tag:theconversation.com,2011:/id/topics/low-income-children-21775/articlesLow income children – The Conversation2021-07-20T18:45:06Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1619572021-07-20T18:45:06Z2021-07-20T18:45:06ZFree school meals for all children can improve kids’ health<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411933/original/file-20210719-19-1pzcy0m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5366%2C3572&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Many children, especially from low-income communities or communities of color, eat up to half their daily calories in school. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/cafeteria-worker-serving-healthy-food-to-children-royalty-free-image/498579063?adppopup=true">SDI Productions/E+ via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Recognizing that millions of U.S. children are at <a href="https://theconversation.com/18-million-us-children-are-at-risk-of-hunger-how-is-the-problem-being-addressed-and-what-more-can-be-done-151821">risk of hunger</a>, <a href="https://www.foodservicedirector.com/operations/maine-california-embrace-universal-free-school-meals">Maine and California</a> have approved funding to offer free school meals to all students within their state. Meanwhile, a <a href="https://www.sanders.senate.gov/wp-content/uploads/Universal-School-Meals-Program-Act-of-2021.pdf">bill proposed in Congress</a> aims to make free school meals a permanent fixture in all states.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.sanders.senate.gov/wp-content/uploads/Universal-School-Meals-Act-Summary.4.28.21.pdf">Universal School Meals Program Act</a> would provide free healthy meals and snacks to all children in public and nonprofit private schools regardless of income. </p>
<p>Currently, the U.S. Department of Agriculture <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/cn/child-nutrition-response-84">has allowed</a> school districts to provide meals free of charge to families during the pandemic. Previously set to expire in September, the policy has been extended <a href="https://www.usda.gov/media/press-releases/2021/04/20/usda-issues-pandemic-flexibilities-schools-and-day-care-facilities">through the 2021-2022 school year</a>. This marks the first time in the <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/nslp/program-history">75-year history</a> of the National School Lunch Program that all U.S. public school children are getting equal access to school meals, with no questions asked.</p>
<p>As a <a href="https://www.eatright.org/food/resources/learn-more-about-rdns/qualifications-of-a-registered-dietitian-nutritionist">registered dietitian nutritionist</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=2ujk8c8AAAAJ&view_op=list_works&sortby=pubdate">researcher</a> who specializes in child <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-food-insecurity-152746#:%7E:text=Food%20insecurity%20is%20fundamentally%20an,obstacles%20like%20poverty%20and%20discrimination.&text=Food%20insecurity%20can%20be%20exacerbated,of%20healthy%20and%20affordable%20food.">food insecurity</a>, I frequently see how <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11071574">access and availability</a> to nutritious foods can shape kids’ health. </p>
<p>When children return to schools in the fall, the ongoing policy waivers provide an opportunity to examine how <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jand.2020.03.006">universal free school meals</a> impact nutrition in school meal programs and health inequities among children.</p>
<h2>Better health</h2>
<p>Good nutrition plays a crucial role in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.22175">strong academic outcomes</a>. School meals have been shown to reduce childhood <a href="https://www.ers.usda.gov/amber-waves/2017/august/usda-s-national-school-lunch-program-reduces-food-insecurity">food insecurity</a> and childhood <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2014.2048">overweight and obesity</a> while improving <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jand.2016.04.010">overall diet quality</a>. </p>
<p>School meals are often more nutritious than meals eaten <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.5262">elsewhere</a> or even <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S136898001900017X">home-packed lunches</a>. Studies have shown that access to school meals can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/nxy267">improve attendance</a>, <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/healthyschools/health_and_academics/pdf/factsheetDietaryBehaviors.pdf">academic performance</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.3386/w24986">behavior</a>.</p>
<h2>Less stigma</h2>
<p>Many children, especially those from low-income and minority families, eat up to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmedr.2016.11.016">half their daily calories</a> at school. For these families, the cost of school meals, usually between <a href="https://schoolnutrition.org/aboutschoolmeals/schoolmealtrendsstats/">US$2.48 and $2.74</a> depending on grade level, can add up quickly over a week, month or school year.</p>
<p>Children with <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/cn/unpaid-meal-charges">outstanding meal debts</a> could be <a href="https://www.eater.com/2019/5/22/18634237/lunch-shaming-students-meal-debt-american-schools">shamed</a>, refused a meal or provided a lower-cost alternative meal – such as a cheese sandwich, fruit and milk rather than the standard meal served to other students. </p>
<h2>Needed relief</h2>
<p>School meal programs are run like a business and depend heavily on federal <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/cn/rates-reimbursement">reimbursements</a> from the U.S. Department of Agriculture. When families can’t or don’t pay for meals served, schools may need to use their own funds to cover the losses. The Department of Agriculture <a href="https://frac.org/wp-content/uploads/frac-unpaid-meal-fees-policy-guide.pdf">prohibits using federal funds</a> to pay off unpaid meal debt. The Universal School Meals Program Act would <a href="https://www.sanders.senate.gov/wp-content/uploads/Universal-School-Meals-Act-Summary.4.28.21.pdf">eliminate around $10.9 million of existing</a> unpaid school meal debt reported by <a href="https://schoolnutrition.org/uploadedFiles/6_News_Publications_and_Research/8_SNA_Research/2019-school-nutrition-trends-summary.pdf">75% of U.S. school districts</a>. </p>
<p>In addition to school meal debt, during the first full year of the pandemic, schools served <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/data/february-2021-keydata-report">fewer meals</a>, resulting in further losses in revenue. The meals served <a href="https://schoolnutrition.org/uploadedFiles/6_News_Publications_and_Research/8_SNA_Research/Impact-of-Covid-19-on-School-Nutrition-Programs-Back-to-School-2020.pdf">were more costly</a> due to packaging and personal protective equipment for staff. As a result, more than <a href="https://schoolnutrition.org/aboutschoolmeals/schoolmealtrendsstats/">50% of school meal programs</a> reported a financial loss in 2019-2020. An even greater number of programs report expecting a loss for the <a href="https://schoolnutrition.org/aboutschoolmeals/schoolmealtrendsstats/">2020-2021 school year</a>. </p>
<h2>Return on investment</h2>
<p>A <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13020670">national study</a> found that schools participating in universal free meal programs reduced their per-meal costs while maintaining nutritional quality of meals served. School meals can <a href="https://agriculture.vermont.gov/sites/agriculture/files/documents/Farm_to_School_Institution/Economic%20Contribution%20of%20Farm%20to%20School%20in%20Vermont%20.pdf">stimulate local economies</a> because they can <a href="http://www.farmtoschool.org/Resources/EconomicImpactReport.pdf">drive purchases from local farmers</a> and ranchers and <a href="https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520300033/the-labor-of-lunch">create jobs</a> in school nutrition, food production, sales and distribution. </p>
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<p>For school districts, switching to a universal model of meals for all children – regardless of income – is likely to reduce <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/child-nutrition-reporting-burden-analysis-study">administrative burdens</a>. Schools would no longer have to waste time on applications and meeting reporting requirements like they have to do under the current reimbursement model. They could focus on healthy meals and nutrition education instead. </p>
<p>I believe the return on investment from universal school lunches would benefit our country’s economic recovery from the pandemic as well as the health and well-being of our country’s children.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/161957/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Matthew J. Landry receives funding support from the National Institutes of Health. He is affiliated with the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics where he serves as a volunteer member of the Legislative and Public Policy Committee. He is also a member of the Society for Nutrition Education and Behavior where he serves as an appointed member of the Advisory Committee on Public Policy. These organizations had no role in this article and the views, thoughts, and opinions expressed in the text belong solely to the author.</span></em></p>Expanding free lunch programs could also reduce stigma for students, lower administrative burdens for schools and create jobs for communities.Matthew J. Landry, Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Stanford UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1096212019-01-23T11:48:08Z2019-01-23T11:48:08ZWhy it’s wrong to label students ‘at-risk’<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/254420/original/file-20190117-32807-1skekoc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The term "at-risk" is frequently used to describe students from challenging circumstances. Some educators are working to change that.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/young-people-education-group-hispanic-students-583892335?src=ATrTAJnT0I6cVrwmvHbO2g-8-27">Diego Cervo/www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Of all the terms used to describe students who don’t perform well in traditional educational settings, <a href="https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED493702">few are used as frequently</a>– or as casually – as the term “at-risk.”</p>
<p>The term is regularly used in <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/pubs92/92042.pdf">federal</a> and <a href="https://www.kob.com/new-mexico-news/lawmakers-plan-to-provide-a-better-education-for-at-risk-students/5214101/">state</a> education policy discussions, as well as <a href="https://abcnews.go.com/beta-story-container/US/lebron-james-opening-school-risk-kids-culmination-decade/story?id=56913186">popular news articles</a> and <a href="https://www.apa.org/monitor/2012/02/at-risk-students.aspx">specialty trade journals</a>. It is <a href="https://www.childtrends.org/wp-content/uploads/2006/01/DefiningAtRisk1.pdf">often applied to large groups</a> of students with little regard for the <a href="https://www.nwp.org/cs/public/print/resource/2513">stigmatizing effect</a> that it can have on students.</p>
<p>As education researcher <a href="https://naeducation.org/our-members/gloria-ladson-billings/">Gloria Ladson-Billings</a> <a href="https://www.nwp.org/cs/public/print/resource/2513">once said of the term “at-risk,”</a> “We cannot saddle these babies at kindergarten with this label and expect them to proudly wear it for the next 13 years, and think, ‘Well, gee, I don’t know why they aren’t doing good.’” </p>
<p>My most recent encounter with the term “at-risk” came when I was tapped to review and <a href="http://dls.maryland.gov/pubs/prod/NoPblTabMtg/CmsnInnovEduc/2018_12_06_ToldsonFinalRecommendations2.pdf">critique</a> a draft report for the Maryland Commission on Innovation and Excellence in Education, also known as the “<a href="http://dls.maryland.gov/policy-areas/commission-on-innovation-and-excellence-in-education">Kirwan Commission</a>.”</p>
<p>The Kirwan Commission, chaired by <a href="https://www.agb.org/bios/william-e-kirwan">William E. Kirwan</a>, a longtime higher education leader, was <a href="http://mgaleg.maryland.gov/2016RS/chapters_noln/Ch_702_hb0999T.pdf">created in 2016</a> to make recommendations for improving education in Maryland. The initial draft of the Kirwan Commission report included a working group report called, “More Resources for At-risk Students.”</p>
<p>Fortunately, in this instance, commission members were aware of some common objections to using “at-risk” to categorize students and <a href="https://www.aclu-md.org/en/press-releases/race-equity-expert-delivers-highly-anticipated-second-address-kirwan-commission-what">publicly discussed</a> the <a href="https://www.edglossary.org/at-risk/">limitations</a> of using the term. Some of those objections included risk of social stigma to students and <a href="http://www2.ncte.org/blog/2017/02/redefining-risk-new-times-call-new-ground-rules/">lack of a uniform definition</a> of “at-risk.”</p>
<p>However, when it came to finding a better way to describe students who show lower levels of academic success because of nonacademic factors, such as poverty, trauma and lack of English proficiency, commission members were not sure what term to use.</p>
<p>As an <a href="http://www.qem.org/presidentbio/">outside consultant</a> for the commission, I was asked to come up with an acceptable alternative word or phrase. As I argue in my forthcoming book, “<a href="https://brill.com/view/title/54716">No BS (Bad Stats): Black People Need People Who Believe in Black People Enough Not to Believe Every Bad Thing They Hear about Black People</a>,” three things are essential to good decision making in education: good data, thoughtful analysis and compassionate understanding. What I have to say about the term “at-risk” will be based on those three things.</p>
<h2>Practical uses exist</h2>
<p>First, let’s acknowledge that, paired with good data, “<a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.3102/01623737015004380?fbclid=IwAR0hGmYiFL93HcnHT2SUCfCYcDBQvR_ZmqfuahwFO_TnIY3dIhx4uvqWiac">at-risk</a>” is practically useful and generally accepted in professional and academic settings. Used <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25608745?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents">effectively</a>, identifying risk and protective factors can help mitigate harm to students.</p>
<p>For example, dating back to the 1960s, research about how <a href="http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/90/6/855.short">exposure to lead</a> placed children at risk for cognitive impairments helped educators create <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1240871/pdf/ehp0110-000563.pdf">safer learning environments</a> for students by removing lead from paint, toys and drinking water.</p>
<p>Today, in educational <a href="https://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/abs/10.1108/S1479-3644(2009)0000007009">research</a> and <a href="https://www.fdschools.org/departments/student-services/at-risk-programs">practice</a>, educators <a href="https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED493702">routinely use “at-risk”</a> to classify students who do not perform well in traditional educational settings. However, the factors that determine “at-risk” are often either unknown or beyond the control of the student, caregiver or educational provider.</p>
<p>As a scholar of counseling psychology – and as one who specializes in <a href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=i9M5DQAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA143&dq=Ivory+Toldson+counseling+psychology&ots=mwAv76j3Ea&sig=MBU-X3J5lMJkQKaVyz-LuvWdFvE#v=onepage&q=Ivory%20Toldson%20counseling%20psychology&f=false">counseling persons of black African ancestry</a> – I believe that to designate a child “at-risk” for factors such as growing up in a single-parent household, having a history of abuse or neglect, or how much money their families make or their race or ethnicity – adds more chaos and confusion to the situation. Instead, compassion and care are what are needed.</p>
<h2>Never use ‘at-risk’ as an adjective</h2>
<p>Using “at-risk” as an adjective for students is problematic. It makes “at-risk” a category like honors student, student athlete or college-bound student. “Risk” should describe a condition or situation, not a person. Therefore, “More Resources for At-risk Students” might more appropriately be “More Resources to Reduce Risk Factors for Students.”</p>
<h2>Be specific</h2>
<p>Assessments of risk should be based on good data and thoughtful analysis – not a catch-all phrase to describe a cluster of ill-defined conditions or characteristics. If the phrase “at-risk” must be used, it should be in a sentence such as: “‘This’ places students at risk for ‘that.’” If the “this” and “that” are not clearly defined, the “at-risk” characterization is useless at best, and harmful at worst. But when these variables are clearly defined, it better enables educators and others to come up with the solutions needed to reduce specific risk factors and improve outcomes.</p>
<h2>Skip the alternatives</h2>
<p>Common alternatives to “at-risk” include “historically underserved,” “disenfranchised” and “placed at-risk.” These indicators acknowledge that outside forces have either not served the individual student or population well, or have assigned the at-risk label to unwitting subjects.</p>
<p>These phrases move the conversation in the right direction. However, using these phrases still comes up short because they obscure the problem. For example, research suggests that <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10509674.2010.519666">child abuse</a>, <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10911359.2013.747407">poverty</a> and <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25608729?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents">racism</a> can place students at risk. However, different strategies can lessen each risk. When the risk factors are more clearly identified, it puts educators and others in a better position to strategically confront the issues that impede student learning. It also better enables educators and others to view the individual student separately and apart from the particular risk.</p>
<p>Some have suggested replacing the term “at-risk” with “<a href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=fQX2czepcW8C&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=%22at-risk%22+%22at-promise%22&ots=yLkU8c1_8q&sig=Jf5h6Ya_p9gIh-p7n0RP7OmRNlM#v=onepage&q=%22at-risk%22%20%22at-promise%22&f=false">at-promise</a>.” While well-intended, the problem I see with that is it could easily be seen as a condescending euphemism for the term it was meant to replace.</p>
<h2>The best alternative for ‘at-risk’</h2>
<p>In my book, I describe an in-service training for staff members of a public high school, in which I asked the participants to describe the neighborhoods of their students. I heard phrases like “crime-ridden,” “broken homes” and “drug-infested.” I then asked if anyone grew up in neighborhoods that had similar characteristics. After several raised their hands, I asked, “How did you grow up in such a neighborhood and still become successful?” This question spurred a more meaningful discussion about the neighborhoods where students are from. It was a discussion that considered community assets – such as hope and resilience – against a more thoughtful examination of community challenges.</p>
<p>Every student has a combination of risk and protective factors among their friends, in their homes, schools and neighborhoods. These factors can help or hurt their academic potential. Students who live in poverty, or have been assigned to special education, or have a history of trauma, or who are English learners, may or may not be “at risk” depending on their respective protective factors. But when students are labeled “at-risk,” it serves to treat them as a problem because of their risk factors. Instead, students’ unique experiences and perspectives should be normalized, not marginalized. This reduces a problem known as <a href="https://www.edglossary.org/stereotype-threat/">“stereotype threat,”</a> a phenomenon in which students perform worse academically when they are worried about living up to a negative stereotype about their group.</p>
<p>For all these reasons and more, I believe the best alternative to describe “at-risk students” is simply “students.” For what it’s worth, the Kirwan Commission agrees. The commission recently <a href="http://dls.maryland.gov/pubs/prod/NoPblTabMtg/CmsnInnovEduc/2019_01_18_PolicyArea4.pdf?fbclid=IwAR2rCDkWkBSdXnbfQely6FiUiUoGU2aupfmXrxPVm360veL_VVceEa4KBXc">revised its call</a> for “More Resources for At-risk Students” to “More Resources to Ensure All Students are Successful.”</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/109621/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ivory A. Toldson is affiliated with Howard University and The QEM Network. </span></em></p>Using the term ‘at-risk’ to describe students from challenging circumstances often creates more problems than it solves, a professor of counseling psychology argues.Ivory A. Toldson, Professor of Counseling Psychology, Howard UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/879162018-01-10T00:04:13Z2018-01-10T00:04:13ZWhy children’s savings accounts should be America’s next wealth transfer program<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/200967/original/file-20180105-26160-1jpa0vx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">New special savings and investment accounts could help pave the way to college for America's poor and middle class.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/confirm/677445091?src=Mj90lnsRjBBVcfUXxW7Y0g-20-27&size=huge_jpg">Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>At a time of great wealth <a href="http://www.nber.org/papers/w18396">inequality</a> and dramatically unequal <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2016/04/the-growing-wealth-gap-in-who-earns-college-degrees/479688/">chances</a> between the rich and the poor of getting a college education, there is perhaps no better time for a new wealth transfer initiative.</p>
<p>Great wealth transfers are nothing new. In the 19th century, the <a href="https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/Homestead.html">Homestead Act</a> provided public land to Western settlers. In the 20th century, the <a href="http://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/gi-bill">GI Bill</a> provided tuition benefits to veterans. </p>
<p>As an expert on asset-building and student loan debt, if it were up to me, <a href="https://csd.wustl.edu/OurWork/FinIncl/Pages/ChildDevelopmentAccounts.aspx">children’s savings account programs</a> – a policy innovation springing up around the country – would become the great wealth transfer program of the 21st century. Currently, there are approximately <a href="https://prosperitynow.org/map/childrens-savings">42 children’s saving account programs serving 313,000</a> children in more than 30 states. Children’s savings accounts are long-range investments typically started at birth or kindergarten and meant to pay for college. Families’ contributions to the accounts are leveraged with an initial deposit by a public entity and matching funds usually provided at a one-to-one ratio. </p>
<p>In order to make the path to education and its fruits equitable, all children must have the propulsion of wealth. To do this, I propose taking what are now small-dollar children’s savings accounts and allowing families to use them as investment accounts in order to yield a higher return. </p>
<p>Children from low-wealth families would receive an initial deposit at birth in a dedicated investment account – US$1,000 for wealthiest to $10,500 for the poorest. Added to the initial deposit, $5 in monthly family contributions could allow even the most disadvantaged children to turn 18 with approximately $40,000, if the money were put into an <a href="https://www.bostonfed.org/publications/community-development-issue-briefs/2015/moving-toward-a-policy-agenda-for-improving-childrens-savings-account-delivery-systems.aspx">investment account</a>. This is based on <a href="http://pages.stern.nyu.edu/%7Eadamodar/New_Home_Page/datafile/histretSP.html">the S&P 500’s historical rate of return</a> from 1997 to 2014. This is similar to how money in a 401(k) grows.</p>
<p>This $40,000 could be used to finance debt-free higher education at most public institutions. </p>
<h2>Closing the racial wealth gap</h2>
<p>This approach fits American values by leveraging <a href="https://csd.wustl.edu/Publications/Documents/PB17-42.pdf">investment growth</a> and requiring family contributions while empowering young adults for life after college. And, while the investment accounts would not entirely close the gap that separates poor and wealthy children today, the gap would become smaller. Researchers from the Institute on Assets and Social Policy <a href="http://iasp.brandeis.edu/pdfs/Author/shapiro-thomas-m/racialwealthgapbrief.pdf">find that children’s savings accounts</a> with an initial deposit of $7,500 could close racial wealth gaps by as much as 28 percent. This 21st-century wealth transfer could change the distribution of opportunity as dramatically as extending land ownership or opening the doors of universities to previously excluded veterans. </p>
<p>Growing concern about the high cost of college has led to demands for free college. However, “free college” – a concept that gained a modest amount of traction in the 2016 elections – ignores the roots of inequity. Inequality does not start when the tuition bill arrives, nor does it end after it is paid. Instead, financial aid would be better used to influence children’s early education, college completion and post-college financial health.</p>
<p>What makes children’s savings accounts the ideal vehicle for a wealth transfer isn’t their ability to help children pay for college. It is their ability to complement efforts to reduce inequality from birth to career. </p>
<p>For instance, in an article published by the Journal of the American Academy of Pediatrics, <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/fullarticle/1815478?resultClick=1">a randomized control trial found</a> infants who were randomly assigned to receive a savings account demonstrated significantly higher social-emotional skills at age 4 than their counterparts without an account. These effects on social-emotional development are strongest among low-income families. Children with <a href="https://www.casel.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/meta-analysis-child-development-1.pdf">improved social and emotional skills</a> display attitudes and behavior such as calming themselves when angry and establishing positive emotions that position them for academic achievement. Further, research published in “Social Service Review” found that children’s savings accounts also give parents <a href="http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/680014?journalCode=ssr">tangible hope</a> for their children’s futures. </p>
<h2>Lasting effects</h2>
<p>Children’s savings accounts help children get <a href="https://csd.wustl.edu/Publications/Pages/displayresultitem.aspx?ID1=1155">to and through college</a>. Every year, many <a href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED529499.pdf">minority and low-income students fail to transition</a> to college despite having the desire and ability to go. Children’s savings accounts are associated with reducing <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10796126.2011.538375">“wilt”</a> – that is, when a young person in high school expects to attend college but does not do so shortly after graduating. “Wilt” is less of a problem among holders of children’s savings accounts because the accounts tend to make the students see themselves as <a href="https://csd.wustl.edu/Publications/Documents/FS13-30.pdf">destined for college</a>. What this research suggests is when students expect to go to college and have identified savings as a strategy to pay for it, they’re more likely to make it. </p>
<p>Children’s savings accounts help students realize the “payoff” that college promises. <a href="http://aedi.ssw.umich.edu/publications/1770-toward-healthy-balance-sheets-are-savings-accounts-a-gateway-to-young-adults-asset-diversification-and-accumulation">Evidence</a> suggests that children’s savings accounts may be a gateway not only to higher earnings as a college graduate, but also ownership such as stocks and bonds and more wealth accumulation. This wealth accumulation is one of the outcomes that ultimately <a href="https://www.heri.ucla.edu/monographs/TheAmericanFreshman2016.pdf">motivates most Americans to pursue college degrees</a>. Indeed, it is after graduation that children’s savings accounts have one of the most distinguished effects.</p>
<p>Nevertheless, today’s <a href="http://www.nber.org/papers/w18396">growing economic inequality</a> means that children’s savings accounts are not enough. Children from low-income families compete on an uneven playing field against peers with entrenched generational wealth advantages. As a result, children’s savings accounts haven’t been able to fully overcome the fact that American families often have little money after they pay for basic needs. This reality has led some <a href="https://csd.wustl.edu/Publications/Documents/P00-29_59.AssetBasedPoliciesForThePoor.pdf">researchers</a> and policymakers as well as school educators to oppose the idea of diverting money from income-based programs such as cash assistance to children’s savings accounts. </p>
<p>But what if spending could be changed into saving? In what I think is potentially the biggest innovation in the children’s saving account field since its conception, some children’s savings accounts might rely on <a href="http://communitylinkfoundation.org/p-card.php">reward cards</a> that provide a rebate up to 4 percent on grocery store purchases, for example. Transforming spending into saving allows even the poorest to contribute, even when purchasing goods with food stamps, by simply shopping. </p>
<h2>Spending to save</h2>
<p>Cities are also converting <a href="http://communitylinkfoundation.org/p-card.php">their spending</a> into saving by negotiating rebates up to 7 percent on purchases made with city <a href="http://www.napcp.org/page/WhatArePCards">p-cards</a>, which are similar to consumer credit cards. In Long Beach, California, this approach is estimated to raise $15 million annually. This money is placed into a general education fund for city residents.</p>
<p>Some have suggested using grant and scholarship money. For example, the College Board has <a href="https://secure-media.collegeboard.org/digitalServices/pdf/advocacy/policycenter/advocacy-rethinking-pell-grants-report.pdf">recommended</a> putting a portion of Pell Grant funds into savings accounts for children starting as early as age 11 or 12. Nonprofit scholarship providers are beginning to use some of their scholarship funds as early commitments that transfer assets, from the scholarship program into children’s savings accounts, early enough to affect not only how children pay for college, but also how they prepare for it. </p>
<p>However, the federal government should also play a role in funding a transformative infusion of cash into these accounts. If Congress can find money for a bailout for big banks and a tax break for the wealthy, they should be able to do the same for middle-class and poor Americans.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/87916/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>William Elliott III receives funding from Charles Steward Mott, Ford Foundation, Citi Foundation, John T. Gorman Foundation, Kellogg Foundation, Friedman Family Foundation, Wabash County Foundation, Annie E. Casey, and Lumina Foundation. William Elliott III works as a consultant for NORC on a research project with Oakland Promise. </span></em></p>Children’s savings account programs are springing up around the country. A researcher says these special accounts could help pave the way to college for America’s poor.William Elliott III, Professor of Social Work, University of MichiganLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/670682016-11-30T11:35:26Z2016-11-30T11:35:26ZSchool demands for parents to do more hits low-income and minority students hardest<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/147013/original/image-20161122-10994-tw9dv7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Pexels</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Every year it seems as though parents are expected to be more and more involved in their children’s education. They are encouraged to monitor homework, attend school events, volunteer in the classroom, help out on school trips, bake cakes – and the list goes on.</p>
<p>We have known for years that parental involvement is <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/182508/DFE-RR156.pdf">beneficial for children’s well-being and academic achievement</a>. But clearly, some parents are <a href="https://theconversation.com/from-tiger-to-free-range-parents-what-research-says-about-pros-and-cons-of-popular-parenting-styles-57986">able to be more involved than others</a>. </p>
<p>This is mainly beacuse not all parents have the same opportunity to help their children succeed in school – think parents who work full time, are on a low income, or who have recently immigrated into the country. And research shows that teachers could be <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01411920701243578">leaving some of these groups behind</a> when they ask parents to be even more involved.</p>
<p>Previous research has already shown that middle-class and working-class parents are <a href="http://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2012/02/explaining-annette-lareau-or-why-parenting-style-ensures-inequality/253156/">involved in their children’s education differently</a>. Middle-class parents generally practice so-called “concerted cultivation”, which sees them focusing on organising children’s time in a structured way. They pay special attention to extracurricular activities, which develop critical thinking and presentation skills. And they talk to children as equals and instill in them the feeling of entitlement. </p>
<p>This is quite different to working-class and low-income parents, who often adopt the “accomplishment of natural growth” approach. Here, children are given more freedom to choose their leisure activities, and parents interfere in their lives only when necessary. Kids can play freely on their own, with siblings, or neighbours instead of being constantly supervised by adults. </p>
<p>So while middle-class parents have the <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14681366.2012.748682">capacity to “cultivate” their children</a> – because they generally possess the higher levels of education and financial resources needed for organised extracurricular activities – working-class and low-income parents often suffer from a lack of time and money. </p>
<p>With this in mind, my own research looking at parental involvement among <a href="http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/ioep/clre/2015/00000013/00000003/art00013">ethnic minority</a> and <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00071005.2016.1139332?src=recsys&journalCode=rbje20">low-income parents</a>, shows that demands for more parental involvement can actually increase inequality. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/147015/original/image-20161122-10994-18rskig.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/147015/original/image-20161122-10994-18rskig.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147015/original/image-20161122-10994-18rskig.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147015/original/image-20161122-10994-18rskig.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147015/original/image-20161122-10994-18rskig.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147015/original/image-20161122-10994-18rskig.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147015/original/image-20161122-10994-18rskig.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Not all parents have time to help their children with homework every night.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Pexels</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Research also shows that involvement in a child’s education is shaped by gender, race, and cultural norms. Only White, middle-class, native English speaking women are viewed as “properly” <a href="http://theconversation.com/who-is-shaping-notions-of-right-parent-involvement-49268">involved parents</a>. Meanwhile, parents who do not follow the teachers’ expectations in terms of presence in school or parent teacher conferences – due to economic constraints or cultural differences – are labelled <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01411920701243578">“hard to reach”</a>. </p>
<p>At the same time, parents who are critical of school or those who bring up issues of racism or discrimination are seen as “too involved”. This makes “getting it right” difficult for many parents.</p>
<h2>Diverse parents</h2>
<p>Prior research shows that <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270262518_Equity_Issues_in_Parental_and_Community_Involvement_in_Schools_What_Teacher_Educators_Need_to_Know">ethnic minority and immigrant parents</a> often get involved in their children’s education in ways different from the majority population. </p>
<p>For example, black parents in the UK, who historically faced racial discrimination in education, are often cautious in their relations with educators and school officials. And they also have to <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271991207_Three_generations_of_racism_Black_middle-class_children_and_schooling">prepare their children for racist behaviour or comments in school</a>.</p>
<p>Similarly, research shows that, generally-speaking, Latino parents in the US like to <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0898589813000405">entrust schools with their children’s academic development</a>. And instead they concentrate on instilling good morals, transmission of home culture, and provision of material help – such as buying computers, books and school supplies. </p>
<p>But this is where the difficulty can arise, because research from the US shows that white teachers traditionally see “school-based” activities as a more legitimate form of parental involvement. And as a result, knowledge and skills developed by Latino families at home or in their community are often <a href="https://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&lr=&id=xvlq1JmmbQ8C&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=funds+of+knowledge&ots=pJovNplONE&sig=II-cf9jYuz4uG5JUpM02Jmcbr10#v=onepage&q=funds%20of%20knowledge&f=false">not recognised by the school</a>. </p>
<h2>Educational disadvantage</h2>
<p>My research also shows that immigrant parents who are “shaped” by their own previous educational experiences in their countries of origin face even more misunderstanding regarding their role in a students’ learning. </p>
<p>Many of these parents grew up and were educated in countries where teachers have significant authority over school matters, and in places where parents help children mostly at home and come to school only when called. So some of them view involvement in school as interfering with the work of teachers. </p>
<p>Research shows that immigrants who come from the middle classes in their home countries often experience <a href="http://cjsae.library.dal.ca/index.php/cjsae/article/viewFile/1002/991">downward social mobility</a> after migration – and are not adequately informed about how the education systems in their new country works. And many immigrant parents also face <a href="https://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/soc/faculty/zhou/pubs/Zhou_GrowingUpAmerican.pdf">additional challenges</a> because they aren’t able to speak the language. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/147017/original/image-20161122-10997-f7gll1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/147017/original/image-20161122-10997-f7gll1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147017/original/image-20161122-10997-f7gll1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147017/original/image-20161122-10997-f7gll1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147017/original/image-20161122-10997-f7gll1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147017/original/image-20161122-10997-f7gll1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147017/original/image-20161122-10997-f7gll1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Another day, another bake sale.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Pexels.</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It is clear then that parental involvement tends to favour <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-954X.2008.00786.x/full">white middle-class parents</a>, because their economic, social, and cultural experiences provide more knowledge about the <a href="https://sociology.sas.upenn.edu/sites/sociology.sas.upenn.edu/files/Lareau%20ASR%20February%202015.pdf">“rules of the game”</a>. And it is easier for them to adopt the type of involvement that is expected and rewarded by the school system. </p>
<p>This means that minority and low-income parents are often seen as less involved by teachers, because of systemic inequality. And these group’s preferences for home-based activities or different patterns of communication with teachers can make them less visible.</p>
<p>So to harness the positive benefits of parental involvement, we need to adopt a more holistic definition of this idea. Activities in school, alongside those in the family and community, should be recognised and rewarded. </p>
<p>Cultural differences between parents based on race, class, and immigration also have to be taken into account, to allow teachers to see that parental involvement doesn’t always look the same.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/67068/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Max Antony-Newman receives funding from the Government of Ontario through the Ontario Graduate Scholarship (OGS) program. </span></em></p>White middle-class parents get an easy time of it when it comes to parental involvement.Max Antony-Newman, Research Assistant at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, University of TorontoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/567852016-04-11T10:09:10Z2016-04-11T10:09:10ZHere’s why kids fall behind in science<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117891/original/image-20160407-16278-1mlkc46.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">How can more kids be interested in science?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/drakelelane/4336390583/in/photolist-dx5nnh-ci3JAG-bUJ3Xz-aRPPHv-cc6iwQ-7RjH1-bUJ4qc-7WEzra-9439F2-5FucDb-7A5GHi-cc6iKo-bUJ4gF-4RCdZy-di3t4B-bUJ4iM-bUJ43Z-bUJ3Qc-dz59eH-6cyvJ7-8x6G34-9xMqJA-7WEy2a-8x9GoC-7Bc8QT-ci3MmW-4vnJ7J-bfLqrx-ci3TaL-7fdeqw-bfLuEZ-noBD2S-CK27W6-Cm42Tj-CRoMVm-Cm4KKf-DiyUr6-Dk27CT-CmaWeP-D8WeyQ-CmudGd-CSTm47-DgDfeC-zt7GT5-zte3zX-zKK2yZ-qzrHps-noNZEJ-nnzLD5-s1rxiy">Shawn Anderson</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Globally, the U.S. is at risk of <a href="http://www.nap.edu/catalog/12999/rising-above-the-gathering-storm-revisited-rapidly-approaching-category-5">declining economic competitiveness</a> due to its continuing lower levels of educational attainment in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). </p>
<p>The U.S. <a href="https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwjL98GE6PzLAhXCGh4KHS_2CAMQFggdMAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww3.weforum.org%2Fdocs%2Fgcr%2F2015-2016%2FGlobal_Competitiveness_Report_2015-2016.pdf&usg=AFQjCNHprvEobTBFpsRXQv0dXPUACXdXqA&sig2=zuUpNI5rZ01WZb-yrqIImA">currently ranks 44th</a> according to the quality of its mathematics and science education.</p>
<p>A <a href="http://jcfsandiego.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/PISA-Scores-STEM-Aug-2013.pdf">“leaky STEM pipeline”</a> – in which factors such as lower expectations, discrimination, and a lack of interest make it less likely that <a href="http://changetheequation.org/stemtistics">racial or ethnic minorities</a>, women or those from low-income families will pursue STEM careers – makes many adults <a href="http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/wmpd/2013/digest/">less likely to be employed</a> in these types of positions. </p>
<p>Yet STEM positions are often high-paying and provide greater economic well-being and employment stability, especially as the U.S. transitions to a <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/stem-majors-earn-a-lot-more-money-after-graduation-2014-7">knowledge-based economy</a>. </p>
<p>Efforts that increase schoolchildren’s science achievement – particularly those from diverse, traditionally marginalized populations – could help provide children with greater future employment opportunities while ensuring that the U.S. remains economically competitive. </p>
<p>The question is, when should these efforts begin? That is, how early do leaks in the STEM pipeline begin to occur? </p>
<h2>Science achievement gaps</h2>
<p>My research seeks to understand why some groups of children are more likely to struggle academically in U.S. schools. To date, I have been reporting on factors that increase children’s risk for lower achievement in reading and mathematics. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117892/original/image-20160407-16272-b7nltr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117892/original/image-20160407-16272-b7nltr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117892/original/image-20160407-16272-b7nltr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117892/original/image-20160407-16272-b7nltr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117892/original/image-20160407-16272-b7nltr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117892/original/image-20160407-16272-b7nltr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117892/original/image-20160407-16272-b7nltr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Early on, racial and ethnic minorities fall behind in science.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/nasawebbtelescope/5369844183/in/photolist-9bvRAp-e6CoDW-e6CoxJ-6H4bx7-6oNvtU-aYNUgK-e6CoAj-e6Covh-e6wKkr-8x9H1d-aYNUon-EtdCty-f6UG5z-8x9H5U-E3yWhj-CRNdFr-E3yWdS-BcHzoi-Cmuw1k-Dgzh35-DhJuaY-Cnwxa5-CRQYvh-CnwUpQ-Cms9Js-CmvpLp-DgfTqY-CmcvoH-DiXgWr-CmovW5-Dk45UD-CnvB9j-Dbiwqa-DaEYCf-5XPv2w-cc6i3W-cc6i5m-e7aE5W-dwYTpp-cc6iih-cUn5UU-7FbefS-39YLM-iQYXj-doAjtK-bUJ4cV-dwYTfB-dx5nLs-cc6ikw-yvwY9">NASA's James Webb Space Telescope</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Researchers have found that <a href="http://www.nationsreportcard.gov/science_2011/summary.aspx">large science achievement gaps</a> occur within the U.S. These gaps are very large by middle school, and they are disproportionately experienced by children who are racial or ethnic minorities, English Language Learners (ELLs), and those from lower-income families. </p>
<p>For example, 63 percent of U.S. eighth graders who are black display “below basic” (that is, less than partial mastery of knowledge and skills necessary for grade level work) levels of science achievement. The contrasting percentage for white children is 20 percent. While 52 percent of low-income children display below basic levels of science achievement, only 20 percent of higher-income children do so. </p>
<p>Yet why these science achievement gaps are occurring has been unclear. </p>
<p>Very few studies have examined children’s science achievement across time. Most studies have used samples of middle or high school students. As a result, when science achievement gaps begin to occur has not been well understood. </p>
<h2>Here’s what our study shows</h2>
<p>To better understand these science achievement gaps, <a href="http://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X16633182">we analyzed a nationally representative sample</a> of U.S. schoolchildren as they entered kindergarten and then continued through elementary and middle school.</p>
<p>The data were collected by the U.S. Department of Education, and designed to be representative of the <a href="http://nces.ed.gov/ecls/kindergarten.asp">population of children</a> who entered U.S. kindergarten classrooms in 1998-1999. </p>
<p>The data included children’s reading and mathematics achievement, their classroom behavior, and many characteristics of their families and schools. Such characteristics included the quality of the children’s parenting, their family’s income, and the racial segregation of their schools. From third grade to eighth grade, the surveys included a measure of children’s science achievement.</p>
<p>During kindergarten and first grade, the surveys assessed children’s general knowledge about their natural (e.g., the seasons, the lunar phases, erosion) and social worlds (e.g., what a fireman does, what planes and trains have in common).</p>
<p>Our analyses of these data yielded three surprising findings. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117893/original/image-20160407-16263-1but2w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117893/original/image-20160407-16263-1but2w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117893/original/image-20160407-16263-1but2w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117893/original/image-20160407-16263-1but2w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117893/original/image-20160407-16263-1but2w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117893/original/image-20160407-16263-1but2w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117893/original/image-20160407-16263-1but2w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The gaps exist when kids enter kindergarten.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/nhks/8078441699/in/photolist-diS8gz-diS7aA-dAkRyB-dAkRkg-diS6Qk-dAkRHZ-dGwo7f-diS5af-dGqWPV-dAriH5-dAkPc8-diS3HG-dArjoG-4bVk3q-dArjrb-dAkRKt-dAkQCx-6VbZ2-4pdZqh-4wQnaK-rhDo7-5Dftec-4wQnLz-7qx75z-71iQ2D-cVB1u5-cVBaEC-5V4mLK-cVBbr3-cZLqS1-dQv6wC-cVAZMy-cZLqEy-xZawB-cVB2e3-7F3HAh-5RBB9P-6vhZXN-pxcsd-jgzT72-butFYG-butG17-bHotzi-butG5E-butGaf-butG4E-bHotBF-butFUA-cTq9Ly-butFWW">PRONavy Hale Keiki School</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>First, we found that very large gaps in general knowledge were already evident among children entering kindergarten classrooms in the U.S. For example, about 60 percent of black children scored in the bottom 25 percent on the general knowledge measure. The contrasting percentage for white children was 15 percent. </p>
<p>About 65 percent of low-income children entered kindergarten with low levels of general knowledge. Only 10 percent of high-income children did so. The general knowledge and science achievement gaps in kindergarten were even larger than the reading or mathematics achievement gaps. </p>
<p>In other words, leaks in the STEM pipeline were originating “close to the tap.”</p>
<p>The second surprising finding was that general knowledge gaps by kindergarten strongly predicted science achievement gaps by third grade. For example, of those whose general knowledge was in the lowest 25 percent during kindergarten, 62 percent, 60 percent and 54 percent had levels of science achievement in the lowest 25 percent at the end of third, fifth or eighth grade, respectively. </p>
<p>This suggests that children who are already struggling with low levels of general knowledge in kindergarten are likely to still be struggling in science throughout elementary and middle school.</p>
<p>Children’s general knowledge was a stronger predictor of third grade science achievement than race/ethnicity, reading or mathematics achievement, classroom behavior or family income. </p>
<p>Both the general knowledge and science achievement gaps were very stable over time. </p>
<p>Children who are racial or ethnic minorities, English Language Learners or from low-income households displayed lower levels of science achievement by third grade and typically continued to lag behind throughout elementary and middle school. Girls displayed relatively lower science achievement than boys in third grade. </p>
<h2>Closing these gaps</h2>
<p>Our third finding was more encouraging. We found that we could explain most of these general knowledge and science achievement gaps. And this could help inform efforts by parents, practitioners, and policymakers to close these gaps.</p>
<p>For example, we were able to explain 75 percent of the third grade science achievement gap between black and white children as well as 97 percent of the gap between low- and high-income children. </p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117894/original/image-20160407-16286-hgo2ho.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117894/original/image-20160407-16286-hgo2ho.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117894/original/image-20160407-16286-hgo2ho.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117894/original/image-20160407-16286-hgo2ho.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117894/original/image-20160407-16286-hgo2ho.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=491&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117894/original/image-20160407-16286-hgo2ho.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=491&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117894/original/image-20160407-16286-hgo2ho.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=491&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Early interventions could help.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/nasahqphoto/5161635695/in/photolist-8S7JsT-8S7Kup-pjFich-84xWrA-67b7q1-676TF8-ayha1Q-5tp42h-84xSzW-84xSdf-84xPH1-8Hpynr-84xNQy-AUh7cY-7WPjBh-5FNXHa-84uQWk-7WPjLy-8SaQLU-5FP1Jc-5G7y9S-8S7JHB-emT6Q9-8SaQDA-bpUhH5-5K8rex-KzfYi-8HpsMe-84uJ4e-7WPjHm-84uNQx-hLWxnz-5fkoDH-7KxJP1-bZspeY-84xRZY-5G7xDs-84xVH1-7WL63D-84uPq4-84xPzU-riuycX-84uLdB-84xRoo-84uQjK-84xN47-84uQur-67b7uS-9wfS87-hto9FE">NASA HQ PHOTO</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Factors that helped explain science achievement gaps included children’s reading and mathematics achievement, their behavior and, most importantly, their general knowledge. </p>
<p>Helping young children to be more knowledgeable about their physical and social surroundings, as well as to be better at reading and mathematics, may increase their <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0049089X08001282">science achievement</a> as they grow older.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.nsta.org/about/positions/earlychildhood.aspx">Asking children questions</a> about their surroundings while encouraging and extending their <a href="http://www.nsf.gov/pubs/2000/nsf99148/ch_2.htm">initial explorations</a> could help them improve their general knowledge and science achievement. </p>
<p>Encouraging <a href="http://www.columbia.edu/cu/psychology/courses/3615/Readings/Preschool_Influences_on_Mathematics_Achievement.pdf">policies that lead</a> to high-quality childcare for children most at risk could reduce these gaps. <a href="http://doi.org/10.3102/0034654312475322">Policies that counter</a> the racial segregation of U.S. schools might also be helpful. </p>
<p>It is never too late to help children grow to be successful. But if we are really serious about their as well as our nation’s future opportunities, we will do more to help all children begin kindergarten already knowledgeable about their natural and social worlds. </p>
<p>Collective, coordinated, and sustained efforts by parents, practitioners, and policymakers during children’s early school careers could make all the difference.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/56785/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paul Morgan receives funding from the Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. </span></em></p>A ‘leaky STEM pipeline’ keeps many women, racial and ethnic minorities as well as adults from low-income families from pursuing STEM careers. How early do these leaks begin?Paul L. Morgan, Associate Professor of Education, Penn StateLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/477442015-10-20T10:04:03Z2015-10-20T10:04:03ZIn 19 states, it’s okay to hit kids with a wooden board<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/98900/original/image-20151019-23267-1kjblkz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Why use corporal punishment?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/hydrojeno/5792853829/in/photolist-9PTTCa-4C7no1-cWCwn5-rr47zB-cvKuQQ-47gJ5J-khx8jT-6RLWve-5U2WNX-BbnwP-eyXQiK-9EaKem-9K2RXz-bq4tGz-47pLK4-7oHfZw-75MD6d-eyXRHT-zK1NCu-8xq7Ab-boZ2uC-hMakiZ-5mFCsB-8MG3Cu-6mnb33-8DhF9K-bZavvU-rWWD9C-nqdKhP-4LXVYQ-34UPdf-gwAgLB-vF4Xw-8WAZT-2DKw4-qctCRj-Ec4aj-rNgtxq-gPQN8-66LH5F-Ej3H-4poUaF-nkyjjr-5zhMDH-4L3xAG-8P76u6-yjhVLG-6W79Cc-8TJBqn-6Za1FY">Jeno Ortiz</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Terry sat in his middle school principal’s office knowing that in a few short minutes, he would be feeling the pain and humiliation of being paddled. </p>
<p>No parent, administrator or teacher should find this scenario acceptable. Yet, every school day, an <a href="http://www.childrensdefense.org/library/state-of-americas-children/">estimated 838 students</a> like Terry receive corporal punishment in American schools. <a href="https://www.splcenter.org/20120901/corporal-punishment-florida-schools">Nineteen states</a> still allow corporal punishment, despite research that clearly indicates such public humiliation is ineffective for changing student behavior and can, in fact, have long-term negative effects.</p>
<p>For a decade I have studied approaches that are effective for promoting appropriate student behavior. And as a teacher for a dozen years, I experienced personal reward as well as pride in my students, as they learned and used appropriate behaviors. I have not come across a single valid study that showed any positive effect of corporal punishment. </p>
<h2>A form of child abuse</h2>
<p>Corporal punishment is a method of responding to student misbehavior wherein an adult uses a wooden board to strike a child on the buttocks <a href="https://www.aacap.org/aacap/policy_statements/1988/Corporal_Punishment_in_Schools.aspx">in order to inflict pain</a>.</p>
<p>The harm done by corporal punishment is well-recognized by many school administrations across the US. Professional organizations across disciplines including the American Psychological Association, National Education Association, American Bar Association and National Association of School Nurses have called for ending corporal punishment. </p>
<p>In fact, the American Bar Association <a href="http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:7_5w1Js106EJ:www.americanbar.org/content/dam/aba/publishing/criminal_justice_section_newsletter/crimjust_juvjus_jjpolicies_OpposingCorporalPunishment.pdf+&cd=1&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us">condemns</a> the practice in the following words:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Institutional corporal punishment of children should be considered a form of child abuse that is contrary to current knowledge of human behavior and sound educational practices.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Yet, the use of corporal punishment continues.</p>
<p>In a <a href="https://www.splcenter.org/20120901/corporal-punishment-florida-schools">recent study</a>, my colleagues and I asked 27 principals from <a href="http://www.fldoe.org/policy/federal-edu-programs/title-i-part-a-improving-the-academic-/improving-the-academic-achievement-of-.stml">Florida Title I schools</a> about their thoughts on using corporal punishment. <a href="http://www2.ed.gov/programs/titleiparta/index.html">Title I schools</a> are those that may receive state funding due to “high numbers or high percentages of children from low-income families.” </p>
<p>Through our other research, we found that schools with students from poor families use corporal punishment more often than schools in more affluent areas. So, we interviewed these principals individually for over an hour. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/98902/original/image-20151019-23270-1sxyiaq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/98902/original/image-20151019-23270-1sxyiaq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98902/original/image-20151019-23270-1sxyiaq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98902/original/image-20151019-23270-1sxyiaq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98902/original/image-20151019-23270-1sxyiaq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98902/original/image-20151019-23270-1sxyiaq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98902/original/image-20151019-23270-1sxyiaq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Many school principals believe in corporal punishment as a way of disciplining kids.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/usagvicenza/18430266204/in/photolist-u5BW3q-6Pvkab-5vijH8-eF4Gsq-bz9aqJ-ytLg6-7QQUD2-bZLGsq-a3ndDu-a3jmtp-aLTTst-bZLGgN-bZLCEW-bZLBnw-bZLG5Q-bZLDV7-bZLH8Q-bZLHrf-bZLBMY-bZLCem-bZLD5W-bZLEZE-bZLHg5-bZLCUh-bZLGXQ-bZLFEC-bZLB21-bZLE6C-bZLEU7-bZLBd3-bZLDfh-bZLDpq-bZLEwC-bZLEJ1-bZLEmJ-bZLDyE-bZLF9L-bZLFjs-bZLDHu-bZLBB1-bZLGAQ-bZLBYJ-bZLFuy-bZLCtw-bZLFSj-pjkWRh-q4jCa1-9DRK3W-bEP7dT-brUffW">USAG Vicenza</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Sadly, despite all evidence to the contrary, many principals do believe that corporal punishment is effective for some students. Also, principals cite pressure from parents as a primary reason for using corporal punishment. Despite the science, the idea that corporal punishment is effective, “Because that’s how I was raised,” pervades the discussion. </p>
<p>However, given the research, perhaps a better view is, “I am ok <em>despite</em> corporal punishment and not <em>because of</em> corporal punishment. </p>
<h2>More suspensions in schools with corporal punishment</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www.splcenter.org/20120901/corporal-punishment-florida-schools">acceptance</a> of corporal punishment can create an environment in which schools approach student misbehavior in a reactive and punitive manner.</p>
<p>In Florida, for example, schools in districts that allow corporal punishment enforce more suspensions and expulsions than schools districts that do not allow it. </p>
<p>Harsh punitive approaches to student behavior problems can result in student alienation from school. A <a href="http://www.freepatentsonline.com/article/Journal-Instructional-Psychology/272616385.html">host of problematic student behaviors</a> are related to such alienation, including disruptiveness, absenteeism, low achievement and social withdrawal.</p>
<p>Research shows that students who have a sense of being connected to school and teachers have <a href="http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.538.6276&rep=rep1&type=pdf">lower rates</a> of depression, social rejection and violence, as well as greater academic achievement. </p>
<h2>The way forward</h2>
<p>So, what can be done?</p>
<p>First, we need to provide information about the effects of corporal punishment to parents, teachers and administrators in a manner that is effective. The conversation must be redirected toward the science that <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=buy.optionToBuy&id=2008-05119-001">shows corporal punishment has negative effects</a>, in the same way that we use science to deter youth from smoking cigarettes. The harm that cigarettes have had on previous generations is acknowledged and shape our approach to youth today.</p>
<p>One would never consider promoting smoking to our children because we smoked as teenagers. </p>
<p>Second, the same needs to be done with legislators in all 19 states. They need to learn about the <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=buy.optionToBuy&id=2008-05119-001">very real harm</a> that use of corporal punishment can have on youth. </p>
<p>Third, we must acknowledge the importance of banning corporal punishment within a larger reform movement focusing on schools’ approach to student behavior. Nationally, <a href="http://ocrdata.ed.gov/Downloads/CRDC-School-Discipline-Snapshot.pdf">male and African-American students</a> are disproportionately punished, suspended and expelled. This trend is <a href="http://www.gse.upenn.edu/equity/SouthernStates">particularly pronounced</a> in schools in the southern states that allow corporal punishment. A comprehensive plan requires consideration of these important facts. </p>
<p>As parents, teachers, administrators and concerned adults, we all want to see our children thrive in school and in society. It is time for us to acknowledge that corporal punishment is not an effective tool for our schools. As we do that, we also need to be careful that we do not replace corporal punishment with yet another form of reactive and ineffective approach.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/47744/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joseph Gagnon receives funding from the Southern Poverty Law Center </span></em></p>An estimated 838 students per day receive corporal punishment across schools in 19 American states. Why does the practice continue?Joseph Calvin Gagnon, Associate Professor of School of Special Education, School Psychology, & Early Childhood Studies, University of FloridaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.