tag:theconversation.com,2011:/id/topics/grapevine-5195/articlesGrapevine – The Conversation2018-11-02T14:46:30Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1029962018-11-02T14:46:30Z2018-11-02T14:46:30ZThe spread of shothole borer beetles in South Africa is proving tough to control<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/243643/original/file-20181102-83626-104s5yq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Shutterstock</span> </figcaption></figure><p>A tiny tree-killing beetle with the awkwardly long name of Polyphagous Shothole Borer was detected in South Africa for the first time <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-tiny-beetle-and-its-deadly-fungus-is-threatening-south-africas-trees-92050">last year</a>. It’s now attacking and inserting its deadly <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.3852/13-066">fungal ally</a>, <em>Fusarium euwallaceae</em>, in a wider array of tree species across a much wider geographical area.</p>
<p>The beetle was initially discovered in a Botanical Garden on the country’s east coast. It has since been detected along the southern Cape coast line as well as in several inland urban areas. The number of tree species attacked in South Africa has also risen alarmingly. It currently stands at more than <a href="https://www.fabinet.up.ac.za/pshb">80</a>, 35 of which are native.</p>
<p>The shothole borer, which is native to Southeast Asia, has the potential to affect fruit, nut and wood production, but also to permanently change urban landscapes and natural forest ecosystems. This has happened on <a href="https://www.californiaavocadogrowers.com/growing/pshbkshb/pshbkshb-fact-sheets">farms</a>, in <a href="https://landscapearchitecturemagazine.org/2018/03/13/the-tiny-menace/">suburbs</a> and <a href="https://peerj.com/articles/2141/">in forests along river valleys</a> in California.</p>
<p>The South African government has started to take steps to manage the problem. The <a href="http://www.daff.gov.za/daffweb3/Branches/Agricultural-Production-Health-Food-Safety/Plant-Health/Pest-Surveillance">Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry</a> has set up a steering committee to guide national efforts. It’s made up of representatives from various government departments, the forestry and agriculture sectors, as well as academics, arborists, and nurserymen. </p>
<p>The major challenge with the beetle infestation is that the insect is crossing the boundaries between agriculture, commercial forestry, natural forests, and urban trees. Never in the country’s history has any insect attacked and killed trees in all these sectors. The protection of trees in the different sectors is typically dealt with by different government departments, namely Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, the <a href="https://www.environment.gov.za/">Department of Environmental Affairs</a>, and municipalities. But given the beetle’s unusual behaviour, routine action plans aren’t enough to curb the problem.</p>
<h2>The threat to South Africa’s trees</h2>
<p>Of the <a href="https://www.fabinet.up.ac.za/pshb">80 species</a> of trees under attack in South Africa, about 20 are reproductive hosts in which the beetle inoculates its fungus and then multiplies. These trees pose a serious risk to the environment around them as they become a source of infestation. </p>
<p>In the remaining 60 host species the beetle also inserts the fungus, but it doesn’t reproduce in them. Although some of these trees may eventually die, they don’t pose a threat to the other trees around them.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/236995/original/file-20180918-158234-1l5l28h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/236995/original/file-20180918-158234-1l5l28h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=322&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/236995/original/file-20180918-158234-1l5l28h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=322&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/236995/original/file-20180918-158234-1l5l28h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=322&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/236995/original/file-20180918-158234-1l5l28h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/236995/original/file-20180918-158234-1l5l28h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/236995/original/file-20180918-158234-1l5l28h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A London plane tree in Johannesburg, infested by the Shothole Borer.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Supplied by author.</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The species of ornamental and street trees most affected in South Africa’s cities are the London plane, Boxelder, Japanese maple, Chinese maple, English oak and Liquidamber. Several streets of maples and liquidamber have died in some cities, and large, old English oaks and plane trees have been severely affected in some areas.</p>
<p>During countrywide surveys conducted by our team at <a href="https://www.fabinet.up.ac.za">FABI</a>, we found several fruit trees (peach, olive, grapevine, guava, fig) infested in urban areas. However, the only commercial crop that’s affected at present are pecan nut trees on farms in the Northern Cape. </p>
<p>In <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs12600-012-0223-7">Israel</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1094/PDIS-03-12-0276-PDN">California</a> the beetle caused substantial damage in avocado orchards, and although South African orchards are closely monitored by FABI team members, we have only detected it on a single backyard avocado tree in Johannesburg. Similarly, we found it on roadside wattle and eucalyptus trees, but so far the pest hasn’t been detected in commercial Eucalyptus, wattle or pine plantations.</p>
<p>In our opinion the most significant threat, but also the most difficult to predict and manage, is to South Africa’s <a href="https://www.fabinet.up.ac.za/pshb">native tree species</a> such as coral trees, wild olives, yellow woods and Natal figs.</p>
<h2>Managing the problem</h2>
<p>California has been battling the beetle problem for the last 10 years. A recent visit to the area helped us to establish what practical actions have been taken to bring the problem under control. </p>
<p>An effective public awareness campaign was launched, informing residents and local governments about the beetle and its impact. Municipalities removed reproductive host trees, most of which were going to die anyway. The state also introduced legislation preventing <a href="https://www.dontmovefirewood.org/pest_pathogen/polyphagous-shot-hole-borer-html/">infested wood from being moved</a> from one area to another. Although researchers there have shown that <a href="https://apsjournals.apsnet.org/doi/10.1094/PDIS-10-17-1569-RE">chemical control</a> of the beetle and fungus on individual trees can protect them, this has not been applied widely, and is typically only used to protect high value individual trees. </p>
<p>The major challenge in South Africa is to connect different stakeholders and government bodies through effective communication. Roles and responsibilities (also financial) of all contingents, at national, regional and local levels, should be clearly defined to avoid a duplication of efforts, and to ensure appropriate management strategies are devolved to regional and local government. </p>
<p>Structures are in place at the national level to deal with pests like these. Most pest invasions affect agricultural or forestry crops, and the Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry then engages with relevant stakeholders with strategic guidelines for control. For its part, the Department of Environmental Affairs is responsible for protecting the country’s natural forests and ecosystems. But it’s focus is usually on things like climate change, pollution and alien invasive weeds or animals. </p>
<p>At the local level municipalities has never had to deal with a problem like this, are not equipped to deal with it, and need clear and practical guidance from the national departments.</p>
<p>A consolidated strategy and pragmatic action plan is urgently needed. Pest risk assessments and countrywide surveys need to be done for the different sectors. We can learn a lot from <a href="http://eskalenlab.ucr.edu/pshb.html">ongoing research efforts</a> in California, but local research is needed to determine the impact of the pest on different tree hosts, especially native trees, and to evaluate possible control measures in different South African climatic regions. </p>
<p>Research results need to be translated in management strategies that can be rolled out to stakeholders like farmers, commercial foresters, nurseries, arborists, municipalities, and quarantine authorities. This implies that people need to be trained to recognise the problem in order to appropriately deal with it. </p>
<p>Special policy might need to be formulated by the different levels of government, but legislation is only as good as its enforcement. For any of the above to succeed, efficient communication channels and a public awareness campaign is needed. All of this needs leadership, dedicated and competent human resources, and funds.</p>
<p>One thing is sure, the little shothole borer is here to stay. Protecting the country’s trees is everybody’s responsibility, but our government needs to lead the way.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/102996/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Wilhelm de Beer receives funding from the National Research Foundation, the Tree Protection Co-operative Progamme, and the University of Pretoria. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Trudy Paap receives funding from the South African National Biodiversity Institute and the Tree Protection Cooperative Programme</span></em></p>A tree-killing beetle has invaded South Africa. This is what should be done.Wilhelm de Beer, Associate Professor, University of PretoriaTrudy Paap, Postdoctoral Fellow Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute, University of PretoriaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/397152015-04-02T18:01:17Z2015-04-02T18:01:17ZRevealed: why your Pinot noir is actually a Pinot blanc (or was that a Pinot gris?)<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76919/original/image-20150402-9339-1c4wxwl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Heard it on the (research) grapevine.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/naotakem/3853875261/in/photolist-6Sy7Rc-fvoNod-i43igS-g64YSM-gUpdXv-gW2Y5K-hzRnaf-94soLF-hfWukG-hbUqTw-ZSkfV-4evkLo-ad3wtA-p6ETbS-q3Anhu-6ogSYP-oLgoP6-peYg1U-71mzYN-6SCanS-f73KFZ-p7kGg2-gw8MPq-jSaj1m-qZZ4vw-91ga6z-o1b43E-5q56D7-5aveEh-amrhhb-5pZLKK-k5F6C4-8f9Zus-axkBfc-dJxBWf-nDaExk-k5EPhD-bAfy8-q93sBe-6bsTZB-8j3x9G-mLFxHT-dDWmtj-bFi6yr-8j3x9Q-pgYcts-dj5xJw-ph17Vi-qHu7G1-fZjvEA">Naotake Murayama</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The diversity within grapevine varieties is incredibly rich. This is good news for viticulturists – grape cultivators – and wine makers because it allows them to adapt their wine production according to the conditions in their vineyards and to the wines they want to make. </p>
<p>Pinot is one of the most ancient grapevine varieties and the Pinot family is an invaluable source for the production of a wide range of wines from around the world. There’s the Pinot noir from Burgundy, California or New Zealand, Pinot Meunier in Champagne, Pinot gris in Alsace or Pinot blanc in Italy. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76920/original/image-20150402-9339-1owjpow.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76920/original/image-20150402-9339-1owjpow.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76920/original/image-20150402-9339-1owjpow.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76920/original/image-20150402-9339-1owjpow.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76920/original/image-20150402-9339-1owjpow.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76920/original/image-20150402-9339-1owjpow.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76920/original/image-20150402-9339-1owjpow.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cultivating pinot.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/jimfischer/8224090877/in/photolist-dwJBGi-6Sy7Rc-hzRnaf-94soLF-71mzYN-6SCanS-f73KFZ-hfWukG-hbUqTw-p7kGg2-gw8MPq-jSaj1m-ZSkfV-4evkLo-qZZ4vw-ad3wtA-91ga6z-o1b43E-5q56D7-5aveEh-amrhhb-5pZLKK-p6ETbS-k5F6C4-8f9Zus-axkBfc-q3Anhu-dJxBWf-6ogSYP-oLgoP6-nDaExk-peYg1U-k5EPhD-4DdwEN-pc3uHZ-axoiGE-p28sYA-bAfy8-q93sBe-6bsTZB-gaeQr-91jiJo-91gaCv-91jhim-9vNEtk-9vRGU3-8j3x9G-4SaLfY-mLFxHT-dDWmtj">Jim Fischer</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The vine stocks used in viticulture are obtained by grafting. It means that for any given variety, all stocks are identical – or almost all. Spontaneous events in the genomes of some vines can arise which leads to differences between individual plants. </p>
<p>Along with colleagues, we’ve been studying the fascinating Pinot family for 15 years at a special wine research unit at INRA Colmar, in France. In a new study, published in PLOS Genetics, we revealed for the first time the molecular and cellular mechanisms that lead to differences between plants of the Pinot family. And, in particular, on the spontaneous mutations that underpin the change of berry colour. </p>
<h2>Spontaneous mutations</h2>
<p>A unique chromosomal region in the grapevine genome controls berry colour. Two genes located in this region can induce <a href="http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-biosynthesis-pathway.htm">the biosynthesis pathway</a> – the biochemical reactions that create anthocyanins, the complex red pigment molecules that give a grape variety its berry colour. But when the two genes are inactivated by a mutation, this pathway stays switched off and the variety is white (as Pinot blanc). </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76943/original/image-20150402-9335-1vxc9c3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76943/original/image-20150402-9335-1vxc9c3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=897&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76943/original/image-20150402-9335-1vxc9c3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=897&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76943/original/image-20150402-9335-1vxc9c3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=897&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76943/original/image-20150402-9335-1vxc9c3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1127&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76943/original/image-20150402-9335-1vxc9c3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1127&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76943/original/image-20150402-9335-1vxc9c3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1127&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Different varieties.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/sdbaywinefoodfest/3653839577/in/photolist-6ySTd6-5AW8Tr-5FNLTn-8gt8Td-92Yf9W-4evkLo-8GTs6z-5dUkby-dFAKR3-e9VTFz-4PiAJ3-4giRip-7gwT6b-pc3tHx-j4tdk9-i3KNj4-jhWjqc-5T5RTK-e4D4bD-hzQYdp-qhBaRw-aBjeTt-aBmUUY-qpjPLd-gqUMM9-aQCR5i-8Ycw36-9hWhNg-ksBiZo-qmnWjT-7crNHb-7zAMD3-9hBJS5-7UudnN-bnXscg-4Caj6K-ahueS5-grKS4f-nysXo2-cTt9aw-pJTLD5-pJTLyf-pJTLtW-7VES1Q-qprVdx-aBqPMW-b8rU6P-da8XJC-onbSRN-">Fast Forward Event Productions</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Almost all coloured varieties, including Pinot noir, display both the active (leading to the black colour) and the inactive form of these genes. Through a detailed molecular analysis of a collection of 33 clones of Pinot noir, Pinot gris and Pinot blanc, we showed that large-scale exchanges between the maternal and paternal (homologous) chromosomes in the grape, leads to the replacement of the chromosomal region that enables the creation of anthocyanins by the corresponding region on the other chromosome that prevents it.</p>
<p>Thanks to this transfer of information between these two chromosomes, which is a rare naturally occurring event, Pinot blanc-type cells can emerge from a Pinot noir. In the 33 clones we studied, we identified four new chromosomes displaying independent replacements that were responsible for the loss of the anthocyanin-making mechanism, with a size reaching up to a quarter of the length of the entire chromosome. </p>
<p>After occurring in a cell, these mutations then propagate progressively to form a distinct cell layer in the shoot, leading to what is called chimeric plants. This is how Pinot gris arises from Pinot noir: a Pinot noir skin surrounds internal cells that have mutated to Pinot blanc. All of the known Pinot gris are chimeras that associate these two types of tissues. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76918/original/image-20150402-9345-auyyzv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76918/original/image-20150402-9345-auyyzv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=200&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76918/original/image-20150402-9345-auyyzv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=200&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76918/original/image-20150402-9345-auyyzv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=200&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76918/original/image-20150402-9345-auyyzv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=252&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76918/original/image-20150402-9345-auyyzv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=252&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76918/original/image-20150402-9345-auyyzv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=252&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pinot noir (left), Pinot gris (centre), and Pinot blanc (right).</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinot_noir#/media/File:Pinot_noir,_Pinot_gris_and_Pinot_blanc.png">Agne27</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In <a href="http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/abs/10.1139/g04-006#.VR1bnGaAGpo/http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00122-009-1250-8">a previous study</a>, we reported multiple occurrences of chimerism by using molecular markers. Such cellular structures do not threaten the plant’s fitness and stay stable through vegetative propagation of the plant by grafting. </p>
<p>Occasionally, cellular rearrangements in the chimera lead to the homogenisation of the whole plant. This is how Pinot blanc can emerge from a Pinot gris – when the internal mutated cells invade the coloured skin, which then spreads the mutations throughout the plant. </p>
<p>Diversity within varieties is the result of a series of rare events. It implies that a mutation must first occur in a cell that is, or will become, part of the shoot. Then the mutated cell must multiply to form a distinct cell layer. If it is formed, the chimera must then survive the annual pruning of shoots and be selected for vegetative propagation. </p>
<p>In this study, berry colour was used as a model trait to shed light on the molecular and cellular mechanisms behind the colour variations of the Pinot family. Through these mechanisms, the grapevine stocks drift over time and grapevine genome evolves. Of course, similar molecular and cellular mechanisms may impact other propagated plants, which creates diversity. </p>
<p>Viticulturists can only select these very rare events when they observe them (though some viticulturists pretend to have selected specific stocks fully adapted to their terroir, it is possible that they use diversity created by spontaneous mutations). But the diversity created when these mutations happen are great for creating flavour – the difference, for example, between a chardonnay and chardonnay muscaté. There are also different clones of Syrah that show very different levels of resistance to the Syrah decline (a disease) – <a href="http://www.nature.com/hdy/journal/v104/n4/full/hdy2009161a.html">a result of this clonal diversity</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/39715/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Frédérique Pelsy receives funding from the Region Alsace and from the French Ministry of Agriculture</span></em></p>Spreading mutations and chimeric plants – there’s a lot going on in the Pinot grape.Frédérique Pelsy, Research Scientist, InraeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/354642015-01-07T11:10:56Z2015-01-07T11:10:56ZMolecular genetics ready to launch a golden age of winegrape breeding<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/68220/original/image-20150105-13843-utfts7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Molecular genetics did what traditional breeding couldn't.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dan Ng</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Growing winegrapes may be the most backward form of horticulture that exists. The vast majority of the world’s production uses only about 20 cultivars out of thousands of available grape varieties. The wine industry is convinced these traditionally-cultivated varieties alone provide all the diversity necessary and that newly-bred varieties can’t compete on wine quality. This belief persists in the face of modern genetic <a href="http://www.harpercollins.com/9780062206367/wine-grapes">evidence</a> that many of the world’s traditional varieties were intentionally bred from older ones. But things may start to shift as wineries in highly-recognized regions cope with a changing climate.</p>
<h2>Breeding through the centuries</h2>
<p>Improvement of the limited set of traditional varieties is done through clonal selection. People watch for natural mutations in vine offshoots called bud-sports. When these mutations are beneficial (better color, berry size, or ripening dates) the new forms – which are clones – are propagated by cuttings and distributed.</p>
<p>But these naturally-occurring mutations don’t provide the range of fruit and wine quality needed to maintain excellence in a changing climate. Varieties do exist outside the 20 usual suspects that would provide better fruit quality under warmer or colder conditions, but they would have to be tested and promoted. New varieties can be bred, but they will need to be selected for multiple traits, which could take decades. It will be faster and more precise to take advantage of advances in molecular genetics to optimize traditional breeding and select for improved quality, better climatic adaptation and better pest and disease resistance.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/68320/original/image-20150106-18604-b7ca1z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/68320/original/image-20150106-18604-b7ca1z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/68320/original/image-20150106-18604-b7ca1z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68320/original/image-20150106-18604-b7ca1z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68320/original/image-20150106-18604-b7ca1z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68320/original/image-20150106-18604-b7ca1z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68320/original/image-20150106-18604-b7ca1z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68320/original/image-20150106-18604-b7ca1z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pierce’s disease caused the brown, dry spots on these Chardonnay leaves.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dan Ng</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How to combat Pierce’s Disease</h2>
<p>When Europeans first settled along the east coast of North America, they brought cultivars of the European grapevine, <em>Vitis vinifera</em>, with them. These vines were poorly adapted to the new environment and rapidly succumbed to pests and diseases. In the southern US and Mexico, <a href="http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/r302101211.html">Pierce’s Disease</a> (PD) had the greatest impact and continues to dramatically restrict the cultivation of high-quality winegrapes. It’s caused by <em>Xylella fastidiosa</em>, a bacterium that constricts the water-conducting xylem tissue in the plant and causes dehydration and vine death. The problem of Pierce’s Disease provides a case study for how molecular genetics can solve problems that traditional breeding can’t. </p>
<p>There are some naturally PD-resistant grapes. Grape breeders have been trying to improve their quality for hundreds of years, but their efforts have been stymied by the fact that multiple genes control each of the desirable traits. The disase-resistance and fruit quality genes all sort independently in breeding, making it impossible to predict which traits will wind up in the offspring of these <em>V. vinifera</em> crosses with resistant varieties. More importantly, the odds of finding individuals with improved fruit quality while maintaining resistance are very low. </p>
<h2>Looking to the DNA</h2>
<p>Recent advances in molecular genetics led to the development of genetic maps. These can chart the positions of desirable characteristics – including disease resistance and fruit quality – on a grape’s genes. Easily identifiable DNA markers that flank these traits can flag their presence or absence. This marker-assisted selection process can greatly accelerate classical breeding programs for woody perennial crops such as grapes – often cutting generation times from the usual five to eight years down to as short as two years.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/68218/original/image-20150105-13816-1lm1whe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/68218/original/image-20150105-13816-1lm1whe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/68218/original/image-20150105-13816-1lm1whe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68218/original/image-20150105-13816-1lm1whe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68218/original/image-20150105-13816-1lm1whe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68218/original/image-20150105-13816-1lm1whe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68218/original/image-20150105-13816-1lm1whe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68218/original/image-20150105-13816-1lm1whe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"><em>Vitis arizonica</em> hasn’t been carefully cultivated for centuries like wine grapes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dan Ng</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>My lab has <a href="http://www.cdfa.ca.gov/pdcp/research.html">focused</a> on PD resistance discovered in forms of <em>V. arizonica</em> grapes from northern Mexico. This resistance is controlled by a single dominant gene, which we genetically mapped and named PdR1. We start out by crossing <em>V. arizonica</em> and <em>V. vinifera</em> the old-fashioned way. In the past, we made these crosses and then had to test all the progeny for resistance, often after a year or two when they were large enough to harvest cuttings for greenhouse testing.</p>
<p>Now that we have markers for PdR1, we just grind up a tiny bit of leaf tissue from the new seedlings and and look for the DNA markers. Right away we know which plants are resistant. Just as importantly, we are able to throw away susceptible plants before wasting time and money planting them in the vineyard. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/68224/original/image-20150105-13823-qip50h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/68224/original/image-20150105-13823-qip50h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/68224/original/image-20150105-13823-qip50h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=861&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68224/original/image-20150105-13823-qip50h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=861&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68224/original/image-20150105-13823-qip50h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=861&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68224/original/image-20150105-13823-qip50h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1082&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68224/original/image-20150105-13823-qip50h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1082&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68224/original/image-20150105-13823-qip50h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1082&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The first generation of the PdR1 vinifera x arizonica cross.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dan Ng</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Because <em>V. arizonica</em> is homozygous dominant for PdR1 – meaning it has two functional copies of the resistance gene – all the first-generation progeny in these <em>V. arizonica</em> / <em>V. vinifera</em> crosses are resistant and contain about 50% <em>V. vinifera</em>. We test these plants to see which suppress the disease bacteria the most and which have the best fruit quality, then cross them back to a <em>V. vinifera</em> wine variety; progeny from that generation are about 75% <em>V. vinifera</em>. Remember, theoretically, the more <em>V. vinifera</em>, the better quality wine. We keep breeding the new generations back to <em>V. vinifera</em>; the next generation is 88% <em>V. vinifera</em>, next 94% and then 97%.</p>
<p>We were able to produce these generations in about 12 years. To save time, we made only a limited number of wines along the way. From previous work we know that the undesirable musty, foxy aromas and blue-purple pigmentation typical of wines with American species parentage begin to vanish at 88% <em>V. vinifera</em>, and are mostly gone in the 94% <em>V. vinifera</em> wines. Now we’re winnowing through thousands of 97% <em>V. vinifera</em> progeny, testing them in the greenhouse under extreme adverse conditions to identify those with the utmost resistance and the best wine quality. </p>
<p>In 2015, we will release an excellent as-yet-unnamed 94% <em>V. vinifera</em> selection – called 07355-075 in our lab – which is 50% Petite Sirah and 25% Cabernet Sauvignon. Within a year or two, we will release the first 97% <em>V. vinifera</em> PD-resistant winegrapes. </p>
<h2>Next up: multiple resistances</h2>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/68321/original/image-20150106-18622-1hxrerv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/68321/original/image-20150106-18622-1hxrerv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/68321/original/image-20150106-18622-1hxrerv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=774&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68321/original/image-20150106-18622-1hxrerv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=774&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68321/original/image-20150106-18622-1hxrerv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=774&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68321/original/image-20150106-18622-1hxrerv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=972&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68321/original/image-20150106-18622-1hxrerv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=972&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68321/original/image-20150106-18622-1hxrerv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=972&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pipetting winegrape DNA samples in the lab during marker-assisted selection.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dan Ng</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Plants whose resistance to pests and diseases rests on a single gene often breakdown over time as the pests evolve to overcome or avoid the very specific resistance mechanisms. Our next challenge will be breeding additional forms of PD resistance into our PdR1 varieties to avoid that problem. We’re currently genetically mapping other forms of resistance to develop the DNA markers we can use in breeding. These markers will be crucial because we’ll need to make breeding choices based on genetics; we won’t be able to tell by appearance which parent’s gene is responsible for progeny’s disease resistance. Only these markers will allow the selection and stacking of multiple and unique resistance genes. </p>
<p>We’re on the threshold of a revolution in grape breeding. New varieties will need to be accepted and encouraged as the environment changes. Disease-resistance breeding will allow us to reduce pesticide use and expand the cultivation of grapes into areas where disease currently impedes or prevents growing high-quality winegrapes. The climate challenge, along with public pressure to reduce today’s heavy use of pesticides, may launch a golden age of grape breeding. And this can all be done with classical breeding, assisted by genomics. It’s a high-tech way to much more quickly and efficiently transfer genes from one grape variety to another than has already been done for millennia. </p>
<p><em>This article is part of The Conversation’s series on wine. <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/wine-2014">Click here</a> to read more articles in the series.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/35464/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew Walker receives funding from the California Department of Food and Agriculture PD Board.</span></em></p>Growing winegrapes may be the most backward form of horticulture that exists. The vast majority of the world’s production uses only about 20 cultivars out of thousands of available grape varieties. The…Andrew Walker, Professor of Viticulture and Enology, University of California, DavisLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/344742014-12-24T09:51:06Z2014-12-24T09:51:06ZChinese vintners are winning renown as wine industry soars<p>China’s wine industry has exploded in recent years, with the number of wineries more than doubling over the past decade, propelling the country past Australia to become the world’s <a href="http://www.oiv.int/oiv/files/EN_Press_Release_OIV_23_October.pdf">7th-largest producer</a>. What is driving this fast-paced growth and is the quality of Chinese wine improving?</p>
<p>“They make wine in China?!” is the most common reaction we get outside of the region, even from people in the trade. People who have been to China and tried local wine are not impressed with the most common brands. Indeed, the <a href="http://www.decanter.com/news/wine-news/529090/chinese-wine-wins-top-honour-at-decanter-world-wine-awards">first time</a> a Chinese wine took home Decanter magazine’s international trophy in 2011, the news was met with shock and skepticism. </p>
<p>But, as Beijing-based wine blogger Jim Boyce <a href="http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702304459804577283033321666266">points out</a>, Chinese wines have performed well in international competitions and in the tasting notes of prominent critics for years. Regular tasting reports by <a href="http://www.jancisrobinson.com/">Jancis Robinson</a>, a leading British wine critic, tell a story of vast improvements in quality, and in 2014, China was mapped for the first time in the <a href="http://worldatlasofwine.com/extracts/extract-china/">World Atlas of Wine</a>. </p>
<h2>Overcoming hurdles of the vine</h2>
<p>The excellent wine is especially impressive given the serious obstacles to growing top-quality grapes in China. Each of the <a href="http://www.wine-searcher.com/regions-china">major wine-growing regions</a> comes with its own challenges and opportunities. In Northern provinces like Ningxia, Shanxi or Xinjiang, summers are conveniently warm and dry, but in the fall, growers have to race against the arrival of temperatures so cold that they have to bury the vines. </p>
<p>This is very costly in terms of labor and puts pressure on growers to harvest earlier than they might wish, so that the vines can be buried in time. Meanwhile, in the East Coast province of <a href="http://www.wine-searcher.com/regions-shandong">Shandong</a>, vines are safe throughout the mild winter, but face rot and infection as soon as the rain picks up in the summer and early fall. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/67373/original/image-20141216-14135-19sulcj.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/67373/original/image-20141216-14135-19sulcj.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/67373/original/image-20141216-14135-19sulcj.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67373/original/image-20141216-14135-19sulcj.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67373/original/image-20141216-14135-19sulcj.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67373/original/image-20141216-14135-19sulcj.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67373/original/image-20141216-14135-19sulcj.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67373/original/image-20141216-14135-19sulcj.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The authors take a tour of the DBR (Lafite)-CITIC winery near Penglai, Shandong Province, which was under construction as of 2013.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Cynthia Howson</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Less immutable than climate, political institutions also shape the progress of wine. The collective ownership of rural land makes it difficult for wineries to establish control over vineyards. Many producers have to source grapes from hundreds of small holders, so that securing a consistent supply of high-quality grapes is a challenge. Moreover, contracts with farmers can be hard to enforce. The longer a winemaker waits for optimal ripeness to call the harvest, the higher the risk that some growers will prefer to sell to a competitor who agrees to pick earlier. </p>
<p>Yet recent successes show that <a href="http://wineeconomist.com/2013/09/17/china1/">it is possible</a> to produce good wine even with this complex supply chain. <a href="http://nicelymadeinchina.com/2010/11/09/grace-vineyard-shanxi-%E5%B1%B1%E8%A5%BF/">Grace Vineyard</a>, from Shanxi, overcame institutional constraints by establishing relationships with growers, providing assistance with inputs and paying bonuses for quality. In Ningxia, the young <a href="http://www.jancisrobinson.com/articles/chinese-wine-catching-up-fast">Kanaan winery</a>, headed by talented self-taught winemaker Wang Fang, still has to buy in a large portion of the grapes for its Cabernet Sauvignon, but achieves excellent results in part thanks to good on-going relationships with a handful of trusted growers.</p>
<p>While these successes are encouraging, working with hundreds of growers on contract remains very costly and uncertain. In <a href="http://www.jancisrobinson.com/articles/chinas-most-promising-wine-province">Ningxia province</a>, the local government has been eager to lease large tracts of land to wineries to promote the industry. This is a major advantage of the region, as the authorities have used wine growing as an economic development tool. Wine is even the focus of a <a href="http://adb.org/projects/details?proj_id=44035-014&page=details">project</a> bringing together Ningxia’s government, the Asian Development Bank and the private sector to improve water conservation in agriculture. </p>
<h2>Growth luring top foreign winemakers</h2>
<p>Ningxia’s policies have attracted investors, including multinational corporations. In Ningxia, Pernod Ricard makes well received, competitively priced wines under the Helan Mountain label, and LVMH has just released its first local Chandon sparkling wines. By becoming producers of Chinese wine, they not only promote their brand, but they also promote learning and innovation among producers. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/68044/original/image-20141224-32200-tzecps.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/68044/original/image-20141224-32200-tzecps.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/68044/original/image-20141224-32200-tzecps.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68044/original/image-20141224-32200-tzecps.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68044/original/image-20141224-32200-tzecps.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68044/original/image-20141224-32200-tzecps.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68044/original/image-20141224-32200-tzecps.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68044/original/image-20141224-32200-tzecps.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Above, a selection of Chinese wines that have received praise from critics and made it into the authors’ shopping basket. They include wines from 1421 Winery, Kanaan, Grace Vineyard, Leirenshou and Chateau Nine Peaks.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Pierre Ly</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Another driver of progress is the growing nexus of global and local expertise. There is a growing supply of Chinese winemakers trained in prominent local universities. They are following the footsteps of their prominent elders, like Professors Li Hua and Li Demei, both trained in Bordeaux, who inspire and train the new generation. In addition, with so many local wineries seeking to improve quickly, the market for foreign winemaking and viticulture consultants is huge. </p>
<p>Many are flying winemakers who come to China for regular short visits, but some foreigners have established themselves as locals. Perhaps the most prominent is Bordeaux winemaker Gérard Colin, who has been in China since 1997. He <a href="http://blogs.wsj.com/scene/2012/07/30/building-a-winery-in-china-from-scratch/">helped start</a> acclaimed Grace Vineyard, and more recently, was the first director of DBR Lafite’s <a href="http://www.thedrinksbusiness.com/2014/07/lafite-chinas-first-wine-declared-not-bad/">new winery</a> in Shandong before moving on to make organic wines at Puchang winery in Xinjiang. In Southern Xinjiang, Frenchman <a href="http://www.winechina.com/html/2012/12/201212139939.html">Gregory Michel</a> has well over a decade of experience as winemaker at Loulan winery. Collaboration between innovative local entrepreneurs and foreigners helps move Chinese wine forward.</p>
<h2>Chinese consumers opening up to wine</h2>
<p>Many eyes in the global wine industry are on China’s <a href="http://www.vinexpo.com/media/cms_page_media/437/IWSR%20-%20Chine%20-%20ANG.pdf">growing consumer market</a>, but several observers have cautioned against untempered optimism. A recent <a href="http://www.oiv.int/oiv/info/en_press_conference_may_2014">OIV report</a> notes that although wine consumption grew very quickly from 2000 to 2012, there was a 3.8% decrease in 2013. </p>
<p>While President Xi’s crackdown on lavish spending by government officials has <a href="http://www.winespectator.com/webfeature/show/id/49995">hurt the high-end market</a>, there may be a promising <a href="http://europe.chinadaily.com.cn/epaper/2014-03/07/content_17329409.htm">shift to the middle market</a>, where more savvy consumers want good value for the money, rather than prestige. Neither extravagant spending on first growth Bordeaux, nor attempts by some local producers to appear exclusive with prices over a hundred US dollars a bottle, help build a base of local wine consumers. Many Chinese wineries are well placed to compete with mid-priced imports, by making affordable wines that a growing base of consumers can enjoy more regularly.</p>
<p>So it is clear that China can make excellent wines and there are local consumers to buy them. What remains to be seen is whether Chinese wines will find a spot on the crowded shelves abroad. Interestingly, you can already find a few if you look hard enough. </p>
<p>The Dragon’s Hollow Chardonnay, made in Ningxia specifically for export to the US, is <a href="http://www.totalwine.com/eng/product/dragons-hollow-chardonnay/130126750">available at Total Wine and More in Reno</a>. London fine wine merchant Berry and Rudd has <a href="http://www.bbr.com/region-14-china">four Chinese wines</a>, including two Ice Wines from Liaoning Province. And if you dine at the Shangri La’s Ting restaurant in London, Grace Vineyard’s Tasya’s Reserve is actually the most affordable bottle of Chardonnay on the <a href="http://www.ting-shangri-la.com/menus/wine-list/">wine list</a>. </p>
<p>For now, Chinese wine outside of China remains a rare curiosity. But let’s remember that some of today’s firmly established New World wine countries were once largely unknown as well.</p>
<p><em>This article is part of The Conversation’s holiday series on wine. <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/wine-2014">Click here</a> to read more articles in the series.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/34474/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>China may not be poised for world domination in wine, but it’s industry has grown wildly in recent years, and it’s now producing some well-regarded vintages.Pierre Ly, Associate Professor, University of Puget SoundCynthia Howson, Lecturer, University of WashingtonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.