male participants reported unwanted sexual activity in their current or most recent dating relationship. Stalking by an intimate partner also impacts a <a href="https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/180117/dq180117a-eng.htm">substantial minority</a> of young people. In Canada, approximately two out of every three stalking victims are women, and about half are between the ages of 15-34.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/427346/original/file-20211019-20-11b6l30.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Young woman in casual clothes sitting on the ground leaning against a wall looking sad." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/427346/original/file-20211019-20-11b6l30.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/427346/original/file-20211019-20-11b6l30.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427346/original/file-20211019-20-11b6l30.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427346/original/file-20211019-20-11b6l30.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427346/original/file-20211019-20-11b6l30.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427346/original/file-20211019-20-11b6l30.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427346/original/file-20211019-20-11b6l30.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Youth who experience dating violence are significantly more likely to report mental health problems in the future. Early intervention is critical in preventing negative effects.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Like many public health problems, dating violence disproportionately affects <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2021.01.032">youth who are marginalized</a>, including trans and non-binary youth, youth living in poverty and racialized youth. </p>
<p>In terms of outcomes, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2012-1029">research conducted by our team</a> found that youth who experience dating violence are significantly more likely to report mental health problems in the future. Dating violence is also a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2016.09.015">strong risk factor</a> for domestic violence in adulthood. In the worst-case scenario, dating violence <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-811797-2.00008-6">can lead to homicide</a>. </p>
<h2>The role of policy in prevention</h2>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/427347/original/file-20211019-19094-pq486y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Cropped image of young person sitting cross-legged on the ground looking at a phone, with head out of shot" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/427347/original/file-20211019-19094-pq486y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/427347/original/file-20211019-19094-pq486y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427347/original/file-20211019-19094-pq486y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427347/original/file-20211019-19094-pq486y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427347/original/file-20211019-19094-pq486y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427347/original/file-20211019-19094-pq486y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427347/original/file-20211019-19094-pq486y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Eighteen per cent of young people reported that a dating partner had used social media to hurt, embarrass or monitor them.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Early intervention is critical to preventing the negative impacts of dating violence. Yet, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1524838018770412">adolescents report</a> significant barriers to receiving support following dating violence. </p>
<p>One key barrier <a href="https://doi.org/10.1089/vio.2017.0043">is that educators</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12008">other significant adults</a> do not generally know their role in responding to dating violence. We believe this is related to limited knowledge about dating violence policy, which is very important in defining and guiding adults’ roles when responding.</p>
<p>The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic continues to show us the critical role policy plays when we are trying to solve public health problems. But, the role of policy in preventing dating violence has been very undervalued. </p>
<p>The policies that might apply to dating violence in each province and territory are not easily navigated. In fact, in our roles as the scientific co-directors of Canada’s <a href="https://www.prevnet.ca/">healthy relationships hub PREVNet</a>, one of the most common questions we are asked by educators is about how they should respond to dating violence. Caregivers and youth themselves also want to know what to do if someone in their life experiences dating violence.</p>
<h2>Dating violence policy map</h2>
<p>Our team at PREVNet created an interactive policy map (available in both <a href="https://youthdatingviolence.prevnet.ca/fr/en-savoir-plus/tout-le-monde/legislation/">French</a> and <a href="https://youthdatingviolence.prevnet.ca/learn-more/everyone/legislation">English</a>) that gives user-friendly guidance for educators and caregivers as well as young people on dating violence policy in each province and territory. For example, for educators, our map provides a helpful summary of the policies related to supporting youth in their area who experience dating violence.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/427352/original/file-20211019-16-cuqt0t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Map of Canada" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/427352/original/file-20211019-16-cuqt0t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/427352/original/file-20211019-16-cuqt0t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427352/original/file-20211019-16-cuqt0t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427352/original/file-20211019-16-cuqt0t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427352/original/file-20211019-16-cuqt0t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427352/original/file-20211019-16-cuqt0t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427352/original/file-20211019-16-cuqt0t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The PREVNET interactive policy map gives user-friendly guidance for educators and caregivers as well as young people on dating violence policy in each province and territory.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Pixabay/Canva)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our map is an important first step in listing available policy protections for youth who experience dating violence in Canada. But, our work also highlights that while there are a lot of policies for children who experience abuse, and some for adults who experience domestic violence, there is almost no policy that is specific to youth experiencing dating violence. </p>
<p>For example, adolescents are generally not able to access <a href="https://nij.ojp.gov/library/publications/exploratory-study-juvenile-orders-protection-remedy-dating-violence">protection orders</a>. There also are no publicly funded supports (such as hotlines) dedicated to adolescents experiencing dating violence in Canada. Existing policy also does not make clear adults’ roles in supporting these youth. </p>
<p>This map highlights where we need to go to support youth experiencing dating violence. There is a clear need for the development of youth-centred policy at the federal and provincial levels that specifically addresses dating violence. This policy must clarify the roles and responsibilities of adults in responding to dating violence. It must also provide developmentally appropriate supports for youth. </p>
<p>Through the development and implementation of such policy, we can support youth’s rights and well-being.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/168725/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Deinera Exner-Cortens receives research funding from the Public Health Agency of Canada and the Canada Research Chairs program. She is also the Scientific Co-Director of PREVNet. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Wendy Craig receives funding from Public Health Agency Canada. She is the Co-founder and Scientific Co- Director of PREVNet. </span></em></p>One in three Canadian youth experience dating violence. Early intervention is critical to preventing the negative effects, but adolescents report significant barriers to finding support.Deinera Exner-Cortens, Assistant Professor of Psychology and Tier II Canada Research Chair (Childhood Health Promotion), University of CalgaryWendy Craig, Professor of Psychology, Queen's University, OntarioLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1470592020-10-21T15:45:14Z2020-10-21T15:45:14ZWhat South African women told us about being the main breadwinner<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/362435/original/file-20201008-22-52ao0z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Many women feel it's safer and easier to be single.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="http://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/P0318/P03182018.pdf">Nearly 38%</a> of households in South Africa are headed by women. They largely – or solely – support the home financially as breadwinners. That amounts to nearly 6.1 million homes in which women are the primary breadwinners. </p>
<p>Despite this significant number, female headed households in general are under-researched. This leads to the assumption that their experiences as primary breadwinners are the same as male primary breadwinners. </p>
<p>My colleague Professor Puleng Segalo, head of research and graduate studies at the University of South Africa, and I decided to test this assumption by looking more deeply into some South African women’s experiences. Our <a href="http://vc.bridgew.edu/jiws/vol18/iss4/13">exploratory research</a> focused on psychological questions. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/pasha-47-how-to-increase-the-role-women-play-in-developing-the-continent-128320">Pasha 47: How to increase the role women play in developing the continent</a>
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<p>For our study, we used a research method called <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/160940690400300104">phenomenology</a>, which focuses on personal perspectives. We chose it because we wanted to explore female breadwinners’ individual experiences. </p>
<p>As is usual for this kind of research, our study focused was on a small sample: only 10 women who were the primary breadwinners in their families. The smaller sample size was necessary because of the large amount of data collected during the interviews. </p>
<p>To date, ours is the only in-depth study on the female breadwinner phenomenon in the country. We found that almost all the women in our study did not choose the role but were forced by circumstance to be breadwinners. We also found that most felt it was better to be single as a breadwinner than married or in a relationship. </p>
<h2>The women</h2>
<p>The participants came from two South African provinces: Gauteng, the urban economic hub of the country, and Mpumalanga, a rural region to the east of the country, largely dedicated to agriculture and tourism. </p>
<p>Participants’ ages ranged from 20 to 55 years, across various “racial” groups, cultures and socio-economic backgrounds. The women had a number of dependants and had been the primary providers for at least two years. Marital and relationship status was not a defining criterion when choosing participants.</p>
<p>Only two of the participants were married. Most were single, having chosen to be divorced or never to marry. Most provided for their families without any help from a male partner. </p>
<p>For eight of the participants, their choice of being single resulted from their experiences of physical, emotional and sexual violence. Infidelity and substance abuse by their ex-husbands and children’s fathers also played a role.</p>
<p>In the words of one participant, a personal assistant and divorced mother of three: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>They feel that insecurity and unfortunately there is no medicine for that. So hence the abuse, he started beating me up…you know, that insecurity he had, I couldn’t take it anymore. I was gonna stay if he was not abusive, but he was physically fighting…</p>
</blockquote>
<p>All the women said they believed that their role as female breadwinners was viewed as threatening to the traditional male role of a provider. They believed that men in South Africa were struggling to deal with the evolving male identity. </p>
<p>This was explained by a small business owner and divorced mom of two, who had attributed her failed marriage to her role as breadwinner:</p>
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<p>Umm, it’s still not something I would choose, because I don’t think that the majority of South African men are emotionally ready to handle a wife who earns a lot more money…</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Despite the fact they were primary providers in the home, the majority of the women were also responsible for all domestic and childcare tasks. This made it challenging for them to balance their work responsibilities with their home life. It also left them with little time to devote to romantic relationships or their own personal needs and aspirations. </p>
<p>As stated by another participant, entrepreneur and divorced mom of one:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>You are one person pulled apart… </p>
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<p>All the women found their employment empowering. But, six of the ten said having a male partner did not ease the double load of home and childcare duties, in addition to provider responsibilities. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/south-africas-failure-to-legislate-on-religious-marriages-leaves-women-vulnerable-140371">South Africa's failure to legislate on religious marriages leaves women vulnerable</a>
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<p>When added to experiences of violence, abuse and infidelity, eight of the ten women felt that it was safer and easier to be single.</p>
<h2>Looking ahead</h2>
<p>Although this was a small, exploratory study, we hope it will generate further interest on the topic and facilitate further research. </p>
<p>Sharing the experiences of female breadwinners could also generate discussions about stereotypical gender roles in modern society. This may help both men and women understand evolving gender roles, and how these impact their relationships and families.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/147059/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bianca Parry does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Although society portrays a woman who earns a living as free and empowered, outdated values and stereotypes still promote discrimination against female breadwinners.Bianca Parry, Post-Doctoral Fellow, University of South AfricaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1102672019-02-25T03:27:00Z2019-02-25T03:27:00ZToughen up snowflake! Sports coaches can be emotionally abusive – here’s how to recognise it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/259697/original/file-20190219-43291-l77zzk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Emotional abuse, which includes humiliation and intimidation, is rampant in coaching culture.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Sports coaches have been in the headlines recently for all the wrong reasons. At the end of 2018, the University of Maryland investigated a football coach for <a href="http://www.espn.com.au/college-football/story/_/id/24351869/maryland-terrapins-football-jordan-mcnair-death-dj-durkin-scandal-line">intimidation, humiliation and verbal abuse</a>. This followed a player dying of heat stroke after a training session on a 41°C day.</p>
<p>Earlier that year, UK swimmer Karen Leach revealed the <a href="https://www.bbc.com/sport/45084970">long-term impact</a> of what she said was sexual, mental, physical and emotional abuse inflicted on her by a former Olympic coach when she was a young swimmer. And US Olympic swimmer Ariana Kukors <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/05/21/sports/olympic-swimmer-ariana-kukors-coach-abuse.html">filed a lawsuit</a> against a former coach for sexual abuse.</p>
<p>Studies show nearly <a href="https://www.jsams.org/article/S1440-2440(14)00075-9/fulltext">50% of athletes suffer</a> from a mental health issue such as depression or anxiety.</p>
<p>Athlete abuse includes physical abuse, sexual abuse and emotional abuse. A study of 12 <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/car.843">former child athletes</a> in the United Kingdom showed most had been frequently threatened and humiliated – part of emotional abuse. These were former athletes across several sports including diving, football, gymnastics, hockey, netball, and track and field athletics. </p>
<p>So, what does emotional abuse in sport coaching look like, and why does it happen?</p>
<h2>Signs of emotional abuse</h2>
<p>Many youth sportsmen and women will be familiar with one or more coaching behaviours that are considered emotionally abusive.</p>
<p>Emotional abuse involves <a href="https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/50/17/1019?utm_source=trendmd&utm_medium=cpc&utm_campaign=alljjs&utm_content=americas&utm_term=1-B">deliberate, prolonged, repeated non-contact behaviours</a> that occur in unbalanced relationships of power such as between a coach and athlete. Researchers suggest <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/car.843">emotional abuse by coaches can include</a> belittling, <a href="https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/2015/03/14/teachers-bullying-scarred-us-say-student-athletes.html">humiliating</a>, shouting, <a href="https://theprovince.com/sports/high-school/youth-sports-cost-of-coaching-abuse-is-always-high-and-sometimes-fatal">scapegoating</a>, rejecting, isolating, threatening and ignoring. These forms of abuse can be subtle and hidden in accepted coaching practice. </p>
<p>Coaching that uses such methods can contribute to <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-01-22/matildas-environment-of-stress-and-fear/10734412">psychological distress</a> and cause <a href="https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/50/17/1019?utm_source=trendmd&utm_medium=cpc&utm_campaign=alljjs&utm_content=americas&utm_term=1-B">emotional breakdown</a> in athletes. In youth sport, participants who suffered emotional abuse reported a range of emotions including feeling <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/car.843">stupid, humiliated and depressed</a>.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1082655487093542921"}"></div></p>
<h2>Why some coaches may be abusive</h2>
<p>Organised sport in Australia has been described as a <a href="https://www.clearinghouseforsport.gov.au/knowledge_base/organised_sport/value_of_sport/sport_for_community_development">focal point for community engagement, pride and achievement</a>. Australia has well-developed coach education programs to support such values in sport. These programs <a href="https://www.sportaus.gov.au/coaches_and_officials/coaches/coaching_children#children_s_characteristics">focus on skill development</a> and fun. </p>
<p>But research has found coaches <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13573322.2011.608949">value the knowledge of admired</a> or experienced coaches more than that of formal coach education. This may result in coaches recycling practice seen as accepted, but which may include abusive or harmful methods.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/jelena-dokics-story-of-abuse-shows-links-between-elite-sport-and-child-labour-87506">Jelena Dokic's story of abuse shows links between elite sport and child labour</a>
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<p>Formal coach education also uses mentors to help develop beginning coaches. But use of mentors <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/2159676X.2013.809376">has been shown</a> to shape practice so old ideas are valued and acceptance of more senior, and perhaps “old-school” coach’s ideas encouraged.</p>
<p>Coaches have been shown to use emotionally abusive behaviours when trying to develop mental toughness. Methods including <a href="https://cyclingtips.com/2015/04/extreme-methods-australian-womens-selection-camp/">extreme training environments</a> and <a href="https://web.b.ebscohost.com/abstract?direct=true&profile=ehost&scope=site&authtype=crawler&jrnl=19758286&AN=112950379&h=UeNHrTOfxagS9Z4Zpa2VolczUB7uQsZ5Wqh4Qvj68awcF7eQs1h2hPKggBFYdEBwA1vYoDGBS1LLwAOLVO94%2bQ%3d%3d&crl=c&resultNs=AdminWebAuth&resultLocal=ErrCrlNotAuth&crlhashurl=login.aspx%3fdirect%3dtrue%26profile%3dehost%26scope%3dsite%26authtype%3dcrawler%26jrnl%3d19758286%26AN%3d112950379">practices such as</a> humiliation, intimidation and forced physical exertion.</p>
<p>Talking about a program where female cyclists are trained for a competition in Europe, ex professional cyclist <a href="https://cyclingtips.com/2015/04/extreme-methods-australian-womens-selection-camp/">Rochelle Gilmore said</a>: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>… they’ve got together to work out how they are going to mentally and physically break these girls down and get them to their breaking point, and that’s pretty much what the camp wants to do. It wants to see these athletes – see how they respond to things under pressure, under really, really severe fatigue.</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Why do athletes accept this?</h2>
<p>Emotionally abusive coaching can sometimes be difficult for athletes and parents of athletes to recognise. Research shows parents can also become socialised into sporting cultures and become <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10413200.2011.608413">bystanders to abuse</a>. The motivation to ignore abuse can be as simple as wanting their child to reach their full potential.</p>
<p>Some athletes show a willingness to forgo personal safety in the pursuit of results. Some are willing to <a href="https://europepmc.org/abstract/med/12112974">subject themselves to anything that might assist</a> in achieving success. Athletes can also <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10926771.2014.872747">misinterpret emotionally abusive</a> practice as a sign their coach is interested in their improvement. </p>
<p>In one study of abuse in elite sport, a <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10926771.2014.872747">female gymnast said</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>My coach would scream at me, but I knew she cared about me. I knew that she wasn’t screaming at me just to make me feel like I was nothing. There was an ulterior motive and that was to make me the best.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Respect for the coach and an expectation <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10413200008404218">this behaviour is normal</a> can encourage the behaviour to continue. Research also shows media, including films, can <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/21640629.2016.1175149">contribute to the normalisation</a> of abusive coach/athlete relationships. </p>
<p>Abusive coaching behaviours, for instance, are hidden behind inspiring music and cinematography in the 2000 drama Remember the Titans, where the coach tells the team:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>… we will be perfect in every aspect of the game… You drop a pass you run a mile… You fumble a football and I will break my foot off in your John Brown hind parts. And then you run a mile</p>
</blockquote>
<figure>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">The media can normalise abusive coaching behaviours, such as those hidden in this ‘Remember the Titans’ speech.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>And elite athletes who misrecognise potentially abusive practice <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13573322.2017.1417257">can steer public opinion</a> when sharing of <a href="https://swimswam.com/michael-phelps-favorite-hard-set/">stories of extreme practices</a> through social media. For instance, swimmer Michael Phelps once discussed in a Facebook post a training set he was proud of that brought him “pain”.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/violence-against-women-and-sports-ethical-responsibility-or-brand-control-32270">Violence against women and sports: ethical responsibility or brand control?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What can be done?</h2>
<p>Building toughness and resilience through exposure to challenging situations and training loads is an appropriate way to boost performance. But athletes need to be aware of the ethical boundary – the line between tough and abusive. Finding this line is the challenge of education.</p>
<p>Most coaches believe they are acting in the best interest of the athletes under their guidance. But coaches must be better educated in the kinds of methods that, even with the best intentions, can result in abuse. </p>
<p>Sporting organisations, coaches, athletes and parents need to understand <a href="https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/50/17/1019?utm_source=trendmd&utm_medium=cpc&utm_campaign=alljjs&utm_content=americas&utm_term=1-B">what constitutes abuse</a>. Gender and power imbalances between coaches and athletes that are central to abuse need to also be highlighted in coach education. </p>
<p>It should be remembered that coaching practice in elite contexts is not always transferable to junior sport.</p>
<p>Parents and sport participants need to think critically about the practice of trusted coaches and make informed decisions about what we think is acceptable.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/110267/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chris Zehntner does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Sports training often involves exposure to challenging situations to boost performance. But this can cross the line into emotional abuse. Here’s how to recognise when that happens.Chris Zehntner, Lecturer in Health and Physical Education, Southern Cross UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/875842017-11-19T19:07:46Z2017-11-19T19:07:46ZThree charts on: how emotional and economic abuse go hand-in-hand<p>People who have been in an abusive relationship often don’t realise it until they’ve left it, so looking at the data on past relationships is the best way of getting a picture of how bad it can be. We find that emotional and economic abuse in relationships <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1753-6405.12651/full">are often intertwined</a>. People who insult and shame their partners will often also try to control their income and assets.</p>
<p>The Australian Bureau of Statistics <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/4906.0.55.003main+features242016">Personal Safety Survey</a> found in 2016, 23% of women, and 15.9% of men <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/by%20Subject/4906.0%7E2016%7EMain%20Features%7EExperience%20of%20Partner%20Emotional%20Abuse%7E26">experienced emotional abuse</a> by a current or previous partner. In <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/4906.0Chapter8002012">the 2012 survey</a>, this was 24.5% of women and 14.4% of men. </p>
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<p>It is not entirely clear as to why slightly more men are reporting emotional abuse in the 2016 survey. There has certainly been more awareness raising around the issue of emotional abuse and a recognition that it can affect both genders: this is reflected <a href="https://www.1800respect.org.au/violence-and-abuse/psychological-abuse/">in national websites</a> that offer gender-inclusive support and information. </p>
<p>The survey shows some of the most visible forms of emotional abuse with 63% of women and 46% of men reported experiencing intimidating shouting, yelling and verbal abuse. </p>
<p>We see too that economic abuse is very common among those who report emotional abuse — 38% of women and 22% of men also reported that their partner tried to control their access to, knowledge about or making decisions about household money.</p>
<p>But of women who experienced emotional abuse, financial control is in the top five most frequently occurring forms. Financial control includes controlling access to household money, such as not having access to bank accounts and being given an “allowance”; controlling decision-making and information about financial decisions.</p>
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<p>For men, financial control ranks ninth, superseded by other forms of emotional abuse such as lies to family, friends and children with the intent of turning them against them. The profile of most frequent forms of emotional abuse appear to be different for men and women.</p>
<p>These tactics, along with other emotional abuse tactics, aim to control and maintain power over the other. Emotional abuse depletes someone’s psychological resolve and resilience, while financial abuse depletes their financial independence and confidence. All types aim to increase dependence. </p>
<p>While the 2012 Personal Safety Survey data examines abuse with current or previous partners, the 2016 data is only for previous partners. At the population level in 2016, the most common indicators of economic abuse in previous relationships was controlling access to household money. In 2012, damaging property was the most common form in current or previous relationships. </p>
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<p>Economic abuse is a serious and devastating component of intimate partner violence. It’s a significant component of emotional abuse. It can also continue well after the relationship has ended. </p>
<p><a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1753-6405.12651/full">Our previous research</a> has also established that economic abuse goes hand in hand with emotional abuse. There is community awareness and acceptance that all forms of partner physical and sexual violence are unacceptable. However, emotional and economic abuse are lesser known forms of partner violence, with many shades of grey. </p>
<p>While the Personal Safety Survey is our only source of population based data, its current structure underestimates the prevalence of abuse because economic abuse is not asked about separately from the emotional abuse.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/87584/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Emotional and economic abuse in relationships are often intertwined as people who insult and shame their partners will also try to control their income and assets.Jozica Kutin, PhD Candidate - Economic Abuse and Young Adults, RMIT UniversityMike Reid, Professor, School of Economics, Finance and Marketing, RMIT UniversityRoslyn Russell, Professor, School of Economics, Finance and Marketing, RMIT UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/835632017-09-07T23:26:00Z2017-09-07T23:26:00ZTeen suicide is on the rise and this is why<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/185551/original/file-20170911-2967-yils1d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Those who grow up in toxic environments are up to 12 times more likely to experience addiction, depression and to try to commit suicide. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Every 40 seconds, <a href="http://www.who.int/gho/mental_health/en/">another human life is taken by suicide</a>, according to World Health Organization data. </p>
<p>In Canada, a <a href="https://www.sfu.ca/carmha/publications/prov_indic_2017.html">new report</a> reveals that young people between the ages of 15 and 19, who are struggling with mental illness and addiction, have the <a href="http://www.cbc.ca/news/health/mental-health-services-between-provinces-canada-1.4267168">highest rates of suicide attempts</a>. Middle-aged men are also at <a href="http://theprovince.com/news/local-news/canadian-suicides-prompt-look-at-mens-roles-in-a-changing-world">high risk</a>, as are <a href="http://www.torontosun.com/2017/07/07/four-suicides-in-northern-ontario-first-nations-communities-this-week">children and youth in First Nations communities</a> who live with the <a href="http://nctr.ca/reports.php">legacy of trauma</a> perpetuated by colonization and the residential school system. </p>
<p>World Suicide Prevention Day this Sunday provokes us to pay attention. Suicide is a <a href="http://theprovince.com/news/local-news/canadian-suicides-prompt-look-at-mens-roles-in-a-changing-world">silent epidemic</a> that ruins lives and devastates families and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/apr/11/state-of-emergency-declared-over-suicide-epidemic-in-canadas-first-nation-community">communities</a>. As a researcher, I have been examining and researching the factors that contribute to the blossoming of human potential, and the factors that undermine its full realization, for close to two decades. Suicide is the ultimate subversion of human potential. </p>
<p>Why are so many teenagers taking their own life? One factor is what I call “toxic socialization” — a process of physical or emotional childhood and adolescent abuse. Those who grow up in toxic environments are up to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0749-3797(98)00017-8">12 times more likely</a> to experience addiction, depression and to try to commit suicide. </p>
<h2>Neurological damage</h2>
<p>Remarkably, more than 90 per cent of people who succeed at suicide <a href="http://www.webmd.com/depression/guide/depression-recognizing-signs-of-suicide#1">have been diagnosed with depression</a> or some other mental disorder. If we want to understand why people commit suicide, we have to understand what makes them depressed. </p>
<p>Like suicide, depression is complicated and caused by many factors. One important <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0749-3797(98)00017-8">contributing factor</a> is childhood and adolescent abuse in a “toxic socialization” process. </p>
<p>Socialization is the process where we are trained — by parents, teachers, priests and others — to be citizens of our societies. Toxic socialization is when this process is characterized by neglect or ongoing physical and emotional abuse. The violence of a toxic socialization process is typically justified as beneficial in some way to the process. “Spare the rod and spoil the child” is the prototypical justification. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/185188/original/file-20170907-9585-1503jus.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/185188/original/file-20170907-9585-1503jus.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/185188/original/file-20170907-9585-1503jus.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/185188/original/file-20170907-9585-1503jus.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/185188/original/file-20170907-9585-1503jus.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/185188/original/file-20170907-9585-1503jus.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/185188/original/file-20170907-9585-1503jus.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">One in three Canadians have experienced abuse before the age of 15, according to a 2106 report from the Chief Public Health Officer.(</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Agents of socialization hit, scream, intimidate, threaten, shame and exclude because they feel that violence — such as spanking — <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jomf.12306/abstract;jsessionid=1BECB80EE4A9AA471472BD62A93B3C97.f04t01">turns out a better adult product</a>. </p>
<p>But it doesn’t, at all. Toxic socialization — including corporal punishment, emotional abuse and the childhood trauma that is associated with it — contributes to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16203938">negative behaviours</a>. Children who are exposed to maltreatment, violence in the community or marital violence in families struggle with <a href="http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev.psych.51.1.445">many forms of mental disability</a>, including anxiety, alcohol dependence, eating disorders, personality disorders and <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/3599892">depression</a>. </p>
<p>Why does the violence of a toxic socialization process contribute to depression and suicide? That’s a complicated question to sort out, but it’s certainly<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3223(01)01157-X"> linked to the neurobiological and endocrine damage </a> that results from chronic exposure to the stress of violent environments, especially during the critical early years of childhood and adolescence. </p>
<p>The impact is made worse when perpetrators are people who are supposed to protect and nurture, in environments that are supposed to feel safe and secure. </p>
<h2>What about our children?</h2>
<p>A staggering one in three Canadians has experienced abuse before the age of 15, according to a 2016 report from the Chief Public Health Officer: <em><a href="https://www.google.ca/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&ved=0ahUKEwjkyNz1wZPWAhWIw1QKHWNNDogQFgg1MAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fhealthycanadians.gc.ca%2Fpublications%2Fdepartment-ministere%2Fstate-public-health-family-violence-2016-etat-sante-publique-violence-familiale%2Falt%2Fpdf-eng.pdf&usg=AFQjCNGv800BbhKQkNaBwROHJRFPpR5ZmA">A Focus on Family Violence in Canada</a></em>. In 2014, 131 Canadians also died at the hands of a family member, and there were 133,920 reported victims of dating or family violence.</p>
<p>How do you reduce the risk of depression, mental illness and suicide? The first step is to put an end to this toxic socialization. We have to stop using violent methods such as spanking, and emotionally abusive methods such as shaming, to “teach” our lessons and control a child’s behaviour. In order to take this step we will, as a society, have to stop justifying abuse in any form.</p>
<p>There is no evidence to support the notion that violence in the socialization process contributes to strong, healthy, well-adjusted adults. In fact, the evidence points in the opposite direction, that toxic socialization damages us and costs us as a society. One research team has estimated the burden of child maltreatment in the U.S. alone at over <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2011.10.006">half a trillion dollars</a> per year. </p>
<p>It’s simply not the case that if we “spare the rod” we “spoil the child.” On the contrary, if we want our children to be healthy and well-adjusted, and if we want to save this planet trillions of dollars, we should immediately halt all forms of violence against them. </p>
<h2>What about me?</h2>
<p>If you are a victim of a toxic socialization process, what can you do to heal yourself? </p>
<p>The first step is to stop telling yourself that violence against you is OK. Violence you experience does not make you a better or stronger person. It damages you. Instead, end your exposure to all forms of violence. </p>
<p>This can be a challenge if you find yourself trapped in an abusive marriage. Organizations such as <a href="https://www.stopabuse.ca/">Stop Abuse in Families</a> (S.A.I.F) in Alberta can help. </p>
<p>Ending your exposure to violence can be a challenge when ending it means ending toxic family relationships that may have endured for decades. Even as adults, we can find it difficult to draw boundaries around abusive parents and siblings. We fear the loss of these relationships, long for the love and support they are supposed to provide and cling even when they cause us serious harm. </p>
<p>The next step is to get treatment. A therapist can help you examine the relationships in your life for evidence of toxic socialization. They should be willing to work with you to help you understand the damage these relationships cause. They should be willing to help you heal the trauma involved. </p>
<h2>Mental health crisis</h2>
<p>The decision to commit suicide is complicated, but enduring toxic socialization is a significant factor. On the occasion of World Suicide Prevention day, let us be clear that violence perpetrated against children in the name of training them to be members of society is wrong. </p>
<p>If we are going to make any progress against the growing <a href="http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/london/london-ontario-mental-health-crisis-1.4253510">mental health crisis</a> and suicide epidemic in Canada and globally, then we need to change how we raise, educate and socialize our children.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/83563/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mike Sosteric does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>World Suicide Prevention Day draws attention to the rising tide of teenagers taking their own lives. “Toxic socialization” involving emotional and physical abuse in families is a major cause.Mike Sosteric, Associate Professor, Sociology, Athabasca UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/741542017-03-08T00:04:43Z2017-03-08T00:04:43ZFactCheck Q&A: are there laws to protect against ‘revenge porn’ in Australia?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/159707/original/image-20170307-20739-1888lgf.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Actor and presenter Faustina Agolley speaking on Q&A.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">ABC Q&A</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><strong>The Conversation fact-checks claims made on Q&A, broadcast Mondays on the ABC at 9:35pm. Thank you to everyone who sent us quotes for checking via <a href="http://www.twitter.com/conversationEDU">Twitter</a> using hashtags #FactCheck and #QandA, on <a href="http://www.facebook.com/conversationEDU">Facebook</a> or by <a href="mailto:checkit@theconversation.edu.au">email</a>.</strong></p>
<hr>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/gXejApbmZM4?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Excerpt from Q&A, March 6, 2017. Quote begins at 3:10.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<blockquote>
<p>I thought there were laws to kind of protect [against] revenge porn? There aren’t? <strong>– Actor and presenter Faustina Agolley, <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/tv/qanda/txt/s4618968.htm">speaking</a> on Q&A on March 6, 2017.</strong></p>
</blockquote>
<p>In the lead-up to International Women’s Day, an all-female panel of guests on ABC TV’s Q&A program discussed issues ranging from sexual assault and domestic violence to “<a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/revenge-porn-10067">revenge porn</a>”, where a nude or explicit image is shared without consent. </p>
<p>Actor and presenter Faustina Agolley questioned what the law says on this issue, asking: “I thought there were laws to kind of protect [against] revenge porn? There aren’t?”</p>
<p>Let’s check the facts. </p>
<h2>Checking the source</h2>
<p>The Conversation contacted Agolley seeking to clarify what she meant by her comment. She said by email:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>My question “I thought there were laws to kind of protect [against] revenge porn?” was to the audience and presenter Tony Jones. They replied “no” or shook their heads. That’s why I said, “There aren’t?” I was surprised as I thought there was. Coming from Victoria, I must have heard or read this somewhere before (perhaps from one of <a href="http://www.dailylife.com.au/news-and-views/by/Clementine-Ford">Clementine Ford’s</a> articles). And I didn’t realise this was specific to the state that I lived in. Therefore, when the audience seemed to debunk my hunch, I believed them.</p>
<p>I hope this helps further the discussion on this issue. As may you know, we’re only briefed on what some of the topics may be. Revenge porn was not one of them, so I couldn’t research in advance. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>As it turns out, Agolley was right to be unsure about what the law is on so-called “revenge porn” in Australia – because the answer to her question depends on where you live.</p>
<h2>Patchy state laws, and no specific national laws</h2>
<p>Revenge porn is a media-generated term referring to the distribution of nude, sexual or sexually explicit images without the depicted person’s consent, often via social media or mobile phone. </p>
<p>Yet the term itself is misleading. Not all perpetrators are motivated by “revenge”, and not all images can be described as “pornography”. The term might also be offensive to victims, as it minimises the harms they experience when an intimate image (photo or video) is created or shared without permission.</p>
<p>This is partly why academics and government agencies are increasingly using the term <a href="https://esafety.gov.au/esafety-information/esafety-issues/image-based-abuse">“image-based abuse”</a>.</p>
<p>There are specific laws in <a href="http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/vic/consol_act/soa1966189/s41da.html">Victoria</a> and <a href="http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/sa/consol_act/soa1953189/s26c.html">South Australia</a> that criminalise the distribution of an intimate or “invasive” image without consent. In both Victoria and South Australia, it is also a criminal offence to threaten to distribute an intimate or invasive image. </p>
<p>But there are no specific federal laws making the non-consensual creation or distribution of a nude or sexual image a criminal offence. There are also gaps in other Australian state and territory laws where no specific criminal offences exist.</p>
<p>In <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10439463.2016.1154964">our research with police and legal services</a>, some suggested that federal telecommunications laws such as “using a carriage service to menace, harass or cause offence” (<a href="http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/num_act/claoaoma22004729/sch1.html">Section 474.17 of the Criminal Code</a>) could be used to respond to image-based abuse. But unless it is clear that a perpetrator intended to cause those impacts to a victim by distributing an intimate image, some of our interviewees thought it was a legal grey area and that clearer laws were needed.</p>
<p>There have been <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-09-03/labor-mps-propose-private-members-bill-banning-revenge-porn/6747764">proposals to introduce new federal laws</a> to tackle image-based abuse. To date, the federal government has committed to introducing a <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-11-23/revenge-porn-civil-penalties-could-serve-quicker-justice/8050054">civil penalties scheme</a>, which would assist victims in reporting image-based abuse and having the images removed. </p>
<p>Other states have also investigated whether new laws are needed. For example, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/society/2016/sep/11/revenge-porn-to-be-criminalised-in-western-australia-domestic-violence-law">Western Australia has proposed its own legal reform</a> to tackle image-based abuse by a partner or ex-partner in the context of family violence. The proposed law would allow restraining orders (also known as intervention or protection orders in some jurisdictions) to prevent a perpetrator from distributing or publishing intimate images of another person. A breach of the order would be a criminal offence, attracting up to two years in prison.</p>
<p>In short, there is currently a piecemeal approach to legal protections against image-based abuse (or “revenge pornography”) in Australia.</p>
<p>While criminal and civil laws exist in some states and territories that could be (and have been) used to provide victim redress, there is no national consistency.</p>
<p>In states or territories without specific legislation, many victims simply have no recourse to justice if existing laws do not apply and/or if the victim cannot afford to seek remedies through the civil law, which is often costly and out of the reach of ordinary Australians.</p>
<h2>Verdict</h2>
<p>Faustina Agolley was right to be unsure on Q&A about what the law is on revenge porn in Australia – because it all depends on where you live. Specific laws against so-called “revenge porn” do exist in two states, Victoria and South Australia. But there is no specific criminal offence at the federal level or in other states and territories. <strong>– Anastasia Powell, Nicola Henry, Asher Flynn.</strong></p>
<hr>
<h2>Review</h2>
<p>The above analysis is sound. However, I would also add the following points:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>The New South Wales attorney-general, Gabrielle Upton, announced in September last year that the state government will soon seek to criminalise “revenge porn” or “the distribution of intimate or sexually explicit images without consent”. They also proposed a new civil offence for serious invasions of privacy.</p></li>
<li><p>Other criminal laws such as “publishing an indecent article” have also been <a href="https://www.caselaw.nsw.gov.au/decision/54a636e73004de94513d973b">used to successfully prosecute</a> cases of “revenge porn”.</p></li>
<li><p>Civil doctrines such as breach of confidence and copyright can sometimes provide effective <a href="http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/wa/WASC/2015/15.html">outcomes</a>, such as injunctions prohibiting defendants from further publication and compensation.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>I would agree that state laws provide patchy coverage for instances of
“revenge pornography”. There are no <em>specific</em> national laws but other laws have been used to successfully prosecute cases. I think national laws – such as Section 474.17 of the Criminal Code (using a carriage service to menace, harass or cause offence) that have been used to successfully prosecute <a href="http://www.canberratimes.com.au/act-news/guilty-verdict-in-adfa-skype-sex-case-20130828-2sq7v.html">some</a> <a href="http://www.austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/sinodisp/au/cases/act/ACTSC/2013/122.html?stem=0&synonyms=0&query=deblaquiere">instances</a> of “revenge porn” are inadequate and in need of reform. <strong>– Jessica Lake.</strong></p>
<hr>
<p><div class="callout"> Have you ever seen a “fact” worth checking? The Conversation’s FactCheck asks academic experts to test claims and see how true they are. We then ask a second academic to review an anonymous copy of the article. You can request a check at checkit@theconversation.edu.au. Please include the statement you would like us to check, the date it was made, and a link if possible.</div></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/74154/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anastasia Powell receives funding from the ARC and the Criminology Research Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Asher Flynn receives funding from the ARC and the Criminology Research Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nicola Henry receives funding from the ARC and the Criminology Research Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jessica Lake does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>On Q&A, panellist Faustina Agolley questioned whether there were laws protecting against revenge porn in Australia. As it turns out, it all depends on where you live.Anastasia Powell, Senior Research and ARC DECRA Fellow, Justice and Legal Studies, RMIT UniversityAsher Flynn, Senior Lecturer in Criminology, Monash UniversityNicola Henry, Senior Lecturer in Legal Studies, La Trobe UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/683982016-11-24T14:11:39Z2016-11-24T14:11:39ZRecognising the controlling patterns at the heart of domestic abuse<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/147399/original/image-20161124-15356-zyv973.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Escalating abuse.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/confirm/507767908?src=uLREL_s5z5WM5r5iNty_3A-1-8&id=507767908&size=medium_jpg">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Perpetrators of domestic abuse often try to take control of every aspect of their partner’s lives. This controlling behaviour lies at the heart of domestic abuse, but legislation introduced in 2015 makes coercive and controlling behaviour in intimate or family relationships <a href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2015/9/section/76/enacted">a criminal offence</a>. </p>
<p>Coercive control often includes isolating women from friends and family, monitoring where they go, and controlling their use of social media. It also includes damage to women’s property and financial abuse, such as depriving women of money or taking the money they earn. It can include threats to children, or encouraging children to participate in the abuse of their mothers. Increasingly, coercive control takes place via social media, including the threat or use of so-called <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/405286/revenge-porn-factsheet.pdf">revenge porn</a>.</p>
<p>Physical and sexual abuse of a partner was obviously a criminal offence before the new law was introduced. But the law now recognises the harms caused by the other patterns of behaviour by which perpetrators of domestic violence abuse their partners. One aim is to enable domestic abuse to be identified in the earlier stages of relationships, so that the police can intervene before the onset of physical violence, or before violence that has already started becomes more severe. </p>
<p>In many cases, domestic violence is life-threatening. The most recent Office for National Statistics homicide figures for the UK <a href="https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/crimeandjustice/compendium/focusonviolentcrimeandsexualoffences/yearendingmarch2015/chapter2homicide">show</a> that during 2014-15, 81 women were killed by former or current partners. These women made up 44% of female murder victims during that year, compared with 6% of male victims who were killed by current or former partners.</p>
<p>This has been the pattern for several years, with between one and two women killed by current or former partners each week. These killings are often the culmination of years or months of domestic abuse, the severity of which has escalated during the period leading up to the woman’s death. In many cases, the woman has previously sought help from the police or other agencies, and has not received an adequate response.</p>
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<h2>Missed opportunities to recognise threats</h2>
<p>An Independent Police Complaints Commission (IPCC) <a href="https://www.ipcc.gov.uk/reports/learning-the-lessons/bulletin-11-gender-and-domestic-abuse-october-2010">review of police responses</a> to several women who experienced domestic abuse and were later killed by partners or former partners, identified several recurring problems with police attitudes and practices. These included failures to properly record details from callers reporting violence, failure to gather intelligence about offenders’ histories, failure to conduct assessments of the levels of risk which perpetrators posed, and failure to reassess risk when the situation changed – all of which contributed to the police missing opportunities to identify or react to the escalating violence during the period leading up to the woman’s death. </p>
<p>Perhaps most crucially, the report identified some police officers’ lack of empathy with women experiencing domestic abuse as one of the key factors contributing to poor practices.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2007/nov/16/ukcrime.gender">killing of Colette Lynch</a> in Warwickshire by former partner, Percy Wright, in 2005, particularly highlights how a lack of police empathy can have deadly consequences. Early that year, Wright threatened Lynch and caused damage to her home. The police officers who attended the scene did not investigate this incident, or record it as a crime, despite Lynch reporting that Wright had threatened to kill her and reports to the police that Wright had been seen in public carrying knives. </p>
<p>Two days later, Wright stabbed Lynch to death. <a href="https://www.ipcc.gov.uk/investigations/colette-lynch-warwickshire-police">Another IPCC report</a> concluded that “Colette was grievously ill served by a succession of officers … who failed to ask questions, failed to listen properly, failed to make adequate records”. Wright’s mental health had seriously deteriorated in the weeks leading up to the killing, for which he was convicted of manslaughter.</p>
<h2>Joining up crucial information</h2>
<p>In Lynch’s case, the police responded to the damage to her property as simply an incident of criminal damage. The police tendency to respond to incidents of domestic abuse as single incidents rather than as part of a pattern of repeated abusive behaviour is evident from other IPCC reports, such as <a href="https://www.ipcc.gov.uk/investigations/maria-stubbings-essex-police">their report</a> into the death of Maria Stubbings, who was murdered by former partner Marc Chivers in 2008. During the period leading up to her murder, Stubbings had reported harassment and threats including Chivers breaking into her property. Despite Essex police knowing that Chivers had been convicted of murdering a previous female partner, they initially responded to the break-in as an ordinary burglary.</p>
<p>Because the new legislation specifically defines coercive and controlling behaviour as repeated and continuous, it has the potential to move police thinking and practice away from a focus on single incidents to one which recognises that domestic abuse involves patterns of behaviour which occur over time, and are cumulative in their effects. </p>
<p>This creates the potential for greater police understanding of the dynamics of domestic abuse, and the effects it can have on the women experiencing it, which could lead to a more empathetic response. Had police recognised the patterns of escalating aggression towards Lynch and Stubbings in the periods leading up to their deaths – and responded appropriately – it is possible that their deaths might have been avoided. </p>
<p>Some of the successful prosecutions brought under the new legislation suggest that it is improving police recognition of patterns of coercive control, at least in some areas. For example, in Liverpool, Adrian Lee was sentenced to six months in prison and given a two-year restraining order <a href="http://www.cps.gov.uk/news/latest_news/man_convicted_for_controlling_or_coercive_behaviour/">under this law</a> for controlling his partner by preventing her contact with friends, stopping her using her mobile phone, controlling her social media use, and making her delete friends from Facebook. In Cleveland, Richard Wilshaw’s “menacing” behaviours when his partner resisted his control, <a href="http://www.cps.gov.uk/news/latest_news/first_north_east_prosecution_for_controlling_and_coercive_behaviour/index.html">resulted in a conviction</a> for coercive and controlling behaviour.</p>
<p>There is a danger that perpetrators may be charged with this offence as an alternative to charging them with offences which can be more difficult to prove. To prevent this happening it is important that the new offence does not become a “catch-all” offence which leads to more serious offences being overlooked. But the new law has enormous potential for changing criminal justice agencies’ attitudes to domestic abuse, and for enabling those experiencing such abuse to recognise it and seek help at an earlier stage.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/68398/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Maureen O'Hara does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Coercive and controlling behaviour is a crime – police now need to join the dots to save women at threat from partners.Maureen O'Hara, Lecturer in Law, University of SalfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/592352016-06-01T20:15:00Z2016-06-01T20:15:00ZEmotional abuse of children is a growing problem in Australia<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/124456/original/image-20160530-7692-1g19dnc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Emotional abuse is most likely to coincide with other forms for abuse, including neglect and physical abuse. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Our politicians talk a lot about “families”, but what do they really mean when they use this term? What does a modern Australian family look like and how does it compare with ten, 20 or even 30 years ago?</em></p>
<p><em>In this <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/changing-families">ten-part series</a>, we examine some major changes in family and relationships, and how that might in turn reshape law, policy and our idea of ourselves.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>We often hear stories about children being removed from the care of their parents. But how common is this in Australia? What are the main reasons for why this happens? And how does it get to this stage?</p>
<p>To understand this we need to take a closer look at the families that are coming into contact with the child protection system. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/124232/original/image-20160527-22043-16ij2z6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/124232/original/image-20160527-22043-16ij2z6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=369&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124232/original/image-20160527-22043-16ij2z6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=369&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124232/original/image-20160527-22043-16ij2z6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=369&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124232/original/image-20160527-22043-16ij2z6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124232/original/image-20160527-22043-16ij2z6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124232/original/image-20160527-22043-16ij2z6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.aihw.gov.au/publication-detail/?id=60129554728">Australian Institute of Health and Welfare</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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<p>Data shows that over the last three years, the number of child protection notifications, investigations, and substantiations for child maltreatment have increased by 11% for non-Indigenous children and 15% for Indigenous children.</p>
<p>And while the rate of admissions to foster care for all children (2.2 per 1000) is comparatively low to the number of children currently residing in alternative care arrangements (8.1 per 1000), this is due to the fact that many of these children will never go home. </p>
<p>And the picture is worse for Indigenous children. </p>
<p>The number of Indigenous children living in alternative care arrangements has increased by nearly 22% over the last five years while the rate for non-Indigenous children has increased by about 7%. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/124247/original/image-20160527-22073-1vlph45.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/124247/original/image-20160527-22073-1vlph45.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124247/original/image-20160527-22073-1vlph45.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124247/original/image-20160527-22073-1vlph45.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124247/original/image-20160527-22073-1vlph45.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=535&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124247/original/image-20160527-22073-1vlph45.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=535&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124247/original/image-20160527-22073-1vlph45.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=535&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.aihw.gov.au/publication-detail/?id=60129554728">Australian Institute of Health and Welfare</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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<hr>
<p>It follows a history of systematic and forced removal of children from Indigenous families and communities. Between 1910 and 1970, it is estimated that <a href="http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/other/IndigLRes/stolen/stolen08.html">between 10% to 30% of Indigenous</a> children were forcibly removed from their families, resulting in <a href="http://healingfoundation.org.au/wordpress/wp-content/files_mf/1369185755GrowingourChildrenupsinglesfeb2013.pdf">intergenerational personal and community impacts</a> that are severe and far-reaching.</p>
<p>There are many possible reasons for the increasing numbers of children, both Indigenous and non-Indigenous, who receive some form of child protection. For example, there may be more child maltreatment; we may simply be better at discovering it; we have lowered our threshold for responding; or we do not know what else to do for families experiencing certain types of difficulties; or we are becoming increasingly risk averse. </p>
<p>Unfortunately we have very little information about any of these children and families, Indigenous and non-Indigenous alike, making explanations difficult.</p>
<h2>Majority of children removed from parents due to emotional abuse</h2>
<p>Emotional abuse – which includes exposure to domestic violence – and neglect – a failure to provide for a child’s essential needs – are by far the main forms of substantiated child maltreatment, rather than physical or sexual abuse. </p>
<p>Taken together, emotional abuse and neglect are estimated to be the primary form of maltreatment for about seven in ten investigated children in 2014-15.</p>
<p>Even when physical abuse is primary, emotional abuse and/or neglect often co-occur. </p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/124248/original/image-20160527-22073-1jntzvu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/124248/original/image-20160527-22073-1jntzvu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124248/original/image-20160527-22073-1jntzvu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124248/original/image-20160527-22073-1jntzvu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124248/original/image-20160527-22073-1jntzvu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=509&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124248/original/image-20160527-22073-1jntzvu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=509&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124248/original/image-20160527-22073-1jntzvu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=509&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.aihw.gov.au/publication-detail/?id=60129554728">Australian Institute of Health and Welfare</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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<hr>
<p>These forms of maltreatment are often proxies for concerns stemming from domestic violence, substance misuse, and mental health issues. </p>
<p>At a broader level, maltreatment (especially child neglect) is <a href="https://www.humanrights.gov.au/publications/statistical-overview-aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-peoples-australia#toc5">highly related to poverty</a>, especially long-term poverty, and Indigenous households tend to be considerably worse off than non-Indigenous households in terms of income.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/124249/original/image-20160527-22063-e31cw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/124249/original/image-20160527-22063-e31cw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=269&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124249/original/image-20160527-22063-e31cw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=269&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124249/original/image-20160527-22063-e31cw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=269&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124249/original/image-20160527-22063-e31cw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124249/original/image-20160527-22063-e31cw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124249/original/image-20160527-22063-e31cw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.aihw.gov.au/publication-detail/?id=60129554728">Australian Institute of Health and Welfare</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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<hr>
<h2>How does this affect children?</h2>
<p>We actually don’t know as the data collected does not look at how children are doing in any stage of child protection system involvement.</p>
<p>More and more, we are able to use linked data to get educational test scores or ascertain whether they have experienced a health issue. But systematic, real-time assessments of how children or parents/caregivers are actually doing are rare. </p>
<p>At best, we know from <a href="http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2206.2006.00430.x">studies</a> that children transitioning to adulthood from care tend to fare less well than their peers.</p>
<p>So we have an increasing number of children and families facing complex challenges and we know next to nothing about who they are and how they are doing. We are also not providing the types of services needed to deal the issues that drive maltreatment. </p>
<p>How do we change this dismal picture?</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/124430/original/image-20160530-903-1vg1vgk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/124430/original/image-20160530-903-1vg1vgk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1162&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124430/original/image-20160530-903-1vg1vgk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1162&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124430/original/image-20160530-903-1vg1vgk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1162&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124430/original/image-20160530-903-1vg1vgk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1461&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124430/original/image-20160530-903-1vg1vgk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1461&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124430/original/image-20160530-903-1vg1vgk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1461&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.aihw.gov.au/WorkArea/DownloadAsset.aspx?id=60129554973">Australian Institute of Health and Welfare</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<hr>
<h2>Better support for parents</h2>
<p>We have to understand that parents are usually best placed to raise their own children, even if they have problems. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24342860">Research shows</a> that better outcomes for vulnerable young children are better achieved by strengthening the resources and capabilities of parents, rather than focusing on more traditional services aimed primarily at children. </p>
<h2>Focus on family wellbeing</h2>
<p>We need to expand our focus to include child and family wellbeing rather than the more limited safety and risk paradigm we are currently stuck in. </p>
<p>Other child protection systems, such as those in the US, are rapidly <a href="http://cascw.umn.edu/portfolio-items/spring-2014-cw360/">shifting to a wellbeing approach</a>, which incorporates the basics of safety (that is, maltreatment impacts wellbeing) and permanence (having a long-term, stable caregiver) but has a broader focus on achieving optimal child development. </p>
<p>For instance, the new Quality Assurance Framework for OOHC in New South Wales builds on US federal policy, which essentially defines wellbeing as consisting of the things children need to develop into healthy, well-functioning adults. </p>
<p>This includes maximising children’s intellectual and cognitive functioning, making sure that their physical and mental health needs are met, and supporting their development of a positive self-identity. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/124250/original/image-20160527-22083-1t5nfop.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/124250/original/image-20160527-22083-1t5nfop.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=571&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124250/original/image-20160527-22083-1t5nfop.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=571&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124250/original/image-20160527-22083-1t5nfop.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=571&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124250/original/image-20160527-22083-1t5nfop.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=718&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124250/original/image-20160527-22083-1t5nfop.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=718&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124250/original/image-20160527-22083-1t5nfop.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=718&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.aihw.gov.au/publication-detail/?id=60129554728">Australian Institute of Health and Welfare</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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<h2>Need more data</h2>
<p>We cannot really understand what to do, either at an individual or population level, unless we better understand the children and families who need our assistance. </p>
<p>We are making do with poor information because it is all we have. We need to measure child wellbeing using properly validated instruments that are easy to use and provide key information to frontline practitioners.</p>
<p>We would not go to the doctor for a health emergency and expect them to simply guess at what the problem might be and how well it is being resolved. We would all opt for valid tests of problem and progress. These exist for parent and child wellbeing, and we should use them. If we successfully define and measure child and family wellbeing, we will work to achieve it and transform the system in the process.</p>
<h2>Improve child protection services</h2>
<p>We have to provide families with services that are effective for dealing with the problems identified. </p>
<p>Too often, our main child protection system intervention appears to be to engage with parents by pointing out the effects their behaviours are likely to have on their children (which can be good to point out) and threatening them with the loss of their children if their behaviours do not change. </p>
<p>Parents and caregivers in the child protection system are too <a href="http://www.amazon.com/Inside-Nudge-Unit-Changes-Difference/dp/0753556537">often overwhelmed</a> by their circumstances to adopt and maintain new behaviours or they just need to gain new skills. </p>
<p>Simply asking people to change without adequate support and corresponding systems change is insufficient. Other systems are making the switch from protection and welfare to child wellbeing. It is time Australia did as well.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/59235/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kerry Arabena is Chair for Indigenous Health at The University of Melbourne, and on the Board of Indigenous Community Volunteers, Kinnaway Victorian Aboriginal Chamber of Commerce and Indigenous Women in Business.
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Aron Shlonsky and Robyn Mildon do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>We have an ever-increasing number of children and families facing complex challenges and we know next to nothing about who they are and how they are doing.Aron Shlonsky, Professor of Evidence-Informed Practice, Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Health Sciences, The University of MelbourneKerry Arabena, Chair of Indigenous Health, The University of MelbourneRobyn Mildon, Associate Professor and Head of Centre for Evidence and ImplementationLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/574442016-04-07T12:58:18Z2016-04-07T12:58:18ZThe Archers: the lasting effects of non-physical domestic abuse<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117836/original/image-20160407-16260-3pmojo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Radio 4 listeners have been gripped by the Helen and Rob storyline. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">BBC/Pete Dadds</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>I have to admit that I don’t normally listen to The Archers and people don’t normally talk to me about its storylines. That all changed when BBC Radio 4’s long-running radio drama series began a story over 18 months ago which looked at the issue of domestic violence and coercive control. It has come <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-35961057">to a dramatic head</a>, with Helen stabbing her husband Rob. </p>
<p>One of the most difficult things that victims and survivors of abuse tell researchers, and have consistently told us since the first women’s refuges in the 1970s, is that it is the non-physical abuse they experience <a href="http://vaw.sagepub.com/content/16/12/1412.abstract">which is the most difficult to deal</a> with. </p>
<p>The bruises and other injuries victims suffer from physical abuse are visible. They are evidence to other people but also to oneself. There it is in black and blue. What is more difficult to prove and believe, is that someone who purports to love and care for you would bully, undermine and manipulate you. </p>
<p>The women I spoke too after the fact would either say: “How could someone treat me like that?” or more often than not: “How could I let someone treat me like that?” – still blaming themselves.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"717718884632035329"}"></div></p>
<h2>Intimate terrorism</h2>
<p>As The Archers storyline shows, this type of abuse is characteristic of a pattern of “low-level” abusive behaviours rather than the explosive incidents people tend to think about when they consider “a domestic”. It involves small, everyday things which result in people staying away, isolating victims from their family, friends and networks of support. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.bristol.ac.uk/sps/people/emma-williamson/pub/65744736">Recent research</a> from Bristol has documented the massive impact of such abuse on friends and family, as well as <a href="http://bjsw.oxfordjournals.org/content/35/8/1321">the evidence</a> we know about the impact on victims, their <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books/about/Children_s_Perspectives_on_Domestic_Viol.html?id=yI8oeHuQZyoC&source=kp_cover&redir_esc=y">children</a>, and the <a href="http://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/5/5/e007141.abstract">perpetrators</a> themselves. Doctors, the police, courts and social services, all tend to think of interventions in terms of those single incidents which means that the ongoing manipulation of victims goes unnoticed.</p>
<p>Some call this type of abuse <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books/about/Coercive_Control_How_Men_Entrap_Women_in.html?id=rm8CPqTiDWMC">coercive control</a>, others <a href="http://www.personal.psu.edu/mpj/1995%20JMF.pdf">intimate terrorism</a>, but for many victims it is this type of abuse which has the greatest impact on their liberty and personhood.</p>
<p>Work that <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books/about/Rebuilding_Lives_after_Domestic_Violence.html?id=hVSgeVHHjREC">colleagues</a> and <a href="http://vaw.sagepub.com/content/16/12/1412.abstract">I</a> have conducted at the University of Bristol has shown the long-term health and emotional impacts of this type of abuse on victims. </p>
<p>In 2015, the British government <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/482528/Controlling_or_coercive_behaviour_-_statutory_guidance.pdf">introduced a new criminal law</a> on domestic violence which explicitly identified coercive control as a pattern of abusive behaviours. It is this concept which forms the basis of the current Archers storyline and which the script writers have slowly and meticulously explored.</p>
<h2>Difficult to escape</h2>
<p>Working with national charities, <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p03pzr2r">including Women’s Aid,</a> the scriptwriters have demonstrated the impact of this type of ongoing abuse and, by taking their time, have also shown how such a manipulative partner operates. After 18 months of the Rob and Helen storyline, it is harder for the listener to simply blame the victim and ask why she doesn’t leave. Hopefully, listeners will begin to understand how the gradual nature of the abuse undermines someone’s sense of self, their personhood and, ultimately, their liberty and human rights.</p>
<p>I hope that there is enough evidence that Rob gets his comeuppance – yet we know from sad reality that, for many in this situation, escaping the abuse is easier said than done. Even when victims physically leave an abusive relationship they are not “free”. Many women are blamed when they retaliate, or killed during the process of leaving, when the abusers’ control is being challenged the most. For those with children, their contact with the abuser <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13645579.2010.482260">might be ongoing</a> through child contact proceedings.</p>
<p>I hope that, whatever happens with the current story, the audience leaves with a greater understanding of the ways in which domestic violence operates and how it impacts on those involved. We hope listeners will understand how hard perpetrators make it to leave.</p>
<p><em>If anyone has been affected by the storyline, and wants to talk to someone in confidence, then the national domestic violence helpline is an excellent resource. 24 hours, 7 days a week. 0808 2000 247.</em></p>
<p>This article was co-published <a href="http://policystudies.blogs.ilrt.org/">with the blog</a> of the School of Policy Studies at Bristol.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/57444/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Emma Williamson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>How the kind of abuse Rob subjected Helen to often goes unnoticed.Emma Williamson, Acting Head and Senior Research Fellow, Centre for Gender and Violence Research, University of BristolLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/513202015-11-27T03:02:10Z2015-11-27T03:02:10ZWe count what matters, and violence against people with disability matters<p>The <a href="http://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Community_Affairs/Violence_abuse_neglect">Senate inquiry</a> into violence, abuse and neglect against people with disability heard many horrific stories of violence experienced by adults and children with disability. They experience violence at the hands of intimate partners, parents, informal carers, service providers, teachers, medical professionals, co-residents in institutional settings, and others.</p>
<p>Greens senator Rachel Siewert, handing down the report, <a href="http://parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/search/display/display.w3p;db=CHAMBER;id=chamber%2Fhansards%2F2ea0ef30-380c-493d-adf4-0223f89e0720%2F0174;query=Id%3A%22chamber%2Fhansards%2F2ea0ef30-380c-493d-adf4-0223f89e0720%2F0000%22">observed</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>One of the issues that is really clear is that we do not have good data around prevalence. We do not collect this data … Yet that is the only way that we can understand what is going on.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>This echoes the concerns of Australian disability researchers in <a href="http://www.aph.gov.au/DocumentStore.ashx?id=0d72bc68-4a85-4a51-895c-ce7eea6112a0&subId=353088">submissions to the inquiry</a>.</p>
<p>Data is essential for political accountability. Violence against people with disability – <a href="http://www.aihw.gov.au/disability/">18% of the Australian population</a> – is endemic, yet data about it is largely missing.</p>
<p>This lack of data impedes the development of effective policies and programs to prevent and respond to violence against people with disability. It also hampers advocacy efforts. </p>
<p>The lack of data lets governments, services and the community – all of us – off the hook.</p>
<h2>What do we count now?</h2>
<p>It is well recognised internationally that high-quality population-based prevalence data is needed to respond adequately to violence. In Australia, the ABS Personal Safety Survey (<a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/4906.0">PSS</a>) is regarded as the source of the best data on violence.</p>
<p>In 2012, for the first time, the survey included questions about disability. This enabled comparisons to be made between people with and without disability. </p>
<p>The chilling results of a comprehensive analysis of these comparisons were reported at the <a href="http://croakey.org/investigating-the-unmet-needs-of-children-and-refugees-with-disabilities/">Population Health Congress</a> in September. These results will soon be published in the Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health. </p>
<p>Findings included that since 15 years of age:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>28% of women with disability reported sexual violence (compared with 15% of other women);</p></li>
<li><p>25% of women with disability reported partner violence (compared with 13% of other women);</p></li>
<li><p>35% of women with disability reported emotional abuse (compared with 19% of other women); and</p></li>
<li><p>men with disability also reported higher levels of sexual violence and partner violence than men without disability, but lower levels than women with disability.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>The prevalence of all forms of violence was higher among people with disability.</p>
<h2>What counts as violence?</h2>
<p>But these statistics don’t tell the whole story. This is because of how the PSS collects data. The family and other formal and informal carers who people with disability rely on for support may be perpetrators, but the PSS doesn’t collect information about that. </p>
<p>People with disability also experience what legal researcher <a href="http://www.aph.gov.au/DocumentStore.ashx?id=91128471-6949-4097-9bb4-376854aec7c9&subId=355113">Linda Steele</a> calls “lawful violence”. This is violence that against any other person would constitute a serious crime or even torture, but against people with disability is “treatment”. </p>
<p>People with disability may be uniquely vulnerable to forms of violence like solitary confinement, forced medication, physical restraint, withholding food, medication or equipment, rough handling and so forth. Yet this is not counted in the PSS.</p>
<p>The survey includes only people living in private dwellings. This leaves out some of the settings in which people with disability are over-represented. That includes group homes, large residential facilities, psychiatric facilities, aged care facilities, prisons and so on. These settings lend themselves to <a href="http://www.pwd.org.au/issues/crpd-civil-society-shadow-report-group.html">higher levels of violence and abuse</a>.</p>
<p>The PSS also will only run interviews with individuals. This means anyone who requires any support with communication (like <a href="http://www.deafau.org.au/info/policy_auslan.php">Deaf people</a> or people with communication needs) is automatically excluded. It also samples only adults despite <a href="http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Christopher_Mikton/publication/229090389_Prevalence_and_risk_of_violence_against_children_with_disabilities_a_systematic_review_and_meta-analysis_of_observational_studies/links/0c960522c6f04195f0000000.pdf">international data</a> showing the prevalence of violence against children with disabilities is much higher.</p>
<p>So, while the PSS shows that people with disability are at higher risk of violence than people without disability, the picture is far from complete. </p>
<p>Other mainstream data collections are also inadequate. <a href="http://www.aihw.gov.au/publication-detail/?id=60129548812">Child protection data</a> does not report information on disability of either the child or parent/s, despite numerous commitments to do so under the <a href="https://www.dss.gov.au/our-responsibilities/families-and-children/publications-articles/protecting-children-is-everyones-business">National Framework for Protecting Australia’s Children</a>. Information about disability is not in the crimes data reported by the <a href="http://www.aic.gov.au/statistics.html">Australian Institute of Criminology</a>.</p>
<p>Additionally, our major data collections on disability – the <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/4430.0">Survey of Disability, Ageing and Carers</a> and the <a href="http://www.aihw.gov.au/disability/disability-services-nmds-collection/">Disability Services National Minimum Data Set</a> – do not collect information on violence. </p>
<p>That is a missed opportunity the inquiry highlighted. Only at the request of the Senate committee has data from the <a href="http://www.aph.gov.au/DocumentStore.ashx?id=c4d3be4a-96f1-47f4-a85f-fd35d33cd04e&subId=355132">National Disability Abuse and Neglect Hotline</a> been released. It reflects a problematically low reporting rate when compared, for example, with the new <a href="http://www.aph.gov.au/DocumentStore.ashx?id=857af43a-0a57-45b5-b97d-2da5d0815f0d&subId=350759">NSW Ombudsman’s Reportable Conduct Scheme</a>.</p>
<h2>How to make violence against people with disability count</h2>
<p>We count what matters, and what matters counts. This is at the heart of accountability. We need information on the types of violence, where it occurs, how often, and who are the perpetrators. </p>
<p>People with disability need to be at the forefront of defining violence to ensure we capture the full complexities of their experiences.</p>
<p>The inquiry <a href="http://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Community_Affairs/Violence_abuse_neglect/Report/b01">recommended</a> questions about disability and violence be included in population surveys conducted by the ABS and recorded in datasets – such as child protection data – held by the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. </p>
<p>These improvements would help us properly understand the extent of the violence. We could then respond better to the pervasive and hidden human rights violations against some of the most marginalised people in our community. </p>
<p>As Labor senator Claire Moore said in her evidence to the inquiry:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>… data is not just evidence that is put out – not just figures and numbers. Data reflects the lived experience of people … Data is the extraction of information that we can do better.</p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p><em>This article was co-authored by Dr Jess Cadwallader, Advocacy Project Manager,
Violence Prevention, at People with Disability Australia. It draws in part on <a href="https://wildlyparenthetical.wordpress.com/2015/11/26/counting-and-accountability/">her presentation</a> to a <a href="http://sydneydemocracynetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/Power-and-Accountability.pdf">symposium on Power and Accountability</a> at the University of Sydney in November 2015.</em></p>
<p><em><strong>Further reading: <a href="https://theconversation.com/its-time-to-fix-the-power-dynamics-that-allowed-the-abuse-of-people-with-disability-51307">It’s time to fix the power dynamics that allowed the abuse of people with disability</a></strong></em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/51320/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anne Kavanagh receives funding from the Australian Research Council and the National Health and Medical Research Council. She is a member of the Victorian Disability Advisory Council. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sally Robinson receives funding from the Australian Research Council, the National Disability Research Working Group and the Royal Commission into Institutional Responses on Child Sexual Abuse. She is a member of the NDIS Intellectual Disability Working Group. </span></em></p>Accountability for the violence and abuse that people with disability experience begins with recording the offences. In fact, we have long ignored crimes against vulnerable members of our community.Anne Kavanagh, Head, Gender and Women’s Health Unit, Centre for Health Equity, The University of MelbourneSally Robinson, Research Fellow, Centre for Children and Young People, Southern Cross UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/459052015-09-21T05:29:40Z2015-09-21T05:29:40ZHow forgotten victims of emotional abuse are building new support networks online<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/95362/original/image-20150918-17701-4ogvc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Home comfort</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Two women are murdered every week in the UK as a result of <a href="http://www.lwa.org.uk/understanding-abuse/statistics.htm">domestic violence</a>. The issue affects one in four women and one in six men at some point in their lives. Domestic violence also has more repeat victims than any other crime and costs the public £23 billion every year. And of those victims who have received hospital treatment for domestic violence injuries, 400 will go on to commit suicide within the year.</p>
<p>Such statistics are shocking, but what they don’t tell us is how many additional victims suffer from <a href="http://www.womensaid.org.uk/domestic_violence_topic.asp?section=0001000100220042&sectionTitle=Emotional+abuse">emotional abuse</a>, which is another form of domestic violence. Emotional abuse is not regarded as a criminal offence in adult relationships but it is just as destructive to victims’ mental health, as a review in <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140673602083368">The Lancet</a> revealed. It affects their self-esteem, emotional well-being, relationships with others and personal freedom. </p>
<p>Emotional abuse features across the entire spectrum of domestic violence. It can take the form of destructive criticism, put-downs and name calling, but also isolation, harassment, monitoring behaviours, and lying to a victim and their friends and family. It may also go hand-in-hand with sexual abuse.</p>
<p>But because emotional abuse is not a “crime”, its victims find it especially difficult to receive protection or even to be taken seriously by others at all. <a href="http://adc.bmj.com/content/95/1/59.full.pdf+html">Research suggests</a> that this may also be because emotional abuse lacks the public and political profile of physical and sexual abuse.</p>
<h2>Limited support</h2>
<p>Unlike victims of these crimes, emotional abuse victims may not seek help because they are unprotected by the law. The government hopes to address this lack of support as it introduces a new <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/newsbeat/article/30098611/emotional-abuse-to-become-illegal-under-new-domestic-abuse-law">domestic abuse law</a> later this year. This will criminalise the emotional abuse which underlies many abusive relationships.</p>
<p>Emotional abuse is a common occurrence affecting <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/4102.0main+features602014">a fifth of intimate partner relationships</a>. Despite far-reaching effects, there is a surprising <a href="http://www.thelancet.com/pdfs/journals/lancet/PIIS0140-6736%2810%2961079-3.pdf">lack of research</a> on emotional abuse in adult relationships. At present, emotional abuse does not receive the attention from researchers and health services that it needs to enable victims to be recognised and professionally supported. </p>
<p>So, where do people go to receive the support they so desperately need? If victims are not protected by the law, if they are misunderstood by family and friends, and support from health services is lacking, then to whom do they turn?</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/95339/original/image-20150918-17689-1c2mysb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/95339/original/image-20150918-17689-1c2mysb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/95339/original/image-20150918-17689-1c2mysb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/95339/original/image-20150918-17689-1c2mysb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/95339/original/image-20150918-17689-1c2mysb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/95339/original/image-20150918-17689-1c2mysb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/95339/original/image-20150918-17689-1c2mysb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Call for help.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Online groups</h2>
<p>In the digital age, one obvious place to look for support is online. Through numerous online forums, “victims” of domestic violence become “<a href="http://www.womensaid.org.uk/page.asp?section=0001000100080021&sectionTitle=Survivors+Forum">survivors</a>” who seek the emotional support from others they lack elsewhere in their lives. As with forums for patients with long-term conditions, these websites offer common components of support. This comes in the form of sharing experiences, seeking and offering advice, comparing coping strategies, and signposting to professional resources, as well as simply letting users know they are not alone.</p>
<p>Another of the more interesting uses of <a href="https://www.psychopathfree.com/content.php">these forums</a> is discussion of the perceived <a href="http://psychcentral.com/personality/">personality disorders</a> of abusers, such as antisocial personality disorder and narcissistic personality disorder. But rather than focusing on the perpetrator’s issues, forum advice commonly concerns the victim’s self-protection. This makes sense because these personality disorders are typically thought to be resistant to professional treatment.</p>
<p>Many of these forums have been created by “expert survivors”. These people have escaped and recovered from emotional abuse, and now aim to support others by sharing their experiences and creating a platform for others to discuss their own. Crucially, alongside nearly all of these forums is some form of psychological education in the form of <a href="http://forums.our-place-online.net/index.php?s=061bbe50691a0c176ad6fb8f7e38f245&act=idx">blog posts</a> or other websites with information about how survivors can be helped in the longer-term.</p>
<h2>Empowering and advising</h2>
<p>There are multiple ways these forums may help victims or survivors of emotional abuse, but further research is needed to explore these mechanisms more fully. It may be that support from an online group validates victims’ experiences and empowers them to safely confront or leave their abusers. They may feel protected by an anonymous online identity as they confide in sympathisers about the abuse, perhaps for the first time.</p>
<p>One way to describe these insightful and empathetic forum users is as “<a href="http://www.sheldonpress.com/books/9781847092762.php">enlightened witnesses</a>”, who help others understand and accept their experiences and regain their independence. And with online forums, this support is instantly available. Advice and coping strategies may help victims rebuild their confidence and increase their self-efficacy. Their self-worth may increase as they realise they are not to blame for the abuse. As well as reducing feelings of isolation, a shared perspective may also develop compassion, friendship and humour.</p>
<p>So how can these “survivor forums” contribute to the services provided by health professionals? As a starting point, they give victims a voice that could help highlight needs unmet by the health service. But they could also give health researchers another way to study the nature, prevalence, language and outcomes of emotional abuse, and the coping and exit strategies survivors find to be most effective.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/45905/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ria Poole does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Online support forums provide emotional help to domestic violence survivors in ways often missed by traditional public services.Ria Poole, Research Associate, School of Social Sciences, Cardiff UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/417602015-07-20T20:11:49Z2015-07-20T20:11:49ZBorderline personality disorder is a hurtful label for real suffering – time we changed it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/87079/original/image-20150702-27109-dfurlv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A diagnostic label such as borderline personality disorder, with its stigma and propensity to invalidate the person’s suffering, clearly has many negative impacts.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/belljar/72332573/in/photostream/">madamepsychosis/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Trigger warning: the following article has a graphic description of self-harm.</em></p>
<p>Standing in the cold, dark bathroom, she hacked into her wrist with a razor blade and quietly stared at the blood that flowed from the cut. She told herself she was a bad person and deserved the pain. </p>
<p>A part of her felt reassured by the sight of the blood – it showed she was alive – since she felt so dead and empty inside. As she stared at her image in the bathroom mirror, she thought, “I have no idea who that person is staring back at me.”</p>
<p>Such deliberate self-harm is very common in people diagnosed with borderline personality disorder. It takes many forms, including intentional overdoses of tablets with excessive alcohol, risky sexual behaviour, as well as physical self-punishment.</p>
<p>Other symptoms of the disorder include identity disturbances, feeling “dead” inside, rage responses or difficulty regulating emotional reactions to situations, mood swings, constant anxiety and panic, poor self-esteem, memory blanks, dissociation (“out of body” or feeling “unreal”) experiences, problems with concentration, feeling invalid, and fear of being abandoned. </p>
<h2>A bad cycle</h2>
<p>Between 2% to 10% of the population have some degree of borderline personality disorder, which puts them at high risk of suicide. While it’s poorly understood, we know that it predominantly impacts women. </p>
<p>There’s no medication that specifically treats borderline personality disorder, and it’s <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16990170">associated with a great deal of stigma</a> among both health-care professionals and the general community. Research shows people seeking treatment for self-inflicted harm, including taking medication overdoses, <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23882440">are often seen as “difficult”</a>, a “nuisance” or <a href="http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-244X/15/2">just indulging in “bad behaviour”</a>. </p>
<p>Rage or diffuse anger is another symptom of borderline personality disorder that’s poorly tolerated by family and health professionals. If the person with the condition repeats self-harming behaviour, frustration among family, friends and health professionals increases and may lead to decreased care. </p>
<p>Since people with the disorder crave reassurance that they are worthy, valid and deserving of care, this rejection sets up a dangerous spiral of increasingly harmful behaviour that’s intended to attract care.</p>
<h2>Origins in trauma</h2>
<p>About <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2929750">80% of people with borderline personality disorder</a> have a history of trauma. They may block out recollections of early life trauma, but the impact of their emotional, physical or sexual abuse as a young person is profound and present for many years afterwards. </p>
<p>More specifically, people who were sexually abused as children <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/1986-14683-001">often feel</a> – wrongly – that they did something wrong, that they are to blame for being abused and that they’re bad people. At a deep level, they believe they deserve punishment; their self-harm acts out this belief. </p>
<p>The rage of people with borderline personality disorder, which often occurs in response to apparently small issues, may actually be totally justified – a delayed expression of anger with the perpetrator of their abuse. And their memory blanks and out-of-body responses to stress may be attempts to repress recollections of abuse and to escape from trauma. </p>
<p>Not all traumas stem from physical or sexual abuse. Emotional neglect or deprivation can also be difficult for people to identify and define. They can, nonetheless, leave a mark for years to come. About <a href="http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(10)61422-5/abstract">10% to 20% of people who have borderline personality disorder</a> have no known history of childhood trauma.</p>
<h2>Difficult diagnosis</h2>
<p>The biology of this poorly understood condition <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24965581">includes the hypothesis</a> that abused or neglected children produce high levels of stress hormones (cortisol) and remain on “high alert” – watching and waiting for the next abusive episode. These stress hormones impact brain circuits and centres that determine anger or emotional control and higher learning. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/87070/original/image-20150702-27154-nfleu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/87070/original/image-20150702-27154-nfleu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/87070/original/image-20150702-27154-nfleu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/87070/original/image-20150702-27154-nfleu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/87070/original/image-20150702-27154-nfleu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/87070/original/image-20150702-27154-nfleu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/87070/original/image-20150702-27154-nfleu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Deliberate self-harm is very common in people diagnosed with borderline personality disorder.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/future_crazy_cat_lady/2384024631/">Rachel Collins/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
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<p>Women with this condition can also have <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24965581">cortisol-induced cyclical reproductive changes</a>, leading to menstrual cycle-related depression, obesity, diabetes, high blood pressure, increased facial hair, infertility and ovarian cysts. All these long-lasting mental and physical symptoms appear to have their origins in a history of early life trauma with biological brain changes. </p>
<p>There are effective psychological treatments, such as <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10598211">dialectical behavioural therapy</a>, for borderline personality disorder but health professionals have to recognise and explain the condition before appropriate care can be provided. </p>
<p>And many health professionals find it difficult to recognise the condition because different symptoms come and go over time. An overall view of the person’s life is needed to correctly make the diagnosis. </p>
<h2>Ill-fitting name</h2>
<p>As a diagnostic term, borderline personality disorder not only fails to capture any of the underlying issues and mechanisms involved in producing its symptoms, it also denigrates. In contrast, major depressive disorder describes a serious condition with the key feature of depressed mood explicit in the diagnostic term.</p>
<p>The word “borderline” was <a href="http://www.bpddemystified.com/references/">used in the 1930s by psychoanalysts</a> to describe patients whose symptoms were on the border between psychosis and neurosis. But today the most common interpretation of the word is that <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25536098">the condition “borders” on being a real illness</a>. </p>
<p>In effect, there’s an invalidation of the illness in its name. This mirrors – as well as possibly enhancing – the feeling of invalidation the person with the condition already suffers. </p>
<p>And all this is not helped by the next word either. To suggest there’s something about someone’s personality that’s disordered – especially as personality is, collectively, the intimate and unique qualities that describe a person – is a devastating blow. And it cuts further into the already diminished self-esteem that people with this condition have.</p>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>Diagnostic labels carry a great deal of weight. They describe symptoms, attempt to answer the question of “what is wrong” and lead to a treatment plan. A diagnostic label such as borderline personality disorder with its stigma and propensity to invalidate the person’s suffering clearly has many negative impacts.</p>
<p>A name that captures the origins of the condition, such as complex trauma disorder, could shift the focus from seeing the person as “behaving badly” or not having a “real” illness, to recognising them as a survivor of trauma or abuse. Such a change could improve outcomes for them and their families.</p>
<p>Of course, what’s also urgently needed is clinical research that creates better understanding of the condition, and the development of tailored, effective treatments. But ultimately, prevention of early life trauma would make the biggest difference to the development and expression of this disorder. </p>
<p>In the meantime, changing the label borderline personality disorder to something more sympathetic, even if just informally, may start shifting negative attitudes to people with the condition.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>For help-seeking information about self-harm, contact Lifeline (24 hours) on 13 11 14; Kids Helpline (24 hours) on 1800 55 1800; MensLine Australia (24 hours) on 1300 78 99 78; SANE Helpline on 1800 18 SANE (7263), or visit www.reachout.com</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/41760/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jayashri Kulkarni receives funding from the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia and educational plus clinical trial grants from pharmaceutical companies that manufacture psychotropic medications. </span></em></p>Diagnostic labels usually describe symptoms, attempt to answer the question of what is wrong, and lead to a treatment plan. But “borderline personality disorder” fails on all three counts.Jayashri Kulkarni, Professor of Psychiatry, Monash UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.