tag:theconversation.com,2011:/id/topics/mobility-8602/articlesMobility – The Conversation2024-02-27T12:32:52Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2243122024-02-27T12:32:52Z2024-02-27T12:32:52ZE-bike incentives are a costly way to cut carbon emissions, but they also promote health, equity and cleaner air<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577761/original/file-20240225-22-nb9e6p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=7%2C15%2C5019%2C2916&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A man pulls his kids behind an electric bicycle near the pier in Huntington Beach, Calif.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/man-pulls-his-kids-behind-an-electric-bicycle-near-the-pier-news-photo/1311180585">Paul Bersebach/Orange County Register via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>E-bikes have captured <a href="https://velo.outsideonline.com/ebike/ebike-gear/5-e-bike-trends-we-expect-to-see-in-2024/">widespread attention</a> across the U.S., and for good reason. They are <a href="https://cleantechnica.com/2023/12/11/e-bikes-are-radically-more-efficient-than-electric-cars/">the most energy-efficient way</a> to move from place to place, providing exercise in the process, and offer enough assistance while pedaling uphill or into headwinds to make them usable for many types of riders. </p>
<p>Greenhouse gas emissions from e-bikes are much lower than those from either gasoline-powered or <a href="https://www.itf-oecd.org/good-go-assessing-environmental-performance-new-mobility">electric cars</a>. Some cities and states are encouraging the use of e-bikes by providing purchase incentives, often drawing on public funds dedicated to curbing climate change.</p>
<p>Currently, over 100 cities and states <a href="https://trec.pdx.edu/news/e-bike-incentive-programs-north-america-new-online-tracker">have or plan to launch e-bike incentive programs</a>, most funded by energy or environment initiatives. However, there has been little research on the effectiveness of these types of programs, how to design them or how to define goals. </p>
<p>We study transportation from many angles, including <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=I3wi1-EAAAAJ&hl=en">innovation</a>, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/John-Macarthur-4">sustainability</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=JltA3IAAAAAJ&hl=en">economics</a>. Our new study, published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2024.104114">Transportation Research Part D</a>, investigates the effectiveness of several types of e-bike purchase incentives and the investment required to induce additional e-bike purchases. </p>
<p>We found that incentives do spur extra e-bike purchases, but at a relatively high cost compared with narrowly defined climate benefits. We find that a public agency using a point-of-purchase discount would have to distribute about US$4,000 in incentives to generate one additional e-bike purchase. This is because over 80% of people who buy an e-bike would likely have bought one even without the discount. For perspective, it takes <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeem.2017.01.002">about $30,000 worth of incentives</a> to induce an electric car purchase. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">California initiated a $10 million statewide program in 2023 that offers voucher incentives to low-income residents for purchasing electric bikes.</span></figcaption>
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<p>Nonetheless, e-bikes provide many other benefits. They make mobility easier and more affordable for many people, including <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2023.100940">older adults and people with disabilities</a>. They bolster the case for <a href="https://orbit.dtu.dk/en/publications/cost-benefit-of-bicycle-infrastructure-with-e-bikes-and-cycle-sup">investing in bike paths and infrastructure</a>, which produce <a href="https://www.urban.org/urban-wire/why-us-cities-are-investing-safer-more-connected-cycling-infrastructure">economic, safety and mobility benefits for cities</a>. And they <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jth.2017.06.002">boost health by promoting exercise</a>. In our view, cities and states should assess e-bike incentive investments based on this broad range of benefits, rather than focusing solely on a narrow environmental objective.</p>
<h2>Not just a climate tool</h2>
<p>Clean technology incentives tend to be focused on a specific outcome – usually, reducing greenhouse gas emissions. This works well for most energy-related upgrades, such as replacing old air conditioners, improving home insulation and generating electricity from wind and solar power. Consumers want the services that these devices deliver – cool air, comfortable conditions indoors and electricity that’s available and affordable. The new devices simply deliver those familiar goods more sustainably. </p>
<p>E-bike incentives are different. They invite people to adopt a new technology that can fundamentally change recipients’ travel patterns. In fact, while replacing car trips with e-bike trips <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2020.102482">can provide substantial climate benefits</a>, those benefits may be smaller than other benefits that are less widely measured. Focusing narrowly on reducing greenhouse gas emissions by replacing car trips means providing incentives to people who drive the most, or who drive the biggest gas guzzlers.</p>
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<p>But what about carless households, transit riders or bicyclists? For them, e-bikes can make it much easier to travel in most North American cities. That increased mobility could provide greater access to jobs, shopping or other important services, such as health care.</p>
<h2>Is investing in e-bike incentives worth it?</h2>
<p>Transportation is the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/sources-greenhouse-gas-emissions">largest source of U.S. greenhouse gas emissions</a>. Electrifying as much of it as possible is an important strategy for slowing climate change. However, e-bike incentives – and, indeed, electric car incentives – are pretty expensive ways to reduce emissions. </p>
<p>The importance of e-bike incentives is that e-bikes are good at replacing car trips and make daily trips easier for people who rely on other options. These advantages provide two main classes of benefits from increasing ownership of e-bikes.</p>
<p>The first set of benefits comes from substituting car-based trips with e-bike trips. Transportation researchers think about a swap like this in terms of vehicle miles traveled.</p>
<p>If I used to drive to work but now ride an e-bike, many benefits will be proportional to the number of miles that I now cover by bike rather than by car. They include reduced traffic congestion, lower fuel and parking costs, increased physical activity and improved health, cleaner air and reduced greenhouse gas emissions. In North America, <a href="https://nitc.trec.pdx.edu/research/project/1041">about 60% of e-bike trips replace car trips</a>. </p>
<p>A second class of benefits comes from improvements in mobility. These effects are more complex to measure. For many people in U.S. cities who don’t own cars, the basic options for getting around are walking, public transit, ride-hailing services like Uber and Lyft, or riding a conventional bicycle. In almost all cases, e-bikes would get them to their destinations faster. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">A father explains how his family used electric cargo bikes to replace a car in Toronto and the Netherlands.</span></figcaption>
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<p>Carless households <a href="https://rosap.ntl.bts.gov/view/dot/63059">tend to have lower income</a> and lack mobility options. E-bike incentives can make travel more affordable and give people better access to jobs, health care, child care, shopping and other destinations. Such benefits likely far exceed any nominal greenhouse gas accounting from these transportation users. </p>
<p>E-bike purchase incentives are an investment in the broad benefits that e-bikes can provide. We believe they should be measured against the collective goals of the agency providing the incentives, whether its mission is transportation, equitable mobility, public health, economic development or environmental protection. </p>
<h2>Putting more people on two wheels</h2>
<p>Once there’s agreement that e-bikes are worth supporting for many reasons, the challenge is how to induce more e-bike use and realize those benefits.</p>
<p>Point-of-purchase discounts or vouchers are the most popular strategy, because they mimic other clean energy incentives, such as those for high-efficiency appliances or electric cars. Our study found that they are also the most efficient way to influence consumer behavior compared with other purchase incentives, such as rebates. </p>
<p>Other strategies could be more effective but need further research. For example, <a href="https://nextcity.org/urbanist-news/bike-libraries-are-increasing-access-to-bikes-across-america">e-bike lending libraries</a> let people test-ride e-bikes without ownership. And employers can <a href="https://transweb.sjsu.edu/sites/default/files/2051-Fitch-Ebike-Employer.pdf">provide e-bikes to employees</a> to help encourage more sustainable and affordable ways to get to work. </p>
<p>Partnering with community organizations or local mobility-oriented programs could be an effective way to get e-bikes into the hands of people who need them and couldn’t afford them otherwise. And giving e-bike owners more reason to use them, such as <a href="https://momentummag.com/is-it-time-governments-start-paying-people-to-bike-to-work/">payments for biking to work</a>, could increase e-bike use and subsequent benefits. </p>
<p>E-bike purchase incentives may be an expensive climate solution, but they also offer other important benefits. Carefully designed incentive programs could help many urban and suburban residents access a faster, healthier and cleaner way to get where they need to go.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/224312/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christopher R. Cherry receives research funding from State and Federal Departments of Transportation and the National Science Foundation. He has consulted for micromobility operators and bicycling advocacy organizations.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>John MacArthur has received research support and funding from state and federal agencies, the National Science Foundation, micromobility operators and bicycling advocacy organizations.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Luke Jones does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Many incentive programs promote e-bike use, but they aren’t necessarily targeting the right people for the right reasons.Christopher R. Cherry, Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of TennesseeJohn MacArthur, Sustainable Transportation Program Manager, Transportation Research and Education Center, Portland State UniversityLuke Jones, Professor of Economics, Valdosta State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2225562024-02-14T13:25:12Z2024-02-14T13:25:12ZSeveral companies are testing brain implants – why is there so much attention swirling around Neuralink? Two professors unpack the ethical issues<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575184/original/file-20240213-26-hubky4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C6%2C2083%2C1427&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Brain-computer interfaces have the potential to transform some people's lives, but they raise a host of ethical issues, too.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/artificial-intelligence-brain-royalty-free-image/1195715936?phrase=brain+computer&adppopup=true">Andriy Onufriyenko/Moment via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Putting a computer inside someone’s brain used to feel like the edge of science fiction. Today, <a href="https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-22-106118">it’s a reality</a>. Academic and commercial groups are testing “brain-computer interface” devices to enable people with disabilities to function more independently. Yet Elon Musk’s company, Neuralink, has put this technology front and center in debates about safety, ethics and neuroscience.</em> </p>
<p><em>In January 2024, Musk announced that Neuralink <a href="https://twitter.com/elonmusk/status/1752098683024220632">implanted its first chip</a> in a human subject’s brain. The Conversation reached out to two scholars at the University of Washington School of Medicine – <a href="https://depts.washington.edu/bhdept/nancy-s-jecker-phd-sheher">Nancy Jecker, a bioethicst</a>, and <a href="https://neurosurgery.uw.edu/bio/andrew-l-ko-md">Andrew Ko, a neurosurgeon</a> who implants brain chip devices – for their thoughts on the ethics of this new horizon in neuroscience.</em> </p>
<h2>How does a brain chip work?</h2>
<p>Neuralink’s coin-size device, called N1, is designed to enable patients to carry out actions just by concentrating on them, without moving their bodies.</p>
<p>Subjects in <a href="https://neuralink.com/pdfs/PRIME-Study-Brochure.pdf">the company’s PRIME study</a> – short for Precise Robotically Implanted Brain-Computer Interface – undergo surgery to place the device in a part of the brain that controls movement. The chip records and processes the brain’s electrical activity, then transmits this data to an external device, such as a phone or computer.</p>
<p>The external device “decodes” the patient’s brain activity, learning to associate certain patterns with the patient’s goal: moving a computer cursor up a screen, for example. Over time, the software can recognize a pattern of neural firing that consistently occurs while the participant is imagining that task, and then execute the task for the person. </p>
<p><a href="https://neuralink.com/#mission">Neuralink’s current trial</a> is focused on helping people with paralyzed limbs <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z7o39CzHgug">control computers or smartphones</a>. Brain-computer interfaces, commonly called BCIs, can also be used to control devices <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/17483107.2023.2211602">such as wheelchairs</a>.</p>
<h2>A few companies are testing BCIs. What’s different about Neuralink?</h2>
<p>Noninvasive devices positioned on the outside of a person’s head <a href="https://penntoday.upenn.edu/news/challenges-and-advances-brain-computer-interfaces">have been used in clinical trials for a long time</a>, but they have not received approval from the Food and Drug Administration for commercial development. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575212/original/file-20240213-18-6c2r7t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A young woman in a green shirt sits with a wired contraption on her head as four other people look on." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575212/original/file-20240213-18-6c2r7t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575212/original/file-20240213-18-6c2r7t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575212/original/file-20240213-18-6c2r7t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575212/original/file-20240213-18-6c2r7t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575212/original/file-20240213-18-6c2r7t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575212/original/file-20240213-18-6c2r7t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575212/original/file-20240213-18-6c2r7t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">A visitor experiences a BCI system during the 2023 China International Fair for Trade in Services in Beijing.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/visitor-experiences-domestic-brain-computer-interface-news-photo/1648339155?adppopup=true">Li Xin/Xinhua via Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>There are other brain-computer devices, like Neuralink’s, that are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-024-00304-4">fully implanted and wireless</a>. However, <a href="https://neuralink.com/pdfs/PRIME-Study-Brochure.pdf">the N1 implant</a> combines more technologies in a single device: It can target individual neurons, record from thousands of sites in the brain and recharge its small battery wirelessly. These are important advances that could produce better outcomes.</p>
<h2>Why is Neuralink drawing criticism?</h2>
<p>Neuralink <a href="https://twitter.com/neuralink/status/1661857379460468736?lang=en">received FDA approval</a> for human trials in May 2023. Musk <a href="https://twitter.com/elonmusk/status/1752098683024220632">announced the company’s first human trial</a> on his social media platform, X – formerly Twitter – in January 2024.</p>
<p>Information about the implant, however, <a href="https://www.reuters.com/technology/want-details-elon-musks-brain-implant-trial-youll-have-ask-him-2024-02-02/">is scarce</a>, <a href="https://neuralink.com/pdfs/PRIME-Study-Brochure.pdf">aside from a brochure</a> aimed at recruiting trial subjects. Neuralink did not register at <a href="https://clinicaltrials.gov/">ClinicalTrials.gov</a>, as is <a href="https://clinicaltrials.gov/policy/faq">customary, and required by some academic journals</a>. </p>
<p>Some scientists are troubled by <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-024-00304-4">this lack of transparency</a>. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCOUTCOMES.112.965798">Sharing information about clinical trials is important</a> because it helps other investigators learn about areas related to their research and can improve patient care. Academic journals can also be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/25152459211007467">biased toward positive results</a>, preventing researchers from learning from unsuccessful experiments. </p>
<p>Fellows at the Hastings Center, a bioethics think tank, have warned that Musk’s brand of “<a href="https://www.thehastingscenter.org/the-neuralink-patient-behind-the-musk/">science by press release, while increasingly common, is not science</a>.” They advise against relying on someone with a huge financial stake in a research outcome to function as the sole source of information.</p>
<p>When scientific research is funded by <a href="https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-23-105396">government agencies</a> or <a href="https://sciencephilanthropyalliance.org/">philanthropic groups</a>, its aim is to promote the public good. Neuralink, on the other hand, embodies <a href="https://www.propublica.org/article/what-is-private-equity">a private equity model</a>, which is <a href="https://thehill.com/opinion/healthcare/4365741-private-equity-is-buying-up-health-care-but-the-real-problem-is-why-doctors-are-selling/">becoming more common</a> <a href="https://www.press.jhu.edu/books/title/12719/ethically-challenged">in science</a>. Firms pooling funds from private investors to back science breakthroughs may strive to do good, but they also strive to maximize profits, which <a href="https://doi.org/10.1136/medethics-2021-107555">can conflict with patients’ best interests</a>.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575187/original/file-20240213-22-j0czv9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A phone screen shows a white page that says 'Elon Musk,' positioned below an abstract black design and the word 'NEURALINK.'" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575187/original/file-20240213-22-j0czv9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575187/original/file-20240213-22-j0czv9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575187/original/file-20240213-22-j0czv9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575187/original/file-20240213-22-j0czv9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575187/original/file-20240213-22-j0czv9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=460&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575187/original/file-20240213-22-j0czv9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=460&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575187/original/file-20240213-22-j0czv9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=460&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Neuralink’s first human implant was announced on Elon Musk’s social media platform X, formerly known as Twitter, in January 2024.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/elon-musk-account-on-twitter-and-neuralink-emblem-displayed-news-photo/1247138943?adppopup=true">NurPhoto via Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>In 2022, the U.S. Department of Agriculture <a href="https://www.reuters.com/technology/musks-neuralink-faces-federal-probe-employee-backlash-over-animal-tests-2022-12-05/">investigated animal cruelty</a> at Neuralink, according to a Reuters report, after employees accused the company of rushing tests and botching procedures on test animals in a race for results. The agency’s inspection found no breaches, according to a letter from the USDA secretary to lawmakers, which Reuters reviewed. However, the secretary did note an “adverse surgical event” in 2019 that Neuralink had self-reported. </p>
<p>In a separate incident also reported by Reuters, the Department of Transportation <a href="https://www.reuters.com/technology/musk-brain-implant-company-violated-us-hazardous-material-transport-rules-2024-01-26/">fined Neuralink</a> for violating rules about transporting hazardous materials, including a flammable liquid. </p>
<h2>What other ethical issues does Neuralink’s trial raise?</h2>
<p>When brain-computer interfaces are used to help patients who suffer from disabling conditions function more independently, such as by helping them communicate or move about, this can profoundly improve their quality of life. In particular, it helps people recover a sense of their own agency or autonomy – one of <a href="https://depts.washington.edu/bhdept/ethics-medicine/bioethics-topics/articles/principles-bioethics">the key tenets</a> of medical ethics. </p>
<p>However well-intentioned, medical interventions can produce unintended consequences. With BCIs, scientists and ethicists are particularly concerned about the potential for <a href="https://theconversation.com/brain-computer-interfaces-could-allow-soldiers-to-control-weapons-with-their-thoughts-and-turn-off-their-fear-but-the-ethics-of-neurotechnology-lags-behind-the-science-194017">identity theft, password hacking and blackmail</a>. Given how the devices access users’ thoughts, there is also the possibility that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-02419-x">their autonomy</a> could be manipulated by third parties. </p>
<p>The ethics of medicine requires physicians to help patients, while minimizing potential harm. In addition to errors and privacy risks, scientists worry about <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-024-00304-4">potential adverse effects</a> of a completely implanted device like Neuralink, since device components are not easily replaced after implantation.</p>
<p>When considering any invasive medical intervention, patients, providers and developers seek a balance between risk and benefit. At current levels of safety and reliability, the benefit of a permanent implant would have to be large to justify the uncertain risks.</p>
<h2>What’s next?</h2>
<p>For now, Neuralink’s trials are focused on patients with paralysis. Musk has said his ultimate goal for BCIs, however, is to help humanity – <a href="https://www.vox.com/future-perfect/2019/7/17/20697812/elon-musk-neuralink-ai-brain-implant-thread-robot">including healthy people</a> – “<a href="https://www.technologyreview.com/2020/08/30/1007786/elon-musks-neuralink-demo-update-neuroscience-theater/">keep pace” with artificial intelligence</a>.</p>
<p>This raises questions about another core tenet of medical ethics: <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s41465-018-0108-x">justice</a>. Some types of supercharged brain-computer synthesis could exacerbate social inequalities if only wealthy citizens have access to enhancements.</p>
<p>What is more immediately concerning, however, is the possibility that the device could be increasingly shown to be helpful for people with disabilities, but become unavailable due to loss of research funding. For patients whose access to a device is tied to a research study, the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brs.2023.04.016">prospect of losing access after the study ends</a> can be devastating. This raises thorny questions about whether it is ever ethical to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1136/medethics-2016-103868">provide early access</a> to breakthrough medical interventions prior to their receiving full FDA approval.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/365700467_The_Unique_and_Practical_Advantages_of_Applying_A_Capability_Approach_to_Brain_Computer_Interface">Clear ethical and legal guidelines are needed</a> to ensure the benefits that stem from scientific innovations like Neuralink’s brain chip are balanced against patient safety and societal good.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222556/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Brain-computer interface devices have the potential to boost users’ autonomy, especially for people who experience paralysis. But that comes with risks, as well.Nancy S. Jecker, Professor of Bioethics and Humanities, School of Medicine, University of WashingtonAndrew Ko, Assistant Professor of Neurological Surgery, School of Medicine, University of WashingtonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2134792023-11-08T13:53:29Z2023-11-08T13:53:29ZTurkana stone beads tell a story of herder life in a drying east Africa 5,000 years ago<p>On the shores of Lake Turkana in east Africa, about 5,000 to 4,000 years ago, pastoralists buried their dead in communal cemeteries that were marked by stone circles and pillars. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1721975115">The north-west Kenya “pillar sites”</a> were built around the same time as Stonehenge in the UK. But these places have a different story to tell: about how mortuary traditions reflect people’s environments, behaviours and reactions to change.</p>
<p>The burial sites appeared at a time of major <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S027737912200021X">environmental</a> and economic <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012825217303331">change</a> in the region. The Sahara, which received enough rainfall 9,000-7,000 years ago to sustain populations of fisher-hunter-gatherers and pastoralists, was <a href="https://pastglobalchanges.org/publications/pages-magazines/pages-magazine/7413">drying</a>, causing groups of people to move east and south. Even in eastern Africa, lake levels were dropping dramatically; grassy plains were expanding. Around Lake Turkana, people began herding animals in addition to fishing and foraging. </p>
<p>At several of the pillar sites around Lake Turkana, archaeologists have found that hundreds of people were <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12520-019-00914-4">ceremonially interred</a> under large, circular platform mounds. Many of those individuals were found wearing remarkable colourful stone beads, some as part of necklaces, bracelets, earrings, and other jewellery worn, for example, around the waist. These beautiful personal ornaments include blue-green amazonite, soft pink zeolite, deep red chalcedony, purple fluorite and green talc, among other minerals and rocks.</p>
<p>I study relationships between humans and their environments, especially at times of major economic transformations, using scientific techniques applied to archaeology. I recently led a team of experts in geology and archaeology of the region to conduct the first comprehensive mineralogical <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00934690.2023.2232703">analysis</a> of the Turkana stone beads. </p>
<p>The focus of our study was to discover what types of minerals and rocks the early herders had used to make adornments, and where these materials came from. </p>
<p>This kind of information can tell archaeologists about the role of artefacts in the society that used them.</p>
<h2>Wearing beads</h2>
<p>Humans have been making and wearing beads for over <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abi8620">140,000 years</a>. Beads are one of the oldest forms of symbolism and are often used as <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-tiny-ostrich-eggshell-beads-that-tell-the-story-of-africas-past-128577">adornment</a> in a culture. Wearing something on your body is an expressive choice that can have many meanings, such as protection, acknowledgement of friendships and bonds, status or role in society. Personal ornaments like beads may indicate a common cultural understanding. </p>
<p>Analysis of <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-excavated-beads-tell-us-about-the-when-and-where-of-human-evolution-53695">beads in archaeological sites</a> has shown that we can learn many things from them. </p>
<p>At the Turkana pillar sites, the stone bead tradition was clearly important, partly because of the number of beads found accompanying burials, and partly because the practice persisted for hundreds of years. </p>
<p>Knowing the range of materials helps us understand landscape use in the past: where people were buried, where they watered their animals, seasonal movements for grazing, special yearly trips to significant places and other movements. Pastoralists recorded or marked their worlds by what they left behind and what they took with them. Patterns in the composition of the bead collections may indicate there was communication and exchange of objects across the region.</p>
<h2>Sorting the stone beads</h2>
<p>Of the six pillar sites that have been excavated by archaeologists, three have yielded substantial assemblages of stone beads: Lothagam North, Manemanya and Jarigole. Our team began by sorting the stone beads by site, and by their mineral and rock types.</p>
<p>Our study identified the mineral characteristics of 806 stone beads. We looked at properties like <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/specific-gravity">specific gravity</a>, crystal and molecular structure, and the characteristic emissions that are particular to certain minerals. </p>
<p>What we found was a strikingly diverse set of beads that varied by site. The visual characteristics of some of the beads – colour, lustre and so on – may have made them particularly valuable or had a special meaning economically, socially, spiritually or symbolically. Their source and workability may also have given them a certain value. </p>
<p>Pink zeolites and turquoise amazonites were the most common stone beads at the site of Lothagam North, comprising over three-quarters of the assemblage. This was very similar to the site of Jarigole, located across the lake. The sites are hundreds of kilometres apart, with Lake Turkana in between – suggesting a cultural connection between them.</p>
<p>In contrast, the kinds of beads at Manemanya were different: mostly softer and paler pink and off-white calcite beads that were quite large. Further, while at Lothagam North there often were just a few beads found with any individual, one person at Manemanya was buried with over 300 stone beads and over 10,000 ostrich eggshell beads. </p>
<p>This suggests that although having stone beads was a commonality across the sites, distinctions – and distinct meanings for different people – did exist. </p>
<h2>Sourcing stones</h2>
<p>We also wanted to know whether the beads were produced from local sources (within a few days’ walk) or acquired through long-distance journeys or trade. Sourcing allows us to partially reconstruct how the earliest pastoralists moved around the landscape during the year.</p>
<p>A survey of the areas west of Lake Turkana and a search of the published literature on the geology of the region identified places where these materials might have come from.</p>
<p>There are possible sources for most of these materials within about 150km of the pillar sites. Limestone rocks may have been procured easily near the lake. Some of the tougher materials, like the chalcedonies, could have been carried to the lake area by rivers, to be picked up perhaps by someone watering cattle or fetching water from a stream. Other minerals come from a specific source. The variety of bead types demonstrates that people knew their landscape well.</p>
<p>Sometimes, they went out of their way to get certain minerals, or perhaps traded for them. The closest known sources for amazonite and fluorite are, respectively, 225 km, in southern Ethiopia; and 350 km, near the modern city of Eldoret, Kenya. </p>
<p>These suggest that bead making was not just a casual affair; material selection was intentional.</p>
<h2>Local landscapes</h2>
<p>Early herders in the Turkana Basin obtained materials from both local and distant places, and shaped them into personal adornments. These stone beads were placed with the dead, in numbers and combinations that differed by individual and place. We don’t yet fully know what they meant – but future research in the Turkana Basin will continue to explore the lives and legacies of these pioneering herders as they negotiated new environmental and social landscapes.</p>
<p><em>Edits and comments for this article were provided by Late Prehistory of West Turkana project co-directors Drs. Elizabeth Hildebrand and Katherine Grillo, project minerologist Mark Helper, and Emmanuel Ndiema, who helped lead the sourcing study.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/213479/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Funding for Klehm's research on the pillar site stone beads was provided by the Wenner-Gren Foundation.</span></em></p>Mineralogical analysis of 5,000-year-old stone beads from Turkana, Kenya suggest a novel mortuary tradition by early pastoralists.Carla Klehm, Research Assistant Professor, Center for Advanced Spatial Technologies, University of ArkansasLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2160532023-10-26T12:23:18Z2023-10-26T12:23:18ZFocusing on functional fitness in your 20s and 30s can help you stay ready for anything — and many exercises can help you achieve it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556065/original/file-20231026-27-7kl3gu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=37%2C12%2C4147%2C2731&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">CrossFit is an example of a workout which focuses on functional fitness.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/group-trains-box-jumps-195395828">Kjetil Kolbjornsrud/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>What’s the best type of exercise you can do for your health? The answer seems to change every week. Lately, many fitness enthusiasts and influencers have been talking about the importance of “functional fitness” – especially for people in their 20s and 30s who want to stay mobile and ready for anything as they get older.</p>
<p>Functional fitness has actually been in and out of the <a href="https://journals.lww.com/acsm-healthfitness/Fulltext/2023/01000/Worldwide_Survey_of_Fitness_Trends_for_2023.6.aspx?context=FeaturedArticles&collectionId=1">top ten global fitness trends</a> since 2016. While there are plenty of posts and <a href="https://www.tiktok.com/@jay.rose.phase6/video/7257885109058014490">videos online</a> telling people what the best functional fitness exercises are, in reality many (or even most) exercises could be done in a way that is functional. </p>
<p>What’s more important is the outcome of the exercise. If it results in you becoming as physically capable as possible and ready for anything in life – whether that’s moving furniture, climbing a mountain or running after your child – it could be considered functional fitness.</p>
<p>When you think about this outcome, you can see why it’s hard to pin down a specific list of movements or workouts that count as functional fitness. Because anything that builds any form of fitness that helps you live life could be considered “functional” – including strength, cardio, agility and flexibility. </p>
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<img alt="Quarter life, a series by The Conversation" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><em><strong><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/quarter-life-117947?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=UK+YP2022&utm_content=InArticleTop">This article is part of Quarter Life</a></strong>, a series about issues affecting those of us in our twenties and thirties. From the challenges of beginning a career and taking care of our mental health, to the excitement of starting a family, adopting a pet or just making friends as an adult. The articles in this series explore the questions and bring answers as we navigate this turbulent period of life.</em></p>
<p><em>You may be interested in:</em></p>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/tailoring-workouts-to-your-menstrual-cycle-may-help-your-physical-fitness-but-only-if-done-properly-195773?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=UK+YP2022&utm_content=InArticleTop">Tailoring workouts to your menstrual cycle may help your physical fitness – but only if done properly</a></em></p>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/how-running-can-help-you-cope-with-stress-at-work-198362?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=UK+YP2022&utm_content=InArticleTop">How running can help you cope with stress at work</a></em></p>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/shy-girl-workouts-arent-just-a-great-way-to-get-fit-they-may-also-help-women-gain-confidence-in-the-gym-206972?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=UK+YP2022&utm_content=InArticleTop">‘Shy girl workouts’ aren’t just a great way to get fit – they may also help women gain confidence in the gym</a></em></p>
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<p>So you might lift weights to build strength, cycle to build cardio, do sprints to build agility and calisthenics to build flexibility. Or, you could combine all of these exercises into a single workout by doing labelled functional fitness exercise programmes such as <a href="https://www.crossfit.com/">CrossFit(R)</a>, <a href="https://hyrox.com/">Hyrox</a> or <a href="https://f45training.com/">F45</a>.</p>
<p>Improving <a href="https://functionalfitness.sport/sport/movement-standards/">all forms of physical movement</a> is why many have said functional fitness exercise programmes are the best exercise you can do. Boosting your <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7404807/">overall fitness</a> may also potentially set you up for being more physically capable and independent well into <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3870597/">old age</a>.</p>
<h2>Building fitness</h2>
<p>We <a href="https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/japplphysiol.00242.2021">don’t have much research</a> on the specific benefits of functional fitness over and above other sports because it’s still quite a new area. But we can get an idea of what benefits it may have by looking at what effect combining different types of exercise can have versus just doing those exercises on their own. </p>
<p>Strength training, for example, helps build strength in your <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5ff5a78ee90e0776a8d5615b/CYP_MSBS_Review__1_.pdf">muscles, bones and connective tissue</a>. This can help you retain the ability to move independently into old age. </p>
<p>Cardio (or “conditioning”), on the other hand, can have a greater effect on the <a href="https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/JAHA.115.002014">cardiovascular and respiratory systems</a>, which may make us more robust in the face of illness. </p>
<p>So they both have distinct as well as common benefits, which is why it’s often considered <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/physical-activity">important to include both</a> in your weekly exercise routine. This is one reason why functional fitness workouts that incorporate both may be a benefit. </p>
<p>But, if functional fitness exercise programmes are not your thing, a number of other sports and activities could clearly help you become functionally fit too.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A man playing rugby bends down to place the ball on the ground to score a try." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556081/original/file-20231026-21-icms8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556081/original/file-20231026-21-icms8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556081/original/file-20231026-21-icms8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556081/original/file-20231026-21-icms8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556081/original/file-20231026-21-icms8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556081/original/file-20231026-21-icms8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556081/original/file-20231026-21-icms8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Rugby combines is an example of a sport that can make you more functionally fit.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/rugby-players-training-on-pitch-park-322664444">wavebreakmedia/ Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>Take <a href="https://us.humankinetics.com/blogs/excerpt/physical-and-physiological-demands-of-rugby">rugby</a>, for example. These players train to be strong, but also fast, agile and with the endurance to play for an 80 minute game. Or <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3281210/">ice hockey</a>, where players must again be fast, powerful and able to sustain a high intensity across a game. Or <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6720877/">obstacle racing</a>, where people run long distances – using strength, power, skill and agility to climb over obstacles in their path.</p>
<p>Another way you can build your strength, agility, balance and other aspects of functional fitness is by combining different sports and exercises. For example, you may choose to run, but also do <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9653850/">calisthenics</a> a couple days a week. Or perhaps do <a href="https://journals.lww.com/nsca-scj/FullText/2014/12000/The_Physiology_of_Strongman_Training.9.aspx">strongman training</a> during the week, and play football on the weekends. </p>
<p>So, while functional fitness exercise programmes are one way to incorporate strength, conditioning and other physical skills into your training, they are not the only way. Combining many different types of exercise into your regular workout regime can also help you achieve the benefits of functional fitness. And given each of us have different genetics, bodies, lifestyles and workouts we prefer to do, the type of exercise that best helps you achieve functional fitness may vary depending on the person.</p>
<p>The biggest health and fitness improvements are usually going to come from <a href="https://www.sportengland.org/about-us/physical-wellbeing">consistent exercise</a>. So at the end of the day, doing exercises that you enjoy, and which fit into your daily routine, are likely to <a href="https://www.sportengland.org/research-and-data/research/inactive-people?section=research">have the greatest benefit</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216053/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sinead Roberts does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Functional fitness can help you to be as physically capable as possible.Sinead Roberts, Lecturer Sport and Exercise Nutrition, University of WestminsterLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2078152023-08-09T12:31:31Z2023-08-09T12:31:31ZBabies almost all try crawling to get from Point A to Point B, but CDC says it’s not a useful developmental milestone<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541295/original/file-20230804-27-srqigc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C1439%2C4181%2C2735&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Babies are curious about their world and want to explore.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/studio-shot-of-babies-in-diapers-crawling-royalty-free-image/73230112">Jose Luis Pelaez Inc/DigitalVision via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Infant milestones can be a source both of pride and anxiety for a new parent. Baby’s firsts – first tooth, first steps, first word – are moments of joy that many parents immediately compare with charts listing “normal” age ranges for each achievement to occur.</p>
<p>For a pediatrician, these milestones are useful indicators of typical or atypical development. When they occur outside that normal range, it might be time to look for some underlying cause, which could enable early detection and intervention if something’s amiss.</p>
<p>Since 2004, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has published a <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/actearly/milestones/index.html">set of milestone checklists</a> as part of its “<a href="https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/actearly/index.html">Learn the Signs. Act Early</a>” program. Important skills are listed for a series of ages, enabling anxious parents to know whether baby is developing typically.</p>
<p>In early 2022, the CDC <a href="https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2021-052138">published a major update to the milestones</a>. The new version has a much stronger basis in research evidence and has attempted to simplify language and help caregivers know when to contact a health care provider. Among all the changes, a major milestone was removed. Crawling no longer appears in the milestone checklists.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541297/original/file-20230804-27-3rcku2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="baby crawls toward camera with woman out of focus in background" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541297/original/file-20230804-27-3rcku2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541297/original/file-20230804-27-3rcku2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541297/original/file-20230804-27-3rcku2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541297/original/file-20230804-27-3rcku2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541297/original/file-20230804-27-3rcku2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541297/original/file-20230804-27-3rcku2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541297/original/file-20230804-27-3rcku2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">About 80% of babies give hands-and-knees crawling a try.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/two-mothers-meeting-for-play-date-with-babies-at-royalty-free-image/1153668944">monkeybusinessimages/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span>
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<h2>Crawling to get from here to there</h2>
<p>As infants develop awareness of the world around them, they naturally start wanting to explore it. Mobility is the gateway to that exploration. Crawling is typically an infant’s first efficient strategy to get from Point A to Point B, and it often means that new parents must suddenly baby-proof their home and make sure all the Point Bs are safe.</p>
<p>Crawling is a transitional phase of mobility – children and adults are capable of crawling but choose to walk if they’re able to do so – and it often overlaps with precursors to walking such as pulling-to-stand and “cruising” while holding on to furniture. </p>
<p>Studies have indicated that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2013.04.010">over 80% of infants progress through hands-and-knees crawling</a> during development of locomotion. Others <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2214.1984.tb00189.x">use alternative crawling strategies</a> like scooting along on their bottoms, or rolling.</p>
<p>The World Health Organization studied hundreds of children around the world and found that, on average, children develop <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1651-2227.2006.tb02379.x">hands-and-knees crawling by 8.5 months of age</a>. But that’s just an average. Of course babies each develop on their own schedule. The range for starting to crawl (the 1st percentile to the 99th) was 5.2 to 13.5 months. And 4.3% of the babies in the study skipped hands-and-knees crawling altogether.</p>
<p>Clinicians who work with children have long recognized the importance of motor development. Scientists have called motor behaviors the “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/wcs.1430">raw material for perception, cognition, and social interaction</a>.” In particular, crawling can be an early window to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2013.04.010">understanding a child’s problem-solving strategies</a>. And researchers have used <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.95.23.13982">movement analysis at 4-6 months</a>, when some babies are getting close to hands-and-knees crawling, for early diagnosis of disorders such as autism and cerebral palsy.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1097/PEP.0000000000000937">Therapists worry that removing crawling</a> from the milestone list means it will be devalued and the important physical, sensory and cognitive benefits it affords for the baby will be missed when evaluating childhood development.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541298/original/file-20230804-15-vw0ayr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="baby standing holding onto side of bed, looking back at camera" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541298/original/file-20230804-15-vw0ayr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541298/original/file-20230804-15-vw0ayr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541298/original/file-20230804-15-vw0ayr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541298/original/file-20230804-15-vw0ayr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541298/original/file-20230804-15-vw0ayr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541298/original/file-20230804-15-vw0ayr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541298/original/file-20230804-15-vw0ayr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pulling up to stand is a developmental milestone that typically happens at a predictable age.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/adorable-baby-boy-in-white-sunny-bedroom-in-winter-royalty-free-image/961494366">tatyana_tomsickova/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Off the evidence-based list of milestones</h2>
<p>Much of the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1097/PEP.0000000000000937">CDC’s reasoning</a> for removing crawling from the milestone list is centered on data.</p>
<p>Pediatricians have charts that say how fast children typically walk based on their age, but no such normative data exists for crawling. There are no clear, laboratory-based descriptions of the various types of crawling. We lack long-term studies that show when babies transition between patterns. And there are very few studies on the implications of skipping crawling and going straight to walking.</p>
<p>Despite these data gaps, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1998.tb06213.x">crawling has been studied for nearly a century</a>, and researchers have used it to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1993.tb04193.x">understand the complex development</a> of multiple neuromotor systems. Crawling is also important in understanding developmental continuity, or where new skills grow from.</p>
<p>Nonetheless, the CDC is correct: There are no age-based normative data charts for crawling as there are for walking.</p>
<h2>Locomotion in the lab</h2>
<p>As a biomedical engineer who <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=C7j3KnYAAAAJ&hl=en">specializes in pediatric locomotion biomechanics</a>, I have firsthand knowledge of this lack of crawling data.</p>
<p>I’ve used a technique called <a href="https://www.gillettechildrens.org/conditions-care/gait-and-motion-analysis">3D motion analysis</a> for decades to gather minute details on the walking of children with limb loss, cerebral palsy and other neuromotor conditions, all in an effort to help improve their mobility. My colleagues and I attach small markers to skeletal landmarks like hips and knees, and special cameras track the markers and reconstruct skeletal movement.</p>
<p>But among all my lab’s studies on walking, I’ve completed only <a href="https://doi.org/10.1097/JPO.0b013e3181cc57bc">one 3D motion analysis study on crawling</a>. We examined the motion of very young children with limb loss in a new prosthetic treatment protocol developed here at Children’s Healthcare of Atlanta – but it was really tricky to do.</p>
<p>We had to create new musculoskeletal models for our analysis system. We had to use tiny reflective markers, because babies make more contact with the ground than older kids, and a big marker might be uncomfortable. We had to position cameras at new angles to track those tiny markers. Diapers created a big challenge, given their movement relative to the baby’s skeleton.</p>
<p>And as any parent or caregiver can attest, babies can be a tough population to work with. They don’t follow directions well, they’re temperamental, and they’ll pull a reflective marker off their skin and pop it in their mouth in a second if you let them. We had to watch our study subjects like hawks.</p>
<p>In short, crawling is just more difficult to study than walking.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541290/original/file-20230804-26-kmpnwr.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="baby crawling on a pathway in distance, with a computer readout of measurements of the baby's pressure on the path" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541290/original/file-20230804-26-kmpnwr.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541290/original/file-20230804-26-kmpnwr.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541290/original/file-20230804-26-kmpnwr.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541290/original/file-20230804-26-kmpnwr.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541290/original/file-20230804-26-kmpnwr.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541290/original/file-20230804-26-kmpnwr.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541290/original/file-20230804-26-kmpnwr.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A new study is collecting crawling biomechanic data using a pressure-sensing pathway.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Mark Geil</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Collecting crawling data</h2>
<p>To address this challenge, my colleagues and I are now embarking on what we believe is the largest lab-based study of infant crawling development. We’re studying babies from their first crawling attempts all the way through their transition to walking.</p>
<p>This study relies on a new technique with a pressure-sensing pathway that avoids the complications of 3D motion capture. We’ll see 75 typically developing infants, and also study children with limb loss and cerebral palsy. </p>
<p>Our goal is to gain insights into how children transition from crawling to walking, with the hope they will one day help health care providers understand early motor development and spot neuromotor issues earlier. </p>
<p>We’re also hopeful that these hundreds of visits to the lab will result in the first normative data set on crawling development, addressing some of the issues that prompted the CDC to remove crawling from the milestone list. So, while our lab stays full of toys, Cheerios and baby wipes for a few years, we’re generating data that might improve parents’ and clinicians’ understanding of early motor development.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207815/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark Geil receives funding from The Gerber Foundation. </span></em></p>Revisions to the CDC’s developmental milestone checklists removed crawling as a skill that babies pick up at a typical age. A biomedical engineer describes how more research may clarify its role.Mark Geil, Associate Dean for Research and Professor of Biomechanics, Kennesaw State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2033432023-04-26T16:36:10Z2023-04-26T16:36:10ZReturn of the child-friendly city? How social movements are changing European urban areas<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/522117/original/file-20230420-18-tgm751.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=5%2C0%2C1789%2C1197&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">An image of KidicalMass in Barcelona, in May 2022. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://kidsonbike.org/media-downloads/">Calvox Periche/Kidical Mass</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Urban development and social norms concerning childhood have led European cities to a situation where streets are no longer places for children and young people. <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1068/d140581">Gill Valentine</a> has explained that this shift has been fuelled by our division of children into two categories – ‘angels’ and ‘demons’. </p>
<p>She described how on one hand children are considered too small, vulnerable and innocent to roam and play in urban spaces because of traffic, ‘stranger-danger’ and other hazards. On the other hand, teenagers are constructed as a public threat and should not be allowed to hang out on the streets with their bikes, skateboards and presumably bad intentions.</p>
<p>Subsequent studies have continued to explain how these kinds of representations have caused children’s exclusion and ‘othering’ from public spaces in the complex web of urban governance, public life and parenting. Children’s autonomous movement and play in cities has <a href="https://westminsterresearch.westminster.ac.uk/item/98xyq/children-s-independent-mobility-an-international-comparison-and-recommendations-for-action">steadily declined in recent decades</a>. In turn, children and young people are increasingly <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00045608.2013.846167">sequestered in homes, cars or institutional spaces for adult-controlled education and play</a>.</p>
<p>Many experts and interest groups have voiced their concerns about this and explained why closing the streets to children is bad policy. Children’s physical activity levels are <a href="https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/5ee82799-en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/5ee82799-en">alarmingly low</a> and limiting their sense of safety and autonomy also hampers their <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14733285.2013.812277">mental and social wellbeing</a>. These trends are endangering the health of an entire generation and compromising their ability to uphold societies and economies with <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-eurostat-news/-/edn-20210930-1">grim dependency ratios</a>. </p>
<p>At the same time, as often noted by childhood scholars, children should not be reduced to mere ‘future investments’ or ‘adults of tomorrow’. They are also people with <a href="https://www.coe.int/en/web/compass/convention-on-the-rights-of-the-child">present-day rights</a> to citizenship, participation and autonomy in their living environments. </p>
<h2>Old and new movements for the child-friendly city</h2>
<p>However, there are many examples of how people have resisted children’s exclusion from the streets in modern history. One of the most notable ones was the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2015/may/05/amsterdam-bicycle-capital-world-transport-cycling-kindermoord">Stop de Kindermoord</a> (‘Stop child murder’) movement in the Netherlands in early 1970s. This aimed to curb child traffic fatalities, which, at the time, had peaked to the highest in Europe. </p>
<p>The movement organised demonstrations, pressured decision makers to pass legal and planning measures and created safe spaces through direct action and tactical urbanism. With success. Child safety rose up the agenda, and the campaigners continued to play an important role in traffic policies for over a decade. However, over time they were marginalised and <a href="https://scribepublications.co.uk/books-authors/books/movement-9781911344971">traffic danger was largely re-established</a> as a ‘natural’ part of urban childhood.</p>
<p>Half a century after the Stop de Kindermoord movement, we are witnessing another wave of civic activity sweeping across the globe but especially in Europe. Old and new strategies are deployed, but the message is similar: the campaigners want systemic change, not awareness campaigns on road safety. </p>
<p>Promoting safety vests, helmets and children’s traffic awareness are not strategies to curb traffic violence but to maintain it, as they offload the responsibility on individual children and parents. Instead the activists mobilise entire communities and use local demonstrations and experiments to provide people with concrete experiences of how cities could be different. </p>
<h2>Taking action nowadays</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/522108/original/file-20230420-28-xk6cti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/522108/original/file-20230420-28-xk6cti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/522108/original/file-20230420-28-xk6cti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522108/original/file-20230420-28-xk6cti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522108/original/file-20230420-28-xk6cti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522108/original/file-20230420-28-xk6cti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522108/original/file-20230420-28-xk6cti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522108/original/file-20230420-28-xk6cti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Photograph of Kidical Mass.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://kidsonbike.org/media-downloads/">Hannah Walther/Kidical Mass</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://kidsonbike.org/">Kidical Mass</a> is a rapidly growing urban protest of parents, educators and children that organises colourful bicycle demonstrations in small and large cities. In 2022 it gathered over 90,000 children, young people and families over two campaign weekends in over 400 locations across Europe. </p>
<p>The organisers attest that Kidical Mass is a one-day-experiment that allows people to see city spaces in a different light and turn these experiences into political demand. </p>
<p>The movement’s political effect recently became very concrete in Germany, where <a href="https://kidsonbike.org/kidical-mass-successfully-affects-change/">the Transport Minister’s Conference</a> supported a reform of the national road traffic law based on a petition handed in by Kidical Mass activists in 2022.</p>
<p><a href="https://bicibus.cat/index">BiciBús</a> (Bike Bus) is another growing movement. The goal is simple: to provide children with a guided group to cycle to school with a predefined route at a certain time. They usually run once a week, aiming to develop the habit of cycling for families and entire communities. Pedalling in groups is not only a way to safely arrive at school, but also fun, and a way to demonstrate for child-friendly cities. </p>
<p>The idea is not new, but in the last couple of years the number of children’s pedalling buses has grown rapidly, especially in Europe, thanks to social media.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520274/original/file-20230411-16-ew2a8w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A group of kids and adults cycling through the city." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520274/original/file-20230411-16-ew2a8w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520274/original/file-20230411-16-ew2a8w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520274/original/file-20230411-16-ew2a8w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520274/original/file-20230411-16-ew2a8w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520274/original/file-20230411-16-ew2a8w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520274/original/file-20230411-16-ew2a8w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520274/original/file-20230411-16-ew2a8w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">BiciBús in Barcelona.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://citylabbcn.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/WhatsApp-Image-2023-03-10-at-8.58.13-AM.jpeg">Calvox Periche/CityLab Barcelona</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>School streets and play streets are also an important implication the new civic activity. Local advocacy groups (see for example <a href="https://playingout.net/play-streets/start-on-your-street/">Playing Out</a> in the UK) are mobilising schools and local communities to create these open, inclusive, and safe urban spaces. Often the idea is to open certain stretches to children by limiting car traffic. In some places collaboration with decision makers and planners has led to concrete changes. </p>
<p>The campaigners attest that in the long term school streets and play streets should be connected to one another to create comprehensive, safe and inclusive mobility networks. </p>
<figure>
<iframe src="https://player.vimeo.com/video/136183455" width="500" height="281" frameborder="0" webkitallowfullscreen="" mozallowfullscreen="" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<h2>Ways forward?</h2>
<p>In many respects the current civic movements for child-friendly cities are continuing the work of their predecessors. By claiming urban spaces, introducing citizen-led experiments and mobilising vast amounts of people, they create opportunities to see and think of alternative futures. What they want and what is only starting to emerge is the direct impact on more institutional processes, initiatives and frameworks. </p>
<p>Still, in a relatively short time they have left a mark. While physical infrastructures might take time to change, the way communities use them can change much faster. Mounting concerns on children’s wellbeing coupled with the need for an urgent sustainability transition of urban transport provide the movements with novel leverage. </p>
<p>Whether we will witness a major paradigm shift or not, it seems like in some respects the activists have already won. On their local pedalling buses, demonstrations and pop-up streets they are not only demanding a better tomorrow, but are already living it. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520271/original/file-20230411-26-3xge46.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A map of Europe in which cities with actions by Kidical Mass are marked." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520271/original/file-20230411-26-3xge46.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520271/original/file-20230411-26-3xge46.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520271/original/file-20230411-26-3xge46.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520271/original/file-20230411-26-3xge46.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520271/original/file-20230411-26-3xge46.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=599&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520271/original/file-20230411-26-3xge46.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=599&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520271/original/file-20230411-26-3xge46.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=599&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Kidical Mass is organising the next large scale Action Weekend in May 5-7, where European cities can expect an even larger number of demonstrations, BiciBúses and street experiments than before. The interactive map outlining these actions can be accessed at kidsonbike.org.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://twitter.com/KinderaufsRad/status/1645849196778475531">Kidical Mass/Twitter</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/203343/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jonne Silonsaari receives funding from Strategic Research Council at Academy of Finland.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gemma Simón i Mas es miembro de ConBici. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jordi Honey-Rosés y Marco te Brömmelstroet no reciben salarios, ni ejercen labores de consultoría, ni poseen acciones, ni reciben financiación de ninguna compañía u organización que pueda obtener beneficio de este artículo, y han declarado carecer de vínculos relevantes más allá del puesto académico citado.</span></em></p>Urban development and social norms concerning childhood have led European cities to a situation where public spaces are no more spaces for children and young people.Jonne Silonsaari, Doctoral Researcher in Urban Planning, University of AmsterdamGemma Simón i Mas, Estudiante de doctorado, Universitat Autònoma de BarcelonaJordi Honey-Rosés, Urban planning, Universitat Autònoma de BarcelonaMarco te Brömmelstroet, Professor in Urban Mobility Futures, University of AmsterdamLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1973412023-01-24T13:22:12Z2023-01-24T13:22:12ZNew passport rankings show that the world is opening up – but not for everyone<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505903/original/file-20230123-25-d6r6ng.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=14%2C7%2C4905%2C3268&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Muslim pilgrims go through passport control in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, on June 5, 2022, prior to the annual Hajj pilgrimage in the holy city of Mecca. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/muslim-pilgrims-go-through-passport-control-upon-their-news-photo/1241119045">Amer Hilabi/AFP via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Salman Rushdie, the celebrated Anglo-Indian writer, once declared that <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Step-Across-This-Line">the “most precious book” he possessed was his passport</a>. </p>
<p>Rushdie had already published dozens of works, including novels, short stories, essays and travelogues, to wide acclaim and considerable controversy. But he acknowledged that it was his British passport, doing “its stuff efficiently and unobtrusively,” that enabled him to pursue a literary career on the world stage. </p>
<p>On the other hand, Rushdie viewed the Indian passport he had held as a boy in the 1950s as “a paltry thing.” “Instead of offering the bearer a general open-sesame to anywhere in the world,” he recalled, “it stated in grouchy bureaucratic language that it was only valid for travel to a specified – and distressingly short — list of countries.” </p>
<p>Today, global mobility is on the rise. According to <a href="http://passportindex.org">The Passport Index</a>, an interactive ranking tool created by the investment firm <a href="https://www.artoncapital.com/">Arton Capital</a>, the “<a href="https://www.passportindex.org/world-openness-score.php">World Openness Score</a>” reached an all-time high at the end of 2022. And the score has only continued to increase.</p>
<p>This means that passport holders around the world are receiving permission to travel to more countries without first obtaining a visa than ever before. As pandemic-related travel restrictions waned in 2022, the total number of visa waivers increased 18.5% globally. Nearly every passport on the index, which includes 193 United Nations member countries and six territories, became more powerful, with holders receiving immediate access to 16 additional countries on average.</p>
<p>But there’s still a massive <a href="https://www.worldwideerc.org/news/global-workforce/minding-the-mobility-gap">mobility gap</a> between the most and least powerful passports – and it has big implications for where people can travel, reside and work. The <a href="https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights">United Nations</a> may proclaim that “everyone has the right to leave any country, including one’s own, and to return to one’s country,” but the fact is, not all passports are created equal or treated with equal respect. </p>
<p><iframe id="fN8Fh" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/fN8Fh/3/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>Mobility for some</h2>
<p>In my book “<a href="https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520375857/license-to-travel">License to Travel: A Cultural History of the Passport</a>,” I explore the evolution of travel documents and how passports have influenced the emotions and imaginings of those who hold them. Writers and artists like Rushdie have played an important role in identifying and contesting disparities in freedom of movement. They have also led the way in envisioning new forms of international openness.</p>
<p>Despite ongoing <a href="https://www.oxfam.org/en/what-we-do/issues/refugee-and-migrant-crisis">migrant crises</a>, <a href="https://www.marketplace.org/2023/01/05/chinas-zero-covid-whiplash/">disease outbreaks</a>, <a href="https://www.crisisgroup.org/europe-central-asia/conflict-key-understanding-migration">military conflicts</a>, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2021/feb/03/decades-of-progress-on-extreme-poverty-now-in-reverse-due-to-covid">economic challenges</a> and <a href="https://www.fordhampress.com/9780823287482/crimmigrant-nations/">rising nationalist movements</a>, the world is trending toward greater openness. Still, the international community has dedicated little effort to collapsing persistent inequities in the global passport regime. </p>
<p>Whether we like it or not, our passports define who we are in the geopolitical order. And unsurprisingly, the world’s wealthy have better prospects. </p>
<p>Firms such as Arton Capital and Henley & Partners, the curators of a <a href="https://www.henleyglobal.com/passport-index">competing passport ranking index</a>, have arisen in recent years to assess these prospects. They also advise investors, businesspeople and other affluent individuals on ways to attain a second passport when it is advantageous. </p>
<p>At the top of Arton’s <a href="https://www.passportindex.org/byRank.php">power ranking</a>, holders of a United Arab Emirates passport can travel visa-free or obtain visas on arrival in 181 countries and territories. U.S. passport holders rank a bit lower, with access to 173 countries. </p>
<p>At the bottom of the list is Afghanistan, whose passport holders have direct access to just 39 countries. Holders of Syrian, Iraqi, Somalian and Bangladeshi travel documents fare only slightly better.</p>
<p>Nations sink to the low ranks for <a href="https://discover.passportindex.org/reports/why-afghanistan-syria-and-iraq-had-the-weakest-passports-in-2022/">many reasons</a>, including struggling economies, large displaced populations and turbulent histories of foreign invasion and civil war. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505898/original/file-20230123-17-w0rdtw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A hand holds a passport and airline ticket." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505898/original/file-20230123-17-w0rdtw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505898/original/file-20230123-17-w0rdtw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505898/original/file-20230123-17-w0rdtw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505898/original/file-20230123-17-w0rdtw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505898/original/file-20230123-17-w0rdtw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505898/original/file-20230123-17-w0rdtw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505898/original/file-20230123-17-w0rdtw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A passenger prepares to board a flight at Sanaa International Airport in Yemen on May 16, 2022. A truce in Yemen’s civil war enabled commercial flights to resume in 2022 for the first time in six years.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/passenger-holds-his-passport-and-boarding-pass-as-he-news-photo/1240718778">Mohammed Mohammed/Xinhua via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In effect, Arton’s passport index has codified the disparity that Rushdie remarked on. Even today, after the Brexit referendum, a U.K. passport still allows for travel to 173 countries without a prior visa. An Indian passport provides access to just 71. </p>
<h2>Envisioning mobility for all</h2>
<p>How do we account for the human costs associated with these passport scores and rankings? </p>
<p>Renowned German choreographer Helena Waldmann explored this divide in her 2017 dance work, “<a href="https://www.helenawaldmann.com/works/goodpassports-badpassports/">Good Passports Bad Passports</a>.” This production stages a series of dramatic encounters between two groups of dancers, sometimes separated by a wall of other performers. It evokes frontier crossings, border patrols, passport checks and other aspects of the global migrant crisis. </p>
<p>Waldmann’s inspiration was the mobility gap. Traveling with dancers and crews from various parts of the world, she has frequently witnessed those with “bad” passports being delayed and subjected to intense questioning. Meanwhile, with her “good” German passport, Waldmann has navigated the customs and immigration process quickly and easily. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/qNUsAut801Q?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Trailer for the dance production ‘Good Passports Bad Passports.’</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>“Good Passports Bad Passports” ends with a remarkable gesture of human solidarity. As a spectral voice proclaims, “I believe that one day national borders won’t exist,” the entire cast steps to the front of the stage, interlocks arms and gazes out into the audience.</p>
<p>Famed Chinese artist Ai Weiwei highlighted these issues in his award-winning 2017 documentary, “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mha7FvpCDeA">Human Flow</a>,” which captures the overwhelming scale of the migrant crisis. In a striking scene, filmed in a rain-swept migrant camp on the Greek-Macedonia border, Ai chats with a Syrian refugee. To demonstrate their kinship, the men take out their passports and playfully offer to exchange them on the spot. </p>
<p>It’s a devastating parody of the familiar passport control ritual. Rather than inspecting the document and interrogating the holder, Ai extends a gesture of radical hospitality. He offers, if only symbolically, his own passport, his own citizenship – his own place in the world.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/mha7FvpCDeA?wmode=transparent&start=3" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">In this clip from ‘Human Flow,’ Ai Weiwei and Mahmoud, a Syrian refugee, pretend to exchange passports and identities.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>An alternative ‘Passaport’</h2>
<p>A world without borders or passport controls may be a utopian dream, but that hasn’t stopped other artists from imagining correctives to our current situation. </p>
<p>In 2009, Maltese writer Antoine Cassar published a protest poem titled “<a href="https://antoinecassar.net/passport-2009/">Passaport</a>,” printed in a small format and bound in a red cardboard cover mimicking the Maltese passport. Rather than enclosing a photograph, personal data and the legalese of the nation-state, it contains about 250 lines of verse that object to the wounding force of the international passport system and its often brutal forms of exclusion and expulsion. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/But86pDn1TX/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<p>“Passaport,” as Cassar puts it, envisions “a world without customs and checkpoints, without border police out to snatch away the dawn, without the need for forms, documents, or biometric data. … A world without the need to cross the desert barefoot, nor to float off on a raft, on an itinerary of hope all too quickly struck out by the realities of blackmail and exploitation.” </p>
<h2>Opening up the future</h2>
<p>In 2022, Arton Capital co-founder <a href="https://www.globenewswire.com/en/news-release/2022/12/06/2568139/0/en/The-Passport-Index-reveals-that-Despite-Conflict-in-Europe-and-Global-Border-Anxieties-99-5-of-the-World-Experiences-Growth-in-Global-Mobility-in-2022.html">Hrant Boghossian</a> commented that “the rise in passport power that we have seen this year brings great cause for optimism.” This is surely true. </p>
<p>“The world has surpassed the benchmark of ‘openness’ set prior to the pandemic,” Boghossian continued, “and there are strong indicators that this upward trend is here to stay.” He finds particular encouragement in the fact that this has happened during a time of increased economic tumult and political tension, as well as lingering concerns regarding homeland security and mass migration.</p>
<p>Indeed, as we emerge from the COVID-19 pandemic and face the devastating <a href="https://theconversation.com/as-more-climate-migrants-cross-borders-seeking-refuge-laws-will-need-to-adapt-159673">effects of climate change</a>, the motivation to leave home in search of work and safety will only continue to grow. But the world still has a long way to go to open itself to the entire global community.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/197341/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Patrick Bixby does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A passport from the United Arab Emirates will get you into far more destinations than one from Afghanistan. Gaps like this have big implications for people’s ability to travel, reside and work.Patrick Bixby, Associate Professor of English, Arizona State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1915372022-10-25T03:38:25Z2022-10-25T03:38:25ZWhat makes a great footpath? The answer is key to our happiness and wellbeing as we age<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491506/original/file-20221024-17390-d1k3bh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=14%2C0%2C4905%2C3253&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>As people age, they often become <a href="https://doi.org/10.2522/ptj.20110326">less confident</a> about walking. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/fear-of-falling">Fear of falling</a> can limit the activity of older people, leading them to become isolated. </p>
<p>So what, exactly, makes for a great footpath to walk on?</p>
<p>My colleagues and I explored this question in a recent paper. We used an evidence-based <a href="https://authors.elsevier.com/c/1fkIz7sfVZ6RP9">tool</a> to measure the walkability of urban roads – assessing not just the footpath itself, but the features around it. </p>
<p>The results can help urban designers make our cities more walkable, especially for older people.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="older man on mobility scooter behind woman walking" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491507/original/file-20221024-11269-antxv5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491507/original/file-20221024-11269-antxv5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491507/original/file-20221024-11269-antxv5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491507/original/file-20221024-11269-antxv5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491507/original/file-20221024-11269-antxv5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491507/original/file-20221024-11269-antxv5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491507/original/file-20221024-11269-antxv5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">As people age, they often become less confident about walking.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What makes a footpath ‘walkable’?</h2>
<p>Only about <a href="https://www.healthysustainablecities.org/25cities">42% of people</a> in Sydney and Melbourne live in neighbourhoods with above-average walkability. This compares poorly with people in Lisbon (99.2%), São Paulo (97%) and Hong Kong (96%). </p>
<p>Generally, features that determine whether a footpath is walkable fall into one of two categories.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214140519302828?via%3Dihub">Neighbourhood-level</a> features refer to a neighbourhood’s general environment, such as: </p>
<ul>
<li><p>how well connected streets are to each other. Do they offer a variety of available routes for daily trips?</p></li>
<li><p>how densely dwellings are built and how amenities are distributed. Are there parks, train stations, cafes or shops within walking distance?</p></li>
</ul>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2210670717312362">Footpath-level</a> features refer to the safety, comfort and attractiveness of a footpath, such as:</p>
<ul>
<li>obstacles such as tree roots and short poles</li>
<li>the width of the path </li>
<li>convenience of crossing facilities</li>
<li>green belts (such as grass and shrubs) and fences that separate pedestrians from traffic lanes</li>
<li>areas of shade</li>
<li>street furniture</li>
<li>bicycles travelling along the path</li>
<li>vehicles parked on the path</li>
<li>noise from cars and other sources</li>
<li>diversity of streetscapes such as building facades, trees and grasslands. </li>
</ul>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="man in high-vis stands next to roped-off footpath with sign saying 'use opther footpath'" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491508/original/file-20221024-19-b2r1oi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491508/original/file-20221024-19-b2r1oi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491508/original/file-20221024-19-b2r1oi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491508/original/file-20221024-19-b2r1oi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491508/original/file-20221024-19-b2r1oi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491508/original/file-20221024-19-b2r1oi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491508/original/file-20221024-19-b2r1oi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Footpath-level features include obstacles such as tree roots.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Previous studies on walkability have mixed these two levels of features. But our research separated them, to help urban designers identify which features are most important and which should be improved.</p>
<p>We focused on neighbourhood walkability for senior citizens. By 2050, <a href="https://population.un.org/wpp/Graphs/Probabilistic/PopPerc/65plus/900">one in six people</a> in the world will be aged over age 65 – almost double the number in 2015. <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/population/population-census/2021">Australian census data</a> paints a similar picture. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14101199">Research</a> shows older adults who perceive their neighbourhood as walkable are happier and more satisfied with life, and less lonely. </p>
<p>Walkable cities help senior citizens – especially those with <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14030333">physical restrictions</a> – be more physically active, and <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10901-017-9558-1">promotes</a> stronger and more regular social connections. </p>
<p>So it’s particularly important to identify how to make our streets more appealing for this age group.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/people-love-the-idea-of-20-minute-neighbourhoods-so-why-isnt-it-top-of-the-agenda-131193">People love the idea of 20-minute neighbourhoods. So why isn't it top of the agenda?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What we found</h2>
<p><a href="https://authors.elsevier.com/c/1fkIz7sfVZ6RP9">Our research</a> focused on the city of Shenzhen in China. Over the past 40 years, Shenzhen has grown into a megacity, and urban planners have historically prioritised the needs of motorised traffic over pedestrians and cyclists.</p>
<p>Among the methods involved in our study, we asked 256 senior citizens to rate footpath features to help us understand how much each one affects their walking.</p>
<p>Respondents told us bikes on footpaths and vehicles parked on footpaths were the biggest factors in reducing walkability. They reported that cars parked on footpaths made the space too crowded and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0001457509002140">increased the risk</a> of being injured by bikes travelling on the footpath. </p>
<p>Convenient crossing facilities were rated as the second most important feature of footpath walkability. This includes formal crossings – such as zebra crossings and underpasses – as well as informal crossings such as quiet streets.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/aged-care-isnt-working-but-we-can-create-neighbourhoods-to-support-healthy-ageing-in-place-148635">Aged care isn't working, but we can create neighbourhoods to support healthy ageing in place</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A street scene in Shenzen showing vehicles parked on footpaths and pedestrians using informal crosswalks." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/487625/original/file-20221002-6035-n1lie8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/487625/original/file-20221002-6035-n1lie8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487625/original/file-20221002-6035-n1lie8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487625/original/file-20221002-6035-n1lie8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487625/original/file-20221002-6035-n1lie8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487625/original/file-20221002-6035-n1lie8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487625/original/file-20221002-6035-n1lie8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A street scene in Shenzen showing vehicles parked on footpaths and pedestrians using informal crosswalks.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We employed two auditors to quantify how well each feature appears in 11 sample footpaths. The results showed that the way researchers quantify the quality of a footpath can differ to the views of senior citizens.</p>
<p>For example, we measured the quality of a green belt based on the ratio of the length of the belt to the length of the footpath. But for the pedestrians we spoke to, no matter how wide a green belt is, it’s effective as long as it separates them from traffic lanes.</p>
<h2>We need walkable neighbourhoods, too</h2>
<p>Our research shows what makes a good footpath, but <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2012.11.012">neighbourhood walkability</a> is also important. If people don’t have destinations to walk to, or streets are not well connected, then they will be deterred from walking even if the footpath is good quality. </p>
<p>And we must remember, people experience footpaths differently. An able younger adult may consider a footpath walkable when a senior citizen or a younger child struggles to navigate it. </p>
<p>Every citizen has an equal right to use and enjoy public space – and footpath design should reflect this.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/its-easy-to-get-us-walking-more-if-we-have-somewhere-to-walk-to-near-our-home-and-work-124500">It's easy to get us walking more if we have somewhere to walk to near our home and work</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/191537/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Fatemeh Aminpour does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Shade, street furniture, streetscapes – they all matter when it comes to making a footpath appealing.Fatemeh Aminpour, Associate Lecturer, School of Built Environment, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1760812022-05-15T10:44:49Z2022-05-15T10:44:49ZThe right to transportation should be a key issue in the Ontario election<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463031/original/file-20220513-8286-ovstkq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C13%2C9100%2C3337&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Transportation planning includes highways, public transit, automobile infrastructure and the movement of people and goods.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/the-right-to-transportation-should-be-a-key-issue-in-the-ontario-election" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>With high gas prices and climate change top of mind for many in Ontario, transportation is shaping up to be a key battleground in the upcoming provincial election. </p>
<p>The Progressive Conservatives have <a href="https://budget.ontario.ca/2022/capital-plan.html">pledged $25.1 billion to highway expansion and rehabilitation if re-elected in June</a>. The NDP platform includes a <a href="https://www.ontariondp.ca/platform/quality-public-services">commitment to cover 50 per cent of municipal public and para-transit operating costs and to do away with public-private partnerships</a>. Meanwhile, the Liberal party made a splash when it announced its <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/liberals-transit-fares-ontario-election-2022-1.6437982">intention to reduce public transit fares to $1 for a single trip or $40 for a monthly pass across the province until 2024</a>.</p>
<p>It is rare for transportation to feature centrally in an election. As a researcher studying environmental politics and political economy, it is encouraging to see a sector responsible for the <a href="https://www.cer-rec.gc.ca/en/data-analysis/energy-markets/provincial-territorial-energy-profiles/provincial-territorial-energy-profiles-ontario.html">largest percentage of greenhouse gas emissions</a> in the province feature prominently in political debate.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Highway expansion was a topic of discussion at the Ontario party leaders’ debate on May 10 in North Bay, Ont.</span></figcaption>
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<p>Indeed, mobility has always been a deeply political subject that affects almost every aspect of daily life. This is because mobility infrastructure, as political theorist Langdon Winner explains, is “<a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20024652">a way of engineering relationships among people that, after a time, becomes just another part of the landscape</a>.”</p>
<p>Mobility infrastructure includes roads, sidewalks, buses, bridges, pathways, light rail and access ramps. Mobility research tells us that the way these things are configured, maintained and governed reflects and produces particular political interests and <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Mobilities-Mobility-Justice-and-Social-Justice/Cook-Butz/p/book/9780367585532">social justice</a> outcomes. With this in mind, it is crucial that we ask who our mobility infrastructure is for and what purpose it serves. </p>
<h2>Car politics</h2>
<p>Take, for example, the dominance of the automobile today, which came about through <a href="https://kansaspress.ku.edu/978-0-7006-1927-6.html">significant public subsidization of automobile infrastructure</a> to expand private vehicle ownership. This was neither apolitical nor natural.</p>
<p>In fact, a significant amount of academic research suggests that <a href="https://www.bookdepository.com/Against-Automobility-Steffen-Bohm/9781405152709">state intervention in favour of automobiles</a> <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/gb/academic/subjects/politics-international-relations/political-economy/automobile-politics-ecology-and-cultural-political-economy">reflected and helped produce</a> <a href="https://unevenearth.org/2018/08/the-social-ideology-of-the-motorcar/">an individualized</a>, <a href="https://www.versobooks.com/books/3691-the-imperial-mode-of-living">resource-intensive consumer society</a>.</p>
<p>This had an immediate and lasting impact on social justice outcomes. In a study of the impacts of the Highway Act of 1956, civil rights lawyer and legal scholar <a href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=3539889">Deborah Archer</a> found that highway construction planners disproportionately targeted poor and predominantly Black communities. The effect was to “symbolically and physically encourage racial segregation.” </p>
<p>The <a href="https://ilr.law.uiowa.edu/print/volume-106-issue-5/transportation-policy-and-the-underdevelopment-of-black-communities/">economic</a> and <a href="https://www.nber.org/papers/w23622">health</a> impacts of demolishing homes and businesses in favour of highways in these communities endure today. </p>
<p>Uneven access to mobility has <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2020.101486">proven challenging to undo</a>. Much of the car-centric mobility infrastructure built in the postwar era is still with us or has expanded. </p>
<p>In Canada, cities have been designed around the movement of cars. Vast areas have been paved and residential areas have been built close to high-volume roads, <a href="https://secure.cihi.ca/estore/productSeries.htm?pc=PCC552">contributing to poor health outcomes related to pollution and excessive summertime heat</a>. Low-income areas are disproportionately affected.</p>
<h2>Infrastructure is political</h2>
<p>In recent years, research has expanded our understanding of these dynamics and linked them to the role of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1215/00382876-8177747">infrastructure</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/02723638.2019.1677990">development</a> in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0263775821991537">settler-colonialism</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0309132519895308">racial capitalism</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0309132519828458">patriarchy</a>. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463025/original/file-20220513-12-3shtkj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="a car driving on an ice road" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463025/original/file-20220513-12-3shtkj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463025/original/file-20220513-12-3shtkj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463025/original/file-20220513-12-3shtkj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463025/original/file-20220513-12-3shtkj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463025/original/file-20220513-12-3shtkj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463025/original/file-20220513-12-3shtkj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463025/original/file-20220513-12-3shtkj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Across Canada, there are at least 10,000 kilometres of roads that depend on freezing temperatures.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/John Woods</span></span>
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<p>Infrastructure in Indigenous communities is chronically underfunded. Many remote northern communities rely on temporary ice roads to access southern municipalities in the winter, and these ice roads are becoming <a href="https://www.thestar.com/autos/2022/02/12/cold-connections.html">less reliable due to climate change</a>. For those with all-year road access, <a href="https://www.macleans.ca/opinion/greyhound-canadas-cuts-are-a-public-safety-crisis-for-indigenous-people/">the reduction of Greyhound bus routes in 2018</a>, followed by the <a href="https://www.aptnnews.ca/national-news/feds-should-be-doing-something-about-loss-of-greyhound-bus-service-mmiwg-advocates/">end of the company’s operations in 2021</a>, cut off many Indigenous communities from urban centres and the family, employment, health and other services located there. </p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/indigenous-communities-should-dictate-how-1-billion-infrastructure-investment-is-spent-158027">Indigenous communities should dictate how $1 billion infrastructure investment is spent</a>
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<p>Indeed, the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls, found that the “<a href="https://www.mmiwg-ffada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Final_Report_Vol_1a-1.pdf">lack of supportive infrastructure and transportation</a>” created significant risk.</p>
<h2>The pandemic’s effects</h2>
<p>The pandemic has only served to further heighten and highlight transportation safety issues. Since the onset of COVID-19 in 2020, we have seen how the mobility of <a href="https://theconversation.com/giving-up-public-transit-during-the-coronavirus-is-a-luxury-many-canadians-cant-afford-138875">public transit</a> users and those who <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-pandemic-highlights-the-importance-of-walkable-and-wheelable-neighbourhoods-165204">walk or wheel</a> for transportation has been negatively impacted by diminished service and maintenance. </p>
<p>Data from the United States also suggests pedestrian injuries and deaths, which have been on the <a href="https://www.ghsa.org/sites/default/files/2021-05/Pedestrian%20Traffic%20Fatalities%20By%20State%202020%20Preliminary%20Data%20Addendum%205-20-21.pdf">rise for a decade</a>, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/02/14/us/pedestrian-deaths-pandemic.html">spiked</a> during the pandemic. </p>
<p>We know too that transportation-related injuries are not evenly distributed, with <a href="https://www.spph.ubc.ca/indigenous-people-face-higher-risk-of-transportation-injuries-in-british-columbia/">Indigenous</a> and <a href="https://crashstats.nhtsa.dot.gov/Api/Public/ViewPublication/813118">racialized</a> peoples and those in <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2011.300528">low-income areas</a> being much more likely to be injured or killed.</p>
<h2>Just and equitable access to mobility</h2>
<p>This raises important questions about how to make sure our mobility infrastructure is accessible, safe, equitable and sustainable. We need to ensure that infrastructure investment is not solely aimed at spurring capitalist growth, <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/economy/economic-insight/global-leaders-call-for-infrastructure-spending-to-spur-growth/article28244458/">as many have called</a> for, but serves the needs of all its users. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463030/original/file-20220513-15-e3znzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="streetcars heading in opposite directions on a city street" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463030/original/file-20220513-15-e3znzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463030/original/file-20220513-15-e3znzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463030/original/file-20220513-15-e3znzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463030/original/file-20220513-15-e3znzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463030/original/file-20220513-15-e3znzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463030/original/file-20220513-15-e3znzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463030/original/file-20220513-15-e3znzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Social justice movements working toward access to transportation focus on its affordability, accessibility and inclusion.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Christopher Katsarov</span></span>
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<p>In this sense, we need to ask what vision for the future our leaders, like those vying for political office in Ontario, have for mobility. But, more importantly, we need to recognize that the changes required to create a just and sustainable transportation system cannot be achieved in a single election but only through systemic, structural changes in how we think about, govern and build mobility.</p>
<p>Toward this aim, researchers and activists — like those at <a href="http://www.untokening.org/">The Untokening, a collective focused on mobility justice</a> — have advanced the concept of mobility justice as a “<a href="https://www.versobooks.com/books/2901-mobility-justice">social movement to protect and reclaim the shared mobility commons</a>.” Mobility commons, according to sociologist Mimi Sheller, are “co-operative” and “shared infrastructures of movement,” in contrast to the enclosed, private and exclusionary systems that are dominant today. </p>
<p>There are many movements currently working to increase access to shared, collective forms of transportation. These include movements calling for <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/ottawa/fare-free-public-transit-ottawa-1.6279951">fare-free transit</a>, to <a href="https://transitcenter.org/publication/safety-for-all/">reduce the policing of mobility</a>, <a href="https://www.ijurr.org/spotlight-on/disabling-city/crip-mobility-justice/">disability transportation equity</a>, <a href="https://trid.trb.org/view/1729807">better sidewalk maintenance</a> and a <a href="https://theconversation.com/canada-needs-a-national-public-transportation-system-heres-why-161786">public intercity bus service</a> among others. </p>
<p>Mobility justice can only be achieved by taking the politics of movement seriously. This means planning processes must not only listen to, but meaningfully include and be governed by the communities that will use the infrastructure. </p>
<p>It means remaking mobility systems so that they are democratically controlled, equitably distributed and accessible to all.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/176081/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joshua K. McEvoy volunteers with Free Transit Ottawa. </span></em></p>Mobility justice — the right to access spaces and means of movement — means that transportation planning should address marginalization.Joshua K. McEvoy, PhD Candidate, Political Science, Queen's University, OntarioLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1775802022-04-07T14:06:08Z2022-04-07T14:06:08ZWhat drives Chinese migrants to Ghana: it’s not just an economic decision<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/455511/original/file-20220331-23-v46ioh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Ghana is a popular destination for Chinese migrants</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Over the past two decades, there have been <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02589001.2011.555189">many debates</a> about China’s growing engagement in Africa. In these discussions, the more than <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021909618776443">one million Chinese expatriates</a>, business people and labourers who come and work in Africa are often seen only as a byproduct of an overall <a href="https://www.proquest.com/docview/1675046298?accountid=14214&forcedol=true&parentSessionId=%2BEJwMuMR%2Bev0WixrpxBxAg%2BT9PXoypYojMmgg7UZ74I%3D&pq-origsite=summon&forcedol=true">“outbound”</a> China. And they are often studied as isolated sub-groups: expatriates of Chinese state-owned enterprises, traders, construction workers, and so forth. </p>
<p>As a result, there’s no holistic understanding of the mechanisms underpinning emigration from China to Africa. </p>
<p>What motivates these new migrants to come to Africa? Who is more inclined to make the move? How have the ongoing market and social changes within China influenced them?</p>
<p>These were questions I explored in my <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1369183X.2021.2021868">ethnographic survey</a> of Chinese migrants, based on fieldwork in Ghana between 2016 and 2019. There is currently no fixed data on the number of Chinese in Ghana although some <a href="https://www.mideq.org/en/migration-corridors/china-ghana/">estimates </a>place it at about 30,000. They are involved predominantly in trade, infrastructure and mining.</p>
<p>China’s drastic political and economic changes in recent decades, coupled with its changing positioning in the global economy, have created a distinct social infrastructure for emigration. I found that opportunities for social mobility, rather than simply economic incentives, generated emigration flows to countries like Ghana. </p>
<p>This insight is useful for sociologists and policy makers to understand migration drivers, diaspora-homeland relations, and contemporary migration in the Global South.</p>
<h2>Chinese emigration to the world</h2>
<p>Political and economic changes in post-communist China have driven massive human movement both inside and outside the country. Since the late 1970s, institutional reforms and market evolution in China have created a new “<a href="https://www.iddri.org/sites/default/files/import/publications/id_0710_b.xiang_migration%26dvpt.pdf">mobility regime</a>”. Population movements have been deregulated and even encouraged in some regions for development needs. </p>
<p>China’s rapid integration into the global economy also opened the door for outward migration. In particular, since the 2000s, Chinese emigration to <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00207659.2016.1163991">non-traditional destinations</a> in Africa, Eastern Europe, Latin America, the Caribbean, and other parts of the global south has grown significantly.</p>
<p>A prevailing <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305750X15301625">explanation</a> is that China’s economic development gives Chinese firms and entrepreneurs competitive advantages in overseas markets, which further fuels the demand for labour migrants.</p>
<p>This perspective points out the importance of the new migrants’ economic ties to their homeland but says little about who is most likely to leave China for Africa. It doesn’t consider the industries, localities, and personal characteristics that are linked to migrants and would-be migrants. Doing this requires looking inside contemporary China, at how migrants’ aspirations and motivations stem from China’s political-economic changes and social stratification order.</p>
<h2>‘Squeezed out’ to Africa</h2>
<p>China’s state-led and market-oriented reforms yielded many problematic consequences that drove emigration. At the macro-level, after three decades of sustained growth, “<a href="https://soc.ucla.edu/sites/default/files/u281/nlr_2014_no._89.pdf">the Chinese economy</a> is becoming choked by bottlenecks: overcapacity, falling profits, surplus capital, shrinking demand in traditional export markets and scarcity of raw materials” as precisely expressed by sociologist Chin Kwan Lee.</p>
<p>Many industries are facing market saturation and intensified competition. Companies are compelled to explore overseas markets, especially underdeveloped ones. In the last decade, China’s economic restructuring and declining competitiveness in manufacturing have forced many export-oriented firms to penetrate African markets where their products match local demand. The same logic applies to industries of infrastructure, telecommunications and construction. The flow of excess capital and labour to Africa is seen as a “<a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10220461.2020.1830165?journalCode=rsaj20">spatial fix</a>”. </p>
<p>At the micro-level, contemporary Chinese society is marked by <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-soc-073018-022516">social inequalities</a> in the distribution of income, wealth and, more importantly, opportunity. The gradual closure of ways to move up the social ladder drives individuals, especially those who are marginalised in their microcosm, to migrate in the hope of achieving their dreams in a foreign land.</p>
<h2>Africa as a new ‘social ladder’</h2>
<p>As I found in my study, venturing to Africa gives migrants an opportunity for social “reshuffling”. It allows them to get around the social and institutional barriers to achieving a “class leap” in their motherland. </p>
<p>For instance, in China, people are labelled by the <a href="https://nhglobalpartners.com/the-chinese-hukou-system-explained/">“hukou”</a>, a residency registration system that classifies people as urban or rural. But in Ghana that doesn’t apply – they are not treated differently according to that classification. Their education or family background in China is not a major determinant of social capital in Ghana. Instead, human capital and entrepreneurship are better rewarded. </p>
<p>Social repositioning brings migrants more than simply linear upward mobility in terms of socio-economic status. It also allows flexible identity conversion. For instance, some Chinese start their own businesses in Ghana with a small investment and become independent entrepreneurs over time. The migrants regard the fairer opportunity structure and more flexible space for career and identity transitions as more important drivers than incentives like wage differentials or social benefits. </p>
<p>I would therefore argue that economic motives for migration have multiple layers. What Chinese migrants in Ghana hope for is a step up in social status.</p>
<h2>Where are their journeys leading?</h2>
<p>The migrants’ initial aspirations are undoubtedly embedded in China’s stratification dynamics. But their aspirations are constantly changing, and so are their ties to the homeland. </p>
<p>In the process of adaptation and integration, incentives such as self-esteem and social acceptance are important drivers for settling in the host society. I found that many new Chinese migrants felt that life in China was a “rat race”. The anxiety and frustration of competition and inequality were not the price of achieving a better life, but a meaningless drain. Hence, they gradually let go of the “<a href="https://www.area-studies.ox.ac.uk/research-project/the-mortgage-migration">Chinese dream</a>” of higher social status that motivated their departure.</p>
<p>Some Chinese migrants choose to stay on the “new ladder” rather than return to the old one. But it’s not certain that they will become permanent settlers in Africa. In fact, they exhibit a highly <a href="https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Living-in-Liminality%3A-Chinese-Migrancy-in-Ghana-Ho/b6fe7124417d58ad1a440bb8a270b5e9144f54bd">floating character</a>. Many of them become circular migrants between China and Ghana, stepwise migrants to the west, or, very commonly, sojourners bouncing between various places.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/177580/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jinpu Wang does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Opportunities for social mobility, rather than simply economic incentives, have generated emigration from China to countries like Ghana.Jinpu Wang, Doctoral Researcher, Department of Sociology, Syracuse UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1793782022-03-24T19:03:41Z2022-03-24T19:03:41ZWhat’s the best way to parallel park your car? Engineers have the answer<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/454043/original/file-20220324-19-9phgz1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=130%2C0%2C7737%2C5237&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>You’re driving slowly along a street, looking for a place to park. You come across a long stretch of parallel parking. But to your frustration, the spaces left by other people’s parking efforts are not quite long enough for you to fit. The search continues. </p>
<p>Drawn from our own frustrating experiences with parking, we decided to answer the question once and for all - what’s the best way to parallel park your car? Our <a href="https://findingspress.org/article/33123-parallel-parking-vehicle-alignment-strategies">research</a> has found a simple answer. </p>
<p>You should always park at one end of a parking space, leaving as big a space as possible at the other end. It doesn’t matter which end – just remember to leave yourself room to get out. While this might sound obvious, a quick look at the street outside your home will show many drivers think parking in the middle of the space is best – or just don’t give it much thought at all.</p>
<p>Optimising how we park our cars in cities matters, because free parking spaces are, by their nature, a limited resource. We’ve taken to our cars with a vengeance as the world slowly reemerges from lockdowns. <a href="https://covid19.apple.com/mobility">Mobility data</a> shows our cities are coming back to life, with our travel behaviours changing in turn. </p>
<p>Even though many of us are still <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0965856421003219">working from home</a>, those of us commuting are reluctant to <a href="https://ses.library.usyd.edu.au/handle/2123/27578">return to public transport</a>. You’ll have already noticed the result based on traffic. The number of cars on the roads of Australian cities has already met or gone past pre-COVID numbers, and so too the parking demand.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/452652/original/file-20220317-8425-umnc2g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Apple Mobility data for Sydney" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/452652/original/file-20220317-8425-umnc2g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/452652/original/file-20220317-8425-umnc2g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452652/original/file-20220317-8425-umnc2g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452652/original/file-20220317-8425-umnc2g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452652/original/file-20220317-8425-umnc2g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452652/original/file-20220317-8425-umnc2g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452652/original/file-20220317-8425-umnc2g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Apple Mobility data shows activity has resumed in Sydney, with driving recovering more strongly than public transit or walking.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source"> covid19.apple.com/mobility</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How can we all park better?</h2>
<p>Everyone is familiar with marked spaces, where painted lines show you where to park. These help manage our frustrations with unreliable parking, but they are bad for density because every space needs to be able to accommodate a large car. </p>
<p>In our research, we focused on unmarked parallel parking, such as that found on most residential streets. That’s because here we can control exactly where we position our cars. </p>
<p>We tested four strategies drivers can follow in these types of parks: </p>
<ol>
<li>always park as far back as possible</li>
<li>park at either end of the space</li>
<li>park in the middle of the space </li>
<li>randomly park anywhere in the available space. </li>
</ol>
<p>We simulated what would happen in the common situation where demand exceeds supply, in which there is always a car waiting to park, with a driver who is prepared to wait until someone else leaves.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/454047/original/file-20220324-21-ld876z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="car looking for park" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/454047/original/file-20220324-21-ld876z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/454047/original/file-20220324-21-ld876z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454047/original/file-20220324-21-ld876z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454047/original/file-20220324-21-ld876z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454047/original/file-20220324-21-ld876z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454047/original/file-20220324-21-ld876z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454047/original/file-20220324-21-ld876z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hunting for a car park can be a frustrating experience.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The worst strategy for maximising car parks? Parking in the middle of the space. You might find this useful if, say, you wanted to discourage people from parking directly outside your house. Parking in the middle of the available space makes it harder to cram more cars in. </p>
<p>We found parking randomly in a space can produce slightly better outcomes. Many drivers use this strategy subconsciously. </p>
<p>But overall, the best strategy for fitting as many cars into scarce street parking is to park at either end of the space. It doesn’t matter which end you park at, and it doesn’t even matter if you choose the same end as your neighbours. Under this scenario, we could fit the most cars onto any street.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/452655/original/file-20220317-8201-15difh5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="The four parking strategies" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/452655/original/file-20220317-8201-15difh5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/452655/original/file-20220317-8201-15difh5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452655/original/file-20220317-8201-15difh5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452655/original/file-20220317-8201-15difh5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452655/original/file-20220317-8201-15difh5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452655/original/file-20220317-8201-15difh5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452655/original/file-20220317-8201-15difh5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The four parking strategies we tested. Time progresses from bottom to top, with cars leaving and being replaced. Cars are represented by coloured rectangles, with the width of the rectangle the length of the car, and the height of the rectangle how long it was parked for. White represents a gap along the kerb.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We also analysed what happens when there’s only a small distance between driveways or intersections. If you live in a street with shorter kerbs, parking at either end of the spot becomes even more beneficial. </p>
<p>How significant is this technique? In many residential areas, you can almost double the number of cars able to fit on the road by parking at the front or back of the available spaces. </p>
<h2>Issues with parking</h2>
<p>Parking is a scarce resource that we need to manage carefully to encourage other modes of transport, such as public and active transport. Storing cars on valuable land is also a <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/48646186?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents">poor use of real estate</a>. If autonomous cars arrive, we might see a future in which cars drive themselves off to remote car parks and free up all of the highly accessible land currently used for street parking.</p>
<p>If we wanted to reduce the demand for parking, we would have to encourage more people to return to public transport through measures such as lowering fares, or increasing the cost of parking or <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-petrol-excise-and-why-does-australia-have-it-anyway-179373">fuel</a>. We could also build extra car parks next to train stations or bus bays. </p>
<p>But given these measures are <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/still-looking-for-a-car-park-2019-election-promises-stalled-20220215-p59wk8.html">unlikely to happen</a> in the near future, we need to make the most of the parking we have. </p>
<p>Until then, the management of on-street parking will remain a vexed issue, particularly in our most congested cities. In Sydney, for instance, <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/barangaroo-public-parking-cut-as-residential-parking-increases-in-latest-proposed-changes-20150326-1m891g.html">local residents and commuters</a> vie with <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/barangaroo-public-parking-cut-as-residential-parking-increases-in-latest-proposed-changes-20150326-1m891g.html">visitors</a> for the right to park in a given street. </p>
<p>As the amount of on-street parking is more or less fixed, we should make the most of the space we’ve got. Next time you come across an unmarked parallel park, try parking at the front or back of the space.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/179378/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>On-street parking is an increasingly scarce resource as we take to our cars post-lockdowns. Here’s how to make the most of it.Benjy Marks, Lecturer in Geomechanics, University of SydneyEmily Moylan, Lecturer, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1795632022-03-23T19:06:45Z2022-03-23T19:06:45ZThinking of swerving high fuel prices with an e-scooter or e-bike? 5 crucial questions answered<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/453709/original/file-20220322-25-3sp322.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1000%2C588&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://theconversation.com/what-russias-war-means-for-australian-petrol-prices-2-10-a-litre-177719">Petrol prices</a> are hitting eye-watering highs. As <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-russias-invasion-of-ukraine-will-ripple-through-the-global-economy-and-affect-australia-177829">global affairs</a> put pressure on the availability of commodities, we’re likely to continue seeing volatile petrol prices in the future.</p>
<p>So there’s never been a better time to embrace alternative modes of transport such as e-bikes and e-scooters (also called “micromobility” devices). </p>
<p>In Australia’s major cities, the average car trip is around 10km (a distance many people would consider to be within cycling range).</p>
<p><iframe id="nF0El" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/nF0El/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>As both researchers and users of micromobility vehicles, we’re here to help answer some common questions that arise when people consider becoming an e-bike or e-scooter rider.</p>
<h2>1. What are the benefits of e-scooters and e-bikes?</h2>
<p>E-bikes have been around for some time. Most are “<a href="https://theconversation.com/electric-bikes-at-250-watts-the-view-has-opened-up-nicely-10465">pedal-assisted</a>”, which means the electric motor kicks in when the rider starts pedalling. They’re a good option for longer trips (5-15km), covering hilly terrain, or riding in warm weather.</p>
<p>They can also carry loads on attached baskets or pannier bags. Some cargo e-bikes can be used for shopping runs, or even for operating <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7JaGnAW3M8k">small mobile businesses</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/forget-your-fixie-were-more-likely-to-ride-bikes-if-we-can-carry-more-on-them-133441">Forget your fixie, we're more likely to ride bikes if we can carry more on them</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>More recently, e-scooters have grown in popularity. They’re usually ridden standing (although seats can be added as an accessory). </p>
<p>E-scooters are easier to park and take up less space. They can also replace those short car trips that are just too far to walk. As of recently, passengers have been allowed to take e-scooters and bikes on South East Queensland <a href="https://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/national/queensland/bikes-scooters-allowed-permanently-on-trains-after-successful-trial-20220121-p59q56.html">trains</a>, allowing for first- and last-mile <a href="https://escooternerds.com/last-mile-transportation-electric-scooter/">connections</a>. </p>
<p>If you’re unsure whether either vehicle is right for you, most major cities offer hire schemes (such as Beam, Lime or Neuron) that let you try before you buy.</p>
<p>These are generally <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-e-bikes-can-succeed-where-earlier-bike-share-schemes-failed-151844">dockless sharing schemes</a> that allow users to park anywhere near their destination, as long as they park responsibly on a footpath and avoid cluttering.</p>
<p>Our <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S096669232100243X">past research</a> has shown students are receptive to having shared e-bikes offered at university campuses, and that tourists find shared e-scooters handy when visiting new places.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/wallets-on-wheels-city-visitors-who-use-e-scooters-more-spend-more-161886">Wallets on wheels: city visitors who use e-scooters more spend more</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>2. What are the rules in my state or territory?</h2>
<p>In <a href="https://acrs.org.au/article/amending-the-definition-of-power-assisted-pedal-cycles-to-allow-more-powerful-yet-safer-versions-be-used-in-australia/">Australia</a>, e-bikes that comply to certain <a href="https://www.bike-eu.com/laws-regulations/nieuws/2021/05/european-committee-for-standardization-cen-starts-revision-of-e-bike-standard-en-151942017-10140451">European standards</a> (regarding what actually constitutes an electric bike) are allowed on public roads and governed in a similar way to bicycles.</p>
<p>However, the legality of riding e-scooters (or similar devices) in public differs by state and territory. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/453727/original/file-20220323-25-15838al.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Table comparing Australian e-mobility regulations across States/Territories" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/453727/original/file-20220323-25-15838al.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/453727/original/file-20220323-25-15838al.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=784&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453727/original/file-20220323-25-15838al.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=784&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453727/original/file-20220323-25-15838al.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=784&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453727/original/file-20220323-25-15838al.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=985&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453727/original/file-20220323-25-15838al.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=985&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453727/original/file-20220323-25-15838al.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=985&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Australian e-scooter laws, restrictions, and shared services available by State/Territories, as of March 2022.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Compiled from various State and Territory transport agencies by the authors</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As per current regulations, the more “scooter-friendly” states are <a href="https://www.qld.gov.au/transport/safety/rules/wheeled-devices/personal-mobility-devices">Queensland</a>, the <a href="https://www.accesscanberra.act.gov.au/s/article/personal-mobility-device-use-in-the-act-tab-overview">Australian Capital Territory</a>, <a href="https://www.wa.gov.au/organisation/road-safety-commission/erideables">Western Australia</a> and <a href="https://www.transport.tas.gov.au/road_safety_and_rules/personal_mobility_devices">Tasmania</a>. These states have both share schemes and also allow privately owned e-scooters to be ridden in public.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.vicroads.vic.gov.au/safety-and-road-rules/road-safety-programs/e-scooter-trials-in-victoria">Victoria</a>, <a href="https://mylicence.sa.gov.au/road-rules/e-scooter-trial">South Australia</a> and the <a href="https://dipl.nt.gov.au/projects/e-scooter-trial">Northern Territory</a> only allow shared e-scooters at selected trial sites, but in general don’t allow privately owned e-scooters to be ridden in public.</p>
<p>Public areas in New South Wales remain a no-go for e-scooters (although <a href="https://future.transport.nsw.gov.au/future-transport-strategy/future-mobility-and-services/micromobility-devices-for-short-trips">trials have been announced</a> to start this year). </p>
<p>Users should check their own state or territory’s road rules and regulations before using or purchasing an e-bike or e-scooter. </p>
<h2>3. How much fuel and money can I save?</h2>
<p>The cost of buying a micromobility vehicle will vary greatly depending on the vehicle type, battery and add-ons (such as a rack, lights or remote tracking). </p>
<p>We recently surveyed privately owned e-scooter users in South East Queensland, and found most popular models are priced between A$500 and A$1,500. Higher-end models can cost more than A$2,000 (which is still much less than a car, and especially an <a href="https://theconversation.com/thinking-of-buying-an-electric-vehicle-for-your-next-car-heres-the-market-outlook-and-what-to-consider-179293">electric car</a>).</p>
<p>E-bikes are slightly pricier, with most models costing between A$1,000 and A$3,000, and only a few options under A$800.</p>
<p>The operating costs for micromobility vehicles are mostly for electricity and maintenance. The good news is these costs are also low, as the vehicles are much lighter than cars and use efficient electric motors. It’s <a href="https://www.wired.com/story/e-scooter-micromobility-infographics-cost-emissions/">estimated</a> that with one kilowatt hour of energy an e-scooter can travel 100 times the distance a petrol car can, and 17 times the distance of an electric car.</p>
<p>In Australia, the average passenger vehicle travels <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/industry/tourism-and-transport/survey-motor-vehicle-use-australia/latest-release">11,100km per year and requires 1,232 litres of fuel</a>. At current prices, this equates to more than A$2,700 spent on just fuel, let alone other costs such as lease or loan payments, insurance, registration and repairs.</p>
<p>And if the upfront costs of purchasing an e-bike or e-scooter seem too high, some companies are starting to offer these vehicles for rent by means of a monthly subscription fee.</p>
<h2>4. Is it safe?</h2>
<p>Safety is a key concern for all road users. As micromobility remains a novelty, the safety record for these vehicles is just being established. That said, a 2020 <a href="https://www.itf-oecd.org/safe-micromobility">International Transport Forum</a> report suggests the risk of e-scooters is comparable to cycling. </p>
<p>The available figures for shared e-scooter risk range between 78 and 100 fatalities per billion trips, whereas cycling risk across cities ranges between 21 and 257 fatalities per billion trips. In comparison, motorcycles or mopeds have a risk range between 132 and 1,164 fatalities per billion trips.</p>
<p>While there’s little data on e-scooter safety, cycling statistics suggest there is a “<a href="https://www.ntsb.gov/safety/safety-studies/Documents/SS1901.pdf">safety in numbers</a>” effect. This means there are less fatalities in countries where cycling is more common.</p>
<p>Current e-bike standards are more mature compared to e-scooters. E-scooters available on the private market are not as well regulated, and may exceed local speed or power restrictions (which are usually 25km/h). </p>
<p>Pedestrian and disability interest groups have expressed concerns dockless shared e-devices can create trip hazards or block footpaths. Such concerns are valid, and addressing them will require careful management by scheme operators and local authorities. </p>
<h2>5. Will Australia make it easier to ride them?</h2>
<p>Australia is well placed to take advantage of the <a href="https://micromobilityreport.com.au/infrastructure/bike-scooter-share/2022-a-year-of-change/">burgeoning micromobility market</a> and reduce the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1361920916305715">impacts of higher petrol costs</a>.</p>
<p>We believe there is too much attention placed on creating incentives for the electrification of full-sized electric vehicles. For instance, the Queensland government’s <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-03-16/qld-subsidy-electric-car-vehicle-new-3000-charging-station/100913100">recently announced</a>
electric vehicle subsidy doesn’t include e-bikes or e-scooters.</p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/3-in-4-people-want-to-ride-a-bike-but-are-put-off-by-lack-of-safe-lanes-172868">Research shows three in four people</a> are interested in cycling, yet the lack of safe routes raises concern for bicycle, e-bike and e-scooter users. Appropriate cycling infrastructure, including protected bike lanes and off-road paths, are essential to encourage the uptake of both cycling and personal mobility devices.</p>
<p>Advances in micromobility vehicle design and technology may also help improve users’ safety and experience. Built-in sensors could help detect hazards and alert users and pedestrians, as well as enable effective parking management. </p>
<p>It’s likely such advanced micromobility vehicles will first appear in shared schemes, but <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/nov/06/dutch-government-pilots-technology-to-cut-e-bike-road-deaths">government-issued mandates</a> may eventually require all micromobility vehicles to have these features.</p>
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<p><em>This article was coauthored by <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Timo-Eccarius">Timo Eccarius</a>, <a href="https://ic.thu.edu.tw/web/people/detail_page.php?lang=en&cid=5&cid2=14&id=194">Assistant Professor</a> of Sustainability Science and Engineering at Tunghai University, Taiwan.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/179563/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Abraham Leung's research at Griffith Cities Research Institute is funded by the Transport Academic Partnership (Queensland Department of Transport and Main Roads (TMR), The Motor Accident and Insurance Commission) and Transport Innovation and Research Hub (Brisbane City Council, BCC). His forthcoming Advance Queensland Industry Research Fellowship is funded and/or partnered with TMR, BCC, Townsville City Council, and micromobility operators (Neuron and Beam).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Madison Bland is affiliated with the Griffith Cities Research Institute where he is completing his PhD research in partnership with the City of Gold Coast. He is also an active member of PIA and PedBikeTrans industry groups.</span></em></p>Is it affordable? Is it safe? Here are some key things to consider if you’re considering buying one of these vehicles or using them in a share scheme.Abraham Leung, Senior Research Fellow, Cities Research Institute, Griffith UniversityMadison Bland, PhD Candidate, Cities Research Institute, Griffith UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1652042021-09-13T16:06:28Z2021-09-13T16:06:28ZThe pandemic highlights the importance of walkable and wheelable neighbourhoods<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/419829/original/file-20210907-19-141fp6v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=17%2C0%2C5691%2C3799&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">People living with disabilities have been inordinately impacted by the pandemic. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-04-11/how-coronavirus-could-forever-change-our-cities-and-suburbs/12137122">importance of neighbourhoods</a> and how they fare in terms of walkability and wheelability. </p>
<p>Neighbourhood walkability and wheelability are defined as the “<a href="https://www.publichealthontario.ca/en/health-topics/health-promotion/physical-activity/walkability">measure of how well a neighbourhood fosters active forms of transportation</a>.” Very walkable and wheelable neighbourhoods have <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/built-environment">built environments</a>, or human-made surroundings, that <a href="https://www.publichealthontario.ca/en/health-topics/health-promotion/physical-activity/walkability">support physical and social activity</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jth.2020.100975">Built environment design features</a> that characterize walkable and wheelable neighbourhoods can include sidewalks, curb cuts and pedestrian traffic signals. When appropriately constructed, these features can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/09687599.2019.1649127">support inclusion</a> and in many cases, neighbourhoods that are designed with this in mind are good for everyone.</p>
<p>Unfortunately, most neighbourhood built environments are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1108/ARCH-10-2020-0225">not designed for everyone</a>. They can in fact create exclusionary environments for people with disabilities and older adults. </p>
<p>The pandemic brings into focus neighbourhood walkability and wheelability by highlighting persistent inaccessibility issues. It also creates the opportunity to advocate for change and bring about rapid and innovative solutions.</p>
<h2>Barriers and facilitators to mobility</h2>
<p>As neighbourhood walkability and wheelability are impacted by the built environment, poorly maintained and constructed neighbourhoods can create <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1093%2Fgeront%2Fgns119">barriers that prevent community access and eliminate opportunities to participate in local activities</a>.</p>
<p>These barriers — like the condition of streets, sidewalks and crosswalks — can impact anyone but <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1093%2Fgeront%2Fgns119">frequently affect those living with disabilities</a>. Research finds that when streets are in even slight disrepair, people with severe mobility impairments are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwn185">four times more likely</a> to report difficulty walking compared to those living in “good” neighbourhoods (neighbourhoods without cracks in sidewalks and potholes). Even slightly increasing the quality of streets could help people both access and remain involved in their communities.</p>
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<img alt="Image shows a tiny ramp leading up towards a picnic table" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420074/original/file-20210908-17-cidt26.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420074/original/file-20210908-17-cidt26.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420074/original/file-20210908-17-cidt26.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420074/original/file-20210908-17-cidt26.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420074/original/file-20210908-17-cidt26.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=538&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420074/original/file-20210908-17-cidt26.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=538&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420074/original/file-20210908-17-cidt26.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=538&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Neighbourhood built environments during the pandemic, like pop-up patios, created barriers to accessibility.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Atiya Mahmood)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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<p>Simple measures, such as involving people with disabilities in research and planning, are found to create targeted solutions to barriers and enhance the accessibility of neighbourhoods. </p>
<p>In the past, there were <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17051561">limited opportunities for people with disabilities</a> to have their opinions heard. With the recent rise of participatory research methods, however, they are increasingly working as “<a href="https://www.york.ac.uk/media/future-health/CoProductionResearch_Booklet_WebFinal.pdf">co-researchers</a>.” This helps create opportunities for collaboration with municipal officials and community service providers. </p>
<p>The shift towards participatory research moves us away from only researchers collecting data. Innovative data collection methods, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/09687599.2019.1649127">such as user-led environmental audit tools</a>, champion this shift. They help capture the users’ perspective and provide a more holistic understanding of environmental features affecting walkability and wheelability.</p>
<h2>Overlooked accessibility and COVID-19</h2>
<p>Neighbourhood built environments create barriers to inclusion that have been <a href="https://ncceh.ca/content/blog/accessibility-persons-disabilities-during-covid-19-pandemic">intensified by the pandemic</a>. </p>
<p>For example, added challenges that have arisen in response to the pandemic can include communication difficulties for those who are deaf and hard of hearing caused by <a href="https://www.wavefrontcentre.ca/wp/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/Report-Impacts-of-COVID-19-on-Communication-Accessibility-for-Adults-with-Hearing-Loss-1.pdf">plexiglass shields and masks</a>, inaccessibility of hand hygiene products for mobility device users <a href="https://ncceh.ca/content/blog/accessibility-persons-disabilities-during-covid-19-pandemic">because they’re placed too high</a> and increased navigational barriers like those from <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/pandemic-era-patios-still-too-often-inaccessible-disability-advocates-say-1.6132490">pop-up patios</a>. </p>
<p>As the pandemic draws on, it has become glaringly clear that people living with disabilities have been <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2Fpmrj.12611">inordinately impacted</a>. By and large, these strategies were intended to help us but they bring into focus our habitual pattern of overlooking accessibility and not consulting those with lived experiences.</p>
<h2>A historical opportunity to advocate for change</h2>
<p>Canada is at a historical crossroads to becoming barrier-free. The recent ushering in of accessibility acts, at <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/employment-social-development/programs/accessible-people-disabilities/act-summary.html">both the federal</a> <a href="https://www.leg.bc.ca/parliamentary-business/legislation-debates-proceedings/42nd-parliament/2nd-session/bills/first-reading/gov06-1">and provincial levels</a>, is creating the necessary infrastructure to enforce the creation of accessible built environments and the equitable inclusion of people with disabilities. </p>
<p>Post-pandemic recovery presents an <a href="https://doi.org/10.1108/ARCH-10-2020-0225">opportunity for creating accessible environments</a> as barriers have been exposed and the need to involve those with experience in creating solutions has been reinforced. </p>
<p>The alignment of research, public and political will and the pandemic-era realization that radical and rapid social change is possible creates the perfect conditions to create a Canada that provides access for all.</p>
<p><em>Alison F. Chung is a research assistant at Simon Fraser University and co-authored this article. She is working with the authors on a project titled: Towards Barrier-Free Communities: A Partnership for Improving Mobility, Access and Participation (MAP) Among People with Disabilities</em>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/165204/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Atiya Mahmood receives funding from Social Science and Humanities Research Council. Grant Title: Towards Barrier-Free Communities: A Partnership for Improving Mobility, Access and Participation (MAP) Among People with Disabilities. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hailey Thomas Jenkins and Muhammad Nowshervan Qureshi do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The post-pandemic recovery presents an opportunity for creating accessible environments.Hailey Thomas Jenkins, PhD Student, Simon Fraser UniversityAtiya Mahmood, Associate professor, Gerontology Department, Simon Fraser UniversityMuhammad Nowshervan Qureshi, Graduate Research Assistant, Simon Fraser UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1643832021-08-04T18:42:41Z2021-08-04T18:42:41ZAs pandemic restrictions ease, we need to consider ethical travel in our return<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/413391/original/file-20210727-24-1ep5fkq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=16%2C0%2C5350%2C3379&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">As people are fully vaccinated, pre-pandemic travel patterns are slowly returning.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Return to movement is a central feature of how the Canadian government has been discussing the <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/player/play/1850135619516">return to normal</a>. </p>
<p>Throughout much of the pandemic governments — <a href="https://www.ctvnews.ca/health/coronavirus/canada-shutting-the-border-to-most-non-citizens-due-to-covid-19-pm-trudeau-1.4854503">including Canada’s</a> — “fought” the pandemic through limiting travel. </p>
<p>As <a href="https://covid19tracker.ca/vaccinationtracker.html">vaccinations rise</a>, so does <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/travel-canada-fully-vaccinated-1.6070410">the desire to return to travel</a>. Canada’s federal government has missed an important moment to start a conversation on ethical travel, especially with increasingly worrying climate data. </p>
<p>Now is the perfect time to establish new conversations for what this might look like. </p>
<h2>Changing travel for climate change</h2>
<p>The danger of human-caused climate disruption remains one of the most crucial themes of international public policy. Human-caused climate change is linked with a history of <a href="https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/climate-change">industrialization, deforestation and large scale agriculture</a>, contributing to the rise in greenhouse gases. </p>
<p>Recently <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-57654133">Canada and the United States suffered a deadly heat wave</a> and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/jul/16/climate-scientists-shocked-by-scale-of-floods-in-germany">Germany received record precipitation which caused deadly flash floods</a>. </p>
<p>Of course, it is nearly impossible to understand the speed with which these events will increase, but an unimpeded travel boom as lockdown restrictions lift seems counter-productive to human-caused climate disruption. </p>
<p>Consider the aviation industry that produces <a href="https://davidsuzuki.org/what-you-can-do/air-travel-climate-change/">between five and eight per cent of global emissions</a> <a href="https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20200218-climate-change-how-to-cut-your-carbon-emissions-when-flying">and impacts the climate most significantly</a>. Despite these facts, public debate on connections with human-caused climate change and air travel remains scant. </p>
<p>We sit at a crucial moment not only for how we impact climate change, but also fundamentally rethinking travel, because it hasn’t been a major part of our lives for the last 18 months.</p>
<h2>Mobility as a guiding principle</h2>
<p>Mobility has always been a central feature of the pandemic. </p>
<p>Early on, many Canadians eagerly waited for the next announcement from Prime Minister Justin Trudeau and Dr. Theresa Tam, Canada’s chief public health officer, on what could and couldn’t be done because of COVID-19. </p>
<p>As borders closed and Canadians were asked to stay home, Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada was drafting a directive that would allow travel exceptions for seasonal agricultural workers, primarily in the name of <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/news/2020/03/canada-provides-update-on-exemptions-to-travel-restrictions-to-protect-canadians-and-support-the-economy.html">Canadian food security</a>. International students and permanent residents were also able to arrive.</p>
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<img alt="A waiter wearing a face mask to protect against coronavirus serves at a restaurant terrace in Paris" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/413392/original/file-20210727-13-o70fm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/413392/original/file-20210727-13-o70fm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413392/original/file-20210727-13-o70fm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413392/original/file-20210727-13-o70fm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413392/original/file-20210727-13-o70fm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413392/original/file-20210727-13-o70fm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413392/original/file-20210727-13-o70fm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A waiter wears a face mask as he serves customers at a restaurant terrace in Paris. France’s parliament recently approved a law requiring special virus passes for all restaurants and domestic travel, and mandating vaccinations for all health workers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Michel Euler)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>COVID-19 highlights how important it is for us to move. In the last several months, individual governments and the European Union have put forth tentative plans for vaccine passports. </p>
<p>While <a href="https://nationalpost.com/news/canada/i-think-its-a-dangerous-idea-the-case-for-and-against-domestic-vaccine-passports">vaccine passports will be under scrutiny</a>, the primary reason for building a system is a return to mobility. On July 1, the EU formally introduced a vaccine passport that allows its <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/info/live-work-travel-eu/coronavirus-response/safe-covid-19-vaccines-europeans/eu-digital-covid-certificate_en">citizens to travel freely across the EU</a>. </p>
<h2>Mobility and the economy</h2>
<p>What will the <a href="https://www.forbes.com/advisor/travel-rewards/travel-predictions/">future of travel</a> look like? </p>
<p>It is still hard to predict what future travel patterns will be, although <a href="https://www.forbes.com/advisor/travel-rewards/summer-2021-travel-trends-pack-your-wallets-and-patience/">predictions continue to rise</a>. We move not only because it is a feature of the human experience, but also because it sustains the global economic system — we need to move to <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/15/business/consumer-spending-as-an-american-virtue.html">sustain the economy</a>.</p>
<p>As people are fully vaccinated, pre-pandemic travel patterns are slowly returning. Take for example that on <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/geoffwhitmore/2021/05/27/increase-in-travel-is-causing-travel-prices-to-rise/?sh=12942fb774c1">April 30, 2020, the U.S. Transportation Security Administration (TSA) screened just 171,563 air travellers</a>. On April, 18, 2021, the TSA screened 1,572,383 travellers — which is still far short of approximately two million people that travelled in April 2019. </p>
<p>Although some have called for a fundamental <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/2020/apr/23/pandemic-by-slavoj-zizek-review-the-philosopher-provides-his-solution">rethinking of the global economy</a>, it seems more plausible and attainable to reconsider future travel behaviours, rather than completely dismantling the economy. <a href="https://www.economist.com/free-exchange/2013/11/27/racing-to-the-bottom">Economic growth and environmental issues</a> are at odds. </p>
<p>Ethical citizenship and ethical travel are vast ideas. In the course of my research, I came across <a href="https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCm325cMiw9B15xl22_gr6Dw">Beau Miles, a YouTuber</a> and academic with a PhD in outdoor education. An overarching theme of Miles’s work was that he used to travel to “find himself.” That raises an interesting proposition of the larger ethical relationship with travel. </p>
<p>The question of <a href="https://www.vergemagazine.com/articles/beyond-the-guidebook/2677-essential-guide-to-responsible-ethical-travel.html">what ethical travel is</a> in the name of preventing climate catastrophe is important. It can lead to individual contributions that reduce a personal carbon footprint, such as domestic travel and avoiding extensive air travel which help prevent <a href="https://slate.com/technology/2021/07/climate-change-wet-bulb-temperature.html">climate catastrophe</a>.</p>
<p>The pandemic provides the needed landscape for individuals, governments and institutions to rethink what travel looks like. The desire for ethical travel requires shifting perspective and relocating where adventure can be found. </p>
<p>Miles is a great example of finding adventure locally. Whether this be kayaking to work, running a marathon over a 24-hour period or following a decommissioned railway line through the Australian countryside, he finds adventure is about shifting perspective. The challenges Miles takes on, <a href="https://beaumiles.com/the-backyard-adventurer/">the ethics of finding pleasure in local events</a>, is a great starting point for all of us.</p>
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<img alt="People sunbathe on the beach in Spain" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/413407/original/file-20210727-14-1su0tvn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/413407/original/file-20210727-14-1su0tvn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413407/original/file-20210727-14-1su0tvn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413407/original/file-20210727-14-1su0tvn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413407/original/file-20210727-14-1su0tvn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413407/original/file-20210727-14-1su0tvn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413407/original/file-20210727-14-1su0tvn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">People sunbathe on the beach in Barcelona. Spain’s top diplomat is pushing back against cautions over vacationing on the Iberian peninsula.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Joan Mateu)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Think before we move</h2>
<p>The pandemic provides a crucial moment in history for considering why we move. </p>
<p>In both my professional and social circles, we all seem to be discussing what conferences we will attend and where we will travel. We are all eager to “return to normal,” but what will that look like? Some upcoming conferences have both in-person and online options for attendance. </p>
<p>We should consider the relationship between technology, surveillance and mobility — and how mobility, which really boils down to driving a car or taking a plane, has been central to what it means to <em>return to normal</em>. </p>
<p>While we begin to move again, what is largely missing from this conversation is rethinking <a href="https://sk.sagepub.com/reference/consumerculture/n131.xml">consumption behaviours</a>, which includes where, when, how and why we travel. </p>
<p>What it means to be an ethical traveller is still unresolved. What is clear, however, is that travel patterns, often for those in the Global North, have a clear impact on human-caused climate change. </p>
<p>Recently, my research has looked at understanding the relationship between citizenship, mobility and vaccine passports. Almost as quickly as science was able to produce an effective vaccine, <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/info/live-work-travel-eu/coronavirus-response/safe-covid-19-vaccines-europeans/eu-digital-covid-certificate_en">governments</a> and <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/05/what-is-a-vaccine-passport-and-will-you-need-one-the-next-time-you-travel/">international organizations</a> have rushed to produce electronic vaccine passports in an attempt to reach pre-pandemic travel patterns.</p>
<p>Consumption behaviours should be central to how the Canadian government links how it thinks about travel and the environment. After all, it will be the policy that is needed to shift consumption patterns.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/164383/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Matt Harker does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>As global travel resumes, now is the perfect time to establish new conversations for what ethical travel might look like.Matt Harker, PhD Candidate (ABD), Theory & Criticism, Western UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1512532020-12-09T17:44:17Z2020-12-09T17:44:17ZAs Canada’s population ages, seniors need better access to public transit<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/373175/original/file-20201205-19-1xall8m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=23%2C7%2C5270%2C3415&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Elderly users of public transit face complex challenges to their mobility.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Mobility — the ability to move around freely — is important for healthy aging. It is a basic human need associated with independence, health and well-being. Older adults need to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnu014">remain mobile to meet their daily needs and to participate in social life</a>. </p>
<p>Most older adults’ primary travel mode is the car, but as health challenges grow, many must <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X06005332">either reduce their driving or give up the keys</a>. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/jgs.13931">Driving cessation</a> is a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X06005332">difficult and emotional transition for many older adults</a>. </p>
<p>Public transit can be a way to maintain older adults’ independent mobility. However, little research has focused on older adults’ experiences on public transit. My postdoctoral research at the <a href="https://mira.mcmaster.ca/">McMaster Institute for Research on Aging</a> fills this gap through interviews with older adult public transit users in Hamilton, Ont. </p>
<h2>Getting to the bus stop</h2>
<p>Bob (not his real name) is one of 32 older people I interviewed during my research. He is 79, uses a walker and lives in downtown Hamilton. Ever since he gave up his driver’s licence in 2016, the bus is Bob’s primary mode of transportation. Bob has the same wants and needs as other people — to shop for food and other items, attend appointments, visit friends and family and take part in activities that interest him.</p>
<p>But for Bob and many older people like him, the everyday act of using public transit can pose monumental challenges and generate real worries — ones that may not even occur to other transit users.</p>
<p>A lot of thought and consideration goes into planning trips, starting with the question of whether it will be safe to go out at all — which is potentially a matter of life and death to a vulnerable person for whom a serious fall could be catastrophic.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/372950/original/file-20201203-17-1ry82tm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A woman lies on snowy ground after slipping." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/372950/original/file-20201203-17-1ry82tm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/372950/original/file-20201203-17-1ry82tm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/372950/original/file-20201203-17-1ry82tm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/372950/original/file-20201203-17-1ry82tm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/372950/original/file-20201203-17-1ry82tm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/372950/original/file-20201203-17-1ry82tm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/372950/original/file-20201203-17-1ry82tm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Unshovelled paths can be deathly dangerous to elderly pedestrians.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The first barrier is the walk to the bus stop, both in terms of distance and weather, especially in winter, when the way may not be clear. In Bob’s words, “the sidewalks that are not shovelled are a real problem with the walker.”</p>
<p>When the sidewalks are not clear of dangerous snow and ice, many of my research participants told me they simply stay home. This can result in basic needs going unmet, such as having groceries in the house or seeing friends or family. </p>
<h2>Riding the bus</h2>
<p>Getting on and off the bus is another daunting challenge for many, including Bob, who struggles to lift his walker onto the bus. </p>
<p>He worries about taking too long and being in the way of other passengers when boarding and disembarking. He knows the bus is on a schedule and other passengers who expect it to be on time might find it annoying that he takes so long, but he can’t move any quicker. </p>
<p>Once Bob is on the bus, he needs to find a seat quickly, because he cannot stay upright while the bus is in motion. One of his biggest worries is “drivers leaving before I am sitting down.”</p>
<p>Even getting a seat is not guaranteed. Most of the research participants I spoke to sometimes find there are no empty seats, and they are embarrassed about asking for one, despite the signs that remind riders to reserve the first seats for passengers like them. </p>
<p>Further, many cannot sit at the elevated back of the bus, where there are often more free seats, because that would require climbing two more steps, possibly with the bus in motion. </p>
<p>Bob always exits from the front of the bus, even though others exit from the rear. He doesn’t like blocking the entry doors, but the front of the kneeling buses can be lowered to the curb, which helps him disembark with his walker. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/373006/original/file-20201204-19-1urr9em.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="photograph of a car and a bus driving" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/373006/original/file-20201204-19-1urr9em.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/373006/original/file-20201204-19-1urr9em.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373006/original/file-20201204-19-1urr9em.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373006/original/file-20201204-19-1urr9em.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373006/original/file-20201204-19-1urr9em.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373006/original/file-20201204-19-1urr9em.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373006/original/file-20201204-19-1urr9em.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some public buses are equipped with ramps or a lowering mechanism on the front end to improve their accessibility.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Mobility work</h2>
<p>All these contingencies that cause Bob and his peers to have to go to extra trouble just to get around, including worrying, are what I call mobility work. Able-bodied passengers do not have to do this work, and in many cases are not even aware of what a burden it can be for transit users experiencing declining ability, in this case older adults. </p>
<p>As another research participant shared: “Old people are invisible. That’s, you know, that’s just how it is….” </p>
<p>Although the study took place in Hamilton, it demonstrates a broad ableist bias in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2010.03.017">transportation planning across Canada</a> and elsewhere: transportation officials do not plan their services with enough attention to older adults. </p>
<p>This action is urgent. In Canada, population projections estimate that seniors will make up <a href="https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/dailyquotidien/170503/dq170503a-eng.htm">almost a quarter of the population by 2031</a>. This research highlights that concrete action is necessary to minimize this mobility work to make it easier for older adults to travel using the city bus.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/151253/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Léa Ravensbergen receives funding from the McMaster Institute for Research on Aging. </span></em></p>Transportation planning for the elderly should consider their needs, including safe pathways and accessible vehicles.Léa Ravensbergen, Postdoctoral Fellow, Institute for Research on Aging, McMaster UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1419232020-09-10T15:54:54Z2020-09-10T15:54:54ZPolicies should better support people trapped in long-term refugee situations<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/357433/original/file-20200910-20-lwxyw0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Protesters demand rights and housing for refugees and migrants in Greece.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Photo by ANGELOS TZORTZINIS / AFP</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>People that are forced to live away from their homes for five years or more – such as refugees or internally displaced persons (IDPs) – are said to live in a situation of protracted displacement. In 2018 it was reported that <a href="https://www.unhcr.org/globaltrends2018/#:%7E:text=2018%20in%20Review-,TRENDS%20AT%20A%20GLANCE,violence%2C%20or%20human%20rights%20violations">78% of all refugees</a> live in protracted displacement.</p>
<p>This is a very challenging state. Most are vulnerable and highly dependent on external support from governments, NGOs or relatives. They also have insecure legal statuses and don’t have the ability – or opportunity – to rebuild their lives because of scarce economic resources, the legal framework that regulates their lives or societies that don’t welcome them. </p>
<p>In many cases, they can neither return home nor move on to other countries, nor really integrate in the country of reception. </p>
<p>We’ve been carrying out <a href="https://trafig.eu/">research</a> that explores the experiences and solutions for protracted displaced populations around the world. Specifically, we examine the rules that dictate people’s ability to work, where they live, options for family reunification, and access to accommodation, education and health care. </p>
<p>We <a href="https://trafig.eu/output/practice-notes/trafig-practice-note-no-3/D034-TRAFIG-Practice-Note-3-v1-2019-12-20.pdf">found that</a> international and host country policies don’t adequately address the challenges posed by forced displacement across the world. </p>
<p>The traditional “durable” solutions <a href="https://trafig.eu/output/working-papers/trafig-working-paper-no-3/D031-TWP-Governing-Protracted-Displacement-Ferreira-et-al-2020-v02p-2020-02-03.pdf">are</a> return, local integration and resettlement. But these aren’t realistic because of the way institutions and rules restrict refugees’ movement, access to services and rights. </p>
<p>If refugees, for instance, aren’t allowed to work, how can they become locally integrated into the host society? And if only a fraction do get access to resettlement programmes, then resettlement can’t be seen as a sustainable solution to resolve situations that affect tens of thousands of people. </p>
<p>More innovative and long-term approaches need to be developed that recognise the fundamentals of human rights and livelihood security. They must also allow for the freedom of movement, ensuring people reach safe countries when they need to and allow for access to resources and networks in home regions. </p>
<p>Finally, policies can only be developed by including refugees, IDPs and migrants’ own perspectives in policy-making. This <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/ijrl/eeaa010">creates</a> ownership and ‘buy into’ by those affected. </p>
<h2>Wrong focus</h2>
<p>Recently, governments have made important strides in addressing refugee issues, putting <a href="https://www.nmbu.no/en/faculty/landsam/department/noragric/publications/all/node/41276">more emphasis</a> on improving social cohesion, host-refugee relations and promoting broader economic development in host countries. </p>
<p>But there’s been an <a href="https://www.unhcr.org/globaltrends2018/#:%7E:text=The%20world%20now%20has%20a,mainly%20by%20the%20Syrian%20conflict.">increasing number</a> of displaced people. This makes the situation more complex and <a href="https://www.arcgis.com/apps/Cascade/index.html?appid=d63ba0dce8c346bab133ca055180e455">increases</a> populist and racist trends in host countries. It requires more collaboration, coordination and constant improvement between stakeholders.</p>
<p>In many cases, especially in the Global South, national measures addressed to displaced people are strongly ‘upward’ oriented. They look to satisfy the international community – in particular the <a href="https://www.unhcr.org/">UNHCR</a>, <a href="https://www.iom.int/">IOM,</a><a href="https://www.worldbank.org/">World Bank</a> and <a href="https://europa.eu/european-union/index_en">EU</a> – rather than concentrating on local socio-economic needs. </p>
<p>This is understandable as these international actors often provide funding and demand accountability, but it doesn’t necessarily translate into a sustained focus on displaced people’s actual needs and the realisation of durable solutions.</p>
<h2>Waiting for regional initiatives</h2>
<p>Another challenge is that regional blocs – such as the <a href="https://europa.eu/european-union/index_en">European Union</a>, <a href="https://au.int/">African Union</a> and the <a href="https://www.igad.int/">Intergovernmental Authority on Development</a> – have policies that can sometimes protract, rather than resolve, displacement situations. For instance their policies could restrict people’s freedom of movement and right to work. </p>
<p>An example of this is the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/23340460.2019.1641128">EU’s securitisation and externalisation of control agenda</a>. This prioritises internal security and outsources border control to neighbouring countries. This overrules other agendas such as mobility, rights and livelihoods and could contribute to improving protracted displacement. </p>
<p>Yet studies show that people living in protracted situations <a href="https://trafig.eu/output/working-papers/2019-01/D1.1-TRAFIG_working_paper_No_01-31-05-2019.pdf">rely heavily</a> on
social networks to survive and make a living. They also need to have mobility <a href="https://trafig.eu/output/working-papers/2019-01/D1.1-TRAFIG_working_paper_No_01-31-05-2019.pdf">which allows</a> them to cross borders and find security outside their home countries. </p>
<p>Internally displaced people and refugees should be seen as contributors to social and economic life in a receiving country. Disregard of this potential contribution also harms host–refugee relations. If they can’t work it could protract the displacement situation. <a href="https://trafig.eu/blog/exploring-asylum-governance-in-italy-the-mismatch-between-regulatory-frameworks-and-protection-needs">Italy</a> and <a href="https://trafig.eu/blog/eu-shield">Greece</a> are cases in point. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/refugee-camps-versus-urban-refugees-whats-been-said-and-done-126069">Refugee camps versus urban refugees: what's been said -- and done</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>New solutions</h2>
<p>Looking at the type of policies and programmes in place to support internally displaced persons and refugees, there is an unmistakable focus on humanitarian interventions, especially emergency aid. This almost inevitably competes with <a href="https://www.icmpd.org/fileadmin/1_2018/THB/EN_Bridging_Refugee_Protection_and_Development_EN_WEB_FINAL.pdf">longer-term sustainable solutions to protracted displacement</a> as solutions are not geared towards becoming self-reliant but towards addressing immediate needs. This needs to change.</p>
<p>Initiatives such as the <a href="http://www.jrp.gov.jo/">Jordan Response Plan for the Syrian Crisis</a> are important steps to bridge the gap. This plan seeks to better integrate and complement humanitarian measures.</p>
<p>Mobility and translocal livelihoods are <a href="https://trafig.eu/output/working-papers/2019-01/D011-TWP-Transnational-Figurations-of-Displacement-Etzold-et-al-2019-v02p-20190709.pdf">also significant strategies</a> for displaced people but are often hampered by multiple restrictions. </p>
<p>Solutions do exist. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20181205IPR20933/humanitarian-visas-to-avoid-deaths-and-improve-management-of-refugee-flows">Humanitarian visas</a>, for instance would allow people to flee from insecurity with temporary travel documents through <a href="https://www.santegidio.org/pageID/30112/langID/en/Humanitarian-Corridors.html.">‘humanitarian corridors’</a> but thus far they are not regulated at a European level.</p>
<p>Another possibility is the introduction of <a href="https://www.migrationpolicy.org/research/welcoming-engagement-how-private-sponsorship-can-strengthen-refugee-resettlement-european">private sponsorship schemes</a> whereby private individuals provide financial and emotional support to the displaced. Over the past 40 years, the Canadian government <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/corporate/mandate/corporate-initiatives/global-refugee-sponsorship-initiative.html">has resettled</a> nearly 300,000 refugees through this program. </p>
<p>These innovative ideas could go to great lengths in addressing protracted displacement around the world.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/141923/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Carolien Jacobs receives funding from European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant No 822453 (TRAFIG).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nuno Ferreira receives funding from European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No. 822453 (TRAFIG) and grant agreement No. 677693 (SOGICA).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Benjamin Etzold receives funding from European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant No 822453 (TRAFIG).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Emanuela Roman receives funding from European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant No 822453 (TRAFIG).</span></em></p>Official policies at the international level and within host countries do not adequately address the challenges posed by forced displacement across the worldCarolien Jacobs, Assistant Professor, Leiden UniversityNuno Ferreira, Professor of Law, University of SussexLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1401552020-06-11T20:06:12Z2020-06-11T20:06:12ZWhy the pleasure and meaning of mingling in bars can’t be matched by a table for 2<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/340923/original/file-20200610-34688-vq2p1l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=16%2C131%2C4112%2C2940&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Sociologist Marcus Anthony Hunter found that for Black patrons of a Black nightclub, the ‘nightly round’ mitigated the impacts of spatial and social isolation. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Unslpash/Tobias Nii Kwatei Quartey)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>As bars begin to <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2020/06/03/happy-days-return-paris-france-cafes-bars-restaurants-finally/">reopen across the world</a> <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/here-s-what-different-provinces-territories-are-planning-for-covid-19-reopenings-1.5601572">after coronavirus closures</a>, the question of how we will socialize within them remains perplexing. The traditional bar is a complex social space and serves so many functions.</p>
<p>Twenty years ago, a group of French anthropologists <a href="https://www.editions-harmattan.fr/index.asp?navig=catalogue&obj=livre&no=9704">studied the behaviour of young people in a bar called Café Oz</a>, located in the <a href="https://en.parisinfo.com/transport/118359/Quartier-des-Halles">Halles district</a> of Paris. </p>
<p>Café Oz had an Australian theme, as its name might suggest, but this was not its main appeal. The bar’s popularity among young people had more to do with the kinds of social encounters that were possible within its walls.</p>
<p>While <a href="https://www.pavillon-arsenal.com/fr/edition-e-boutique/collections/19-x-30/9214-paris-la-nuit.html">the traditional Parisian café or bistro</a> kept customers confined to a single table (which the server had probably chosen for them), Café Oz — like British-style pubs — was designed to encourage customers to walk around. The “cash-and-carry” system, foreign to traditional French drinking establishments, required that customers go to the bar to fetch their own drinks. </p>
<p>This encouraged people to hang around the bar, joining in conversations already underway or to sit down with strangers at the long tables installed for that precise purpose. Customers could pursue new connections as they wanted and avoid others.</p>
<p>To the young people interviewed by the anthropologists, these arrangements made possible a freedom that <a href="https://jhupbooks.press.jhu.edu/title/world-paris-caf%C3%A9">the age-old rituals of French drinking culture</a> discouraged.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/340722/original/file-20200609-21208-wrntam.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/340722/original/file-20200609-21208-wrntam.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340722/original/file-20200609-21208-wrntam.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340722/original/file-20200609-21208-wrntam.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340722/original/file-20200609-21208-wrntam.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340722/original/file-20200609-21208-wrntam.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340722/original/file-20200609-21208-wrntam.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A woman cleans the terrace of a restaurant in Paris, June 1, 2020. France is reopening its restaurants, bars and cafés as the country eases most restrictions amid the coronavirus crisis.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Christophe Ena)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Student mobility, tourism</h2>
<p>Café Oz was a space for meeting strangers, its risks reduced by the fact that one usually arrived with friends. An evening out was a long series of short-term exchanges with the friends one came with and the new acquaintances one made. Those interviewed for the study noted, in particular, their pleasure at meeting people of identities and backgrounds other than their own.</p>
<p>Café Oz is now the brand of a chain of bars, scattered across Paris, whose various <a href="https://www.facebook.com/CafeOzChatelet/">Facebook pages</a> either carry frozen announcements of events in early March or advise <a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/CAFJpsMod8B/">patrons to have patience</a> in the face of the ongoing quarantine. </p>
<p>Café Oz’s hazy present-day identity combines features of the Anglo-Irish pub, the American sports bar, the casual restaurant and the dance club. Like so many of its competitors, Café Oz now belongs to an international model for drinking places, one whose popularity has followed the enormous growth of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1086/671752">student mobility</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/17535069.2018.1449010">and night-life tourism</a> over the past decade. </p>
<p>With multiple functions and broad appeal, these spaces sell the possibility of casual, short-term sociability.</p>
<h2>Post-confinement future</h2>
<p>There are two principles that guide the future of bars post-lockdown.
The first is that to accommodate social distancing, <a href="https://www.euroweeklynews.com/2020/05/23/late-night-extensions-to-bar-and-restaurant-terraces-coming-to-city-in-spains-costa-blanca-south/">alcohol consumption outside of the home will be stretched out across time and space.</a> </p>
<p>Drinking hours will be extended forwards and backwards, and the spaces for drinking will spill out onto streets, squares and parks. Crowds of drinkers will be thinned out, over longer periods of time and more widely dispersed in space.</p>
<p>The second principle dictates that the mobility of customers be reduced. Drinkers will be confined to their tables, and the size of groups drinking together will be limited and enforced. Gimmicky innovations like <a href="https://www.thedrinksbusiness.com/2020/05/contactless-tableside-ordering-service-to-launch-in-uk/">remote ordering devices</a> and plexiglass separators are being hailed for their capacity to further reduce the chances of interpersonal contact.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/340724/original/file-20200609-21191-1xhfrts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/340724/original/file-20200609-21191-1xhfrts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340724/original/file-20200609-21191-1xhfrts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340724/original/file-20200609-21191-1xhfrts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340724/original/file-20200609-21191-1xhfrts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340724/original/file-20200609-21191-1xhfrts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340724/original/file-20200609-21191-1xhfrts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Patrons sit between plexiglass barriers on the patio of a restaurant and bar in Vancouver on May 31, 2020.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Darryl Dyck</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>‘Vertical drinking’</h2>
<p>Even as we accept these measures, we cannot help but wonder how the social function of bars will change. In the 1970s, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/13562570801969473">vertical drinking</a>” — consuming alcohol while standing up and moving around, as in Café Oz — was embraced by British bars as a lively alternative to the dull immobility of the traditional pub, where customers sat in groups faced inwards.</p>
<p>Standing up and moving around seemed to encourage higher levels of drinking and to instill a more sociable atmosphere. Its <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tmKjBHRze_k">detractors</a> saw vertical drinking as leading to boorish behaviour, more frequent sexual harassment and the death of meaningful conversation.</p>
<h2>Expressiveness spread</h2>
<p>A bar in which customers move around is a space that is constantly being redefined. In his <a href="https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/S/bo3632650.html">history of New York nightlife</a>,
historian Lewis A. Erenberg describes the ways in which, as restaurants added dance floors at the beginning of the past century, people went out to bars and eating establishments to look at each other rather than at professional performers engaged to entertain them. </p>
<p>“Expressiveness,” he suggests, “spread to the audience as well.” Getting up, moving around, looking at strangers and mingling with others — these made going to a nighttime drinking place a sociable, entertaining experience. </p>
<h2>The ‘nightly round’</h2>
<p>Sociology professor Marcus Anthony Hunter <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6040.2010.01320.x">studied what he calls “the nightly round,” in urban Black nightlife</a>. He found there were restorative effects of nightlife movements and interactions in a Black nightclub for Black patrons for whom the daytime is often marked by the violence of exclusion and oppression. Heterosexual, as well as lesbian and gay patrons (who patronized the bar, respectively, for a Saturday “straight night” and a Friday “gay night”) used their movements around a bar “to mediate racial segregation [and] sexual segregation.” </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/340935/original/file-20200610-34710-7jyf4u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/340935/original/file-20200610-34710-7jyf4u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340935/original/file-20200610-34710-7jyf4u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340935/original/file-20200610-34710-7jyf4u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340935/original/file-20200610-34710-7jyf4u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340935/original/file-20200610-34710-7jyf4u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340935/original/file-20200610-34710-7jyf4u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hunter found that Black patrons were exploring socio-economic opportunities while circulating in a Black nightclub.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Unsplash)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Hunter found their “rounds” were ways of shoring up social capital — one’s place within community — and a way of exploring socio-economic opportunities (and for the lesbian and gay patrons, developing social support). In Hunter’s words, such contacts mitigate “the effects of social and spatial isolation.”</p>
<p>In her extraordinary 1944 novel <a href="https://www.hmhco.com/shop/books/The-Street/9780358187547"><em>The Street</em></a>, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/2019/dec/14/the-street-the-1940s-african-american-thriller-that-became-a-huge-bestseller">about life in Harlem</a>, Ann Petry wrote that, for its Black clientele, a certain neighbourhood bar served as “a social club and a meeting place,” its talk and laughter replacing “the haunting silences of rented rooms and little apartments.”</p>
<h2>Celebration or lament?</h2>
<p>As the spatial-temporal limits on social drinking are extended, there will be much to celebrate in the coming months. </p>
<p>But if the price of this extension is that patrons are immobilized at assigned tables in small groups — and if these groups nervously eye each other rather than revelling in the spectacle of mingling strangers — bars will have lost some of their most important functions.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/140155/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>William Straw receives funding from McGill University under the James McGill Professor program. . </span></em></p>If bars are forced to restrict people’s movement in our post-coronavirus pandemic world, they will lose some of their most important social functions.William Straw, Professor of Urban Media Studies, Department of Art History and Communications Studies, McGill UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1388752020-05-31T11:57:52Z2020-05-31T11:57:52ZGiving up public transit during the coronavirus is a luxury many Canadians can’t afford<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338248/original/file-20200528-51527-11t4cal.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5472%2C2973&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">New research suggests many Canadians cannot afford to forgo public transit during the COVID-19 pandemic — or ever.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jed Dela Cruz/Unsplash</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Canadian cities are contending with how to maintain effective public transit during the coronavirus-induced revenue collapse. </p>
<p>Cities initially responded by <a href="https://www.thestar.com/news/gta/2020/05/05/what-to-expect-from-historic-ttc-service-cuts-coming-next-week-over-the-covid-19-crisis.html">drastically reducing service</a>. The Federation of Canadian Municipalities has <a href="https://fcm.ca/en/news-media/news-release/covid-19-municipalities-seek-emergency-funding">called on the federal government</a> to provide $10 billion to support cities through the crisis, including a $2.4 billion lifeline to public transit systems. </p>
<p>The severity and abruptness of COVID-19’s impacts, paired with a lack of senior government support for transit systems, means that emergency cuts to service have reduced many vulnerable Canadians’ access to key services, despite transit agencies’ best efforts to minimize impact. </p>
<p>Toronto may cut transit service by an <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/toronto-covid-19-may-22-1.5580045">unprecedented 50 per cent</a>. In Edmonton, Mayor Don Iveson is considering shutting down all of the city’s transit services <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/edmonton/edmonton-city-council-covid-19-1.5576306">over the summer</a> if financial support does not materialize. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338246/original/file-20200528-51449-1e5eb86.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C218%2C1920%2C980&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338246/original/file-20200528-51449-1e5eb86.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338246/original/file-20200528-51449-1e5eb86.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338246/original/file-20200528-51449-1e5eb86.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338246/original/file-20200528-51449-1e5eb86.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338246/original/file-20200528-51449-1e5eb86.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338246/original/file-20200528-51449-1e5eb86.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Edmonton is among the Canadian cities pondering major cuts to public transit during the COVID-19 pandemic — a move that puts the country’s most vulnerable people at risk.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Pixabay)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These extreme responses risk the welfare of <a href="https://www.cp24.com/news/tory-confident-ttc-can-handle-expected-increase-in-ridership-as-some-stores-reopen-1.4932210">hundreds of thousands</a> of Canadians <a href="https://cutaactu.ca/en/news-media/latest-news/transit-ridership-systems-face-closure">who still depend on public transportation</a> to access work, essential services and to provide care to family. </p>
<p>Canada’s most vulnerable residents are over-represented among these travellers. In the week prior to Toronto’s first wave of COVID-induced service cuts, we surveyed 3,300 residents who rode transit regularly prior to the pandemic. Recruitment of respondents took place through social media ads since in-person recruitment would violate physical distancing, and the sample <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1xtbl9nNNcjQFB51-crAGOyC0vSLCHw3M/view">mostly reflects the demographics of Toronto transit riders</a>.</p>
<p>Our preliminary results highlight how <a href="https://mobilizingjustice.ca/transit-%26-covid-19-survey">privilege and socio-economic status have altered transit ridership during the crisis</a>. Residents who managed to stop riding transit are wealthier, whiter, more likely to have been born in Canada and less likely to have a disability compared to those who continue to ride. </p>
<p>Canadians still riding transit have fewer resources to draw upon for their travel. As one respondent approaching retirement told us: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“I can’t afford taxis often, can’t walk that far, so a loss of transit service would severely impede my mobility to get things done.” </p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Service cuts will harm vulnerable citizens</h2>
<p>Other countries like the <a href="https://www.justice.gov/crt/fcs/newsletter/Spring-2015/TitleVIandEJ">United States</a> and the <a href="https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_emp/---emp_policy/---invest/documents/publication/wcms_asist_8210.pdf">United Kingdom</a> have provided guidance to transportation planners on how to evaluate the impacts of their decisions on disadvantaged and vulnerable populations.</p>
<p>At a 2019 workshop on transport equity, local government voices from across Canada told us that <a href="https://mobilizingjustice.ca/workshop-report">they’ve struggled to prioritize equity in transportation planning in the absence of federal or provincial frameworks in Canada</a>. </p>
<p>The illustration below shows changes in transit service in Toronto between February and May. Specifically, it displays the change in the weekly average number of transit trips reachable in a 15-minute walk for each neighbourhood.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/337507/original/file-20200526-106832-1uhsyoi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/337507/original/file-20200526-106832-1uhsyoi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337507/original/file-20200526-106832-1uhsyoi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337507/original/file-20200526-106832-1uhsyoi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337507/original/file-20200526-106832-1uhsyoi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337507/original/file-20200526-106832-1uhsyoi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337507/original/file-20200526-106832-1uhsyoi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Changes to transit service in Toronto between February and May.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://jamaps.github.io/maps.html">(Jeff Allen)</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A majority (54 per cent) of our survey respondents live in neighbourhoods that experienced a 10 per cent to 25 per cent decline in transit service in May, 42 per cent of whom are still riding public transit. Another eight per cent live in neighbourhoods where service cuts exceed 25 per cent; 44 per cent of them are still using public transit.</p>
<p>We asked these respondents to consider the most important trips they are still making by transit, and present them by neighbourhood service cuts. Note that totals exceed 100 per cent, since many riders accomplish multiple tasks on the same transit trip. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/337518/original/file-20200526-106823-lba31f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/337518/original/file-20200526-106823-lba31f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337518/original/file-20200526-106823-lba31f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337518/original/file-20200526-106823-lba31f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337518/original/file-20200526-106823-lba31f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=517&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337518/original/file-20200526-106823-lba31f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=517&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337518/original/file-20200526-106823-lba31f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=517&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Riders’ most important transit trips and service cuts.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Provided by the authors)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Most riders in areas losing significant service are depending on public transit for essentials such as groceries (45-46 per cent) or pharmacy visits (19-25 per cent). </p>
<p>A quarter of respondents in areas with the greatest service cuts say that getting to work is the most important trip they still take on transit, compared to 11 per cent of riders in areas with less severe cuts. </p>
<p>The latest round of service cuts <a href="https://www.blogto.com/city/2020/05/toronto-shut-down-ttc-service-financial-assistance/">proposed for Toronto</a> if the city does not get financial help may immobilize these essential workers, while depriving many of critical access to grocery stores and pharmacies.</p>
<p>For many of these riders, transit makes it possible to carry groceries or juggle essential errands for dependent family members. Explaining their use of transit, one senior said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“Getting groceries on foot could exacerbate my chronic illness and make me very sick.” </p>
</blockquote>
<h2>More will be affected if cuts aren’t addressed</h2>
<p>Some essential workers may buy cars because of cuts to public transit. However, that option isn’t available to a large minority of current and former transit riders. </p>
<p>We asked respondents if they could afford to buy used cars if they needed to, and plotted this against their pre-pandemic 2019 household income. See below:</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/337747/original/file-20200526-106815-wjyb0q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/337747/original/file-20200526-106815-wjyb0q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337747/original/file-20200526-106815-wjyb0q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337747/original/file-20200526-106815-wjyb0q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337747/original/file-20200526-106815-wjyb0q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337747/original/file-20200526-106815-wjyb0q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337747/original/file-20200526-106815-wjyb0q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Could riders afford a used car?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Provided by the authors)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A majority of households with pre-COVID incomes under $80,000 said buying a used car was not an option. Perhaps for these reasons, a large minority of respondents (41 per cent) who stopped riding transit do not believe they can continue avoiding public transit for up to 18 months. Oncoming drastic service reductions may arrive just as necessity pushes many more riders back onto buses, light rail and subways. These trends may be amplified when cold weather returns in the fall.</p>
<p>The loss of public transit would exacerbate the existing crisis facing many Canadians during the pandemic. The damage of lost transit access for carless and vulnerable households will likely spill over into other domains, such as employment and health care. It’s critical that policy-makers do not leave these residents stranded.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/138875/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Matthew Palm's position is funded by the University of Toronto XSeed Interdisciplinary Grant and the Ontario Research Fund. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jeff Allen’s research is funded by graduate scholarships from the University of Toronto and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Steven Farber receives funding from Metrolinx, the City of Toronto, and the Province of Ontario.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Widener receives funding from SSHRC and CIHR.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nicholas Howell receives funding from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research MD/PhD Studentship, GSEF - McLaughlin Centre Graduate Fellowships, and a McLaughlin Education MD/PhD Studentship. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Yixue Zhang receives funding from graduate scholarships from the University of Toronto and Connaught Fund.</span></em></p>Many of Canada’s residents, including essential workers, have no choice but to ride transit. Service cuts may cripple their access to essential destinations if governments do not intervene.Matthew Palm, Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Housing and Transportation Geography, University of TorontoJeff Allen, PhD Student, Physical Geography, University of TorontoSteven Farber, Assistant Professor, Human Geography, University of TorontoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1363232020-04-21T16:17:49Z2020-04-21T16:17:49ZMapping the lockdown effects in India: how geographers can contribute to tackle Covid-19 diffusion<p><em>Partha Mukhopadhyay and Shamindra Nath Roy from the Centre for Policy Research co-authored this piece.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>The reduction in the number of individuals commuting and travelling have without a doubt decreased the propagation of the coronavirus Covid-19 virus, as indicated by <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/early/2020/03/05/science.aba9757">recent research</a>.</p>
<p>However, several articles underline the necessity to take into account <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0146539">urban and regional mobilities</a> to better understand the emergence of infectious diseases in particular territories. The difficulty for the research community in considering such data contributes to the vulnerability of societies, notably in countries like India. However, preliminary results from ongoing research using social network data could be a first step to change this.</p>
<h2>India under lockdown</h2>
<p>India is divided in <a href="https://www.jagranjosh.com/current-affairs/coronavirus-outbreak-list-of-cities-under-complete-lockdown-due-to-covid-19-1584884177-1">32 states or union territories</a> with a total population of 1.3 billion. The country’s economic development has led to the development of significant <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S235214651830053X">intra- and inter-regional mobilities</a>. In addition to workers of the unorganised sectors who are currently <a href="https://theconversation.com/indias-coronavirus-lockdown-will-hit-women-and-migrant-workers-hardest-134689">stranded</a>, metropolitan regions of India are at the centre of major daily flows that have significant consequences on <a href="https://theconversation.com/emerging-infectious-diseases-in-india-the-scourge-that-could-boost-urban-development-95076#comment_2072217">pathogens diffusion</a> such as dengue and Covid-19.</p>
<h2>Facebook Data for Good</h2>
<p>To better understand mobility patterns during this period, we accessed Facebook mobile users’ data provided through the company’s <a href="https://dataforgood.fb.com/">Data for Good</a> platform. Keeping in mind the potential digital divide, we aimed to observe the changes induced by lockdown on mobility patterns of more than 28 million users (approximately 3% of the total population 18 and over). With the most up-to-date information, this data helps us understand dynamically where the people are. Measured every eight hours (00:00AM, 8:00AM, 4:00PM GMT), it provides a grid with the number of persons who moved from a given cell to another between two time periods.</p>
<p>The mode of detection is passive, fully anonymised and no individualy identifiable information is provided. For our purpose, we combined it with data from the <a href="http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-common/aboutus.html">2011 census of India</a> (the next release is scheduled for 2021) since it constitutes a solid basis to add further socio-demographic insights.</p>
<h2>A decrease of commuting at the national level</h2>
<p>At national level, the data reveal that the number of individuals who changed location between the eight-hour gap decreased massively after the lockdown (figure 1).</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/328306/original/file-20200416-192693-5r2peo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/328306/original/file-20200416-192693-5r2peo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/328306/original/file-20200416-192693-5r2peo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=331&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/328306/original/file-20200416-192693-5r2peo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=331&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/328306/original/file-20200416-192693-5r2peo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=331&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/328306/original/file-20200416-192693-5r2peo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/328306/original/file-20200416-192693-5r2peo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/328306/original/file-20200416-192693-5r2peo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Figure 1: Number of individuals changing location each day and time.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">O. Telle, S. Benkimoun, Facebook Data for Good</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This global pattern hides a more complex one at state level. The mobility of individuals shrank by almost 90% in Delhi NCT, while in other states, it fell by only 40% (see figure 2).</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/328349/original/file-20200416-192744-1s2nl9x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/328349/original/file-20200416-192744-1s2nl9x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/328349/original/file-20200416-192744-1s2nl9x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=322&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/328349/original/file-20200416-192744-1s2nl9x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=322&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/328349/original/file-20200416-192744-1s2nl9x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=322&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/328349/original/file-20200416-192744-1s2nl9x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/328349/original/file-20200416-192744-1s2nl9x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/328349/original/file-20200416-192744-1s2nl9x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Figure 2: Decrease of individuals between March 19 and 30, 2020.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">O. Telle, S. Benkimoun, Facebook Data for Good</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Overall, the number of users per state does not change significantly, as indicated in figure 3.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/328307/original/file-20200416-192744-jrhgn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/328307/original/file-20200416-192744-jrhgn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/328307/original/file-20200416-192744-jrhgn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=349&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/328307/original/file-20200416-192744-jrhgn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=349&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/328307/original/file-20200416-192744-jrhgn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=349&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/328307/original/file-20200416-192744-jrhgn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/328307/original/file-20200416-192744-jrhgn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/328307/original/file-20200416-192744-jrhgn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Figure 3: Evolution of population per states between the March 19 and 30, 2020.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">O. Telle, S. Benkimoun, Facebook Data for Good</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Cities lose population while rural areas gain</h2>
<p>The only states that observed a significant decrease of population (Facebook users served as a proxy) are Chandigarh, Goa and the Delhi NCT. Delhi has high level of commuting, and cities in general lost 7% of their users, which would represent around 1 million individuals.</p>
<p>The map presenting the difference of population reveals a clear structure: cities are losing population, while rural areas are gaining some.</p>
<p>This is confirmed by graphs 3 and 4: rural population increased by 7% while cities lost between 4% and 11% according to their typology (from metropolis to small census towns). As revealed by map 1, neighbouring countries seem to experiment the same pattern, with cities losing a significant share of their population. Bangladesh being archetypal.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/328308/original/file-20200416-192693-1niyk8v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/328308/original/file-20200416-192693-1niyk8v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/328308/original/file-20200416-192693-1niyk8v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/328308/original/file-20200416-192693-1niyk8v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/328308/original/file-20200416-192693-1niyk8v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/328308/original/file-20200416-192693-1niyk8v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/328308/original/file-20200416-192693-1niyk8v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/328308/original/file-20200416-192693-1niyk8v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Map 1: Changes in population.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">O. Telle, S. Benkimoun, Facebook Data for Good</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/328305/original/file-20200416-192725-1yszbm5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/328305/original/file-20200416-192725-1yszbm5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/328305/original/file-20200416-192725-1yszbm5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/328305/original/file-20200416-192725-1yszbm5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/328305/original/file-20200416-192725-1yszbm5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/328305/original/file-20200416-192725-1yszbm5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/328305/original/file-20200416-192725-1yszbm5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/328305/original/file-20200416-192725-1yszbm5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Evolution of Facebook population between the March 19 and 30 per category of area.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">S. Roy</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our data suggest that prior to the lockdown, cities are at the centre of significant population shifts during the day from neighbouring areas. Because of the lockdown, millions of individuals no longer commute to them. In that context, the population increase in the rural areas surrounding cities is the result of the abrupt stop of daily movements toward city centres.</p>
<h2>Unusual incoming mobilities</h2>
<p>However, some areas concentrate cluster of localities experimenting unusual incoming flows during this crisis: this is the case in West Rajasthan, South India (around Bangalore, Chennai and Madurai), the mountains located in the North of Delhi and Orissa.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/328309/original/file-20200416-192703-fmpkct.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/328309/original/file-20200416-192703-fmpkct.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/328309/original/file-20200416-192703-fmpkct.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/328309/original/file-20200416-192703-fmpkct.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/328309/original/file-20200416-192703-fmpkct.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/328309/original/file-20200416-192703-fmpkct.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=631&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/328309/original/file-20200416-192703-fmpkct.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=631&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/328309/original/file-20200416-192703-fmpkct.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=631&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Unusual mobility movements during and after the lockdown in comparison with mobilities detected before.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">O. Telle, S. Benkimoun, Facebook Data for Good</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Long-distance relocation of individuals explain the exceptional increase in incoming mobilities from Delhi to the mountains in North India. In Rajasthan and Odisha, they are the result of local adjustment of residence mainly toward remote villages. In South India, an exodus from cities also occurred, but was limited to the state level. Notably, some Bangalore and Chennai residents rushed to distant and small localities and migrant workers went back to their place of origin.</p>
<p>Our analysis suggests that up to the end of March, there was no significant increase of population in the poorest states, such as Bihar, Jharkhand or Uttar Pradesh, a source of migrant workers. Their mobility has been severely constrained and delayed by the lockdown: railways and buses stopped, and interstate police roadblocks were in place. An exception is Uttar Pradesh, which has its border within the Delhi metropolitan region across the Yamuna River. We might be able to better see this <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/29/world/asia/coronavirus-india-migrants.html">return migration pattern</a> in the coming weeks.</p>
<h2>Pointing up the next clusters</h2>
<p>This first exploration of Facebook’s Data for the Good platform in India reveals that the lockdown was clearly effective in reducing mobility. While cities are losing daily commuters, some long-distance mobility was detected, particularly during the first week, as <a href="https://www.nber.org/papers/w26906">other research suggest</a>. These movements could point out the next Covid-19 clusters to come.</p>
<p>A future collaboration based on an <a href="https://www.cprindia.org/projects/epidemiologically-based-mosquito-elimination-strategies-dengue-control">ongoing project</a> between the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Institut Pasteur, India’s Center for Policy Research and UK Liverpool University will help to define if the lockdown impacted the pandemic curve and the spatial diffusion of Covid-19.</p>
<p>Our preliminary results show how using real-time social-network data on population movements can help to understand how the virus spread on local and regional levels. These in turn can point us toward what confinement strategies will have the most impacts on virus diffusion, and thus reduce significant <a href="https://www.cprindia.org/covid-19/research-policy-briefs">humanitarian effects</a> and <a href="https://booksandideas.net/The-Covid-19-Crisis-in-India.html?fbclid=IwAR2_m3nTrJ5G-ciksMfvzxIS3s69Z0vRu3zQ01xaKWFraVcAqRhen_ZgsMs#.XpRKm-uPlKY.facebook">social and economic impacts</a> caused by a total lockdown of population.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/136323/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>This project was supported by CNRS (PICS Urb India).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>This project was funded by CNRS (PICS Urb India).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Samuel Benkimoun ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>Preliminary results of new research show how using data from social networks such as Facebook may help us understand how the coronavirus spread on local and regional levels.Eric Denis, Géographe - chercheur CNRS, Université Paris 1 Panthéon-SorbonneOlivier Telle, Research scientist at CSH, Centre national de la recherche scientifique (CNRS)Samuel Benkimoun, Doctorant en géographie, CSH, Université Paris 1 Panthéon-SorbonneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1358962020-04-14T12:14:54Z2020-04-14T12:14:54ZCoronavirus puts class dimension of mobility into sharp focus<p>The coronavirus pandemic demonstrates the salience of class to the spread, containment and impact of infectious diseases. The virus hitches a ride on us, the humans who act simultaneously as its hosts and victims. Human mobility and immobility – who can and can’t move and why – is therefore crucial to understanding the virus. And these issues of mobility have significant class dimensions. </p>
<p>Some researchers have argued in recent years that we are living through an <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books/about/The_Age_of_Migration.html?id=KrwcBQAAQBAJ&source=kp_book_description&redir_esc=y">“age of migration”</a>, characterised by international movements of people. Yet the coronavirus crisis also shows this is an age of <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2187041">involuntary immobility</a> for many people around the world. </p>
<p>One of the earliest cases in the UK of COVID-19, the disease linked to the new coronavirus, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/feb/10/super-spreader-brought-coronavirus-from-singapore-to-sussex-via-france">concerned a businessman</a> who had contracted the virus in Singapore in January 2020. He passed it to others in a French ski resort, before returning to the UK and spreading the virus in his home city, Brighton. He carried the virus while asymptomatic, so bears no moral responsibility. However, his privileged lifestyle and ability to travel internationally provided the virus with an effective delivery service.</p>
<h2>Those who could, moved</h2>
<p>In Italy, Spain and France, those who had the means of transport rapidly exited highly infected areas in early and mid-March, <a href="https://www.compas.ox.ac.uk/2020/take-me-home-the-coronavirus-virus-and-panic-mobility/">some acting as carriers</a> of COVID-19. In Italy, when a draft decree locking down Lombardy was leaked, thousands headed to their extended families in the south. In Spain, a newspaper reported <a href="https://www.theolivepress.es/spain-news/2020/03/13/covid-19-madrid-residents-flee-to-spains-costa-del-sol-valencia-and-murcia-despite-government-advice-to-remain-at-home-over-coronavirus-fears-including-ex-pm-jose-aznar/">4km of traffic jams</a> on motorways heading out of Madrid. The Spanish flight was largely to second homes. </p>
<p>In France, Parisians were met at Cape Ferret in south-western France <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/mar/18/thank-you-parisians-dont-bring-the-virus-plea-from-rural-france">by hostile graffiti</a>. A local lamented on a Facebook page: “It’s very worrying to see all those people fleeing Paris – that will certainly spread the virus.”</p>
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<p>The exodus from New York also started in mid-March. One provider of private healthcare fielded 75 telephone calls a day asking whether it would be better to stay in the city <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/09b48bce-67fd-11ea-a3c9-1fe6fedcca75">or go to the Hamptons</a>, Aspen, St Barts (an island in the Caribbean catering to the wealthy) or Palm Beach. Private jets were charted and some even sought to establish their own ICUs together with ventilators in their second homes. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/coronavirus-holidays-stoke-rural-fury-135779">'Coronavirus holidays' stoke rural fury</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Forced to flee</h2>
<p>Movement by the poor has taken a very different form. As factories, offices and businesses shut, daily-paid and migrant workers were discarded without ceremony. In India, Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s order to lockdown the country from midnight on March 24 provided a traumatic illustration of the plight of the poor. Desperate migrants tried to return to their home areas, with <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/29/world/asia/coronavirus-india-migrants.html?auth=login-email&login=email">crowded stations</a> becoming giant petri dishes on which the virus could thrive. </p>
<p>At first, the Uttar Pradesh government was sympathetic, sending 1,000 buses to pick up the state’s workers in Delhi. When many returnees were greeted with hostility, the pickup was abruptly stopped on March 31, causing further chaos. In the city of Bareilly, returnees were assembled and <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2020/03/30/india/india-migrant-workers-sprayed-intl/index.html">sprayed with disinfectant</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/five-ways-coronavirus-lockdowns-increase-inequality-135767">Five ways coronavirus lockdowns increase inequality</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Two sides of immobility</h2>
<p>In sharp contrast, my wife and I provide a simple example of the privileged immobile. We have a comfortable house and a small garden. We are digitally connected with colleagues, friends and relatives worldwide and have paid for streaming services that keep us moderately entertained. We are able to work from home. Of course, life is weird and unnatural, but we experience no pressing hardship.</p>
<p>The immobility of the poor could not be more different. In Tehran, as economic activities crumpled, about 1.5 million children who made their living from selling commodities such as flowers, cigarettes and chewing gum to car owners and those on public transport suddenly <a href="https://www.compas.ox.ac.uk/2020/when-home-does-not-exist-what-does-self-quarantine-mean-street-children-in-tehran/">had no means of survival</a>. </p>
<p>In the Johannesburg townships, <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-a-one-size-fits-all-approach-to-covid-19-could-have-lethal-consequences-134252">social distancing is almost impossible</a>, while mass unemployment (already at 30%) resulting from the lockdown may mean mass poverty and even starvation. In Barcelona, there are also <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/01/poor-and-vulnerable-hardest-hit-by-pandemic-in-spain">notable class differences in infections</a> – in the working-class district of Roquetes the rate is 533 per 100,000, compared with 77 per 100,000 in upmarket Sant Gervasi.</p>
<h2>New winners and losers</h2>
<p>Any sophisticated class analysis of the pandemic will become more nuanced as more data from around the world emerges. Given the current difficulties of collecting data, the most immediately useful indicators of variation will be infection and death rates according to the socioeconomic characteristics of different wards and districts. </p>
<p>But it’s already apparent that sections of the working class will be impacted differently. A China-wide survey conducted after the Wuhan lockdown found that <a href="https://www.thepaper.cn/newsDetail_forward_6435075">75% of truckers</a> had lost their livelihoods, while taxi drivers’ incomes had collapsed. In contrast, many more workers <a href="https://www.compas.ox.ac.uk/2020/mobile-livelihoods-in-stress/">were recruited to deliver</a> food. In other words, COVID-19 creates new winners and losers.</p>
<p>Only the privileged immobile can afford to ride it out. As lockdowns begin to loosen around the world, it’s possible that workers who can prove they are immune will be considerably advantaged. A new form of stratification could arise between “CIs” (certified immune persons) and “DKs” (don’t knows). Becoming a CI might be a chosen strategy for many desperate and impoverished people who may seek to infect themselves and get back to work with a certificate in hand. Perhaps it is an exaggeration to imagine forged certificates of immunity or distinctive CI tattoos. But these are desperate times.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/135896/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Robin Cohen does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Who can and can’t move and why is crucial to understanding the virus.Robin Cohen, Emeritus Professor, Senior Research Fellow, Kellogg College, University of OxfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1311542020-02-23T19:57:27Z2020-02-23T19:57:27ZBillions are pouring into mobility technology – will the transport revolution live up to the hype?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/316398/original/file-20200220-92493-16dhl1h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C152%2C5976%2C3730&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/san-francisco-ca-usa-april-27-1080711815">Toshifumi Hotchi/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Over the past decade almost <a href="https://files.pitchbook.com/website/files/pdf/PitchBook_Q4_2019_Emerging_Tech_Research_Mobility_Tech_Executive_Summary.pdf">US$200 billion</a> has been invested globally in mobility technology that promises to improve our ability to get around. More than US$33 billion was invested last year alone. Another measure of interest in this area is the <a href="https://travelandmobility.tech/lists/unicorns/">number of unicorns</a>, which has doubled in the past two years. </p>
<p>A unicorn is a privately held startup company valued at US$1 billion or more. In early 2018 there were 22 travel and mobility unicorns. By last month the number had grown to 44. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-battle-to-be-the-amazon-or-netflix-of-transport-103351">The battle to be the Amazon (or Netflix) of transport</a>
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</em>
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<p>The top categories in the mobility area are: ride hailing, with 11 unicorns (25.0%); autonomous vehicles, with ten (22.7%); and micromobility, with three (6.8%). The remaining 20 unicorns are in the travel category (hotels, bookings and so on).</p>
<p>Mobility technology is more than just autonomous vehicles, ride hailing and e-scooters and e-bikes. It also includes: electrification (electric vehicles, charging/batteries); fleet management and connectivity (connectivity, data management, cybersecurity, parking, fleet management); auto commerce (car sharing); transportation logistics (freight, last-mile delivery); and urban air mobility.</p>
<h2>Promised solutions, emerging problems</h2>
<p>Much of the interest in mobility technology is coming from individuals outside the transport arena. Startups are attracting investors by claiming their technology will solve many of our transport problems. </p>
<p>Micromobility companies believe their e-scooters and e-bikes will solve the “<a href="https://ascelibrary.org/doi/abs/10.1061/9780784413210.007">first-mile last-mile</a>” problem by enabling people to move quickly and easily between their homes or workplaces and a bus or rail station. While this might work in theory, it depends on having <a href="https://theconversation.com/fork-in-the-road-as-danish-and-dutch-style-cycle-routes-spread-19744">safe and segregated bicycle networks</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/people-love-the-idea-of-20-minute-neighbourhoods-so-why-isnt-it-top-of-the-agenda-131193">frequent and widely accessible public transport</a> services. </p>
<p>Ride-hailing services might relieve people of the need to own a car. But <a href="https://www.som.com/ideas/publications/som_thinkers_the_future_of_transportation">there is evidence</a> to suggest these services are <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-ride-hail-utopia-that-got-stuck-in-traffic-11581742802">adding to traffic congestion</a>. That’s because, unlike taxis, more of their time on the road involves travelling without any passengers.</p>
<p>Navigation tools (Google Maps, Apple Maps, Waze) have <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Maps">been around longer</a> than most other mobility technologies and are meant make it easier to find the least-congested route for any given trip. However, <a href="https://people.eecs.berkeley.edu/%7Etheophile/docs/publications/Cabannes_19_ACM.pdf">research</a> suggests these tools might not be working as intended. The <a href="https://www.som.com/ideas/publications/som_thinkers_the_future_of_transportation">backlash</a> against them is growing in some cities because traffic is being directed onto neighbourhood streets rather than arterial roads.</p>
<p>Autonomous vehicles have the goal of reducing injuries and deaths from car crashes. Only a few years ago many bold predictions were being made that these self-driving vehicles would be having positive impacts by now, but this hasn’t happened. The enthusiasm for autonomous vehicles has cooled. <a href="https://www.vtpi.org/avip.pdf">Some now believe</a> we won’t see many of the social benefits for decades. </p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-we-feel-about-our-cars-means-the-road-to-a-driverless-future-may-not-be-smooth-125874">How we feel about our cars means the road to a driverless future may not be smooth</a>
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<p>The final mobility tech area is known as mobility as a service (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobility_as_a_service">MAAS</a>). It’s basically a platform designed to make better use of existing infrastructure and transport modes. MAAS begins with a journey planner that is linked to one-stop payment for a range of mobility services – ride-hailing, e-scooters, e-bikes, taxis, public transport, and so on. </p>
<p>MAAS is the newest entrant in the mobility tech field. It has attracted US$6.8 billion to date, but is expected to grow to <a href="https://www.marketsandmarkets.com/Market-Reports/mobility-as-a-service-market-78519888.html">over US$100 billion by 2030</a>. This idea is creating great enthusiasm, not only among private entrepreneurs, but also in the public sector. It’s too early to know whether it will improve transportation.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/for-mobility-as-a-service-maas-to-solve-our-transport-woes-some-things-need-to-change-105119">For Mobility as a Service (MaaS) to solve our transport woes, some things need to change</a>
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<h2>3 trends are driving investment</h2>
<p>So, why do venture capitalists <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/johnfrazer1/2019/03/11/new-mobility-worth-billions-venture-capital-thinks-so/#198cda2247d8">continue to show so much interest</a> in mobility technology startups despite poor company performance to date? It appears they believe personal mobility will become increasingly important. <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/johnfrazer1/2019/03/11/new-mobility-worth-billions-venture-capital-thinks-so/#198cda2247d8">Three trends</a> support this belief.</p>
<p>First, urban dwellers increasingly value the ability to move around easily. It’s thought to be a key ingredient for a liveable city. The problem is public transport is often not very good, particularly in the US and in outer suburbs in Australia. </p>
<p>This is due to historically low funding relative to roads. The prospect of more funding and better public transport services in the future is not good. In part that’s because many <a href="https://www.vox.com/2015/8/10/9118199/public-transportation-subway-buses">view public transport as welfare</a> and not an essential public service. Thus, if cities want to become more liveable and competitive, they must look beyond government-funded public transport for other mobility alternatives. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/to-bolster-our-fragile-road-and-rail-system-we-need-to-add-a-micro-mobility-network-124895">To bolster our fragile road and rail system we need to add a 'micro-mobility' network</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<p>The second trend is declining vehicle ownership. Since 1986 US sales of car and light trucks per capita have dropped by <a href="https://www.advisorperspectives.com/dshort/updates/2020/02/04/vehicle-sales-per-capita-our-latest-look-at-the-long-term-trendh">almost 30%</a>. In Australia, new car sales <a href="https://www.budgetdirect.com.au/car-insurance/research/australian-car-sales-statistics.html">remained relatively constant</a> over the past decade, but a <a href="http://www.roymorgan.com/findings/7982-new-vehicle-purchase-intention-march-2019-201905240039">decline since 2017 is expected to continue</a>. These trends are due in part to the cost of owning a vehicle, but also because of a growing view that owning a car may not be necessary.</p>
<p>This brings us to the third trend, which involves demographics and the <a href="https://theconversation.com/delay-in-getting-driving-licences-opens-door-to-more-sustainable-travel-57430">post-millennial desire for access to mobility</a> services <a href="https://theconversation.com/car-ownership-is-likely-to-become-a-thing-of-the-past-and-so-could-public-transport-110550">rather than vehicle ownership</a>.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-subscribe-to-movies-and-music-why-not-transport-119538">We subscribe to movies and music, why not transport?</a>
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<p>These trends, combined with expectations of an upward trend in prices of these services, suggests there may be good times ahead for ride-hailing and micromobility companies. It also means venture capital funding for these startups will not be diminishing in the near future.</p>
<h2>The future of transport isn’t simple</h2>
<p>Transport systems are multifaceted. No one single app or technology will solve the challenges. And, as we are discovering, some of the purported solutions to problems might actually be making the situation worse. </p>
<p>If the goal is to get people out of their cars (for <a href="https://theconversation.com/designing-suburbs-to-cut-car-use-closes-gaps-in-health-and-wealth-83961">better health and quality of life and a better environment</a>), this will require more than a technology. Better infrastructure and public policies (including better integration of land uses and transport to reduce the need for transport) will be required – <a href="https://theconversation.com/three-charts-on-why-congestion-charging-is-fairer-than-you-might-think-124894">congestion pricing</a> being one of those.</p>
<p>That is not to say technological innovations are not welcome as part of the solution, but they are just that … “part” of the solution.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/131154/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Neil Sipe receives funding from the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p>Over US$33 billion was invested in mobility tech last year in response to claims it will transform our lives. Based on what we have seen so far, which of these promised solutions will be delivered?Neil G Sipe, Adjunct Researcher in Transport and Planning, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1256192019-11-21T20:09:57Z2019-11-21T20:09:57ZE-scooters, bikes and urban mobility: lessons from the streets of Paris<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300678/original/file-20191107-10935-1rthtu4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C59%2C4000%2C2473&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Rue des Tournelles, Paris, November 5, 2019. Four Voi scooters wait hopefully for potential clients, with a Lime and Dott sprawling nearby. Behind them, a Velib' rider has made his choice. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Leighton Kille/The Conversation France </span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Mobility is a crucial challenge for global cities in the 21st century. The <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-50401308">growing impact</a> and <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/08/climate/climate-change-food-supply.html">immense risks</a> of climate change are becoming clearer every day, and cities are <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/10/29/climate/coastal-cities-underwater.html">on the front line</a>. Globally, transportation generates <a href="https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/global-greenhouse-gas-emissions-data">14% of all greenhouse gases</a>, much of it for personal transportation.</p>
<p>To reduce their carbon footprint and increase mobility options, many cities have been investing in <a href="https://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/doi/pdf/10.1289/EHP3754">bike-share systems</a>. One of the largest is Paris’s <a href="https://www.velib-metropole.fr/en_GB/discover/service">Velib’</a>, with more than <a href="https://velib.philibert.info/">14,000 bicycles</a>. Launched in 2007, the system is built around docks – it’s there that customers pick up and drop off bikes, and they also serve as recharging stations for electric models.</p>
<p>Since 2017, a host of start-ups has emerged offering fleets of dockless bikes and electric scooters in cities around the world. The concept was simple: users downloaded an app and paid, grabbed a bike or scooter, and off they went, leaving it wherever they wanted after. Floating on an <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2019/10/03/reuters-america-scooter-startup-bird-raises-275-million-in-latest-funding-round.html">ocean of venture capital</a>, the firms took advantage of a <a href="https://www.vox.com/2018/8/27/17676670/electric-scooter-rental-bird-lime-skip-spin-cities">legal void</a> and distributed thousands of bicycles and scooters in cities large and small around the world.</p>
<h2>Destination, the City of Light</h2>
<p>For mobility start-ups, Paris offered an irresistible target. The region’s population is more than 12 million and it attracted approximately <a href="https://press.parisinfo.com/news/press-releases/Paris-record-tourist-numbers-in-2017">40 million tourists in 2017</a>, each one a potential customer. For better or worse, the city’s leadership initially took a hands-off approach to free-floating bikes and scooters and the result was predictable: <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/alexledsom/2019/09/10/e-scooter-havoc-across-french-cities-is-a-crackdown-needed/">chaos</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300680/original/file-20191107-10905-16tamrk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300680/original/file-20191107-10905-16tamrk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300680/original/file-20191107-10905-16tamrk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300680/original/file-20191107-10905-16tamrk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300680/original/file-20191107-10905-16tamrk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300680/original/file-20191107-10905-16tamrk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300680/original/file-20191107-10905-16tamrk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300680/original/file-20191107-10905-16tamrk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A snapped Lime lies abandoned in Paris. Attempting to speed their launch and minimise costs, e-mobility firms have often used off-the-shelf scooters that die quickly on city streets.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Leighton Kille/The Conversation France</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<p>At the height the boom in the summer of 2019, more than a dozen firms were filling Paris streets with vehicles of all sorts. Not only was the free-for-all <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/08/12/electric-scooter-victims-sue-paris-authorities-demand-end-anarchy/">bad for residents and visitors</a>, it was cruel to the start-ups themselves. E-scooters in particular proved to cost far more than they bring in over their <a href="https://qz.com/1561654/how-long-does-a-scooter-last-less-than-a-month-louisville-data-suggests/">extremely short lives</a> and the companies burned through their cash.</p>
<p>The result was high turnover, with firms exiting the market almost as quickly as they entered. At least six Paris e-scooter operators have <a href="https://www.clubic.com/mobilie-urbaine-electrique/actualite-862650-trottinettes-electriques-6-12-operateurs-jettent-provisoirement-eponge-paris.html">“suspended operations”</a> (read, given up), and that follows the departure of free-floating bikes from <a href="http://www.leparisien.fr/info-paris-ile-de-france-oise/transports/les-velos-en-free-floating-ofo-mis-en-pause-a-paris-18-12-2018-7971831.php">Gobee, Obike and Ofo</a>. The most recent victim is Coup, an affiliate of Bosch, which announced November 25 that it would suspend operations in Paris and Berlin because its electric-scooter service was <a href="http://www.leparisien.fr/info-paris-ile-de-france-oise/transports/scooters-en-libre-service-l-operateur-coup-va-mettre-fin-a-ses-activites-a-paris-25-11-2019-8201487.php">“economically non-viable”</a>.</p>
<p>Despite the numerous failures and the city’s demand that companies show <a href="https://www.lemonde.fr/societe/article/2019/08/24/trottinettes-electriques-en-attendant-les-regles_5502278_3224.html">greater responsibility</a>, the venture-capital-driven optimism continues. Newer entrants such as Jump, Wind and Donkey Republic are all hoping to beat the dockless jinx, and more will certainly come. This makes Paris an interesting case study, where regulatory loopholes and brute capitalism meet, with the city’s streets as the battlefield.</p>
<h2>Easy come, easy go</h2>
<p>A key puzzle is why the companies that were the first to arrive in Paris exited almost as quickly. Shouldn’t they have had <a href="https://www.investopedia.com/terms/f/firstmover.asp">“first-mover advantage”</a>, allowing them to keep others at bay? Unfortunately, there were powerful economic realities at play in the micromobility space that made their reigns brief, and that will likely do away with many of the newer entrants as well.</p>
<ul>
<li><p><strong>Low barriers to entry</strong>: When new firms enter an industry, there are often factors that protect existing operators – patents, deep pockets or regulations, for example. But all an e-mobility start-up needs are a modest amount of capital, a website and an app. Scooters are manufactured as cheaply as possible overseas, distributed in the targeted city, and from there it’s up to users and teams of <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/25/business/lime-bird-scooters-rechargers.html">freelance “juicers”</a> to keep things moving. Operators can go wherever they deem attractive, and that’s bad news for existing operators.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Non-existent switching costs</strong>: When customers shift between, say, smartphones, there’s often a cost in terms of money or time and effort. When it comes to e-scooters or dockless bikes, however, they’re all nearly identical other than the logos. The same goes for the applications and the pricing – in Europe, the unlocking costs are generally 1 euro ($1.14) and the per-minute charges around 0.25 (30 cents). So other than the time spent installing an app, there is no reason for customers to be loyal to any one operator.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Abundant substitutes</strong>: Today most urban centres offer a wealth of options for solving the <a href="https://www.investopedia.com/terms/l/lastmile.asp">last-mile problem</a>. First among these are <a href="https://www.bikesharingmap.com">bike-share systems</a>, which are often city-supported, with dedicated maintenance teams and docks that automatically recharge electric models. Other options include mass transportation, taxis, ride-sharing services, a personal bike, scooter or hoverboard, and the list goes on. Indeed, a <a href="http://transports.blog.lemonde.fr/2019/06/06/enquete-inedite-utilisateurs-trottinettes-electriques/">June 2019 survey</a> of Paris e-scooter users revealed that 47% would have simply walked if one hadn’t been available.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Misaligned interests</strong>: E-mobility operators have the benefit of being untethered by fixed infrastructure, but that also creates a situation where riders and “juicers” are the de facto service providers. This creates <a href="https://www.oxford-review.com/oxford-review-encyclopaedia-terms/distributed-agency-definition-application/">“distributed agency” problems</a>, where these individuals’ interests may not align with those of the firms – for example, users can drop scooters in locations they’re unlikely to be rented or even <a href="https://laist.com/2019/06/13/bird_graveyard_scooter_instagram_q_and_a.php">destroy them</a>.</p></li>
</ul>
<h2>Not so green after all</h2>
<p>Beyond these cruel economic realities, the business model currently used by operators of dockless e-scooters and bikes imposes a range of <a href="https://www.investopedia.com/terms/e/externality.asp">negative externalities</a>, which are costs imposed on those not directly involved in a transaction between two parties – an e-scooter left sprawling after being used is a simple example. Cities find themselves stuck with having to impose order, discard broken vehicles, and sort out accidents, minor and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2019/jul/13/tv-presenter-emily-hartridge-dies-in-scooter-crash">sometimes fatal</a>.</p>
<p>And while e-scooters are often promoted as a “green” mode of transportation, research indicates that, as a whole, dockless systems have <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ab2da8">high environmental costs</a>. In <a href="https://chesterenergyandpolicy.com/2019/01/28/its-a-bird-its-a-lime-its-dockless-scooters-but-can-these-electric-powered-mobility-options-be-considered-sustainable-using-life-cycle-analysis/">some scenarios</a>, their per-kilometre lifetime carbon emissions that are comparable to those of midsize gas-powered cars.</p>
<p>Scooter companies and users don’t pay these external costs, but they <a href="https://www.lesnumeriques.com/trottinette-electrique/dott-en-veut-a-bird-lime-responsables-desamour-trottinettes-n88947.html">damage the firms’ public image</a> and that’s no small matter in a battle for a market that has a wealth of competitors and <a href="https://qz.com/1561654/how-long-does-a-scooter-last-less-than-a-month-louisville-data-suggests/">non-existent margins</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300686/original/file-20191107-10935-c5f50p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300686/original/file-20191107-10935-c5f50p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300686/original/file-20191107-10935-c5f50p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300686/original/file-20191107-10935-c5f50p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300686/original/file-20191107-10935-c5f50p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300686/original/file-20191107-10935-c5f50p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300686/original/file-20191107-10935-c5f50p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300686/original/file-20191107-10935-c5f50p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Paris, Rue de l'Abbé de l'Epée and the Boulevard Saint-Michel, May 27, 2019. Eight Birds, one Jump and a Mobike try to temp city residents and visitors.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Leighton Kille/The Conversation France</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Some hope on battlefield</h2>
<p>All this makes the situation ominous for any current operator of dockless e-mobility services, and enormously complicate the task of any start-up wishing to launch a competing service. A few of the possibilities:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>New and ideally patented innovations can differentiate what are essentially interchangeable services and thereafter create entry barriers – say, scooters with markedly superior battery performance or unique safety features. For example, <a href="https://www.intelligenttransport.com/transport-news/90161/wind-unveils-new-e-scooter-with-industry-first-swappable-battery/">Wind</a> recently introduced scooters with swappable batteries that speed recharging.</p></li>
<li><p>Interconnection of related services (or <a href="https://www.investopedia.com/terms/e/economiesofscope.asp">economies of scope</a>). Uber has started offering electric bikes and scooters through the same app that allows customers to call a car ride or order food. In a sense, Paris has long used the same all-in-once approach, connecting the city’s regional rail and metro with the Velib’ bike-sharing system through the same <a href="http://www.navigo.fr/">Navigo card</a>.</p></li>
<li><p>Complementary partnerships. <a href="https://www.li.me/second-street/lime-google-maps-integration-expands-over-80-new-cities">Lime</a> is now available on Google Maps, increasing the odds that it will be chosen by those looking for the best available routes.</p></li>
<li><p>Change the value propositions and service delivery to create a <a href="https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/businessreview/2019/09/24/how-digital-businesses-can-leverage-the-high-cost-for-consumers-to-switch-platforms/">lock-in effect</a>. For example, firms could target corporate customers or rent for longer periods, something Bird has introduced in select cities. This has the advantage for operators of making customers responsible for charging and could theoretically cause them to behave more responsibly.</p></li>
<li><p>Negotiate contracts. Many cities have effectively banned scooters, including New York and London, but that also creates an opportunity a firm can obtain an official contract. That’s what happened in San Francisco, and while fleet sizes remain <a href="https://sf.curbed.com/2019/10/15/20915198/san-francisco-e-scooter-electronic-escooter-scooters-sf">strictly controlled</a>, for operators it’s better than being driven out of business in an all-for-none brawl.</p></li>
</ul>
<h2>No easy answers</h2>
<p>It’s hard to predict how the e-mobility industry will evolve, but the low entry barriers, non-existent switching costs, abundant substitutes, distributed agency problems, and negative externalities will not disappear anytime soon. That makes it supremely difficult for any one operator to remain in place, much less dominate a market. </p>
<p>Worse, because there are no barriers to entry, new firms can show up overnight, a fresh threat to those that had managed to survive up to that point. While some companies are trying to counter some of these adverse conditions, the headwinds are stiff and the story so far is anything but reassuring.</p>
<p>So which start-up will win the urban mobility battle? Quite possibly, none of the above.<br>
</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300687/original/file-20191107-10924-p94sa6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300687/original/file-20191107-10924-p94sa6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300687/original/file-20191107-10924-p94sa6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300687/original/file-20191107-10924-p94sa6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300687/original/file-20191107-10924-p94sa6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300687/original/file-20191107-10924-p94sa6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300687/original/file-20191107-10924-p94sa6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300687/original/file-20191107-10924-p94sa6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An Ofo and an Obike come out after an extended dip in the Seine, June 20, 2019. Both firms gave up trying to crack the Paris market long ago.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Leighton Kille/The Conversation France</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p><em>The origin of this text and its main arguments gained from insightful conversations with <a href="https://www.emlv.fr/en/team/dan-prudhomme/">Professor Dan Prud'Homme</a> (EMLV Business School). <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/leighton-kille-173484/">Leighton Kille</a> of The Conversation France contributed examples, resources and photographs, and edited the text for clarity</em>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/125619/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tiago Ratinho ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>In major cities around the world, dockless scooters and bikes are everywhere, yet the companies themselves are often breathtakingly short-lived. Basic economic concepts give us clues why.Tiago Ratinho, Associate Professor in Entrepreneurship, IÉSEG School of ManagementLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1211662019-08-02T12:01:25Z2019-08-02T12:01:25ZAre shared e-scooters good for the planet? Only if they replace car trips<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/286144/original/file-20190729-43145-bagpr5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">E-scooters ready for action in Santiago, Chile.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jeremiah Johnson</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Shared dockless electric scooters, or e-scooters, transport riders over short distances in cities. Ride share companies promote them as an <a href="https://www.li.me/about-us">environmentally friendly choice</a> that <a href="https://www.bird.co/impact/">reduces dependence on cars</a>.</p>
<p>To properly assess these claims, it’s important to consider all relevant environmental factors, including the materials and energy required to manufacture scooters, the impacts of collecting them daily for charging and redistributing, and the electricity that charges their batteries. </p>
<p>I study <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=ILteTxGUH0AC&hl=en">methods for assessing environmental impacts</a> of products and materials. In a newly published study, I show that e-scooter programs <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ab2da8">may have larger total environmental impacts</a> than the transportation modes they displace. But if cities update their policies and mobility companies tweak some of their practices, there are opportunities to make e-scooters a greener option.</p>
<h2>The electric scooter boom</h2>
<p>Anyone who lives in a city or near a college campus has probably seen e-scooters. Designed for short-distance travel, these devices have a small electric motor and deck on which a single person stands. Ride share companies such as <a href="https://www.bird.co/">Bird</a> and <a href="https://www.li.me/">Lime</a> rent out scooters by the minute, and riders leave them at their final destination to be claimed by the next user or picked up later for charging. </p>
<p>In 2017 these programs were rare, but in 2018 riders took an estimated <a href="https://techcrunch.com/2019/04/17/shared-electric-scooter-rides-accounted-for-45-8-percent-of-all-micromobility-trips-in-2018/">38.5 million trips on e-scooters</a>. These devices fill a singular niche for some people, solving the “<a href="https://medium.com/the-stigo-blog/the-last-mile-the-term-the-problem-and-the-odd-solutions-28b6969d5af8">last mile problem</a>” – the last leg of a trip, which sometimes can be the most difficult, since it may mean walking home from a bus stop or train station. Scooters are an alternative to driving and parking a personal automobile, and often are cheaper than a taxi or Uber.</p>
<h2>“Your ride was carbon free” – really?</h2>
<p>The transportation sector generates <a href="https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/inventory-us-greenhouse-gas-emissions-and-sinks">nearly one-third</a> of U.S. greenhouse gas emissions and a large share of <a href="https://www.epa.gov/transportation-air-pollution-and-climate-change/smog-soot-and-local-air-pollution">smog and asthma-inducing pollutants</a>. With no tailpipes to spew emissions, it would be easy to assume that shared e-scooters are an environmentally preferable option. E-scooter companies often tout the environmental benefits of their “carbon-free” and “earth-friendly” rides. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/286136/original/file-20190729-43122-1l9f50t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/286136/original/file-20190729-43122-1l9f50t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/286136/original/file-20190729-43122-1l9f50t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=318&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/286136/original/file-20190729-43122-1l9f50t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=318&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/286136/original/file-20190729-43122-1l9f50t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=318&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/286136/original/file-20190729-43122-1l9f50t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/286136/original/file-20190729-43122-1l9f50t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/286136/original/file-20190729-43122-1l9f50t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Screen shot from an e-scooter user’s smart phone at the end of a ride.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>To support these claims, <a href="https://www.theverge.com/2018/10/9/17955308/lime-bike-scooter-carbon-free-neutral-sustainable">Lime has pledged</a> to purchase <a href="https://www.nrel.gov/analysis/green-power.html">renewable energy credits</a> to cover the electricity it uses for charging and carbon offsets for their operations. Bird <a href="https://www.bird.co/blog/renewable-energy-credits-and-carbon-offsets/">purchases renewable energy credits and carbon offsets</a> to cover electricity and scooter pick-up and drop-off.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/286137/original/file-20190729-43104-138xpn1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/286137/original/file-20190729-43104-138xpn1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/286137/original/file-20190729-43104-138xpn1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/286137/original/file-20190729-43104-138xpn1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/286137/original/file-20190729-43104-138xpn1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/286137/original/file-20190729-43104-138xpn1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/286137/original/file-20190729-43104-138xpn1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/286137/original/file-20190729-43104-138xpn1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Environmental claim from Bird’s web site.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>However, claims of a full carbon-free ride don’t hold up when all of the actions required to have an e-scooter ready, at the right location and charged for use are considered. With North Carolina State University engineering students <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/joe-hollingsworth-58347350/">Joseph Hollingsworth</a> and <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/brenna-copeland-661220176/">Brenna Copeland</a>, I turned to a life cycle approach to fill in the gaps. </p>
<h2>Hidden impacts</h2>
<p>Chinese electronics company <a href="https://qz.com/1257198/xiaomi-makes-the-bird-and-spin-scooters-taking-over-san-francisco/">Xiaomi</a> manufactures many of the e-scooters used in the United States. To understand what materials go into each scooter, we took one apart and inventoried the 13 pounds of aluminum, 2.5-pound lithium-ion battery, electric motor and various plastic and steel parts. </p>
<p>Manufacturing these scooters and other electronic products has effects at the mine site, the smelter and the factory. For e-scooters, we calculated that these production impacts <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ab2da8">often exceed half of the total impacts</a> caused by each mile of travel on a scooter. </p>
<p>Shipping e-scooters from China to the U.S., however, has a trivial effect, thanks to the efficiency of the global transportation network. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/286138/original/file-20190729-43145-141eikm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/286138/original/file-20190729-43145-141eikm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/286138/original/file-20190729-43145-141eikm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/286138/original/file-20190729-43145-141eikm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/286138/original/file-20190729-43145-141eikm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/286138/original/file-20190729-43145-141eikm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/286138/original/file-20190729-43145-141eikm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/286138/original/file-20190729-43145-141eikm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">North Carolina State University students Joseph Hollingsworth and Brenna Copeland disassemble an e-scooter to create a material inventory.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jeremiah Johnson</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>E-scooter companies <a href="https://www.npr.org/2019/03/13/701130673/who-charges-all-those-electric-scooters-follow-a-nocturnal-juicer">employ independent contractors</a> to collect, charge and redistribute the scooters to desirable locations. Lime calls these folks Juicers. Their counterparts at Bird are Chargers, and they distribute the fully charged scooters into Nests. </p>
<p>These collectors typically drive their personal automobiles to round up as many scooters as they can, then charge them at home and return them the next day. The logistics are not optimized, which leads to unnecessary driving on the hunt for scooters. We found that this mileage can generate over 40% of the total environmental impacts of e-scooter use.</p>
<p>In contrast, powering e-scooters requires relatively little energy. Charging a fully depleted e-scooter battery uses about as much electricity as running an average clothes dryer for five minutes. And most e-scooter batteries are nowhere near fully depleted when picked up, particularly in cities that require companies to remove scooters from the streets each night. In Raleigh, we found that about one out of six scooters were over 95% charged at the end of the day, but were still picked up for nightly charging. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/jVV_2d8aARw?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Vancouver’s plan to achieve carbon-free transportation by 2050 includes urban design and mobility pricing as well as vehicle choices.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Other ways to get there</h2>
<p>It is important to consider what e-scooters are displacing when quantifying their relative effects on the environment. Surveys show that about one-third of e-scooter rides <a href="https://www.portlandoregon.gov/transportation/article/700917">replace automobile use</a>, while nearly half of scooter users would have walked or biked instead. About 10% would have taken public transit, and the remaining 7% or 8% would not have made the trip at all. </p>
<p>Our study found that driving a car is almost always less environmentally friendly than using an e-scooter. When only one-third of e-scooter rides displace automobile travel, then the use of e-scooters likely increases overall transportation emissions by drawing people away from walking, biking or taking public transit. However, if e-scooters were to displace car rides half the time, we would expect them to be a net win for the environment on average.</p>
<h2>Lightening scooters’ footprint</h2>
<p>Our research highlights several ways to make these scooters more sustainable. Using e-scooters that are <a href="https://www.theverge.com/2019/5/8/18535698/bird-one-electric-scooter-ride-share-own-price">designed to be more durable</a> can reduce environmental impacts from the materials used to build them on a per-mile traveled basis. Improving collection and distribution processes could reduce driving distances, and companies could use more fuel-efficient vehicles to collect the scooters. For their part, cities could allow scooters to be left out overnight and only picked up when their batteries are depleted. </p>
<p>For now, however, a scooter ride that doesn’t replace a car trip is unlikely to be a net win for the planet.</p>
<p>[ <em><a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=expertise">Expertise in your inbox. Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter and get a digest of academic takes on today’s news, every day.</a></em> ]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/121166/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jeremiah Johnson receives funding from the U.S. National Science Foundation and the Department of Energy.</span></em></p>Shared e-scooter programs may seem like a green way to get around, but these small vehicles can have big environmental footprints.Jeremiah Johnson, Associate Professor of Environmental Engineering, North Carolina State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1174102019-06-26T20:23:44Z2019-06-26T20:23:44ZCompetition for the kerb is rising, and cities are going to have to manage it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/280641/original/file-20190621-149831-1rhctqg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Taxis have traditionally competed for kerbside space in our cities, but they now have many new competitors.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Neil Sipe</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>In case you missed it, 2018 was designated the <a href="https://mobilitylab.org/2018/06/08/managing-the-chaos-of-the-21st-century-curb/">Year of the Kerb</a> by Sabrina Sussman, <a href="https://www.zipcar.com/">Zipcar’s</a> public partnerships manager. This is because competition for limited kerb space has been increasing over the past few years, particularly in cities. </p>
<p>The kerb is the place that provides “access” between the street and the footpath. The definition tends to include the lane beyond the kerb that is used for car parking, bus stops, taxi pickups and dropoffs, and loading and unloading goods. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-battle-to-be-the-amazon-or-netflix-of-transport-103351">The battle to be the Amazon (or Netflix) of transport</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>But kerb competition is increasing from a range of new users including: car sharing, ride sharing, e-scooter share, bike share and e-bike share, food delivery, online order deliveries and, in coming years, autonomous vehicles.</p>
<p>And this increasing focus on the kerb is highlighted in recent reports by the <a href="https://www.ite.org/technical-resources/topics/complete-streets/curbside-management-resources/">Institute of Traffic Engineers</a>, the <a href="https://www.itf-oecd.org/shared-use-city-managing-curb-0">International Transport Forum</a> and North America’s National Association of City Transportation Officials (<a href="https://nacto.org/tsdg/curb-appeal-whitepaper">NACTO</a>).</p>
<p>With this range of new users, cities need to rethink how they manage this contested real estate. Without better kerb management, cities will face increased congestion on local streets from vehicles circulating to access the kerb and on footpaths from a range of shared mobility devices.</p>
<p>One change cities will need to make to accommodate these new users is to repurpose kerb space, which has traditionally been used for parking, to other uses. This change will most likely have a significant financial impact. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.wired.com/story/city-planning-curbs/">One survey</a> of the 25 largest US cities found parking-related revenues totalled US$5 billion in 2016, or about US$129 per person. While repurposing kerb space will not affect all of this revenue, it will have an impact on city budgets. To minimise this impact, cities will need to think about if, and how, to charge new users of kerb space.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/of-all-the-problems-our-cities-need-to-fix-lack-of-car-parking-isnt-one-of-them-116179">Of all the problems our cities need to fix, lack of car parking isn't one of them</a>
</strong>
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</p>
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<h2>To manage kerbs, first identify the uses</h2>
<p>The City of Seattle is one of the leaders in kerb management. The city categorised kerb use into six key functions: </p>
<ol>
<li>mobility for travel lanes, bike lanes and bus lanes</li>
<li>access for people using bus stops, bike parking and loading zones</li>
<li>access for commerce to deliver goods</li>
<li>activation for <a href="https://theconversation.com/people-love-parklets-and-businesses-can-help-make-them-happen-87172">small parks</a>, food trucks and public art</li>
<li>greening for plantings, rain gardens and bio-swales</li>
<li>storage for parking, bus layovers and construction.</li>
</ol>
<p>One of the first in-depth analyses of the kerb was in San Francisco. As part of <a href="https://www.fehrandpeers.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/SF_Curb_Study_2018-10-19_web-download.pdf">this 2018 study</a>, commissioned in 2018 by Uber Technologies, the consultants (Fehr and Peers) developed a Curb Productivity Index (CPI). The index considered three things to compare productivity of kerb use.</p>
<ol>
<li>number of passengers using kerb space by mode</li>
<li>time period the activity was observed</li>
<li>total space dedicated to that use. </li>
</ol>
<h2>How to calculate kerb productivity</h2>
<p>The CPI is a useful way of quantifying the various competing uses for the kerb. </p>
<p>It’s calculated by dividing the amount of activity by the amount of space used, multiplied by the unit of time. For example, the CPI for a bus stop that uses 45 metres of kerb for 250 arriving and departing passengers over four hours would be: 250 passengers/(45 metres x 4 hours), or 1.39 passengers/metre-hours. </p>
<p>Alternatively, the CPI for a car space that uses five metres of kerb that services two passengers over four hours would be: 2 passengers/(5 metres x 4 hours), or 0.1 passengers/metre-hours. </p>
<p>The CPI shows a bus stop is 13.9 times (1.39/0.1) more productive than a car park. </p>
<p>This analysis of usage data provides some rigour in developing a kerb management plan.</p>
<h2>Base management on ‘measurement over myth’</h2>
<p>As a way forward, <a href="https://www.fehrandpeers.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/SF_Curb_Study_2018-10-19_web-download.pdf">Fehr and Peer recommend</a> a management strategy with three components:</p>
<ol>
<li>relocation of existing kerb uses to other areas</li>
<li>conversion, which involves eliminating some current uses and replacing them with new uses</li>
<li>flexibility, so kerb uses change depending on the time of day. </li>
</ol>
<p>Trials of flexible kerb management are under way in Washington DC, San Francisco and Fort Lauderdale.</p>
<p>In changing how the kerb is managed, the <a href="https://nacto.org/tsdg/curb-appeal-whitepaper/">2018 report</a> from North America’s National Association of City Transportation Officials recommends a “measurement over myth” strategy when converting parking to other uses. </p>
<p>Surveys on arrival mode consistently show public transport and active travel modes deliver more customers to adjacent businesses than private motor vehicles. <a href="https://www.torontocycling.org/uploads/1/3/1/3/13138411/cycling_economies_eglinton_final.pdf">Before-and-after studies</a> confirm that replacing parking with public transport or bike lanes increases sales for area businesses. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/do-the-sums-bicycle-friendly-changes-are-good-business-58213">Do the sums: bicycle-friendly changes are good business</a>
</strong>
</em>
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<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/280649/original/file-20190621-149810-6ulvn4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/280649/original/file-20190621-149810-6ulvn4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/280649/original/file-20190621-149810-6ulvn4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/280649/original/file-20190621-149810-6ulvn4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/280649/original/file-20190621-149810-6ulvn4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/280649/original/file-20190621-149810-6ulvn4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/280649/original/file-20190621-149810-6ulvn4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/280649/original/file-20190621-149810-6ulvn4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">To manage the conflicting needs of car and bike users for roadside space, San Jose has created kerbside bike lanes separated from the road by car parking.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/willbuckner/45885808941">Will Buckner/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While new mobility startups are part of the reason cities need to develop kerb management plans, other startups are developing new ways to manage this increasingly contested space. Some of these new companies include:</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://www.coord.co/post/open-curbs-the-first-open-data-multi-city-platform-to-unlock-curbs">Open Curbs</a> from <a href="https://www.coord.co/">Coord</a>, a spin-off of <a href="https://www.sidewalklabs.com/">Sidewalk</a>, that provides wheelchair cuts, fire hydrants, bus stops and other physical kerb assets</li>
<li><a href="https://www.populus.ai/">Populus</a>, a San Francisco transport company that has developed a mobility manager that provides data on e-scooter and e-bike share parking data</li>
<li>Remix, which has developed the <a href="https://www.remix.com/new-mobility">New Mobility tool</a> to analyse and visualise data-streaming feeds. </li>
</ul>
<p>These startups have raised millions of dollars, due in part to the recognised value of the kerb.</p>
<p>Cities need to make the transition from parking cities to pickup/dropoff cities and to flexible cities. For this to happen, cities will need to think strategically about how to manage their kerbs with the emergence of new users and new mobility management options. </p>
<p>One of the first steps in this transition is for cities to ensure data standards and data-sharing arrangements are established as part of the basis for giving new users permission to access the kerb. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/for-mobility-as-a-service-maas-to-solve-our-transport-woes-some-things-need-to-change-105119">For Mobility as a Service (MaaS) to solve our transport woes, some things need to change</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/117410/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Neil Sipe receives funding from the Australian Research Council and the Myer Foundation. </span></em></p>Cities must manage all the competing uses for limited roadside space to avoid congestion and maximise efficiency. And that begins with reliable data.Neil G Sipe, Professor of Urban and Regional Planning, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1137542019-04-03T19:13:03Z2019-04-03T19:13:03ZHelmet churn adds to challenges of e-scooter disruption<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/266711/original/file-20190401-177196-1dxn5cl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Lime is working on ways to overcome the problem of 'helmet churn' on its e-scooters.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Marvin Fox Photography</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>You’re smiling as your e-scooter whispers along the riverside path. Without the helmet, the wind can blow through your hair – and it looks good! You hear a shout, “Pull over!”, and turn to see police heading towards you with your helmet in hand.</em></p>
<p>Police conducted a <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-03-30/electric-scooters-riders-fined-safety-breaches-brisbane-qld/10956110">blitz on safety breaches</a> by eletric scooter riders in Brisbane over the weekend. And employees of operator Lime tell us safety issues have been persistent in <a href="https://theconversation.com/limes-not-lemons-lessons-from-australias-first-e-scooter-sharing-trial-108924">Australia’s first trial of a shared e-scooter scheme</a>. </p>
<p>How do we educate users about helmets and safe riding behaviour? And how can helmets be distributed cost-effectively?</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/limes-not-lemons-lessons-from-australias-first-e-scooter-sharing-trial-108924">Limes not lemons: lessons from Australia’s first e-scooter sharing trial</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>As with other disruptive tech companies with mass appeal, the safety and regulatory issues raised by e-scooters – including <a href="https://theconversation.com/electric-scooters-on-collision-course-with-pedestrians-and-lawmakers-99654">rider and pedestrian safety</a> and being <a href="https://theconversation.com/can-e-scooters-solve-the-last-mile-problem-theyll-need-to-avoid-the-fate-of-dockless-bikes-102633">left in inappropriate places</a> – are attracting attention. A closely related issue is helmets and their role in rider safety.</p>
<p>Scooter operators have come under <a href="https://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/national/queensland/better-helmet-compliance-needed-for-lime-scooters-lord-mayor-says-20190212-p50xcs.html">pressure to encourage riders to wear helmets</a>. The RACQ has <a href="https://live.racq.com.au/2019/03/majority-of-scooter-riders-going-too-fast/">called on Lime</a> “to ensure every scooter put out has a helmet attached”. </p>
<h2>A day in the life of a helmet</h2>
<p>Ultimately, responsibility for public safety and compliance with civic cleanliness rests with the individual mobility provider. Lime accepts this and has announced it will <a href="https://www.li.me/respect-the-ride">distribute 250,000 helmets</a> worldwide.</p>
<p>Each day fully charged scooters, with helmets, are placed on footpaths. At the end of each day, the tally of scooters and helmets does not add up. This is known in the industry as <em>helmet churn</em> – the constant loss and replacement of helmets. Unlike the scooters themselves, which have smart tracking technology, helmets are kept cheap to minimise the cost of these losses.</p>
<p>Let’s try to unpack the issue of helmet churn.</p>
<p>It is agreed that not wearing a helmet plays a part in the problem. Some riders simply leave it behind. Aside from being unsafe, this separates the helmet from the scooter, so it becomes unavailable for the next scooter user. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/electric-scooters-on-collision-course-with-pedestrians-and-lawmakers-99654">Electric scooters on collision course with pedestrians and lawmakers</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>New insights are emerging as we begin to study this phenomenon. Reasons for helmet churn are linked to a reluctance to share them – we believe some riders worry about hygiene – and it being a disposable product. It seems there may even be feelings of ownership, with some perceiving the helmet to become their property through paying for the ride. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/264308/original/file-20190318-28483-1pxl1jp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/264308/original/file-20190318-28483-1pxl1jp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/264308/original/file-20190318-28483-1pxl1jp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/264308/original/file-20190318-28483-1pxl1jp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/264308/original/file-20190318-28483-1pxl1jp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/264308/original/file-20190318-28483-1pxl1jp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/264308/original/file-20190318-28483-1pxl1jp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/264308/original/file-20190318-28483-1pxl1jp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Assumed reasons for helmet churn.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Peter Townson/QUT Chair in Digital Economy</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Limits of deterrence</h2>
<p>Two main compliance mechanisms are in place to discourage riders from contributing to helmet churn: police and Lime.</p>
<p>In Queensland, the <a href="https://www.qld.gov.au/transport/safety/rules/wheeled-devices/personal-mobility-devices">fine for not wearing a helmet is A$130</a>. In <a href="https://www.rsc.wa.gov.au/Rules-Penalties/Browse/Cyclists">other</a> <a href="https://www.vicroads.vic.gov.au/safety-and-road-rules/road-rules/penalties/fines">states</a> and <a href="https://police.act.gov.au/road-safety/traffic-fines">territories</a> fines range from as little as <a href="https://nt.gov.au/driving/driving-offences-and-penalties/cycling-penalties">A$25</a> to as much as <a href="https://roadsafety.transport.nsw.gov.au/campaigns/go-together/faqs.html">A$337</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://eprints.qut.edu.au/110376/">Research into deviant consumer behaviour</a> tells us this tactic of appealing to fear of punishment extends only to riders wearing helmets. It does not have an effect on the broader issues of vandalism and theft.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/267495/original/file-20190404-131434-s370no.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/267495/original/file-20190404-131434-s370no.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/267495/original/file-20190404-131434-s370no.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/267495/original/file-20190404-131434-s370no.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/267495/original/file-20190404-131434-s370no.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/267495/original/file-20190404-131434-s370no.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/267495/original/file-20190404-131434-s370no.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/267495/original/file-20190404-131434-s370no.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The penalty for not wearing a helmet in each state.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Peter Townson/QUT Chair in Digital Economy</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The <a href="https://eprints.qut.edu.au/110376/">research</a> also suggests the “fear of punishment” approach makes two critical assumptions:</p>
<ol>
<li>that people agree the behaviour is wrong (“yes, this is dangerous”)</li>
<li>riders think there is a real risk of being caught (“catch me if you can”).</li>
</ol>
<p>Given this is not always the case, a risk-based approach to deterrence is limited.</p>
<p>Lime also plays a part in curbing helmet noncompliance. Its current strategy, aside from providing the helmets, is the <a href="https://www.li.me/respect-the-ride">Respect the Ride</a> education program. It aims to foster a community and culture of safe mobility, underpinned by a personal pledge each rider is encouraged to make. </p>
<p>This approach is appropriate for trying to change the behaviour of not wearing a helmet. It does not target people who are taking advantage of publicly available helmets. </p>
<p>These measures still do not fully solve a pervasive problem.</p>
<p>You have a disruptive mobility company in the spotlight because of safety concerns. The company has a duty of care to supply helmets and ensure riders are safe. Riders are disregarding, disposing of, defacing and destroying helmets.</p>
<p>How do we solve this tough, intractable, social problem?</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/can-e-scooters-solve-the-last-mile-problem-theyll-need-to-avoid-the-fate-of-dockless-bikes-102633">Can e-scooters solve the 'last mile' problem? They'll need to avoid the fate of dockless bikes</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>A shift in thinking – ecosystem view</h2>
<p>If helmet churn exists for Lime scooters, then it exists for all other ride-share operators in that area. If a helmet isn’t available, riders will often borrow from other services such as share bikes. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1107393858311282688"}"></div></p>
<p>Helmets are sometimes considered “free for grabs” across different mobility providers. Should the duty of care that requires helmets be provided rest on each mobility service operator, when the noncompliance of one undermines them all? </p>
<p>While these personal transport providers are in competition with one another, they have an opportunity to relinquish their individual burden of helmet churn by working together on the problem.</p>
<h2>A shift in thinking – personalised view</h2>
<p>If the one constant across various mobility services is the rider, we should also consider a “bring your own helmet” approach. This approach possibly started in technology companies (“bring your own device”, allowing employees and customers to use their own devices to interact with an organisation) and has spread to other areas. For instance, environmentally conscious coffee lovers bring their own cups, while still having the option of using a paper cup. </p>
<p>Could a similar option work for helmets? <a href="https://www.ecohelmet.com/">Disposable helmets – made of cardboard – are being tested</a> as a concept. And personalised helmets that look and feel like a beanie can be <a href="https://antiordinary.co/">pre-purchased from a start-up created by QUT students</a>.</p>
<p>Cyclists still carry their own helmets when they commute on their own bikes, so the acceptance of this BYO approach should be simple. The difference is users need only provide a helmet, without having to worry about finding safe parking and storage places for the day or overnight. </p>
<h2>Adapting to disruption</h2>
<p>The meaning of a helmet has shifted significantly from individual property to a shared utility, as has the meaning of many modes of transport, including bikes and scooters. There are two paths from here: ecosystem, with ubiquitous helmets available for everyone; and personalised, with riders bringing their own helmets. </p>
<p>Either of these is different from the world we know today. The bigger picture is a collaborative effort to achieve the goal of rider safety.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/banning-tiny-vehicles-would-deny-us-smarter-ways-to-get-around-our-cities-113111">Banning 'tiny vehicles' would deny us smarter ways to get around our cities</a>
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</em>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/113754/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter Townson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment. Aside from informal conversations, the authors have not conducted research with the organisations mentioned in this article, nor had any work funded by these organisations.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marek Kowalkiewicz does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Every day, e-scooters and helmets are put out together, but some people ride without helmets and at the end of each day helmets are missing. So what can be done to ensure safe riding behaviour?Peter Townson, Senior Designer, Chair in Digital Economy, Queensland University of TechnologyMarek Kowalkiewicz, Professor and Chair in Digital Economy, Queensland University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.