tag:theconversation.com,2011:/id/topics/macrophage-5624/articlesMacrophage – The Conversation2020-01-22T19:03:11Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1302462020-01-22T19:03:11Z2020-01-22T19:03:11ZMosquito bites: widely available skin cream found to prevent the spread of deadly viruses – new research<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/311441/original/file-20200122-117958-meqej1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=5%2C0%2C992%2C666&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Researchers discovered a cream could stop the spread of deadly viruses from mosquitoes.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/aedes-aegypti-mosquito-close-sucking-human-657528181">frank60/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/climate-change-and-health">Rising temperatures</a>, increased <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/zika-virus-is-the-price-we-pay-for-globalization/article28544681/">global travel and trade</a>, and <a href="https://www.citylab.com/equity/2016/02/zika-virus-urbanization-globalization/462366/">urbanisation</a> are just some of the factors behind the supercharged spread of mosquito-borne viruses worldwide. </p>
<p>Not only was last year the <a href="https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/dengue-monthly">worst on record</a> for severe outbreaks of <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/dengue/">dengue fever</a> in Asia and South America, southern Europe even had an unprecedented <a href="http://www.euro.who.int/en/countries/italy/news/news/2018/8/west-nile-virus-infections-spike-in-southern-and-central-europe">outbreak of West Nile Virus</a> in 2018. And, in 2016, an explosive <a href="https://theconversation.com/whatever-happened-to-the-zika-virus-82618">outbreak of the Zika virus</a> spread throughout South and Central America.</p>
<p>Remarkably, despite the enormous global health burden of viruses spread by mosquitoes – which cause <a href="https://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/vector-borne-diseases">hundreds of millions of infections</a> and thousands of deaths each year – there are no drug treatments available that can stop the virus from spreading and causing disease. There are many reasons why an effective medicine hasn’t been developed, but one of the main challenges is the unpredictability of these often explosive outbreaks. And, with so many distinct viruses, being able to identify which virus might cause the next outbreak is almost impossible. </p>
<p>With few clues showing us what virus we need to prepare against, it’s hard to justify the resources and finances needed to <a href="https://thehill.com/opinion/healthcare/434595-drug-development-is-failing-because-its-too-expensive-and-takes-too-long">develop virus-specific medicines</a>. Not only that, but many of these infections can be hard to diagnose. Some of the most common mosquito-borne viruses, such as dengue and chikungunya, cause similar symptoms. Without an accurate diagnosis, it would be hard for doctors to prescribe the right medicine even if they were available. </p>
<p>But, our team of researchers has found a different approach that might be able to circumvent many of these issues. This solution is to target a common aspect of every single one of these infections: the body’s immune defence against viruses at the mosquito bite. <a href="https://stm.sciencemag.org/lookup/doi/10.1126/scitranslmed.aax2421">Our research found</a> that an immune-boosting skin cream can actually prevent infection from a wide range of these dangerous mosquito-borne viruses.</p>
<p>After being bitten by a mosquito, your immune system <a href="https://theconversation.com/mosquito-bite-research-could-slapping-on-some-cream-help-stop-zika-61249">behaves a bit strangely</a>. The cells in your skin focus mainly on the trauma caused by the puncturing and probing of these pesky insects. This response helps to repair the wounded tissue. However, the body largely ignores the virus – often until it’s too late. We found that the body’s immune defences against the virus failed to keep up with how quickly the virus replicated, which allowed it to spread throughout the body and cause disease. </p>
<p>Our team wondered whether it would be possible to prevent the virus’s attack if we were able to alert the skin’s cells to the lurking viral threat. This is the basis of a new treatment that uses an easily applied topical skin cream. This cream has been used for many years to treat other conditions, such as warts and some skin cancers. It contains an immune boosting agent, <a href="https://bnf.nice.org.uk/drug/imiquimod.html">imiquimod</a>. When the cream was applied to a mosquito bite, imiquimod alerts the skin’s immune cells, <a href="https://www.immunology.org/public-information/bitesized-immunology/cells/macrophages">known as macrophages</a>. The macrophages kick-start the immune system’s anti-viral state, stopping the virus in its tracks. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/311356/original/file-20200122-117933-180x9wa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=56%2C0%2C6240%2C4156&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/311356/original/file-20200122-117933-180x9wa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311356/original/file-20200122-117933-180x9wa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311356/original/file-20200122-117933-180x9wa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311356/original/file-20200122-117933-180x9wa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311356/original/file-20200122-117933-180x9wa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311356/original/file-20200122-117933-180x9wa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">The cream is already on the market.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/allergic-reaction-itch-dermatitis-woman-applying-1429765838">DimaBerlin/ Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>To understand how the cream could activate macrophage cells and whether this might protect the host, we infected mice with two genetically distinct viruses spread by mosquitoes: <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12491154">Semliki forest virus</a>, which can be lethal in mice, and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5906542/">Bunyamwera virus</a>, which causes a fever. Both of these viruses are spread by the <a href="https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/disease-vectors/facts/mosquito-factsheets">Aedes mosquito</a>, which is often the main culprit for transmitting viruses. Worryingly, these insects are rapidly moving from the tropics into more temperate climates. </p>
<p>Half of the infected mice were treated with the cream during the first few hours following infection. In the mice that received treatment, the cream stopped the virus from spreading to the blood and other sensitive tissues, such as the joints and brain. For the mice infected with Semliki forest virus, treatment improved the mice’s chance of survival from 0% to 65%. While for Bunyamwera virus infection, levels of virus in the blood were reduced by up to 10,000 times.</p>
<p>Boosting immune defence also worked for humans. Using skin samples donated by 16 volunteers, we infected them with either <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/zika-virus">Zika</a> or <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/chikungunya/index.html">chikungunya virus</a> in the lab. These viruses are also spread by Aedes mosquitoes. Only half of the samples were treated with the cream one hour after infection. In skin samples infected with Zika, the treatment reduced the amount of virus in the skin by more than 70 times. For chikungunya, the virus was reduced more than 600 times. Although more trials will be needed, our research shows that this treatment is effective on several genetically distinct viruses spread by mosquitoes. </p>
<p>Imiquimod-containing creams have been used for many years to treat <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/molluscum-contagiosum/treatment/">other skin</a> <a href="https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/cancer-in-general/treatment/cancer-drugs/drugs/imiquimod">conditions</a>. So we know it’s well tolerated by patients, and could be repurposed relatively easily compared to new medicines. And, because the cream has already been developed and is readily available, it could be an affordable treatment option in the meantime – until other, more specific, treatments have been developed. The next steps will be for researchers to start testing whether this is safe and effective to be used for routine treatment of these infections.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/130246/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Steven Bryden previously received funding from Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Clive McKimmie received funding from Medical Research Council and the Wellcome Trust. </span></em></p>The cream was found to boost the body’s anti-viral immune response, stopping mosquito-borne viruses in their tracks.Steven Bryden, Postdoctoral research assisstant, University of GlasgowClive McKimmie, Group leader, University of LeedsLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1292892020-01-08T15:20:02Z2020-01-08T15:20:02ZBody clock affects how the immune system works – new findings<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/308837/original/file-20200107-123407-13rbajd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C998%2C564&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/young-indian-man-wearing-denim-shirt-1571915239">Aaron Amat/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>All life on Earth has evolved to cope with a rotating planet which results in the predictable transition between day and night. The details differ between plants, fungi, bacteria and animals, but the consistent feature is a biological “clock” that allows the organism to anticipate the change and prepare for it. </p>
<p>In animals, the central clock that keeps track of night and day is in the brain where it receives light from the retina to keep synchronised with the light or dark. But all cells in the body have their own clocks. Because these biological clocks have a cycle that is close to 24 hours they are termed circadian (“circa” meaning “about” and dian, meaning day, from the Latin “dies”).</p>
<p>We now live with cheap, bright, artificial light, shift-work, sleep-deprivation and jet-lag – all major challenges to the ancient circadian control mechanisms in our bodies. All these circadian and sleep challenges are <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/pdf/S0960-9822(16)30333-5.pdf">associated with disease</a>. But in our <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/early/2020/01/02/1915932117">latest study</a>, using mice, we discovered that infections at different times of the day cause different severity of disease.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-ancient-clock-that-rules-our-lives-and-determines-our-health-85034">The ancient clock that rules our lives – and determines our health</a>
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<p>Surprisingly, we found that the clock ticking in the cells of the immune system was responsible for the change in response to bacterial infection. In particular, specialised cells called macrophages, which are big cells that engulf and kill bacteria. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/308845/original/file-20200107-123395-1aarqgt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/308845/original/file-20200107-123395-1aarqgt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/308845/original/file-20200107-123395-1aarqgt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/308845/original/file-20200107-123395-1aarqgt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/308845/original/file-20200107-123395-1aarqgt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/308845/original/file-20200107-123395-1aarqgt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/308845/original/file-20200107-123395-1aarqgt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">An artist’s impression of a macrophage (blue) engulfing tuberculosis bacteria (red).</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/macrophage-engulfing-tuberculosis-bacteria-mycobacterium-3d-716819269">Kateryna Kon/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>Macrophages, either growing in a dish or in a mouse, responded differently at different times of the day. And disabling the clock in these cells resulted in super macrophages, which moved faster and ate more bacteria than the normal macrophages.</p>
<p>We found that “clockless” macrophages protected mice from bacterial infection with many types of bacteria. A closer look at the macrophages revealed that the cells looked different, with a major change in the structural proteins that maintain the cell shape and are needed for cell movement and for eating bacteria. The change in the cell’s internal architecture, or cytoskeleton, became a focus of our studies.</p>
<p>We discovered that the macrophage circadian clock directly controlled the components of the cytoskeleton. We saw changes in the amount of cytoskeletal protein building blocks, and also in the activity of a master regulator of cytoskeletal change. This master regulator is a protein called RhoA. </p>
<p>RhoA is activated by bacterial contact and drives the macrophage to move and consume bacteria. We found that RhoA was active in the clockless macrophages even when no bacteria were present. When bacteria contacted the normal macrophages RhoA became active, but there was no further change in the clockless macrophages, as the RhoA was already active. So the clockless macrophages were always switched on, and so able to respond to bacterial attack more rapidly.</p>
<p>To find out how the clock was changing the behaviour of macrophages, we turned to the core clock mechanism. This comprises a small group of proteins that change in abundance through time, so allowing the cells to tell the time. We found that one of these clock factors, called BMAL1, was the essential link between the clock and the macrophage behaviour.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/308442/original/file-20200103-11909-vgr25p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/308442/original/file-20200103-11909-vgr25p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=438&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/308442/original/file-20200103-11909-vgr25p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=438&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/308442/original/file-20200103-11909-vgr25p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=438&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/308442/original/file-20200103-11909-vgr25p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=550&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/308442/original/file-20200103-11909-vgr25p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=550&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/308442/original/file-20200103-11909-vgr25p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=550&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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<h2>Reducing reliance on antibiotics</h2>
<p>One of the major issues facing the modern world is the growing resistance of bacteria to antibiotics. There have been no new classes of antibiotics for 30 years. Bacterial resistance to antibiotics means that we have untreatable infections and face a future where surgery will become riskier.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-will-happen-when-antibiotics-stop-working-59938">What will happen when antibiotics stop working?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<p>Finding new ways to enhance defence against bacteria is a high priority. Discovery of a circuit linking the clock to bacterial defence opens up a new route to reduce our reliance of the limited range of existing antibiotics. It may be possible to enhance natural defences to bacterial infection by targeting the clock.</p>
<p>The operation of the circadian clock can be altered by light exposure, by changing meal times, by genetic variability within human populations and by new drugs capable of regulating this system. One problem with targeting the clock with drugs is that the impact on other systems will be broad and the consequences hard to predict. But short-term intervention to boost immunity to infection may offer benefits, at low cost. </p>
<p>Similarly, reinforcing the circadian rhythm of high-risk people, in hospitals for example, by controlling lighting and meal times may boost immunity and prevent hospital-acquired infections.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/129289/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span><a href="mailto:david.ray@ocdem.ox.ac.uk">david.ray@ocdem.ox.ac.uk</a> receives funding from The Wellcome Trust, and Medical Research Council, UK. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gareth Kitchen was funded by the Medical Research Council for the duration of his PhD. He is currently an NIHR academic Clinical Lecturer.</span></em></p>Removing the “clock” gene makes immune cells more effective at fighting bacteria.David Ray, Professor of Endocrinology, University of OxfordGareth Kitchen, Academic Clinical Lecturer and Anaesthetist, University of ManchesterLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1218522019-10-02T12:25:13Z2019-10-02T12:25:13ZUntangling tattoos’ influence on immune response<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/288379/original/file-20190816-192240-wxdzlr.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C638%2C3010%2C2788&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A schoolteacher in the midst of receiving a full pe'a, the traditional Samoan tattoo generally worn by males.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Christopher Lynn</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>I lay on the mat of the open-air bungalow in Apia, Samoa, looking up at a gecko. As its tail quivered, I felt a sympathetic twitch in my leg. Su’a Sulu’ape Paulo III, the sixth-generation Samoan hand-tap tattoo master leaning over me, paused to see if my movement was due to pain.</p>
<p>I’d been in Samoa for a month, studying Samoan tattooing culture and the impact of the big traditional pieces called pe’a and malu – tatau in general – on the immune system. Now I was getting my own hand-tapped leg tattoo, albeit considerably smaller.</p>
<p>This field season was the fourth of my research on the relationship between tattooing and immune response. My first study had focused on a small sample, mostly women, in Alabama. What I’d <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/ajhb.22847">observed among that group suggested</a> that <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/03/160308110004.htm">tattooing could help beef up one’s immune response</a>. </p>
<p>But <a href="https://jezebel.com/how-one-study-produced-a-bunch-of-untrue-headlines-abou-1765538077">one small study</a> in the United States wasn’t proof of anything – despite headlines blaring that tattoos could cure the common cold. Good science means finding the same results multiple times and then interpreting them to understand something about the world. </p>
<p>That’s why I traveled in 2018 with <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=8b4hr5kAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">fellow anthropologist</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=Dtp3LA0AAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">Michaela Howells</a> to the Samoan Islands. Samoans have a long, continuous history of extensive tattooing. Working with contemporary machine and hand-tap tattooists in American Samoa, we wanted to see if we’d find the same link to enhanced immune response.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Slow motion video of Su'a Sulu'ape Paulo III hand-tapping a tatau. Filmed by Adam Booher.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Immune defenders rush to tattoo’s tiny wounds</h2>
<p>More than <a href="http://www.historyoftattoos.net/tattoo-facts/tattoo-statistics/">30% of Americans</a> are tattooed today. Yet, few studies have focused on the biological impact beyond risks of <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1684/ejd.2017.3184">cancer</a> or <a href="https://doi.org/10.3238/arztebl.2016.0665">infection</a>.</p>
<p>Tattooing creates a permanent image by inserting ink into tiny punctures under the topmost layer of skin. Your body interprets a new tattoo as a wound and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1089/wound.2012.0435">responds accordingly</a>, in two general ways. </p>
<p>Innate immune responses involve general reactions to foreign material. So getting a new tattoo triggers your immune system to send white blood cells called macrophages to <a href="https://newatlas.com/tattoo-ink-immune-system-removal/53698/">eat invaders</a> and sacrifice themselves to protect against infection.</p>
<p>Your body also launches what immunologists call adaptive responses. Proteins in the blood will try to fight and disable specific invaders that they recognize as problems. There are several classes of these proteins – called antibodies or immunoglobulins – and they continue to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s12026-014-8517-0">circulate in the bloodstream</a>, on the lookout lest that same invader is encountered again. They’re at the ready to quickly launch an immune response the next time around. </p>
<p>This adaptive capacity of the immune system means that we could measure immunoglobulins in saliva as approximations of previous stress caused by tattooing.</p>
<p>In American Samoa, Howells and I worked at the <a href="http://www.ashpo.org/">Historic Preservation Office</a> to recruit study participants with help from tattoo artists Joe Ioane of <a href="https://www.facebook.com/offdarocktattoos/">Off Da Rock Tattoos</a>, Duffy Hudson of <a href="https://www.facebook.com/tattoosbyduffy/">Tatau Manaia</a> and traditional hand-tap tattooist Su'a Tupuola Uilisone Fitiao. Our sample of 25 tattoo recipients included both Samoans and tourists to the island.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/288386/original/file-20190816-192231-mp6b9g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/288386/original/file-20190816-192231-mp6b9g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/288386/original/file-20190816-192231-mp6b9g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288386/original/file-20190816-192231-mp6b9g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288386/original/file-20190816-192231-mp6b9g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288386/original/file-20190816-192231-mp6b9g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288386/original/file-20190816-192231-mp6b9g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288386/original/file-20190816-192231-mp6b9g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Chris Lynn collecting data in American Samoa.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.facebook.com/Inking.of.Immunity/">Michaela Howells</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>We collected saliva at the start and end of each tattoo session, controlling for the tattoo duration. We also measured recipients’ weight, height and fat density to account for health. From the saliva samples, we extracted the antibody immunoglobulin A, as well as the stress hormone cortisol and inflammatory marker C-reactive protein. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/path.1877">Immunoglobulin A</a> is considered a frontline immune defense and provides important protections against frequent pathogens like those of the common cold.</p>
<p>By comparing the levels of these biological markers, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332974410_Title_The_evolutionary_adaptation_of_body_art_Tattoo_as_an_honest_signal_of_enhanced_immune_response_in_American_Samoa">we determined</a> that immunoglobulin A remains higher in the bloodstream even after tattoos heal. Furthermore, people with more time under the tattoo needle produced more salivary immunoglobulin A, suggesting an enhanced immune response to receiving a new tattoo compared to those with less or no tattoo experience. This effect appears to be dependent on receiving multiple tattoos, not just time passed since receiving one. This immune boost may be beneficial in the case of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2009.09.004">other skin injuries</a> and for <a href="https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.00145.2005">health in general</a>.</p>
<p>Tattooing seems to exert a priming effect: That’s <a href="https://doi.org/10.1201/9781315533247">what biologists call it</a> when naive immune cells are exposed to their specific antigen and differentiate into antibodies that remain in the bloodstream for many years. Each tattoo prepares the body to respond to the next.</p>
<p>Other studies find that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.00145.2005">short-term stress benefits</a> the immune system. Stress’s bad rap comes from chronic forms that <a href="https://www.simplypsychology.org/stress-immune.html">really do undermine</a> immune response and health. But a little bit is actually good for you and prepares your body to fight off germs. Regular exercise provides immune function <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2018.00648">benefits through repetition</a>, not necessarily single visits to the gym. We think this is similar to how each tattoo seems to prepare the body for vigilance.</p>
<p>Our Samoan findings supported the results of my first study in Alabama. But of course correlation does not imply causation. Enhanced immune response is correlated with more tattoo experience, but maybe healthier people heal easily from tattooing and like to get them more. How could we find out if getting tattoos could actually make a person healthier?</p>
<h2>‘Tatau belongs to Samoa’</h2>
<p>Samoans have the <a href="https://uhpress.hawaii.edu/product/tatau-a-history-of-samoan-tattooing/">oldest continuous tattoo culture</a> in the Pacific Islands. Though many Samoans complain that young people are getting tatau for fashion, most get them to honor their heritage, saying their tattoo belongs not to them but to Samoan culture.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/294648/original/file-20190928-185390-1dd93y4.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/294648/original/file-20190928-185390-1dd93y4.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/294648/original/file-20190928-185390-1dd93y4.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294648/original/file-20190928-185390-1dd93y4.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294648/original/file-20190928-185390-1dd93y4.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294648/original/file-20190928-185390-1dd93y4.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294648/original/file-20190928-185390-1dd93y4.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294648/original/file-20190928-185390-1dd93y4.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A pe'a by Sulu'ape Tatau will mostly be hidden, visible only on ceremonial occasions.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Christopher Lynn</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Samoans usually obtain permission from family to receive pe'a and malu. Getting and wearing these tattoos involve many responsibilities and indicate willingness to serve one’s community.</p>
<p>Several of the Samoans in our sample had little interest in getting other tattoos, and one even reported being afraid of needles. They get pe'a and malu for the importance of these tattoos to their cultural identity, not because they are fashionable ways to show off. The social expectations for Samoans mean that getting pe'a or malu is less about self-motivated fashion choices than getting a tattoo is in the U.S. This is why Samoa is a great place to investigate whether the immune bump we see after tattooing is due to healthier people going under the needle in the first place – in Samoa people of all body types and walks of life get them, from <a href="https://www.sapiens.org/body/samoan-tattoo/">priests</a> to <a href="http://www.samoanews.com/tribute-honorable-faleomavaega-eni-faua%E2%80%99-hunkin">politicans</a>.</p>
<p>In July 2019 I focused on collecting multiple biological samples from people getting intensive tattoos in Apia, where they are administered daily in the center of town. I collected around 50 saliva samples from a dozen participants that will be analyzed in the coming year by <a href="https://www.baylor.edu/alumni/magazine/1704/index.php?id=962043">anthropological immunologist</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=UBfhmw0AAAAJ&hl=en">Michael Muehlenbein</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/294647/original/file-20190928-185375-1s53kwu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/294647/original/file-20190928-185375-1s53kwu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/294647/original/file-20190928-185375-1s53kwu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294647/original/file-20190928-185375-1s53kwu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294647/original/file-20190928-185375-1s53kwu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294647/original/file-20190928-185375-1s53kwu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294647/original/file-20190928-185375-1s53kwu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294647/original/file-20190928-185375-1s53kwu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Two sisters display their malu, by Sulu'ape Tatau.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Christopher Lynn</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>An evolutionary take on tattoos</h2>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2009.09.009">Tattoos may provide</a> visual evidence that others home in on to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2008.09.031">identify healthy mates</a> or hardy friends. Such signals of fitness have been compared to peacock tail feathers, which would be too much of a burden if the peacock were not hale enough to escape predators. </p>
<p>Even in the modern environment with improved health care, tattoos may “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027908">up the ante</a>” by artificially injuring the body to demonstrate health. In a study I conducted among <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s40806-018-0174-4">nearly 7,000 undergraduates</a>, male intercollegiate athletes in general and football players in particular were more likely to be tattooed than nonathletes and less likely to suffer tattoo-related medical problems than those nonathletes who were tattooed.</p>
<p>It’s not clear that the benefits tattooing provides are big enough to make a clinical difference on health, so don’t expect a new tattoo to cancel out a diet of cheeseburgers and fries. But there is no doubt that tattooing is associated with toughness, and that we humans influence each other through impressions as much as reality.</p>
<p>[ <em>Deep knowledge, daily.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=deepknowledge">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter</a>. ]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/121852/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christopher D. Lynn receives funding from the Wenner Gren Foundation. </span></em></p>An anthropologist works in American Samoa, taking advantage of the island’s longstanding tattoo culture to tease out the effects tattoos have on the body’s immune function.Christopher D. Lynn, Associate Professor of Anthropology, University of AlabamaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/733352017-03-07T17:09:08Z2017-03-07T17:09:08ZExercise changes the way our bodies work at a molecular level<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/159768/original/image-20170307-14939-19d5d0k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Even regular walking can drastically change your health. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/woman-walkingrunningexercise-park-444882142?src=bXF2i472T5sKnVxaEOH29Q-1-65">Zetar Infinity/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Exercise is good for you, this we know. It helps build muscle, burn fat and make us all into happier, healthier people. But long before you start looking the way you want, there are other hidden, more immediate, molecular and immunological changes taking place inside your cells. Changes which could be responsible for protecting us from heart disease, high blood pressure, type 2 diabetes – and even <a href="http://www.cell.com/cell-metabolism/fulltext/S1550-4131(17)30099-2">stave off old age</a> and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21818123/">cancer</a>.</p>
<p>You may think that “molecular” changes may not be that much of a big deal. Surely it is fat loss and muscle gain that are the best outcomes of exercise? Actually molecular changes affect the way genes and proteins are controlled inside cells. Genes can become more or less active, while proteins can be rapidly modified to function differently and carry out tasks such as moving glucose into cells more efficiently, or protect cells from harmful toxins.</p>
<p>Type 2 diabetes causes all kinds of health problems, including cardiovascular disease, high blood pressure, blindness, kidney failure and nerve damage, and may lead to limb amputation. The underlying cause is the development of a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17928988">heightened inflammatory state</a> in the body’s tissue and cells. This damages cells and can eventually lead to insulin resistance and, ultimately, type 2 diabetes. </p>
<p>The main risk factors for type 2 diabetes include obesity, a poor diet and a sedentary lifestyle. However, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4983283/">we have found</a> that even low intensity exercise, such as brisk walking, can increase the body’s insulin sensitivity. This means that people at risk of developing diabetes become less prone because they are able to metabolise glucose more efficiently. </p>
<p>In our study, we asked 20 sedentary people who were at risk of developing diabetes to walk briskly for 45 minutes, three times a week, for eight weeks. Although there was no change in their weight, blood pressure or cholesterol level, on average each participant lost a significant six centimetres from their waist circumference. And, more importantly, there was a reduction in their diabetic risk.</p>
<h2>Immune system benefits</h2>
<p>Interestingly, there were also exercise-induced changes in the participants’ monocytes – an important immune cell that circulates in the bloodstream. This led to a reduction in the body’s inflammatory state, one of the main risks for type 2 diabetes. </p>
<p>When our body is under attack from foreign invaders such as microbes, immune cells such as monocytes change into “microbe-eating” macrophages. Their main function is to fight infection in our tissues and lungs. There are two main types of macrophages, M1 and M2. M1 macrophages are associated with pro-inflammatory responses and are necessary for aggressively fighting off infections. However, in obese people who do not exercise, these cells become active even in the absence of infection. This can lead to an unwanted, heightened inflammatory condition which may “trigger” diabetes. </p>
<p>On the other hand, M2 macrophages play a role in “switching-off” inflammation and are <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17515919/">instrumental in “damping-down”</a> the more aggressive M1s. So a healthy balance of M1 and M2 macrophages is crucial to maintain an optimal immune response for fighting infections – and it may help prevent the heightened inflammatory condition which comes from lack of exercise and obesity too.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/159769/original/image-20170307-14951-97qv0w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/159769/original/image-20170307-14951-97qv0w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159769/original/image-20170307-14951-97qv0w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159769/original/image-20170307-14951-97qv0w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159769/original/image-20170307-14951-97qv0w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159769/original/image-20170307-14951-97qv0w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159769/original/image-20170307-14951-97qv0w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Macrophages fight off infectious microbes that infiltrate the body.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/macrophage-destroying-bacteria-3d-illustration-434566534?src=2O3pabWbUaQ9Yo39fICzBg-1-2">sciencepics/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Other studies have also shown that exercise has a beneficial impact on tissues’ immune cell function and can reduce unnecessary inflammation. Exercise training in obese individuals has been found to reduce the level of tissue inflammation specifically because there are <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24120496/">less macrophage cells present</a> in fat tissue.</p>
<p>In addition, researchers have found a significant link between exercise and the balance of M1 and M2 macrophages. It has been shown that acute exercise in obese rats resulted in a shift from the “aggressive” M1 macrophages to the more “passive” M2 – and that this reduction in the inflammatory state correlated with an <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23512570/">improvement in insulin resistance</a>.</p>
<h2>Time to move</h2>
<p>There is no definitive answer as to how much and what intensity of exercise is necessary to protect us from diabetes. Though some researchers have shown that while higher-intensity exercise improves overall fitness, there is <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28121184">little difference</a> between high and low-intensity exercise in improving insulin sensitivity.</p>
<p>However, a <a href="http://www.cell.com/cell-metabolism/fulltext/S1550-4131(17)30099-2">new study</a> has found that all forms of aerobic exercise – in particular high-intensity interval training such as cycling and running – can effectively stop ageing at the cellular level. The exercise caused cells to make more proteins for their energy-producing mitochondria and their protein-building ribosomes. Researchers also observed that these “molecular” changes occurring at the gene and protein levels happened very quickly after exercise and that the effects prevented damage to important proteins in the cells and improve the way in which insulin functions. </p>
<p>Although you might not see the changes you want immediately, even gentle exercise can make a big difference to the way the body’s cells behave. This means that exercise could have far-reaching health benefits for other inflammatory associated diseases and possibly protect us against ageing and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21818123/">cancer</a> too.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/73335/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew Thomas does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Even gentle exercise can induce rapid molecular and immunological changes in your body.Andrew Thomas, Principal Lecturer, Cardiff Metropolitan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/612492016-06-21T16:02:52Z2016-06-21T16:02:52ZMosquito bite research: could slapping on some cream help stop Zika?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/127192/original/image-20160619-11112-mgyi26.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">There's something in the bite.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/cat.mhtml?lang=en&language=en&ref_site=photo&search_source=search_form&version=llv1&anyorall=all&safesearch=1&use_local_boost=1&autocomplete_id=&searchterm=mosquito%20bite&show_color_wheel=1&orient=&commercial_ok=&media_type=images&search_cat=&searchtermx=&photographer_name=&people_gender=&people_age=&people_ethnicity=&people_number=&color=&page=1&inline=278964704"> chakkrachai nicharat/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s well known that viruses are spread by mosquito bites. The details of how these pathogens initially take hold in their human host has not been clear, until now. Researchers at the universities of Leeds and Glasgow have <a href="http://bit.ly/28LAltb">discovered</a> that it’s the body’s inflammatory response that actually helps viruses invade and multiply. And preventing this inflammatory response may just halt the virus in its tracks. </p>
<p>With the rapid spread of <a href="http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/zika/en/">Zika</a> in the Americas, attention has been drawn to this group of neglected mosquito-borne <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosntds/article?id=10.1371/journal.pntd.0000247">viral</a> <a href="http://www.who.int/neglected_diseases/diseases/en/">infections</a>. The Zika virus is not alone in causing problems, others such as <a href="http://www.who.int/topics/dengue/en/">dengue</a> and <a href="http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs327/en/">chikungunya</a> viruses are infecting millions of people each year. Yet there’s little doctors can do to help people who get sick. </p>
<p>In the new research, published in the journal Immunity, we used mice to study the bites of the <em>Aedes aegypti</em> mosquito. This is one of the most dangerous species of mosquito. It spreads infections such as Zika, dengue and chikungunya. When a mosquito bites you it triggers an immune response, in which immune cells called neutrophils and macrophages rush to the site. These immune cells are normally responsible for defending the body against infection and repairing the damage done by biting insects. But instead of helping, some of these cells get infected and unintentionally replicate the virus, our research found.</p>
<p>The macrophage cells inadvertently became infected at bites and start producing lots of new virus. More replication means more virus, which then allows it to spread round the body. This was surprising as this family of viruses are not known for infecting macrophage cells. However, when we prevented these cells from moving into mosquito bite sites, the bite did not enhance the infection anymore. So it looks as though some of the body’s own immune defence cells are unwittingly the key to the virus’s success. </p>
<h2>A silver bullet?</h2>
<p>Despite the enormous disease burden of mosquito-borne viral infections – they are responsible for hundreds of millions of cases across the world – there are few specific medicines or vaccines to prevent or treat these diseases. To makes things worse, climate change and globalisation are helping these mosquitoes spread to new parts of world.</p>
<p>We now want to look at whether medications such as anti-inflammatory creams can suppress bite inflammation. We predict this might stop the virus establishing an infection if used quickly enough after a bite appears. <em>Aedes</em> mosquitoes only bite during the day, so a bite is something people would notice. </p>
<p>We’re now hoping that this research could be the first step in using commonly available anti-inflammatory drugs to treat bite inflammation before any symptoms set in. It might be possible that a single cream could act as an effective way to stop these viruses before they can spread round the body to cause disease. What’s particularly exciting about this approach is that it could work against a multitude of other mosquito transmitted viruses. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/127198/original/image-20160619-11110-iq5dgb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/127198/original/image-20160619-11110-iq5dgb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=367&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/127198/original/image-20160619-11110-iq5dgb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=367&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/127198/original/image-20160619-11110-iq5dgb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=367&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/127198/original/image-20160619-11110-iq5dgb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/127198/original/image-20160619-11110-iq5dgb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/127198/original/image-20160619-11110-iq5dgb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Putting anti-inflammatory cream on the bite might stop the virus spreading.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/s/mosquitoe+bite/search.html?page=2&thumb_size=mosaic&inline=436509421">dimid_86/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Nobody anticipated the Zika outbreak and, before that, nobody anticipated chikungunya. This means it’s hard for governments and drug companies to justify the costs associated with developing medicines. Medicines take years to develop and cost vast amounts of money. Most of these infections occur in poor parts of world, so it’s unlikely these medicines will be made for each virus “just in case”. There are estimated to be hundreds of other mosquito-borne viruses out there and it’s hard to predict what’s going to start the next outbreak. But bite inflammation is a common aspect of all these infections, so targeting it makes sense.</p>
<p>It’s best not to get bitten in the first place, but for those who do get bitten, future research will hopefully show that slapping on an anti-inflammatory cream could stop you getting sick.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/61249/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Clive McKimmie receives funding from the Medical Research Council and the Wellcome Trust. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marieke Pingen does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Inflammation caused by mosquito bites helps viruses to infect the body.Clive McKimmie, University academic fellow, University of LeedsMarieke Pingen, Postdoctoral research fellow, University of LeedsLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.