tag:theconversation.com,2011:/id/topics/narcissism-7306/articlesNarcissism – The Conversation2024-02-11T19:05:24Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2059382024-02-11T19:05:24Z2024-02-11T19:05:24Z‘Self-love’ might seem selfish. But done right, it’s the opposite of narcissism<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574314/original/file-20240208-16-qv7i63.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=13%2C0%2C4479%2C2991&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Bart Larue/Unsplash</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>“To love what you are, the thing that is yourself, is just as if you were embracing a glowing red-hot iron” <a href="https://archive.org/details/jungsseminaronni0000jung">said psychonalyst Carl Jung</a>.</p>
<p>Some may argue this social media generation does not seem to struggle with loving themselves. But is the look-at-me-ism so easily found on TikTok and Instagram the kind of self-love we need in order to flourish? </p>
<p>The language of <a href="https://theconversation.com/teaching-positive-psychology-skills-at-school-may-be-one-way-to-help-student-mental-health-and-happiness-217173">positive psychology</a> can be – and often is – appropriated for all kinds of self-importance, as well as cynical marketing strategies.</p>
<p>Loving yourself, though, psychological experts stress, is not the same as behaving selfishly. There’s a firm line between healthy and appropriate forms of loving yourself, and malignant or <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-many-types-of-narcissist-are-there-a-psychology-expert-sets-the-record-straight-207610">narcissistic</a> forms. But how do we distinguish between them? </p>
<p>In 2023, researchers Eva Henschke and Peter Sedlmeier conducted <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/355152846_What_is_self-love_Redefinition_of_a_controversial_construct">a series of interviews</a> with psychotherapists and other experts on what self-love is. They’ve concluded it has three main features: self-care, self-acceptance and self-contact (devoting attention to yourself). </p>
<p>But as an increasingly individualistic society, are we already devoting too much attention to ourselves? </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574312/original/file-20240208-28-9w9ojl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574312/original/file-20240208-28-9w9ojl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574312/original/file-20240208-28-9w9ojl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574312/original/file-20240208-28-9w9ojl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574312/original/file-20240208-28-9w9ojl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574312/original/file-20240208-28-9w9ojl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574312/original/file-20240208-28-9w9ojl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574312/original/file-20240208-28-9w9ojl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Loving yourself, the experts stress, is not the same as behaving selfishly.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Polina Kovaleva/Pexels</span></span>
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<h2>Philosophy and self-love</h2>
<p>Philosophers and psychology experts alike have considered the ethics of self-love.</p>
<p>Psychology researcher Li Ming Xue and her colleagues, <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.585719/full">exploring the notion of self-love in Chinese culture</a>, claim “Western philosophers believe that self-love is a virtue”. But this is a very broad generalisation. </p>
<p>In the Christian tradition and in much European philosophy, <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10848770.2020.1839209">says philosopher Razvan Ioan</a>, self-love is condemned as a profoundly damaging trait.</p>
<p>On the other hand, <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2107991">many of the great Christian philosophers</a>, attempting to make sense of the instruction to love one’s neighbour as oneself, admitted certain forms of self-love were virtuous. In order to love your neighbour as yourself, you must, it would seem, love yourself. </p>
<p>In the Western philosophical context, claim Xue and her colleagues, self-love is concerned with individual rights – “society as a whole only serves to promote an individual’s happiness”.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574315/original/file-20240208-26-onei4e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574315/original/file-20240208-26-onei4e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574315/original/file-20240208-26-onei4e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=776&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574315/original/file-20240208-26-onei4e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=776&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574315/original/file-20240208-26-onei4e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=776&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574315/original/file-20240208-26-onei4e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=975&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574315/original/file-20240208-26-onei4e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=975&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574315/original/file-20240208-26-onei4e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=975&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Aristotle.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Francesco Hayez/Gallerie Accademia Venice</span></span>
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<p>This individualistic, self-concerned notion of self-love, they suggest, might come from the Ancient Greek philosophers. In particular, Aristotle. But <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/philosophy-stirred-not-shaken/201502/love-yourself-love-your-character">Aristotle thought only the most virtuous</a>, who benefited the society around them, should love themselves. By making this connection, he avoided equating self-love with self-centredness. </p>
<p>We should love ourselves not out of vanity, he argued, but in virtue of our capacity for good. Does Aristotle, then, provide principled grounds for distinguishing between proper and improper forms of self-love? </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/friday-essay-3-ways-philosophy-can-help-us-understand-love-155374">Friday essay: 3 ways philosophy can help us understand love</a>
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<h2>Bar too high?</h2>
<p>Aristotle might set the bar too high. If only the most virtuous should try to love themselves, this collides head-on with the idea loving yourself can help us improve and become more virtuous – as <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9781137383310_6">philosophers Kate Abramson and Adam Leite have argued</a>.</p>
<p>Many psychologists claim self-love is important for adopting the kind and compassionate self-perception crucial for overcoming conditions that weaponise self-criticism, like <a href="https://theconversation.com/clinical-perfectionism-when-striving-for-excellence-gets-you-down-43704">clinical perfectionism</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-many-people-have-eating-disorders-we-dont-really-know-and-thats-a-worry-121938">eating disorders</a>.</p>
<p>More broadly, some argue compassion for oneself is necessary to support honest insights into your own behaviour. They believe we need warm and compassionate self-reflection to avoid the defensiveness that comes with the fear of judgement – even if we’re standing as our own judge. </p>
<p>For this reason, a compassionate form of self-love is often necessary to follow Socrates’ advice to “know thyself”, says <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10677-015-9578-4">philosopher Jan Bransen</a>. Positive self-love, by these lights, can help us grow as people. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574316/original/file-20240208-20-bikmly.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574316/original/file-20240208-20-bikmly.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574316/original/file-20240208-20-bikmly.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574316/original/file-20240208-20-bikmly.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574316/original/file-20240208-20-bikmly.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574316/original/file-20240208-20-bikmly.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574316/original/file-20240208-20-bikmly.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574316/original/file-20240208-20-bikmly.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Positive self-love can help us grow as people.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nashua Volquezyoung/Pexels</span></span>
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<h2>Self-love ‘misguided and silly’</h2>
<p>But not everyone agrees you need self-love to grow. The late philosopher <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/news/2005/nov/29/guardianobituaries.obituaries">Oswald Hanfling</a> was deeply sceptical of this idea. In fact, he argued the notion of loving oneself was misguided and silly. His ideas are mostly rejected by philosophers of love, but pointing out where they go wrong can be useful. </p>
<p>When you love someone, he said, you’re prepared to sacrifice your own interests for those of your beloved. But he thought the idea of sacrificing your own interests made no sense – which shows, he concluded, we can’t love ourselves. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3751159">He wrote</a>: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>I may sacrifice an immediate satisfaction for the sake of my welfare in the future, as in the case of giving up smoking. In this case, however, my motive is not love but self-interest. What I reveal in giving up smoking is not the extent of my love for myself, but an understanding that the long-term benefits of giving it up are likely to exceed the present satisfaction of going on with it.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>We often have conflicting interests (think of someone who is agonising over two different career paths) – and it’s not at all strange to sacrifice certain interests for the sake of others. </p>
<p>This is not just a question of sacrificing short-term desires in favour of a long-term good, but a matter of sacrificing something of value for your ultimate benefit (or, so you hope). </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-love-in-pop-culture-love-is-often-depicted-as-a-willingness-to-sacrifice-but-ancient-philosophers-took-a-different-view-187159">What is love? In pop culture, love is often depicted as a willingness to sacrifice, but ancient philosophers took a different view</a>
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<h2>Self-compassion</h2>
<p>Hanfling fails to consider the role of compassionate self-love. While we might understand it’s in our interests to do something (for instance, repair bridges with someone we’ve fallen out with), it might take a compassionate and open disposition towards ourselves to recognise what’s in our best interests. </p>
<p>We might need this self-compassion, too, in order to admit our failures – so we can overcome our defensiveness and see clearly how we’re failing to fulfil <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10677-015-9578-4">these interests</a>.</p>
<p>Self-acceptance in this context does not mean giving ourselves licence to run roughshod over the interests of those around us, nor to justify our flaws as “valid” rather than work on them. </p>
<p>Self-love, as promoted by contemporary psychologists, means standing in a compassionate relationship to ourselves. And there’s nothing contradictory about this idea. </p>
<p>Just as we strive to develop a supportive, kind relationship to the people we care about – and just as this doesn’t involve uncritical approval of everything they do – compassionate self-love doesn’t mean abandoning valid self-criticism. </p>
<p>In fact, self-compassion has the opposite effect. It promotes comfort with the kind of critical self-assessment that helps us grow – which leads to resilience. It breeds the opposite of narcissistic self-absorption.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/205938/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ian Robertson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>What is healthy self-love? Psychology experts and philosophers have long debated the question.Ian Robertson, PhD Candidate (Teaching roles at Macquarie & Wollongong), University of WollongongLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2163532024-01-31T19:07:47Z2024-01-31T19:07:47ZWho was Narcissus?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563496/original/file-20231204-29-e8pnp4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=24%2C116%2C4065%2C2109&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">John William Waterhouse, Echo and Narcissus, 1903.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Narcissus is among the best-known figures from Greek mythology. </p>
<p>His beauty has lasted millennia: his name denotes the genus of plants of the <em>amaryllis</em> family, such as the daffodil and jonquil; his personality lends itself to the term “narcissism”, which describes a self-absorbed individual; and his story has inspired great works of art and literature.</p>
<p>The familial origins of Narcissus vary. In the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Metamorphoses-poem-by-Ovid">Metamorphoses</a>, Latin poet and mythographer Ovid names him as the son of the river god, Cephissus and the nymph, Liriope. </p>
<p>Another account, from the Greek author of the late Roman Imperial era, Nonnos, lists his mother as the goddess of the moon, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selene">Selene</a> and his father her mortal consort, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Endymion-Greek-mythology">Endymion</a>.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/guide-to-the-classics-ovids-metamorphoses-and-reading-rape-65316">Guide to the classics: Ovid's Metamorphoses and reading rape</a>
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<p>The Roman versions of Narcissus’ narrative are clearly based on a much earlier Greek myth. Scant evidence remains of its origins, other than the Greek etymology of his name and his place of birth in Boeotia, in Central Greece.</p>
<h2>Divine retribution</h2>
<p>Ovid’s vivid and dramatic version of the myth is the best known and most cited. He describes the fate of the beautiful youth, Narcissus, as announced by the seer, Tiresias; namely, he will live a long, fruitful life, provided he never recognises himself.</p>
<p>This prediction inevitably comes to fruition after Narcissus is subject to divine punishment for his rejection of the nymph, Echo. (In an alternative tradition, to which Ovid also alludes, Narcissus rejects the advances of a young man, Ameinias.) </p>
<p>Ovid tells of Narcissus’ repulsion at Echo’s advances and the devastating effect this had on her. Distraught at the beautiful youth’s aggressive rejection, Echo literally wastes away until nothing is left of her except her voice. She is able to repeat only the last few words of sentences uttered by others. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563497/original/file-20231204-29-1dnyv4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Narcissus kneels before a pool." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563497/original/file-20231204-29-1dnyv4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563497/original/file-20231204-29-1dnyv4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=727&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563497/original/file-20231204-29-1dnyv4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=727&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563497/original/file-20231204-29-1dnyv4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=727&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563497/original/file-20231204-29-1dnyv4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=913&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563497/original/file-20231204-29-1dnyv4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=913&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563497/original/file-20231204-29-1dnyv4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=913&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Caravaggio, Narcissus, circa 1600.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons</span></span>
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<p>Ovid reveals Echo is merely one in a list of thwarted admirers, including a young man who prays for divine retribution against Narcissus’ arrogance. Sadly for Narcissus, the goddess of retribution – Rhamnusia – is more than happy to fulfil this prayer, thus manifesting Tiresias’ prediction. </p>
<p>While hunting one day and beset by thirst, Narcissus bends down by a pond to drink. Suddenly he gazes upon his own reflection. Narcissus is besotted by the beautiful young man who gazes back at him from the water’s surface. But he is rejected by the object of his desire, who continually disappears each time he reaches for him.</p>
<p>He falls in love with someone who will never return that love – himself. And, like Echo, he begins to fade away. </p>
<h2>A powerful story</h2>
<p>The story of Narcissus is a powerful one. It taught the Greeks and Romans about the cruel and absolute power of divine forces in their lives and the harsh justice they mete out to mortals. It also encapsulates a well-known ancient belief concerning suspicions around beautiful people.</p>
<p>The ancients were intensely cautious about the possible dangers of beauty. They believed it could incite both divine and human envy and conceal hidden evils behind enchanting veneers.</p>
<p>The idea of beauty’s potential to harm and hurt is at the heart of Narcissus’ story, expressing the ancient fear that a stunning face may not be matched by a kind heart.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572309/original/file-20240130-27-kd466p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572309/original/file-20240130-27-kd466p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572309/original/file-20240130-27-kd466p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572309/original/file-20240130-27-kd466p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572309/original/file-20240130-27-kd466p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572309/original/file-20240130-27-kd466p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572309/original/file-20240130-27-kd466p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572309/original/file-20240130-27-kd466p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Paphos Archaeological Park. House of Dionysos: Mosaic of Narcissus.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Paphos_Haus_des_Dionysos_-_Narkissos_2.jpg">Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
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<p>As with the hundreds of tales told in the Metamorphoses, the myth of Narcissus is one of transformation. As the nymphs of the waters and the trees prepare Narcissus’ funeral pyre, no body is found. Instead, a flower with white petals encircling a yellow centre lays in its place, namely, the daffodil. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572313/original/file-20240130-23-kmdljc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A picture of a narcissus." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572313/original/file-20240130-23-kmdljc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572313/original/file-20240130-23-kmdljc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=807&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572313/original/file-20240130-23-kmdljc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=807&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572313/original/file-20240130-23-kmdljc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=807&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572313/original/file-20240130-23-kmdljc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1015&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572313/original/file-20240130-23-kmdljc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1015&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572313/original/file-20240130-23-kmdljc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1015&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">A daffodil or ‘Narcissus tazetta’.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Narcissus#/media/File:Narcissus_tazetta_var_chinensis1.jpg">KENPEI/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
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<p>Like many of Ovid’s versions of the myths so powerfully and evocatively recorded, the tale of Narcissus has inspired artists and poets as well as, of course, early psychoanalysts. </p>
<p>Austrian psychoanalyst <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Rank">Otto Rank</a> published an early account of narcissism in 1911, A Contribution to Narcissism. Sigmund Freud followed in 1914 with an article entitled, <a href="https://www.sas.upenn.edu/%7Ecavitch/pdf-library/Freud_SE_On_Narcissism_complete.pdf">On Narcissism: An Introduction</a>. </p>
<p>Rank emphasised vanity and grandiosity as aspects of narcissism. Freud linked narcissism with libidinal theories around instinctual sexual urges. Narcissism, he suggested, was not necessarily an abnormal human condition but one tempered by whether the libido was directed inward (towards oneself) or outward (towards others).</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/in-the-culture-of-narcissism-christopher-lasch-excoriated-his-self-absorbed-society-but-the-books-legacy-is-questionable-216354">In The Culture of Narcissism, Christopher Lasch excoriated his self-absorbed society – but the book's legacy is questionable</a>
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<p>These forays into narcissism or the increasingly popular term, “”<a href="https://www.sane.org/information-and-resources/facts-and-guides/narcissistic-personality-disorder">narcissistic personality disorder</a>“, are currently understood as being characterised by a fixation on oneself, extending to an exaggerated sense of one’s importance and limited empathy for other people. </p>
<p>For artists and poets, Narcissus’ story perhaps remains less complex. They have preferred to capture the pivotal moment of his self-fixated gaze, leaving interpretations to the viewer.</p>
<p>From antiquity to modernity, artists, from Pompeiian fresco painters of the first century CE to Caravaggio (1571-1610) and John William Waterhouse (1849-1917), have captured the tragic outcome inherent in his obsession with his own reflection.</p>
<p>Today, we may take this myth as a salient warning against our contemporary obsession with taking "selfies” and the self-promoting phenomenon of social networking.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216353/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marguerite Johnson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The myth of Narcissus – the beautiful youth who fell in love with his own reflection – has inspired poets, artists and psychoanalysts.Marguerite Johnson, Honorary Professor, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2163542024-01-10T19:13:24Z2024-01-10T19:13:24ZIn The Culture of Narcissism, Christopher Lasch excoriated his self-absorbed society – but the book’s legacy is questionable<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563787/original/file-20231205-27-b9jmo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C13%2C4633%2C3953&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sum+It/Pexels</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Our cultural touchstones series looks at books that have made an impact.</em></p>
<p>A cultural critic rails against a society that worships celebrity and prizes images over ideas. A progressive intellectual attacks the dominance of corporate elites. A curmudgeonly academic condemns his society’s ignorance of its past and the dumbing down of public education. A psychologically astute writer explores the conflicts eddying around gender and sexuality.</p>
<p>Who are these disparate thinkers, you ask? Not four contemporary pundits, but a single controversialist, writing almost half a century ago. </p>
<p>The American historian <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Lasch">Christopher Lasch</a>, who died in 1994, authored a series of books that established him as one of his nation’s leading public intellectuals. The most influential of these, first published in 1979, was <a href="https://wwnorton.com/books/The-Culture-of-Narcissism">The Culture of Narcissism: American Life in An Age of Diminishing Expectations</a>.</p>
<p>This blockbuster earned Lasch audiences with President Jimmy Carter, a National Book Award, and a spread in People magazine, where he shared top billing with Olivia Newton-John. The book was contentious in its time, drawing flak from feminists and Lasch’s erstwhile friends on the Left. It received qualified support from some conservatives, who were otherwise antagonistic to his anti-capitalist principles. Reissued in 2018, this important work warrants a new look.</p>
<p>The Culture of Narcissism’s era now seems very distant. The Vietnam War had ended in American failure only four years earlier. Carter’s presidency was lurching toward its own failure in the midst of an energy crisis, soaring inflation and Cold War tensions. The Reagan revolution was yet to take the nation rightwards. A spirit of decline prevailed as the nation’s pride, confidence and optimism were under threat.</p>
<p>Lasch’s book gave this diminished condition a new diagnosis. The United States was in the grip of a narcissistic culture, a malign transformation of its individualist traditions. Whereas the individualist aspired to the Protestant virtues of self-reliance and self-discipline, the narcissist was self-absorbed and self-indulgent, seeking shallow sociability, pleasure and packaged self-awareness. Modern narcissists have a therapeutic sensibility, Lasch argued, seeing mental health as “the modern equivalent of salvation,” but they feel empty and inauthentic.</p>
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<p>Narcissism can mean many things, and Lasch was at pains to distinguish his understanding from popular alternatives. In an afterword written in 1990, he dismissed the idea that narcissism is a synonym for selfishness or that his book was just another critique of the 1970s as the “me decade”. </p>
<p>Laschian narcissism is not, he says, a moralistic concept for savaging the failings of a society or generation, nor is it another word for arrogance. </p>
<p>Narcissism should instead be understood within a psychoanalytic framework. It is embodied not only in anxiously preening individuals, but in the institutions that produce and nurture them. Following Freud and leading American analysts of his time, Lasch views narcissism as a condition of grandiosity and inner emptiness, in which the person sees the world as their mirror. Narcissism reveals itself in compulsive self-surveillance and fantasies of fame, power and beauty. Its dark side is repressed rage and envy and a tendency to engage in superficial and exploitative relationships.</p>
<p>Lasch equivocated on the extent of this new narcissism. Arguing “every age develops its own peculiar forms of pathology”, he asserted that candidates for psychotherapy in the 1970s no longer complained of traditional neuroses, with their alienated obsessions and phobias. Instead, they presented with disorders of the self. He proposed that many high profile public figures were narcissists, but backs off the claim that narcissistic personalities were more prevalent in the general population than in earlier times. </p>
<p>Lasch saw the reverberations of narcissism throughout American life. Most of his book offers a critical analysis of the manifestations of a narcissistic culture in several domains.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-many-types-of-narcissist-are-there-a-psychology-expert-sets-the-record-straight-207610">How many types of narcissist are there? A psychology expert sets the record straight</a>
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<h2>Family, sex, education, ageing</h2>
<p>Reflecting the preoccupations of his previous book, Haven in a Heartless World (1977), Lasch sees the traditional family as the endangered foundation of society. Under pressure from hedonistic cultural trends and mass consumption, parenting has become indulgent. Mothers and fathers abdicate their authority to child rearing fads, the state, and the therapeutic professions. Authority itself has been discredited, although hierarchies remain as strong as ever in “a society dominated by corporate elites with an anti-elitist ideology”.</p>
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<p>Lasch’s critique of the “appropriation of parental functions” by therapeutic institutions is part of a broader denunciation of a “new paternalism”. He sees a troubling rise in the popular use of therapeutic jargon and in the regulation of private and public behaviour by helping and welfare professions. </p>
<p>There is a gentle irony in Lasch’s use of the concept of narcissism to criticise the “popularization of psychiatric modes of thought” in American society, but his fundamental concern is that understanding deviance as illness erodes self-reliance and personal responsibility. </p>
<p>Lasch’s account of the effects of a narcissistic culture on relations between the sexes is equally pessimistic. It trivialises close relationships and undermines marriage, as women and men flee deep emotional entanglements in search of less demanding forms of connection. </p>
<p>The decline of traditional gender roles brings with it an intensified “sexual warfare” of mutual resentment. Lasch sees feminism as a contributing current in these developments, “often mak[ing] women more shrewish than ever in their daily encounters with men”. In a not entirely convincing show of balance, he also skewers men’s “deeply irrational” feelings of being imperilled by changing gender arrangements.</p>
<p>Mass education is another of Lasch’s targets, excoriated for creating a “spread of stupidity”, an “atrophy of competence” and “new forms of illiteracy”. A progressive might be expected to celebrate the expansion of access to higher education, but Lasch sees a wholesale lowering of standards and a rising ignorance of history, literature and civics. Meanwhile, universities are plagued by grade inflation, commodified degrees, swollen administrative bureaucracies and cafeteria-style curricula.</p>
<p>Behind these grim developments, Lasch sees a decline in the social value placed on personal achievement, a narrow emphasis on relevance and the vocational mission of higher education, and an anti-elitism that erodes the quality and ambitions of education across the spectrum, from community colleges to the Ivy League.</p>
<p>Narcissistic culture also reveals itself in shifting views of ageing. Lasch bemoans a rising “cult of youth” and a dread of getting old, expressed in obsessions with physical appearance and desperate striving for longevity. </p>
<p>Behind this panic is a more basic “cult of the self”. Narcissistic adults cling to the illusion of youth because they are over-invested in personal image and appearance and feel no connection to a future beyond their lifespan.</p>
<p>Lasch is an avid collector of cults: his book also proclaims cults of authenticity, celebrity, compulsive industry, consumption, expanded consciousness, friendliness, intimacy, growth, lost innocence, pragmatism, privatism, self-culture, sincerity, sports, the strenuous life, teamwork, victory and womanhood.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/welcome-to-the-age-of-collective-narcissism-71196">Welcome to the age of collective narcissism</a>
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<h2>The book’s legacy</h2>
<p>In an introduction to the 2018 edition, the political commentator E.J. Dionne writes that “The Culture of Narcissism seems to leap across the decades” carrying enduring truths for our time. Just how prescient it was – how much it leaps rather than stumbles – is a matter for debate. The book sounds an early warning for several trends that have endured and intensified, but in other respects it seems dated. </p>
<p>One dated feature is the book’s heavy reliance on psychoanalytic ideas. Outside of small remnant communities of analysts, it is now profoundly unusual to see Freudian jargon littered so freely and unapologetically through works of social criticism, or to come across references to castrating mothers. Lasch wrote at a time when the cultural prominence of psychoanalysis in the literary Anglosphere had reached its peak, only to <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01489/full">fall off a cliff</a> in the 1990s. </p>
<p>Intellectual fashions come and go, of course – Norman Mailer and Kurt Vonnegut are no longer literary icons either – but sections of The Culture of Narcissism now speak an almost foreign language, occasionally peddling arrant psychoanalytic nonsense, such as the familial origins and narcissistic basis of schizophrenia.</p>
<p>The Culture of Narcissism’s positions on sex and gender now seem reactionary and almost quaint. The conflicts Lasch examines continue in struggles over gender inequality and sexual violence, and in the manosphere backlash, but few would see them as being in a state of crisis: more a constant low hum of ongoing friction than signs of impending disaster. The idea that feminism has turned women shrewish now seems risible, emanating from a time when inequality at work and in the home still appeared to be the natural state of affairs. </p>
<p>Lasch’s critical remarks on mass education also seem retrograde, especially coming from a time when participation in higher education was much lower and more limited to a social elite than it is today. The proportion of Americans with college degrees is now well over double the proportion in 1979, when it was below one in six. </p>
<p>The declinist view that educational standards are slipping long preceded Lasch’s critique. It persists to this day around the globe, often in reaction to broadened access. With the complaint being so generalised across time and space, it seems questionable to attribute a decline specifically to rampant narcissism in 1970s America, especially as the excellence and scale of the nation’s universities were the envy of the world at the time.</p>
<p>But Lasch was surely correct in identifying narcissism as a major American cultural trend before others had made the connection. Narcissism is now a vastly more popular concept in everyday discourse than it was in 1979. It has become the focus of an enormous psychological literature. Repeated surveys of young Americans have demonstrated steadily <a href="https://www.simonandschuster.com/books/The-Narcissism-Epidemic/Jean-M-Twenge/9781416575993">rising levels</a> of the trait, and it is indispensable in making sense of public figures, recent presidents included.</p>
<p>Equally precocious is Lasch’s emphasis on the rise of images in the social world. His language is anachronistic, but his sentiment resonates in this digital age:</p>
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<p>Cameras and recording machines not only transcribe experience but alter its quality, giving to much of modern life the character of an enormous echo chamber, a hall of mirrors.</p>
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<p>Lasch could not have foreseen how social media and the internet would saturate us with alluring images, amplify our narcissistic concerns with appearance and self-curation, and foster the shallow and diffuse social relationships and obsession with youth that his book condemned.</p>
<p>More generally, The Culture of Narcissism’s critique of the then new therapeutic mindset rings even truer today. Lasch offered an early diagnosis of the prevailing tendency to frame problems of meaning in psychiatric terms and to identify mental health with personal authenticity. </p>
<p>At a time when therapy-speak is rife, when concepts of mental ill-health <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg25934573-900-why-being-more-open-about-mental-health-could-be-making-us-feel-worse/">continue to expand</a>, and when “authentic” has been crowned as 2023’s <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/wordplay/word-of-the-year">word of the year</a>, it is clear Lasch’s book foretold a psychologised future.</p>
<p>The Culture of Narcissism is a product of its time: what book is not? Even so, it remains an important work of criticism. Whether its central concept can bear the explanatory weight Lasch loads upon it can be queried, but narcissism serves as a novel point of attack on an ambitious range of cultural targets. In this regard, the book still deserves to be read. </p>
<p>In our polarised times, readers might also appreciate a work of criticism that resists political categorisation. Lasch is radical on some issues, but socially conservative on others. He is fierce in his attack on corporate elites, but unabashed in his cultural elitism. He is critical of feminism, but bracing in his attack on male insecurity. He is favourable towards restoring authority and the traditional family, but keen to build new local “communities of competence”. </p>
<p>Lasch’s voice is usually sharp-tongued and dyspeptic – he is against much more than he is for – but it is always interesting.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216354/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nick Haslam receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p>Christopher Lasch’s sharp-tonged a critique of American society was a product of its time, but has things to say about the present.Nick Haslam, Professor of Psychology, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2170102023-11-06T16:20:51Z2023-11-06T16:20:51ZRed Arrows: narcissism, immorality and lack of empathy are behind the dark psychology that can poison elites<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557710/original/file-20231106-23-8ldlv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=130%2C93%2C6099%2C4035&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Sexism, harassment and bullying are rife in the UK's Red Arrows.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/london-uk-may-6-2023-red-2300153179">Watcharisma/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2023/nov/01/top-gun-sense-of-exceptionalism-fuelled-red-arrows-culture-of-sexism">Sexism, harassment and bullying</a> plague the Red Arrows, the UK Royal Air Force’s display team. This revelation was the outcome of investigations into complaints of bad behaviour in this elite organisation. <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2023/nov/01/raf-chief-acknowledges-unacceptable-culture-of-sexism-in-red-arrows">Air Chief Marshal Sir Rich Knighton</a> said that “behaviour that would be classed as unacceptable was widespread and normalised on the squadron”.</p>
<p>To me, the Red Arrows have always represented discipline, precision, skill, bravery and professionalism. They are the real-life Top Guns. Now, I’ll never be able to look at red, white and blue trails in the sky in quite the same way.</p>
<p>As a psychologist, I should perhaps be less shocked. Many of us suffer from a <a href="https://web.mit.edu/curhan/www/docs/Articles/15341_Readings/Social_Cognition/Ross_Intuitive_Psychologist_in_Adv_Experiment_Soc_Psych_vol10_p173.pdf">particular cognitive bias</a> that involves projecting the characteristics of a role onto the people who play that role. But just because the Red Arrows display discipline and professionalism doesn’t mean all individual members of the team will have those same characteristics. </p>
<h2>Lack of self-doubt</h2>
<p>Elite groups, be they military or otherwise, present with a particular set of psychological challenges. One is that they often play by different social rules to everyone else. In their entrenched macho culture, women in the Red Arrows squadron were <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2023/nov/01/raf-chief-acknowledges-unacceptable-culture-of-sexism-in-red-arrows">viewed as “property”</a>.</p>
<p>Elites are, by definition, <a href="https://research.bangor.ac.uk/portal/files/19286095/2017_Tough_get_tougher.pdf">highly selected</a> both in terms of skills and psychological characteristics.</p>
<p>In a military setting, such traits include mental toughness, which can also come with a certain <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/1099-0984(200007/08)14:4%3C291::AID-PER377%3E3.0.CO;2-6?casa_token=vL0gyl6G5jgAAAAA:BCpSN6sXd9tq0KVupvHkMa-Kmygm6qQGfWdQLOacTSBKoAllcI9nClaatNo_XxM6bmpcMWVUIsSklg">emotional coldness</a>. This helps an individual to stay calm under pressure and to focus on the task in hand rather than on other people. Other people’s wellbeing may therefore not be a major priority in a highly competitive, survival-of-the-fittest situation.</p>
<p>Those selected have to be able to operate at the highest level. There is always jeopardy. The top, after all, can be a narrow ledge – precarious and anxiety-producing. As I’ve shown in a recent book, emotional displays and expressions of self-doubt <a href="https://www.edgehill.ac.uk/leading-psychologist-releases-new-book-doubt-a-psychological-exploration/">are likely to be highly discouraged</a> among elites.</p>
<p>Bottling up emotions <a href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/semi.1998.120.1-2.39/html">can be psychologically damaging</a>, though. It may reduce our ability to empathise with others. Several studies have also shown that people who have a good grasp of their emotions, noticing them and thinking critically about them, often <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/job.720">make better decisions</a>. People who ignore their feelings can, counter-intuitively, <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02699931.2022.2099349">end up being more driven by them</a>. </p>
<p>If we don’t realise that we have feelings of fear or self-doubt, because we are discouraged from doing so, we may act out in anger when that uncomfortable sensation hits. </p>
<h2>Narcissism</h2>
<p>Elites also know how special they are. They are told so endlessly. This will feed any inherent narcissistic tendencies. </p>
<p>There <a href="https://www.goodreads.com/en/book/show/5887138">may be a genetic component to narcissism</a>, but narcissism can develop within an individual over time – and within a culture. Narcissists will need to be at the centre of attention in all spheres of life – not just up there in the sky with the public gaping up at them.</p>
<p>They will require narcissistic attention, accolades and validation in other aspects of life, including their relationships. Narcissists are <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0092656622000253">more likely to switch partners</a> because new partners are always better at giving attention and complimenting them than existing partners.</p>
<p>It seems there was a “<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2023/nov/01/raf-chief-acknowledges-unacceptable-culture-of-sexism-in-red-arrows">high propensity</a>” to engage in extramarital relations in the Red Arrows. This was no doubt partly down to opportunity and the undoubted glamour of the role, but perhaps also attributable to this narcissistic need.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Small red aircraft with Union Flag on its tail and blue smoke from its exhaust." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558359/original/file-20231108-23-99hnxx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558359/original/file-20231108-23-99hnxx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558359/original/file-20231108-23-99hnxx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558359/original/file-20231108-23-99hnxx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558359/original/file-20231108-23-99hnxx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558359/original/file-20231108-23-99hnxx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558359/original/file-20231108-23-99hnxx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A Red Arrow in flight.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/scarborough-gb-jun-25-2022-raf-2358900355">Wirestock Creators/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As Colonel Bernd Horn, Deputy Commander of the Canadian Special Operation Forces Command <a href="http://www.journal.forces.gc.ca/vo8/no4/doc/horn-eng.pdf">points out in the Canadian Military Journal</a>, elites also breed an in-group mentality that can become “<a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/%7Ecrsi/differentialprocessing.pdf">dangerously inwardly focused</a>”. Elites trust only those who know the score and who have passed the same rigorous selection tests that they have. </p>
<p>They therefore become harder to influence from the outside, where behaviour may be perceived more objectively. Objectivity, however, is very important in life.</p>
<h2>Moral confusion</h2>
<p>Being in an elite group grants access to resources and opportunities others may not have. This, of course, <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1207/s15327752jpa8301_04?casa_token=SGZKV6H8neIAAAAA:QqCO6b4sPxSnqdnV50iJb9BzseSVswNqTVOR4eDyvIokULI9fWgdgPvGLuFSPGcP_uuDqiiY-iuc">creates a sense of entitlement</a> and privilege, which can further stoke egos of narcissistic people and affect moral decisions. </p>
<p>The belief that you deserve special treatment and are exempted from certain moral obligations can lead to a skewed perspective on right and wrong. The boundaries <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=RjpoAgAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=privilege+rules+don%E2%80%99t+apply+perceptions+of+right+and+wrong&ots=M5o-Vi9JPo&sig=BsKSZl4o7QOCuqb-hIH0p9cxQrg&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false">can become blurred</a> after a while.</p>
<p>Elites are also in a position to prioritise their own interests, driven by this desire, conscious or unconscious, to maintain their status and protect their privileges. Their insularity means that they are often surrounded by like-minded people who share similar values and perspectives and encourage this.</p>
<p>These social circles <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=KDshCgAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA81&dq=the+dangers+of+in-group+thinking&ots=ijXQNd4Rep&sig=IDEwsqwMOMfBBuCTTqS75NGrKwY&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=the%20dangers%20of%20in-group%20thinking&f=false">can influence</a> their moral compass by reinforcing certain beliefs and behaviour, without the necessary critique.</p>
<p>Those of us who are not part of an elite group may also play a part. Some of us may recognise the elite’s position, power and privilege and be unwilling to sanction them because of their perceived importance (in the case of the Red Arrows as iconic representations of national identity). Knighton described this as “bystander culture”, though a better term here might have been <a href="https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/46474669/Crowded_minds_the_implicit_bystander_eff20160614-5333-9sllxi-libre.pdf?1465913078=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DCrowded_Minds_The_Implicit_Bystander_Eff.pdf&Expires=1699284094&Signature=KJGetyFgJNc3iVtbEQPNrdTW%7EBEBY8-80KQ5JPGLAjQlhRJkaYyeUY5as2aFzhVq6nFOLEDRh-idN7GmgPRyTB%7Eew2lE-ahEFM%7E4Am2Yl15dcLEWKB-d%7ENSNWlq3657EojBIAqlZvn7laOZEWE%7EgPLpxWmjZYpj7IKNfgYcbiejActR1Nw2LY9gtGBN30GZHbh2jWc1xMBP2883vpre-NCHVAtcNMNI7482Fe2exzgUC00xScvIMDmy4BNt1s%7E9zV7hUZu%7EZ59vbIc%7E%7EHvoJURZ3ZPZmw9Dy2lD%7EQVA5na5nTjq7OokvOn2T32CMaBtNtgvlP9FhC7c23PYothKB2A__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA">“bystander apathy”</a> .</p>
<p>It’s important to keep in mind that these are issues that affect all elites – from politicians and people who went to top schools to social media influencers. Personalities, fed and developed by attention and accolades until they’re dependent on them, may become trapped in an echo chamber of shared values. This often comes with an immunity to criticism from those outside the group who could never understand the pressures of the elite.</p>
<p>So while elites can be very special, it’s not necessarily always in a good way. We should all do our best to call out their bad behaviour.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/217010/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Geoff Beattie does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Elite groups often become trapped in echo chambers.Geoff Beattie, Professor of Psychology, Edge Hill UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2143512023-10-11T19:05:29Z2023-10-11T19:05:29ZWhat makes a good political leader – and how can we tell before voting?<p>For many people, voting is not just a right, it’s an act of civic duty. Even more than that, some voters base their decisions on what they believe best serves society as a whole, not what might personally advantage them.</p>
<p>The trick, of course, is how to exercise that vote in a responsible, informed and considered manner. Understanding the policies of different parties is obviously a key part of that, in which case resources such as <a href="https://policy.nz/2023">Policy.nz</a> and <a href="https://www.1news.co.nz/2023/09/10/vote-compass-how-do-party-policies-line-up-with-your-views/?">Vote Compass</a> can be helpful.</p>
<p>But what of the individual characteristics of candidates and would-be leaders? What can the research tell us about what to look for? Given they are “actors” on the political “stage”, how do we evaluate their performance? </p>
<p>Of course, leadership isn’t a solo act. Many things determine what leaders can and can’t do. But what makes them tick – how their <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1994-37298-001">personality</a> or <a href="https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/SL-11-2015-0081/full/html">character</a> informs their actions – is <a href="https://china.elgaronline.com/monobook/9781784716783.xml">enduringly fascinating</a>. In fact, we know a lot about the beliefs, attitudes and behaviours that can help distinguish between good and bad leaders.</p>
<h2>Confusing confidence with competence</h2>
<p>Given “good” leadership is generally accepted as being both ethical and effective, it stands to reason “bad” leaders tend to fail on one or both counts. They either breach accepted principles of ethical or moral conduct, or they act in ways that detract from achieving desired results. </p>
<p>This distinction helps demystify leadership by highlighting that the qualities we least admire in others are also what <a href="https://www.elgaronline.com/monobook/9781784716783.xml">scholars have long flagged</a> as danger signs in leaders: arrogance, vanity, dishonesty, manipulation, abuse of power, lack of care for others, cowardice and recklessness.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/romantic-heroes-or-one-of-us-how-we-judge-political-leaders-is-rarely-objective-or-rational-214943">Romantic heroes or ‘one of us’ – how we judge political leaders is rarely objective or rational</a>
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<p>Notably, though, bad leaders can appear charming, confident and driven to achieve, despite seeking power for selfish reasons. </p>
<p>Numerous studies have identified the ways in which <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1056492613478664">narcissists</a> and what are sometimes called <a href="https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/IJPL-08-2015-0023/full/html">corporate psychopaths</a> can be highly skilled at manipulating people into believing they’ve got what it takes, but will typically lead in destructive and dysfunctional ways. Other studies have shown the negative effects of “<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4873079/#r56">Machiavellian</a>” leadership styles.</p>
<p>There is also a tendency to <a href="https://hbr.org/2013/08/why-do-so-many-incompetent-men">confuse competence</a> – the actual knowledge and skills needed to perform a leadership role – with confidence. Good leaders tend to be relatively humble about their abilities and knowledge. This means they’re better listeners, more sensitive to others’ needs, and better able to collaborate effectively. </p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/americas-leaders-are-older-than-theyve-ever-been-why-didnt-the-founding-fathers-foresee-this-as-a-problem-213653">America's leaders are older than they've ever been. Why didn't the founding fathers foresee this as a problem?</a>
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<h2>Practical wisdom</h2>
<p>None of this fascination with leadership is new. The Classical Greek
philosopher Aristotle argued <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-ethics/">good leaders possess</a> a range of character virtues in the “middle ground” between what he called the “vices” of excess or deficiency. Courage, for example, is the virtuous mid-point between the vices of recklessness and cowardice.</p>
<p>The modern character virtues <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Developing-Leadership-Character-Mary-Crossan/dp/1138825670/ref=sr_1_1?">leadership researchers emphasise</a> include humanity, humility, integrity, temperance, justice, accountability, courage, transcendence, drive and collaboration. </p>
<p>Each attribute helps a leader deal more effectively with some aspect of their role. Humanity, for instance, enables a leader to be considerate, empathetic and compassionate. Temperance helps them remain calm, composed, patient and prudent, even in testing circumstances. </p>
<p>Deployed together, these character virtues help foster sound judgment, insight, decisiveness – allowing a leader to calmly handle complex, unfolding challenges. </p>
<p>For Aristotle, the ideal leader could demonstrate what he called “phronesis”, or practical wisdom. This wasn’t necessarily about delivering perfect, painless solutions. Indeed, phronesis might mean adopting the least-worst option – which is often the case when dealing with the complex task of running a country.</p>
<p>There is also no single personality “type” most suited to good leadership. But <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2013-13403-005">studies indicate</a> those who are proactive, optimistic, believe in themselves and can manage their anxieties stand a better chance. Empathy, a sense of duty and a commitment to upholding positive social values also underpin the attributes of good leaders.</p>
<h2>Evaluating political leadership</h2>
<p>No leader will be perfect. But each character or personality flaw impedes their capacity for wise judgment and dealing with the demands of their role. A wise leader, therefore, is one who has <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Foucault-Leadership-Routledge-Organizational-Psychology-ebook/dp/B0B69P9D8W/ref=sr_1_1?">deep and accurate insight</a> into their personal foibles and has strategies to mitigate for those tendencies.</p>
<p>Political leaders will obviously seek to present their policies, parties and themselves in a positive light, something known as “<a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15377850802005083">impression management</a>”. This is where critical questioning and fact checking by journalists and experts can play a vital role.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/nz-election-2023-from-one-way-polls-to-threats-of-coalition-chaos-its-been-a-campaign-of-two-halves-213650">NZ Election 2023: from one-way polls to threats of coalition ‘chaos’, it’s been a campaign of two halves</a>
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<p>But gauging a leader’s “true” personality or character is more difficult. And we first need to be aware that our impressions and <a href="https://theconversation.com/romantic-heroes-or-one-of-us-how-we-judge-political-leaders-is-rarely-objective-or-rational-214943">evaluations of leaders</a> are not entirely driven by reason or logic.</p>
<p>Secondly, we can look for recurring patterns of behaviour in different situations over time. We should pay particular heed to behaviour under pressure, when it becomes more difficult to “mask” true feelings and motives. </p>
<p>Thirdly, we can consider the values that underpin a leader’s policies, who benefits from them, and what messages these convey to the community at large. </p>
<p>In the long run, a leader’s results bear consideration. But we need to assess these fairly, accounting for what was beyond their control. We should be mindful to avoid “<a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1745691612454303">hindsight bias</a>” – the tendency to imagine events were predictable because we know they’ve occurred.</p>
<p>It should be no surprise that what constitutes good leadership has been studied and debated for thousands of years. Leaders have power and we’ve always wanted them to use it wisely. An informed voting choice makes that more likely.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/214351/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Suze Wilson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Politics is about appearances as much as policy. But it’s possible to make an informed judgment about political leaders, if we know what to look for.Suze Wilson, Senior Lecturer, School of Management, Massey UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2097472023-08-02T18:05:38Z2023-08-02T18:05:38ZHow platforms like Airbnb turn users into narcissistic entrepreneurs<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538990/original/file-20230724-23-4u79mc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">shutterstock</span> </figcaption></figure><p>When browsing Airbnb listings for a weekend getaway, you would not only check cottage amenities but also scroll through previous guest reviews. And if you put up your house for rental on the same platform, you would scrutinise prospective guests beforehand. Wouldn’t you?</p>
<p>Because everyone wants reassurance, especially when it comes to letting strangers into your home. “No one wants to rent to a person who used the last rental as a temporary brothel or drug den,” as a <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/19/realestate/surviving-a-bad-airbnb-review.html"><em>New York Times</em> article</a> puts it.</p>
<h2>Controlling online transactions between strangers</h2>
<p>After all, there is no way online platforms such as Airbnb, Turo or Uber (the so-called sharing economy) can control each and every transaction. This is why, to maintain trust in their platforms, they decentralise control to users. How? Via evaluations – while retaining power over the control infrastructure.</p>
<p>In <a href="https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/AAAJ-12-2018-3797/full/html">our research paper</a>, we assert that within this platform capitalism, peer-to-peer platforms are a specific case.</p>
<p>We explain that evaluations in a peer-to-peer context are intriguing for two reasons:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Trust is a two-way concern, since any user of the platform can both provide a service and offer one. This introduces reciprocity in the evaluation.</p></li>
<li><p>Access-based consumption changes what is at stake in online reviews. The users still own their apartments after a rental, unlike in standard sale transactions, consequently reviews relate to personal dimensions as private lives are engaged in a market.</p></li>
</ul>
<h2>Airbnb: a “netnography”</h2>
<p>To investigate the mechanisms through which users appropriate platforms, we drew on a case study of the home-renting platform Airbnb (a giant now valued at $95 billion). We conducted an online ethnography or <em>netnography</em>, analysing more than 300 user-generated reviews of rentals in major European locations, and conducted 17 interviews with Airbnb users and one with an executive from the platform.</p>
<p>And what we found wasn’t a happy, touchy-feely “community” (the official Airbnb term for its collective of users) engaging in the so-called sharing economy. Instead, evaluation produces what we call narcissistic entrepreneurs of the self. Peer-to-peer platforms provide users with a structure to assetise and maximise the value of private belongings and skills on marketplaces. As such they turn individuals into <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277164772_Michel_Foucault_The_Birth_of_Biopolitics_Lectures_at_the_College_de_France_1978-1979_Edited_by_Michel_Senellart_Translated_by_Graham_Burchell_New_York_Palgrave_MacMillan_2008_ISBN_978-1403986542">what Foucault would term “entrepreneurs of the self”</a> – individuals who view themselves as their own capital, producer, and source of earnings.</p>
<p>Evaluation processes on peer-to-peer platforms stir up users’ narcissism because users rely on the peer evaluations that they give and receive to reaffirm their personal characteristics. On peer-to-peer platforms, users aren’t only engaged in monetary maximisation but they also seek to increase their own worth as a person and the evaluation infrastructure incites them to behave so. The public, overwhelmingly positive, evaluation system extends the mere review process and encompasses profile setting, and photos’ posting for instance. It functions as a mirror, allowing users to seek confirmation and validation from positive reviews while also experiencing distress from negative feedback.</p>
<p>Such evaluation processes consolidate a community that is only for show and have been developed to support an appealing, efficient market.</p>
<p>How does this work in practice?</p>
<h2>The rise of narcissistic entrepreneurs</h2>
<p>Airbnb requires users to set up an individual profile and encourages them to provide personal details. Whether users like it or not – and some interviewees stated it was “a drag” – they oblige, understanding that it is part of “the game”, and usually post cheery self-descriptions. This embodies transactions and anchors the use of the platform to a seemingly virtual community. It also broadens the stake of evaluation. Indeed, while the “location” criterion clearly applies to the home, “communication” applies to the person. So in a subtle way, the object of the evaluation shifts from the service to the user’s own worth.</p>
<p>The norm for reviews on the platform is strongly positive, with recurring comments of “amazing,” “lovely” and “wonderful” apartments. In fact, we noted a standard set at perfection or near-perfection with ratings never dropping below 4.5 out of 5 in the platforms’ largest cities in terms of ratings (Los Angeles, Paris, New York and London).</p>
<p>Actually, bad evaluations are taboo. Instead, users deal with unpleasant experiences (from smelly refrigerators to bedbugs or even theft) either through private e-mails with the other party or euphemistic public comments, so as not to hurt the other user. Still, the comments are outwardly positive, but users place subtle hints that can alert the rest of the community, without the risk of appearing overcritical.</p>
<h2>How Airbnb reproduces class biases</h2>
<p>So publicly criticising others on peer-to-peer platforms is problematic, also because potentially it defines the user giving the review as “bitchy” or “an angry nitpicker.” Conversely, giving out good reviews is described as a pleasure by users, like granting a prize. Hosts on the receiving end feel like they have been awarded a “gold star at school.” In our article, we cite the example of one user pleased to appear non-racist because he took a booking from an African-American. We conclude that reviews are material to make sense of the self and an opportunity to show an ideal projection of the self.</p>
<p>Digging deeper into the subtleties of the process, we explain that users also make sense of themselves through the fellow users they select by decoding weak signals in reviews. While the platform officially encourages the posting of personal information to reduce the uncertainty of the transaction, users do so by seeking out peers: people who seem like them. For example, Igor, a French person employed in what he refers to as trendy art galleries, clarified that his listing was solely in the English language to “avoid non–English speaking French people, the worst kind. They only do touristy stuff”. By steering clear of what he termed “losers,” he found comfort in his trendiness.</p>
<p>As a guest, Violet explained that when selecting accommodation, she seeks a comparable neighbourhood to her own. She argued that Airbnb is “all about people with money who want to stay in an apartment that belongs to someone like them, from the same socio-professional category, but who do not want to meet that someone!” However, not all users possess such reflexivity, with many relying on their “instinct” or claiming their open-mindedness when selecting hosts or guests.</p>
<h2>Blatant discrimination</h2>
<p>In stark contrast to this appearance of tolerance, many users exclude others based on racist or sexist considerations. As Clara revealed, “I know which nationalities I do not want staying in my home… ” Ultimately, the selection processes employed by Airbnb users reveal a significant gap between their professed open-mindedness and their actual inclination to choose users who resemble themselves. They end up discriminating more or less consciously based on social, racial or class grounds (spelling errors, racial stereotypes, perception of a guest’s home city as crime-ridden, etc.). They turn the assessment mirror back at others and, in doing so, rationalise processes of exclusion.</p>
<p>Implementing social reproduction schemes is one way to secure a perfect evaluation and limit risk. Behind the facade of community, online evaluation processes push users into schemes of social reproduction. Users’ narcissism then works as a cost-effective control infrastructure that keeps the market fluid.</p>
<h2>Cheap and optimal control</h2>
<p>Therefore, compared to evaluation in a corporate context, evaluation on peer-to-peer platforms guarantees cheap and optimal control. It is decentralised to users, and builds on reciprocity and narcissism so as to secure the fluidity of transactions without fuelling competition between users.</p>
<p>Beyond the specific context of online peer-to-peer platforms, this case says something about the pervasiveness of evaluation in our digitalised and algorithmic society. It pushes us into social reproduction and produces narcissistic entrepreneurs of the self, whose critical capacities are stifled in the face of evaluative mechanisms.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/209747/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Les auteurs ne travaillent pas, ne conseillent pas, ne possèdent pas de parts, ne reçoivent pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'ont déclaré aucune autre affiliation que leur organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>Far from a touchy-feely community, research shows online platforms such as Airbnb tend to strengthen users’ narcissism and class biases.Pénélope Van den Bussche, Doctorante en Sciences de Gestion, ESCP Business SchoolClaire Dambrin, Professor in Management Control, ESCP Business SchoolLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2076102023-06-30T01:22:37Z2023-06-30T01:22:37ZHow many types of narcissist are there? A psychology expert sets the record straight<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534500/original/file-20230628-30-523h4k.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=42%2C27%2C2560%2C1924&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Our interest in narcissism has never been higher, with Google searches for the word “narcissist” <a href="https://trends.google.com/trends/explore?date=all&q=narcissist&hl=en">having steadily increased</a> over the past decade. This term has become part of everyday parlance, readily thrown around to describe <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/culture/celebrity/narcissist-or-not-meghan-doesn-t-deserve-this-game-of-thrones-humiliation-20221220-p5c7tx.html">celebrities</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/trumps-dangerous-narcissism-may-have-changed-leadership-forever-151184">politicians</a> and ex-partners.</p>
<p>A byproduct of our growing interest in narcissism is a curiosity about what types of narcissist exist. But this is where things get tricky. A search for “<a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=types+of+narcissists&rlz=1C5GCEM_enAU941AU941&oq=types+of&aqs=chrome.0.69i59j69i57j35i39i650j0i512j0i433i512j69i60j69i61j69i60.1127j0j7&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8">types of narcissists</a>” on Google returns wildly varied results. Some websites describe as few as <a href="https://www.health.com/relationships/types-of-narcissism">three</a> types. Others list up to <a href="https://www.choosingtherapy.com/types-of-narcissism/">14</a>. </p>
<p>What’s going on here?</p>
<h2>What is a narcissist?</h2>
<p>The word “narcissism” comes from the Greek myth of Narcissus, a boy who falls in love with his own reflection. </p>
<p>Over the past century or so, conceptualisations of narcissism have evolved. It is now thought of as a collection of personality traits characterised by grandiosity, entitlement and callousness. “Narcissist” is the term used to describe someone who scores highly on these traits.</p>
<p>A narcissist may also meet the diagnostic criteria for <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK556001/">narcissistic personality disorder</a>, a mental health diagnosis that affects about 1% of people. It’s broadly described as a pervasive pattern of exhibiting grandiosity, needing admiration and lacking empathy. </p>
<p>Importantly, not all narcissists have narcissistic personality disorder.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/think-you-might-be-dating-a-vulnerable-narcissist-look-out-for-these-red-flags-205565">Think you might be dating a 'vulnerable narcissist'? Look out for these red flags</a>
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<h2>How many types of narcissism are there?</h2>
<p>There are two main types of <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2010.00711.x?casa_token=UXxML73tD4AAAAAA%3AqIBBZSVkQwIcOpjo_ZsdSn4ZOANdNVO3JpsY5ifZmvAVSlLt_ZE2jhvDChdZlLxQiiearDjIerYKAaTz">trait narcissism</a> (which are distinct from narcissistic personality disorder). These are grandiose narcissism and vulnerable narcissism.</p>
<p>Grandiose narcissism is associated with a grandiose sense of self, aggression and dominance. Vulnerable narcissism is characterised by heightened emotional sensitivity and a defensive and insecure grandiosity that masks feelings of inadequacy.</p>
<p><a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/09637214211044109?casa_token=sm4bctnlLfAAAAAA:KFDndnmdAsD67cGMyg08Bpdsc0MwgvhXSAeYXV3fYGa3ax6W9Ck6uZ3o1PMmn6HaOc5MqHQ2TIzLZA">Recent models</a> have identified three core components of narcissism that help explain the similarities and differences between both grandiose and vulnerable narcissism. </p>
<ol>
<li><p><strong>Antagonism</strong> is common to both grandiose and vulnerable narcissism. It’s linked with traits such as arrogance, entitlement, exploitativeness and a lack of empathy. </p></li>
<li><p><strong>Agentic extraversion</strong> is unique to grandiose narcissism. It’s associated with traits such as authoritativeness, grandiosity and exhibitionism.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Narcissistic neuroticism</strong> is specific to vulnerable narcissism. It’s associated with fragile self-esteem and a tendency to experience negative emotions and shame.</p></li>
</ol>
<p>A person will likely meet the diagnostic criteria for narcissistic personality disorder when there is a convergence of high scores across each of these components. </p>
<p>Also, while diagnostic criteria emphasise the grandiose aspects of narcissistic personality disorder, clinicians report an <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/buy/2016-13474-001">oscillation between</a> both grandiose and vulnerable narcissism in people with the disorder.</p>
<p>Vulnerable narcissism has a <a href="https://wkeithcampbell.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/VulnerableDarkTriad.pdf">considerable overlap</a> with borderline personality disorder, particularly in terms of its causes and the displayed personality traits. A person who only scores highly for vulnerable narcissism is more likely to be diagnosed with <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK430883/">borderline personality disorder</a> than narcissistic personality disorder. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/borderline-personality-disorder-is-a-hurtful-label-for-real-suffering-time-we-changed-it-41760">Borderline personality disorder is a hurtful label for real suffering – time we changed it</a>
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<h2>Are there other types of narcissists?</h2>
<p>Given the consensus in psychology on the two main types of trait narcissism described above (which sit alongside the clinical diagnosis of narcissistic personality disorder), how can we account for the many sources describing other “types” of narcissism? </p>
<p>First and most concerning is the proliferation of pop psychology articles that describe types of narcissism for which there is no good evidence. </p>
<p>They feature terms such as “cerebral narcissist”, “somatic narcissist”, “seductive narcissist” and “spiritual narcissist”. But searching for these terms in peer-reviewed academic literature yields no evidence that they are valid types of narcissism.</p>
<p>Some articles also use terms often considered synonymous with grandiose and vulnerable narcissism. This likely comes from early literature, which used a range of terms to describe types of narcissism. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0272735807001602?casa_token=G-g6NF7LruAAAAAA:z0djIzoRW6sKWH6II2r0colpYkZqBDP1WSSfjzXXAkjubQCCufNAhqR4zEwLlfgRyatd57exupM">One review</a> from 2008 identified more than 50 different labels used to describe types of narcissism. </p>
<p>Conceptually, however, each of these labels can be mapped onto either grandiose or vulnerable narcissism. </p>
<p>Often you will see “overt” and “covert” being described, sometimes alongside descriptions of grandiose and vulnerable narcissists. Some researchers have proposed overt and covert narcissism as being akin to grandiose and vulnerable narcissism. Others <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.121208.131215">argue they are</a> more appropriately considered expressions of narcissism present in both grandiose and vulnerable narcissism. </p>
<p>Lastly, a number of these articles describe narcissists by drawing on specific expressions of grandiose or vulnerable narcissism. For instance, they describe “antagonistic narcissists”, “<a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2012-21491-001">communal narcissists</a>”, “agentic narcissists” and “<a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00926239408403414?casa_token=QONJ3ZB5TKsAAAAA:46W_LccJaHcXtSOGhsv5odIKRyPvTvTxCf8_Ofqz1wj2uqC7OGlFnlZg-rIzZPEmEkn_gqm0PimHoA">sexual narcissists</a>” alongside grandiose and vulnerable narcissists. </p>
<p>These descriptions imply each of these are mutually exclusive types of narcissism, when really they should be thought of as aspects of grandiose and/or vulnerable narcissism. In other words, they are examples of how narcissism might be expressed.</p>
<h2>The danger of labels</h2>
<p>Narcissism’s multifaceted nature has likely contributed to the array of terms people use to describe narcissists. </p>
<p>Some of these are valid constructs. When used accurately, they can be useful for identifying the different ways narcissism is expressed – particularly in intimate relationships, where high levels of grandiose and vulnerable narcissism are associated with <a href="https://theconversation.com/narcissism-and-the-various-ways-it-can-lead-to-domestically-abusive-relationships-116909">perpetration of abuse</a>.</p>
<p>However, online articles that inaccurately describe and categorise narcissism are anything but helpful. This content fuels armchair psychologists, who then jump to assign the label “narcissist” to anyone they think is displaying narcissistic traits.</p>
<p>Even when accurately applied in clinical settings, diagnostic labels <a href="https://theconversation.com/diagnostic-labels-for-mental-health-conditions-are-not-always-useful-102943">aren’t always useful</a>. They may bring <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2004-19091-003">stigma</a>, which can discourage people from seeking mental health support.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/narcissism-and-the-various-ways-it-can-lead-to-domestically-abusive-relationships-116909">Narcissism – and the various ways it can lead to domestically abusive relationships</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207610/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Megan Willis does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The internet can’t seem to agree on how many ‘types’ of narcissist there are. Some websites list as few three, while others list 14.Megan Willis, Senior Lecturer, School of Behavioural and Health Sciences, Australian Catholic UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2079722023-06-23T13:39:41Z2023-06-23T13:39:41ZCan parents give their children too much attention?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533165/original/file-20230621-20-ww0y51.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=226%2C92%2C5380%2C3640&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">There's a fine balance between confidence and humility.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/spoiled-kid-concept-cheeky-preschool-child-342069872">STUDIO GRAND WEB/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Parents today spend <a href="https://ourworldindata.org/parents-time-with-kids">more time</a> with their children than ever before. Yet, at the same time, they worry more than previous generations about doing enough – believing a lack of engagement may harm their child’s future <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/jomf.12646?casa_token=K3363Odn5lsAAAAA%3A7J41fYHsXr8ZOyYOplVPwU3vSOc50RhqXgR5Be2EA-8L_GpHhaaLKTaDWshbMmLBb0xy0kaQcKw16dA">success and wellbeing</a>.</p>
<p>This can have negative impacts. Increased social pressures on mothers to be engaged with their children, compared to fathers, is negatively affecting <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10826-012-9615-z">maternal wellbeing</a>. The <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10896-020-00172-2">COVID-19 pandemic</a> and home schooling intensified this. </p>
<p>This raises an important question: how much attention is enough? Is it harmful to leave your child to their own devices? Should you ever ignore a child? Or conversely, can you overly engage with your child? As is usually the case with child development, the answer is somewhere in the middle (and most parents, reassuringly, are doing “enough”). </p>
<p>We know that a supportive parenting approach is important for child development. <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1993-01038-001">Attachment theory</a> states that when a baby has its needs met by a parent or primary caregiver in an appropriate and consistent way, they are more likely to go on to develop a secure attachment to that person.</p>
<p>This helps them to feel more confident in themselves and the world, leading to more positive cognitive, social and emotional development. However, while secure attachment is important, ever rising levels of attention won’t necessarily increase it proportionally. Instead, it is important to carefully consider the degree of engagement and balance this with supporting children to reach appropriate stages of resilience and independence.</p>
<p>One piece of evidence which gets dragged up a lot when attachment is discussed is research on the outcomes of children placed in Romanian orphanages. These children were typically significantly deprived of interaction, affection and care and did not have opportunity to develop a secure attachment. Studies of their <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1997-04485-004">later development</a> found that they had poorer physical, cognitive and social developmental outcomes. </p>
<p>These studies are important, but a world away from the spectrum of parental engagement that most parents worry about today.</p>
<p>Research examining more typical parent-child relationships finds that, yes, when <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1745691612462585?casa_token=vbKTCFpuojcAAAAA:edAVCrzBfIbUNbzwfpnLHkRHlb2WBAqNTK0evaXhkXRBGXuEi8zwwLP9opOmLl3vch6VmcbaWbg_">mothers</a> and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273229720300307?casa_token=v_wVaMunldUAAAAA:-tkb3jR1iIt3xdSlqcfXR6Yh3RpiZmxZslwGO4cPLCnIBQ9Mhrtna80Nr66C-9DqYwIzhGbG7Q">fathers</a> are more connected to and involved with their children, social and emotional outcomes improve. </p>
<p>Talking and reading to children in their early years is particularly important for <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/desc.12764?casa_token=mb1FJDVdGAYAAAAA:bmkX7PtYiTv3R9e8W-DJbjwGahHzlYu6YLOgDwc4-6uy2nwRphgazFxohtyi_FWrUw-B59I4-SLNMJU">language and literacy</a> skills. Listening to, and supporting, children to understand and learn to <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02198/full">regulate their own emotions</a> is also important for later emotional and social wellbeing. </p>
<h2>Curiosity, confidence and narcissism</h2>
<p>On the other hand, children also need room to take the lead in their own growth and development. </p>
<p>Overly intensive or “helicopter” parenting, where parents are reluctant to leave their child to experience activities alone (obviously sometimes this is impossible, for example if the child has additional learning needs), can actually increase risk of <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10510974.2013.811434?casa_token=U2If7ob2PPMAAAAA%3ABAnO-s1YgQL5qUyyg7rIztOXRwVfN5RUf5vE5-4S9KnP2h2qBgLlRNb66lUhXyCew6nrDl6U8LZd">anxiety and poorer coping skills</a> in the children when they become teenagers and young adults. </p>
<p>That’s because children learn through having the opportunity to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2444866416301234">make mistakes</a>, taking small, <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/9/9/3134">age-appropriate risks</a> during play and <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00043125.2021.1905419?casa_token=o94Yy81bZZYAAAAA:6CYsrAT46Z1KhudYtBeD0SGB7R8bQeltr4iRPMivQzi7e3wkss_U5cqbHfzgJAVwM3H32o-x04yf">having the chance</a> to decide which activity they will engage in. </p>
<p>This builds feelings of competence, agency and autonomy. Boredom, in moderation, also encourages <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/1471-2458-11-461">active and creative play</a> which has many positive outcomes for physical, cognitive and social development, and has also been linked to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1871187116300773?casa_token=QjZlmLg_JRoAAAAA:55rxhB5nuhtALA0Vdb6urU8hd6g56Q1mGEhQRTFVoDPSW0SKZvDqmageNhqRqRqqDu77vW8G3g">increased curiosity</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Bored child with pencil up his nose." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533168/original/file-20230621-19-ys8t3j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533168/original/file-20230621-19-ys8t3j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533168/original/file-20230621-19-ys8t3j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533168/original/file-20230621-19-ys8t3j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533168/original/file-20230621-19-ys8t3j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533168/original/file-20230621-19-ys8t3j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533168/original/file-20230621-19-ys8t3j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Boredom can breed creativity.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/bored-little-boy-student-inserted-pencil-2290150083">Aiman Dairabaeva/Shuttestock</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>Conversely, when a child’s day is controlled for them and their path always smoothed, they can struggle to develop the <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10826-016-0466-x">coping skills and resilience</a> needed for everyday life. </p>
<p>And while it may seem attention will ultimately boost confidence, there is some evidence showing that when parents are overly focused on their children – living their lives through them, constantly validating them and putting intense pressure on them to perform – this can increase <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-92171-6_15">narcissistic traits</a> in children when they reach young adulthood. </p>
<h2>Changing and adapting</h2>
<p>How much engagement a child needs also <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10826-013-9716-3">naturally changes over time</a>. Babies and children develop physically and emotionally as they grow, and parenting that adapts to these changes is typically associated with better outcomes.</p>
<p>It doesn’t make sense to leave a young baby who has no ability to support themselves alone for long periods to “encourage their independence”. That will instead likely increase stress hormone levels in their young, developing brains. But telling your pre-teen that they need to entertain themselves for the afternoon (at home) is supporting their growth. </p>
<p>This brings us the concept of a happy medium and one of my favourite 20th century paediatricians – <a href="https://psychoanalysis.org.uk/our-authors-and-theorists/donald-woods-winnicott">Donald Winnicott</a> and his concept of “<a href="https://www.huffpost.com/entry/mom-enough_b_1528132">good enough mothering</a>”. Winnicott spent many years watching mothers and babies and concluded that sometimes not being able to meet a baby’s needs immediately and perfectly was a good thing. </p>
<p>Although he believed that responding to a baby’s needs was important, he also believed that sometimes, having to wait a little because you are finishing something else, helped a baby learn that although they are loved and cared for, the world is not a perfect place. </p>
<p>This theory has been explored over the years and written about extensively in terms of broader “<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S027753951530159X?casa_token=2zWqM31CpY4AAAAA:5z5v02GVjSMApwgE4kR4gdyCoiwpabsIZQDN2s-0B2MHQ_iVOBmfI5fe414U4y_lWt-phD0WKQ">good enough parenting</a>”, which is essentially supporting a happy medium. </p>
<p>Finally, one fascinating study looked at how much parents <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0038038514560260?casa_token=Z-TwZviexPwAAAAA:HKwqnVyt1y5Rc0hBqzYMP-2XkydrUoikA4VEjN-XpGGBaueOhmfFm2cCb0uUifIE8tuUGcs4Qhkt">felt pressure</a> to spend more time engaging with their children, and how much time they actually spent reading, doing sports, or watching television with them. </p>
<p>Surprisingly, there was no significant relationship between the parents who felt the most and least pressure, suggesting that no matter how much time you spend engaging with your child, those feelings never really go away. </p>
<p>Perhaps that is the most important lesson. The vast majority of parents do enough (and if you’re worrying about it, it’s likely you do). Instead those feelings are driven by social judgement of all things parenting related. Let’s challenge that, instead of spending all that energy on worrying whether our children get enough attention.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207972/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amy Brown has received funding from the ESRC, MRC, NIHR, HEFCW, UKRI, Infant feeding charities and Public Health Wales. She is a trustee for First Steps Nutrition Trust.</span></em></p>There is a link between huge amounts of parental attention and the development of narcissistic traits in children.Amy Brown, Professor of Child Public Health, Swansea UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2055652023-05-17T03:26:26Z2023-05-17T03:26:26ZThink you might be dating a ‘vulnerable narcissist’? Look out for these red flags<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526685/original/file-20230517-17-bi5991.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=66%2C275%2C7282%2C4627&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Single people are increasingly turning online to find love, with more than <a href="https://www.businessofapps.com/data/dating-app-market/">300 million people</a> around the world trying their luck on dating apps. Some find their fairy tale. But for others, stories of online dating have very different endings. </p>
<p>You may be ghosted after a seemingly blissful start, or strung along with just crumbs of attention. Perhaps you suddenly learn the person you’re dating isn’t who you thought they were.</p>
<p>If these scenarios sound familiar, you may have dated a “vulnerable narcissist”.</p>
<h2>The dark side of online dating</h2>
<p>These days, about 30% of new relationships <a href="https://www.monash.edu/news/articles/rise-of-the-ebabies-kids-born-to-aussie-couples-who-met-online-will-be-in-the-majority-by-2038">form online</a>, and experts say this will only become more common in the future. But online dating isn’t without risk.</p>
<p>Antisocial dating behaviours are common online, such as <a href="https://theconversation.com/when-texts-suddenly-stop-why-people-ghost-on-social-media-171932#:%7E:text=Ghosting%20happens%20when%20someone%20cuts,a%20ghost%2C%20they%20just%20vanish.">ghosting</a> and breadcrumbing (when someone gives you crumbs of attention to keep you interested, with no intention of progressing the relationship). These experiences are often painful for the person on the receiving end, resulting in diminished <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/17/3/1116?amp=1">self-esteem and wellbeing</a>.</p>
<p>Misrepresentation is also rife online. One study found up to 81% of online dating users had engaged in <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14681994.2020.1714577?casa_token=bpv_gGMc3H0AAAAA%3AAMGr1fH2YISVI2mw_RSBIDKNNFJ-Iwibx-gI9Yi2G28pAGHr1X4POqkCGTtCRAYL6aQvKuOsiEza">some form of it</a>. Some forms of misrepresentation are arguably innocuous, such as a carefully selected profile photo. But others are more deceptive and potentially harmful, such as presenting one’s personality inauthentically to lure a potential mate. </p>
<h2>Behind the mask</h2>
<p>In <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0736585323000497#b0075">new research</a> conducted by me and my colleagues Eliza Oliver and Evita March, we explore how personality traits can be associated with inauthentic self-presentation while online dating. </p>
<p>We were particularly interested in a sub-type of narcissism called vulnerable narcissism. Narcissism in a broad sense can be conceptualised as a personality trait that falls on a continuum. Those at the extreme end are characterised by entitlement, superiority, and a strong need for attention, admiration and approval. </p>
<p><a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2010.00711.x?casa_token=zRwVnmU2U0oAAAAA%3AGB9QPb8uZg9q10NvzRktf6kKxcCYQzU8y67x0x4p5NlFRIurhFOseZImTp3hJVsWrBTKgwSnOyNG2a0wFg">Vulnerable narcissism</a> is characterised by high emotional sensitivity and a defensive, insecure grandiosity that masks feelings of incompetence and inadequacy.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526687/original/file-20230517-15-e132h0.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526687/original/file-20230517-15-e132h0.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526687/original/file-20230517-15-e132h0.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526687/original/file-20230517-15-e132h0.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526687/original/file-20230517-15-e132h0.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526687/original/file-20230517-15-e132h0.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526687/original/file-20230517-15-e132h0.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526687/original/file-20230517-15-e132h0.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Vulnerable narcissists tend to mask feelings of inadequacy with a grandiose presentation.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>For <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0736585323000497#b0075">our study</a>, we recruited a sample of 316 online daters (55% female) via the crowdsourcing platform <a href="https://www.prolific.co/">Prolific</a>. We measured their scores for vulnerable narcissism, along with other “<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/dark-triad">dark triad</a>” personality traits including grandiose narcissism (arrogance and dominance), <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/basics/psychopathy">psychopathy</a> (low empathy and callousness) and <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/machiavellians-gulling-the-rubes/201509/meet-the-machiavellians">Machiavellianism</a> (being manipulative and calculating).</p>
<p>We asked participants to complete two questionnaires that measured six domains of their personality, to measure how authentically they presented themselves.</p>
<p>First they considered their authentic self, with items such as “I can handle difficult situations without needing emotional support from anyone else”. Then they were asked to consider the persona they presented while online dating, with items such as “the persona I present when online dating would like people who have unconventional views”. </p>
<p>We then calculated a score for inauthentic self-presentation, which represented the distance between the authentic self and the online dating self.</p>
<p>We also asked participants whether they had ever engaged in the antisocial dating behaviours of ghosting or breadcrumbing. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/first-the-love-bomb-then-the-financial-emergency-5-tactics-of-tinder-swindlers-176807">First the 'love-bomb', then the 'financial emergency': 5 tactics of Tinder swindlers</a>
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<h2>Here’s what we found</h2>
<p>We found a significant link between vulnerable narcissism and inauthentic self-presentation. That is, those with higher scores for vulnerable narcissism presented more inauthentically. </p>
<p>Participants who had ghosted or breadcrumbed someone also had higher scores for vulnerable narcissism. However, it should be noted these effects were small, and not everyone who ghosts is likely to be a vulnerable narcissist. People may ghost for a range of reasons, some of which are appropriate to their situation (such as for their own safety). </p>
<p>That said, if a ghost returns from the dead without a reasonable explanation for their absence, you may have been “<a href="https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/entry/worse-than-being-ghosted-zombied-is-the-new-dating-trend_uk_644bbe89e4b011a819c72cea">zombied</a>”. This is when someone ghosts you, only to reappear months or even years later. If this happens it would be wise to hit the block button. </p>
<h2>Might I be dating a vulnerable narcissist?</h2>
<p>Vulnerable narcissists can be difficult to identify in the early stages of dating because the persona they present isn’t their authentic self. Over time, however, the mask usually comes off. </p>
<p>If you’re wondering whether you’re dating a vulnerable narcissist, look out for these red flags waving in sync.</p>
<ol>
<li><p>Vulnerable narcissists are usually <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00223891.2012.742903?casa_token=IcNNaKmGw3UAAAAA%3AzFrhAeKDeVSJIKuSnjPEXr_qXidHdYl9aMiqK8iVp9F7w_0WRhu5PIaEmDsD9N6ZaevcZYrkFLhvOMM">introverted and high on neuroticism</a>. In isolation, these traits need not be of concern, but in vulnerable narcissists they typically present in combination with dishonesty, and a lack of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886917306220?casa_token=DhWyvFYiticAAAAA:VZ3738yoILJZEHsePwKnsbNuiu7KYCpNvfoqE03I59Cuz2UkppwrfAknCIZZeTJIgI3AM4xoeskC">agreeableness and humility</a>.</p></li>
<li><p><a href="https://scholarworks.uark.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1013&context=discoverymag">Love-bombing</a> is a manipulative dating tactic commonly used by vulnerable narcissists. It’s characterised by excessive attention and affection. While this can be flattering in the early stages of a relationship, the intention is to manipulate you into feeling dependent on and obligated to them.</p></li>
<li><p><a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/pmh.1532">The devaluation phase</a> follows love-bombing. It will often manifest in emotionally abusive behaviours such as harsh and relentless criticism, unprovoked angry outbursts, <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-does-gaslighting-mean-107888">gaslighting</a> and stonewalling. </p></li>
<li><p>Finally, vulnerable narcissists are hypersensitive to criticism. Constructive criticism is an important component of communication in healthy relationships. But a vulnerable narcissist is likely to perceive the slightest criticism as a personal attack. They may respond to criticism with emotional outbursts, making you feel like you’re walking on eggshells.</p></li>
</ol>
<h2>I think I’m dating a vulnerable narcissist!</h2>
<p>Vulnerable narcissists are prone to engaging in <a href="https://dvassist.org.au/am-i-experiencing-domestic-violence/quizzes/am-in-an-emotionally-abusive-relationship/">emotionally abusive behaviours</a>. If you suspect you’re dating one then you may be experiencing domestic violence, or be at significant risk of it if the relationship continues. </p>
<p>The onset of narcissistic abuse is often <a href="https://theconversation.com/narcissism-and-the-various-ways-it-can-lead-to-domestically-abusive-relationships-116909">slow and insidious</a>, but the adverse effects (such as symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder) can persist long after the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886922004470?casa_token=r6Y-_qazDXkAAAAA:7DuvvE7SkGYdwYS56_abxctoBQXaLUDdMm6Sksy6_nob279--ICCtwEvvB57CxuDlhgtKZfNpTt4">relationship has ended</a>. </p>
<p>If you have concerns, it’s important to seek support from your family doctor, a psychologist, or a <a href="https://www.1800respect.org.au/">domestic violence support service</a>. They can help you navigate the relationship, or safely exit it. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/is-narcissism-a-mental-health-problem-and-can-you-really-diagnose-it-online-188360">Is narcissism a mental health problem? And can you really diagnose it online?</a>
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<p><em>Anyone at risk of family and domestic violence and/or sexual assault can seek help 24 hours a day, seven days a week, either online or by calling 1800 RESPECT (1800 737 732). Information is also available in 28 languages other than English.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/205565/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Megan Willis does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Research reveals individuals that score high for vulnerable narcissism are likely to present themselves inauthentically while online dating.Megan Willis, Senior Lecturer, School of Behavioural and Health Sciences, Australian Catholic UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2036642023-04-17T00:03:18Z2023-04-17T00:03:18ZWhy do people crave the approval of an abusive or narcissistic parent? And what can they do about it?<p>In the phenomenally successful TV show <a href="https://www.hbo.com/succession">Succession</a>, wealthy media magnate Logan Roy (played by Brian Cox) is frequently cruel to his adult children. He insults them, pits them against each other and can be cold or menacing. Despite the years of torment, the Roy children clearly crave their father’s approval.</p>
<p>The show highlights a struggle some adult children face: the need for approval from an abusive parent. </p>
<p>Some would suggest the solution is simple: cut ties with the parent, limit contact, rid your life of this difficult relationship. But this is often not realistic. </p>
<p>Research into relationships can help us understand why some people desire the approval of a parent who is abusive, insensitive or inconsistent in their love – or who rate high on what’s known as “<a href="https://theconversation.com/heres-what-to-do-when-you-encounter-people-with-dark-personality-traits-at-work-192316">dark trait</a>” tendencies (narcissism, psychopathy and Machiavellianism).</p>
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<h2>Attachment anxiety</h2>
<p>Studies into parent-child relationships based in <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=1h89j7-Oe5kC&oi=fnd&pg=PR13&dq=ATTACHMENT+AND+LOSS&ots=8ILzmfJnOy&sig=WFNQLcfE7AzJX8L9P4VnwpaHvV4&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=ATTACHMENT%20AND%20LOSS&f=false">attachment theory</a> (a widely researched theory of human bonding) suggest the need for approval is a feature of people who experience an insecure attachment style known as attachment anxiety.</p>
<p>People experiencing <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=69acBAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=adult+attachment:+a+concise+introduction&ots=0R9sSvfVkX&sig=xLnpojz8LmlGO02dj56j7-pT6B4&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=adult%20attachment%3A%20a%20concise%20introduction&f=false">attachment anxiety</a> tend to crave relationship closeness, which includes obsessing over a parent or romantic partner, and can hold strong fears of being rejected or abandoned.</p>
<p>According to attachment theory, attachment anxiety can develop when the care provided by parents or guardians early in life is inept or inconsistent.</p>
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<h2>Inept or inconsistent care</h2>
<p>Inept care is when a parent provides some type of help, but the care provided does not meet the needs of the child. </p>
<p>For example, a child may need encouragement in achieving a challenging task. Instead, the parent provides sympathy and says the task is too hard for the child. The parent may even try to do the task for the child, which can make them feel helpless or even incompetent.</p>
<p>Inconsistent care is when the parent <em>sometimes</em> provides care that meets the child’s needs, triggering happiness or relief in the child. They feel seen, validated, and understood. </p>
<p>On other occasions, however, the parent may respond in ways that do not meet the child’s needs.</p>
<p>The parent may withdraw, avoid, or neglect the child in their time of need. On other occasions, the parent may blame the child for asking for help – or make them feel guilty by framing their request for help as a burden that affects the parent’s own well-being.</p>
<h2>Parenting and the dark traits</h2>
<p>Some believe these responses by parents are methods to manipulate their children to behave or feel a certain way. <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12144-023-04457-9">Research</a> into the dark traits suggests those who score high on these qualities lack emotional warmth, act in hostile ways, and exert control over their <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01602-8">children</a>. </p>
<p>People with these tendencies have been <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352250X22000276">shown</a> to dehumanise others, even those closest to them. This can involve treating family and romantic partners as if they have no feelings, as if they are irrational, stupid, rigid like a robot, or as a means to an end. </p>
<p>Our own <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1948550620974892?journalCode=sppa">work</a> has shown people can act this way because their own parents were hostile towards them some 20 years prior.</p>
<h2>Intergenerational transmission</h2>
<p>For some parents, however, engaging in inept and inconsistent care is not driven by conscious motivations to manipulate and hurt their children. </p>
<p>Rather, they may not know how to parent differently. It may be that they too had parents who provided inept or inconsistent care.</p>
<p>Many of these parents have difficulties controlling their own distress when parenting their children. For some, their own worries and concerns become so intense they end up focusing on their own worries over those of their children.</p>
<p>This is an example of <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fbul0000038">intergenerational transmission</a>, where patterns of attachment and parenting can be passed from one generation to the next.</p>
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<h2>A ‘partial reinforcement schedule’</h2>
<p>Irrespective of the reason, the fallout of inept or inconsistent caregiving is that children are placed on what’s known as a <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=5egODAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR1&dq=mikulincer+%26+shaver+2007&ots=IQUv6hURct&sig=hKoEL58Y0eBbKgCcFCeerca28AI&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=mikulincer%20%26%20shaver%202007&f=false">partial reinforcement schedule</a>. </p>
<p>This is where the child’s cries for help are <em>sometimes</em> attended to. They <em>sometimes</em> receive the love and support they require. But other times, the child experiences invalidation, neglect, or gets the message they are not understood or are harming their parent. </p>
<p>Because of this partial reinforcement schedule, children work harder to gain the attention and love of their parents. The child might think: “If I try that little harder to get their attention and approval, they’ll see what I really need, and they’ll provide me with the love, comfort, acknowledgement I desire”. </p>
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<h2>How can we break the spell?</h2>
<p>The need for approval is powerful for good reason, rooted in a long relationship history with our caregivers. Addressing this need often requires psychological intervention.</p>
<p>Therapies with a strong <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/therapy-types/relational-therapy">relational focus</a> can be especially useful in working through issues such as a chronic need for approval. Such therapies include <a href="https://psychmed.com.au/interpersonal-psychotherapy/">interpersonal therapy</a> and <a href="https://www.psychologytools.com/professional/therapies/schema-therapy/#:%7E:text=Schema%20therapy%20(ST)%20is%20an,developed%20and%20refined%20since%20then.">schema therapy</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=-9lTTxdyZoMC&oi=fnd&pg=PA317&dq=young+et+al+(2003)&ots=F1QXnHEiOw&sig=CtrMyHwMcrXS9SIBXRarvr9fHUw&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=young%20et%20al%20(2003)&f=false">Schema therapy</a> aims to help people understand why they have such a strong need for approval.</p>
<p>It uses cognitive, behavioural and emotion-focused strategies to help increase a person’s tolerance of disapproval. It might involve helping someone develop a better sense of their own identity, or use imagery techniques and affirmations to help clients validate themselves rather than seeking approval from an insensitive parent.</p>
<p>For people facing these struggles with a parent, try to identify when your need for approval is triggered, the emotions you feel, and what approval-seeking behaviours you engage in. It can help to write a pros and cons list about how the need for approval affects your life. Self-awareness can help lead to behaviour change.</p>
<p>It can also help to celebrate your own successes and identify your own skills and achievements. Doing so can provide you with evidence that challenges your need for approval from others. Developing <a href="https://self-compassion.org/self-compassion-kristin-neff/#">self-compassion</a> can also help.</p>
<p>Finally, positive affirmations can help challenge your own negative self-beliefs and increase your tendency to be self-approving. This can be as simple as writing down a series of truthful positive statements about yourself. You can refer to these statements when self-doubt creeps in, or when the need for approval of others becomes loud in your mind.</p>
<p><em>If this article has raised issues for you, or if you’re concerned about someone you know, call Lifeline on 13 11 14.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/203664/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gery Karantzas receives funding from the Australian Research Council. He is a couples therapist and founder of <a href="http://www.relationshipscienceonline.com">www.relationshipscienceonline.com</a></span></em></p>Some would suggest the solution is simple: cut ties with the parent, limit contact, rid your life of this difficult relationship. But this is often not realistic.Gery Karantzas, Professor in Social Psychology / Relationship Science, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1990692023-03-03T13:25:28Z2023-03-03T13:25:28ZA little bit of narcissism is normal and healthy – here’s how to tell when it becomes pathological<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511043/original/file-20230220-24-35nquk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=21%2C14%2C4820%2C3615&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">There is a major distinction between healthy and pathological narcissism.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/man-leaning-out-car-window-looking-in-wing-mirror-royalty-free-image/200127466-001">Joos Mind/The Image Bank via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>During former President Donald Trump’s campaign and presidency, the word narcissism <a href="https://psychcentral.com/blog/podcast-donald-trump-and-narcissism#block-e94f1600-f05b-43e9-bd19-5efbeb307249">became something of a buzzword</a>. And in recent years the word has been popularized <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000137">on social media</a> and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2021/nov/07/social-media-fuels-narcissists-worst-desires-making-reasoned-debate-near-impossible">in the press</a>. </p>
<p>As a result, social media and other <a href="https://samvak.tripod.com">online platforms</a> are now rife with insights, tips, stories and theories from life coaches, therapists, psychologists and self-proclaimed narcissists about <a href="https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/navigating-narcissism-with-dr-ramani/id1629909313">navigating relationships with narcissists</a> or managing one’s own symptoms. </p>
<p>The term “narcissism” is commonly used to describe anyone who is egotistical and self-absorbed. Someone who exhibits narcissistic traits may have a personality disorder known as narcissistic personality disorder.</p>
<p>Over the past decade, the rapid development of social networking sites has caused profound changes in the way people communicate and interact. Social media websites such as Facebook, TikTok and Instagram <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000137">can feel like a narcissistic field day</a>. In seconds, one can share self-enhancing content – flattering pictures, boastful statuses and enviable vacations – with a vast audience and receive immediate feedback in the form of “likes” and reinforcing comments from followers. </p>
<p>As a <a href="https://thecouplesclinic.com/our-staff/april-ilkmen/">licensed couple and family therapist</a> who specializes in <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/therapists/april-nisan-ilkmen-geneva-il/899204">relationship issues related to attachment</a>, I have worked with many couples with one partner who is on the narcissistic personality disorder spectrum. One reason the narcissistic partner is challenging to treat is that they’re adept at persuading their partner that they are the dysfunctional one.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">The “malignant narcissist” may be the most worrisome type of all.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Defining narcissism</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.psychoanalysis.columbia.edu/people/faculty/otto-kernberg-md">Dr. Otto Kernberg</a>, a psychiatrist who specializes in personality disorders, differentiates between normal and pathological narcissism using a framework that assesses a person’s capacity to participate in satisfactory romantic relationships. </p>
<p>Normal narcissism refers to a well-integrated sense of self that is generally for the greater good, such as a healthy sense of pride in oneself and one’s accomplishments. Pathological narcissism describes extreme fluctuations between feelings of inferiority and failure <a href="https://doi.org/10.1521/bumc.2013.77.1.1">with a sense of superiority and grandiosity</a>.</p>
<p>Each person has a bit of normal narcissism within them. This can take the form of having self-confidence and even a modicum of entitlement while still displaying empathy and emotion. Research shows the role of healthy narcissism occurs at <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309091021_The_Role_of_Healthy_Narcissism_in_Relating_Emotionally_to_Familiarity_and_the_Unknown">subclinical levels in everyday populations</a> and can help motivate people to enhance themselves and to progress in life.</p>
<p>But when striving for achievement or gain involves an excessive desire for attention and approval and an outsize, grandiose sense of self, it is <a href="https://theconversation.com/heres-what-to-do-when-you-encounter-people-with-dark-personality-traits-at-work-192316">no longer in the realm of healthy narcissism</a>.</p>
<p>A pathological narcissist sees everyone else as an extension of self. Those in a narcissist’s life, especially in their inner circle, must always demonstrate perfection because they contribute to the narcissist’s own self-image. Like many personality disorders, narcissism manifests itself in intimate relationships through the cycle of idealization and devaluation, creating the concept of the so-called toxic relationship.</p>
<h2>Finding a victim</h2>
<p>A narcissist chooses their partners based on whether the partner affirms their grandiose sense of self. And since having that affirmation is the key driver for a narcissist’s relationship, they are generally not interested in learning a lot about the other person.</p>
<p>The things that attract narcissists are not the personal characteristics of the other person or even the connection that comes from the relationship. If the person has a reputable status in their eyes and they find the person appealing, they are usually willing to move forward quickly in the relationship. Unfortunately, as a narcissist’s genuine interest in the other person is typically superficial, the narcissist often loses interest in the relationship just as suddenly as they began it. </p>
<p>Narcissistic abuse is a <a href="https://books.google.com/books/about/Women_who_Love_Psychopaths.html?id=I4g5SQAACAAJ">form of extreme psychological and emotional abuse</a> marked by manipulative communication and intentional deception for exploitation by a person who meets the criteria for pathological narcissism. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Some key traits of narcissism include a sense of entitlement, a lack of boundaries and a need for attention.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Forms of narcissism</h2>
<p>Narcissistic abuse can be insidious and hard to recognize. Since the signs of narcissistic abuse aren’t always obvious, it’s important to name and recognize them.</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Gaslighting: The narcissist uses a manipulation strategy known as gaslighting to make the victim doubt his or her own ability to make a decision or take an action. People use this technique to maintain control over the other person’s sense of reality. When gaslighting occurs, victims are left feeling doubtful and insecure and some even have difficulty recognizing that they are being gaslighted. In some relationships, a co-dependency develops between the narcissist and the victim in which the victim accepts the narcissist’s position of authority.</p></li>
<li><p>Victim mentality: This mindset, which is common for those with narcissistic personality disorder, implies that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167203029007007">everybody owes the narcissist something</a>. In my clinical experience, I have often witnessed the narcissist creating a false narrative about how they did not get what they were supposed to get in life because they were wronged by others. This story allows them to feel entitled to have anger and resentment toward anyone, especially toward people they perceive as successful. </p></li>
<li><p>Cycle of idealization and devaluation: Narcissists form polarized beliefs about themselves and others, meaning that their opinions of themselves and others <a href="https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/yvu2b">can be exceptionally positive or unrealistically negative</a>. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>During the idealization stage, the narcissist creates a sense of unbreakable connection with the victim. No matter what type of relationship it is – whether romantic, professional or familial – it moves fast and has an intense quality to it. </p>
<p>At some point, the narcissist’s partner will disappoint them in some way, usually not on purpose. As a response, the narcissist will criticize every move, jump to conclusions and react dramatically to these perceived disappointments. The narcissist will begin to see their partner as flawed and accuse them of not being the perfect partner they were supposed to be. This phase is characterized by <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/pst0000111">verbal and physical abuse, humiliation, bullying and smearing</a>. </p>
<p>Feelings of emptiness: According to Kernberg, the psychiatrist mentioned above, the inability of narcissists to develop fulfilling and lasting relationships <a href="https://doi.org/10.3917/clini.014.0032">results in a chronically empty internal world</a>. </p>
<p>Narcissistic personality disorder patients will often find themselves “waking up” at age 40, 50 or 60 with a desperate sense of loss. The narcissist often struggles with feelings of emptiness that stem from relying on a false grandiose sense of self that prevents them from being vulnerable. In turn, they project their feelings of emptiness onto the partner in a relationship. Many of these patients suffer from a loss of identity and sense of helplessness and feel alienated from the world. </p>
<h2>Navigating relationships with a narcissist</h2>
<p>Since the narcissist often develops controlling and manipulative relationships with the partner’s friends and family, the victim may feel <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244019846693">reluctant to rely on their intimate circle for support</a>. Finding a therapist who specializes in narcissistic abuse recovery is the first step to start the healing process. </p>
<p>I have had a lot of patients tell me that their therapists aren’t familiar with the term “pathological narcissism.” If they’re not, I suggest that, if possible, these patients find therapists who specialize in emotionally focused therapy or <a href="https://doi.org/10.1521/pedi.2020.34.supp.159">transference focused therapy</a>. These therapies help identify destructive patterns of communication as they arise during a therapy session, rather than focusing only on interactions that arise outside of therapy. </p>
<p>From my perspective, relationships with a narcissistic partner are some of the hardest to treat. The narcissistic partners are often unwilling to participate in therapy because they will not admit that they need help and find it challenging to collaborate with the therapist. Effective couples therapy is rare but not impossible and can occur only when the narcissistic partner acknowledges that their expectations are unreasonable and destructive.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/199069/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>April Nisan Ilkmen does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Narcissistic abuse in relationships can take the form of extreme emotional abuse. Yet both the victim and the abuser may have difficulty recognizing it.April Nisan Ilkmen, PhD Candidate in Couple and Family Therapy, Adler UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1923162023-02-08T13:42:40Z2023-02-08T13:42:40ZHere’s what to do when you encounter people with ‘dark personality traits’ at work<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508142/original/file-20230203-14078-gedpau.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=1000%2C569%2C4133%2C2848&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Keeping your eyes and ears open can keep you from falling for the antics of a dark personality.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/young-businesswoman-sitting-in-cubicle-high-section-royalty-free-image/200495922-001">Noel Hendrickson/DigitalVision via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Have you ever suffered through tales of greatness from a self-absorbed “friend” who reminds you of Michael Scott from “The Office” – and not in a good way? Have you been betrayed by a colleague out of the blue, undermined on a project by the office mean girl, or had a work friendship dropped altogether without explanation?</p>
<p>If any of these scenarios sound familiar, you may have been dealing with someone who has what psychologists term a “dark personality.” These people score higher on three socially undesirable traits: narcissism, psychopathy and Machiavellianism.</p>
<p>As an organizational scholar, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=O6GMV30AAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">I’ve spent years studying personality traits</a> in the context of the sales profession. In recent work, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=fP64fToAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=sra">my colleagues</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=3JMMd3sAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">and I focused</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=-8Rz4qMAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">on the ways</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/00222429221113254">people with these dark personalities succeed</a> in sales organizations and the social factors that allow them to extend their successful tenures. Based on our research, here’s a primer on these antagonistic personality types – and how you can unmask examples you encounter in your everyday life.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508143/original/file-20230203-12714-kjwewj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="man stands soaking in applause from people around conference table" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508143/original/file-20230203-12714-kjwewj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508143/original/file-20230203-12714-kjwewj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508143/original/file-20230203-12714-kjwewj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508143/original/file-20230203-12714-kjwewj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508143/original/file-20230203-12714-kjwewj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508143/original/file-20230203-12714-kjwewj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508143/original/file-20230203-12714-kjwewj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">A narcissist is always first in line to compliment himself.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/multi-ethnic-businesspeople-having-meeting-royalty-free-image/79214499">Jon Feingersh Photography Inc/DigitalVision via Getty Images</a></span>
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</figure>
<h2>Defining the dark personalities</h2>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016338">Narcissists</a> have the most familiar type of dark personality. They aren’t shy about letting you know exactly how highly they think of themselves. At work, you might find the narcissist bragging about their superior sales skills, even though their performance <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/00222429221113254">isn’t much better than the average salesperson</a>. Conservative estimates of narcissism in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.4088/jcp.v69n0701">general population fall around 6.2%</a>. </p>
<p>While narcissistic behavior can be annoying, it’s usually more tolerable than what the other two dark traits tend to serve up. </p>
<p>Functional – meaning noncriminal – psychopaths are particularly disturbing. Psychologists estimate they <a href="https://www.harpercollins.com/products/snakes-in-suits-paul-babiakrobert-d-hare?variant=39689396617250">comprise up to 4% of the general population</a>. Psychopaths have no qualms about <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2009.02.005">exploiting others</a> for their own benefit. Stubbornly antisocial, functional psychopaths generally have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025679">little empathy for others</a>. They’re more concerned about “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/s0092-6566(02)00505-6">getting theirs” by any means necessary</a>. Psychopaths are quick to deflect blame and throw others under the bus, even if it means <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.06.038">telling lies</a>.</p>
<p>With their impulsive tendencies, psychopaths are prone to telling lies for no particular reason at all. If you find yourself in a group water-cooler conversation and hear someone telling lies that don’t seem to serve any purpose, you might have stumbled on a functional psychopath.</p>
<p>In the workplace, at first a psychopath may seem charming. But eventually you’ll likely find yourself either questioning their motivations, or becoming a victim of their destructive behavior. Though they can be harder to identify than narcissists with their nonstop bragging, psychopaths’ egregious behavior tends to unmask them in the end. </p>
<p>Machiavellians are the most prevalent of the dark personalities, estimated to be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000784">about 16% of the population</a>. They get their name from Italian Renaissance statesman <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Niccolo-Machiavelli">Nicolo Macchiavelli</a>, who believed the ends could justify immoral means. Less annoying than narcissists, less abrasive than functional psychopaths, Machiavellians are more subtle in the pursuit of their agendas. They forge ahead regardless of ethical considerations. Like lions, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0092-6566(02)00505-6">Machiavellians seem benevolent</a>, watching their prey from afar – until they strike. They’re adept at playing the long game – it’s their stealth, patience and subtle manipulation that make them a particularly dangerous dark personality.</p>
<p>Compared with a psychopath’s unnecessary lies, you’re more likely to overhear the Machiavellian in the group <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.06.038">telling little white lies</a> that are strategically designed to further a future agenda. For example, you might hear them flattering the colleague you happen to know will be getting a big bonus in the near future – the Machiavellian may be strategically laying the groundwork for being invited to help them spend it. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508144/original/file-20230203-13410-mzpn5f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="two warehouse workers with a pallet truck" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508144/original/file-20230203-13410-mzpn5f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508144/original/file-20230203-13410-mzpn5f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508144/original/file-20230203-13410-mzpn5f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508144/original/file-20230203-13410-mzpn5f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508144/original/file-20230203-13410-mzpn5f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508144/original/file-20230203-13410-mzpn5f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508144/original/file-20230203-13410-mzpn5f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Someone with a dark personality may be happy to take sole credit for work to which you contributed.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/man-warehouse-workers-pulling-a-pallet-truck-with-royalty-free-image/993650090">Halfpoint Images/Moment</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>In short, targets of dark personalities likely find narcissists to be conspicuously and irritatingly self-centered, but generally innocuous. Psychopaths are less obvious in their bad behavior, but their transgressions can be quite severe. Machiavellians are less in-your-face than narcissists, and their nefarious actions are likely to be less severe than those of psychopaths. In the long run, though, a Machiavellian can leave you reeling from an unexpected betrayal to benefit their personal agenda.</p>
<p>As you consider these dark traits and how they show up in interpersonal relationships, you might sense a spark of recognition. Here are five tips for avoiding dark personalities in your own life or minimizing the harm they cause.</p>
<h2>1. Don’t fall for first impressions</h2>
<p>Dark personalities are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550612461284">experts at making great first impressions</a>, drawing you in with humor and charisma. So, when you meet someone new, be wary of superficial appeal. Narcissists, with their tendency to talk themselves up, are the easiest to spot.</p>
<p>To identify the others, ask questions about past relationships and listen carefully for clues about who this person really is. Because dark personalities are almost always unmasked in the end, they’re less likely to have long-standing friendships – an absence they may explain away by faulting others.</p>
<p>Just be mindful not to overcorrect and ditch a potential new work friend based only on first impressions, either.</p>
<h2>2. Share your own (bad) experiences</h2>
<p>When you encounter a dark personality and the outcome is unpleasant, you might feel embarrassed for allowing yourself to be fooled or manipulated, or you might feel guilt or shame when you observe someone treating someone else badly. As a result, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/hrdq.21395">you might not want to talk about it</a>. Dark personalities exploit that reluctance because your silence helps keep hidden their “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/per.1893">core of darkness</a>” – the antagonistic traits that define them. </p>
<p>So to help unmask the dark personality and keep others from meeting the same fate, sharing your experience, with discretion, is critical.</p>
<h2>3. Manage up to clue bosses in</h2>
<p>Those with dark personalities are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025679">good at carefully managing the impressions</a> they make on people in positions of power. So, at work, you can practice managing up to help your boss see the dark personality more clearly.</p>
<p>Share your experiences in a nongossipy way, such as expressing concern about incidents of incivility that you witnessed or requesting advice or guidance in dealing with a very boastful colleague who may be alienating prospects or customers. It may help your boss see through the facade and help you deal with the issue.</p>
<h2>4. Plug into your networks</h2>
<p>On the flip side, remember to also listen to others. To avoid falling into a manipulator’s web, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/00222429221113254">tap into the network of those around you</a> who share a link to the person in question. See if you can gather references regarding their behavior over the long term. Ideally, you can benefit from others’ knowledge, without having to learn the hard way. </p>
<h2>5. Be aware of your own biases</h2>
<p>Don’t underestimate the strength of a dark personality’s machinations. When someone shares a personal story of betrayal, be wary of thinking, “that would never happen to me!” Dark personalities are <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1177/147470491201000303">experts in manipulating situations to serve their interests</a>, and you may never notice you’re ensnared until it’s too late. Considering yourself too smart or savvy to ever find yourself in the same predicament is misguided.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508145/original/file-20230203-3129-mix7a9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="two women talk at a conference table" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508145/original/file-20230203-3129-mix7a9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508145/original/file-20230203-3129-mix7a9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508145/original/file-20230203-3129-mix7a9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508145/original/file-20230203-3129-mix7a9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508145/original/file-20230203-3129-mix7a9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508145/original/file-20230203-3129-mix7a9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508145/original/file-20230203-3129-mix7a9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Keep discussions professional and focused on what’s making it hard for you to do your job.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/businesswomen-having-meeting-with-laptops-in-royalty-free-image/1128219622">Klaus Vedfelt/DigitalVision</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As you apply these tips in your life, you want to be wary of becoming an <a href="https://www.mindtools.com/blog/armchair-psychology-at-work/">armchair pscyhologist</a>. Anyone can have a bad day – and everyone has. Instead of diagnosing friends, partners and colleagues based on what you think might be their underlying personality traits, focus on any bad behaviors you personally witness, and respond to the actions – not what you think underlies them. Best leave that to the professionals.</p>
<p>If you are in charge of organizations or teams, consider having clear guidance and pathways of communication for individuals to report any concerning behavior they witness. By working together and sharing collective experiences, the rest of us can shine light on the workplace misdeeds of those with antagonistic personalities.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/192316/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>I began this work while on faculty at Northeastern University, continued it while on faculty at the University of Connecticut, and completed the work at the University of New Hampshire. Research funding was provided as part of my employment contract at all entities, but not specifically for this work. Additionally, I currently serve as the Research Director for the UNH Sales Center at the Peter T. Paul College of Business and Economics at the University of New Hampshire.</span></em></p>Narcissists, psychopaths and Machiavellians, oh my. These antagonistic personality types can make life hard for the people around them. Here are five tips for how to deal with them at work.Cinthia Beccacece Satornino, Research Director at the UNH Sales Center and Assistant Professor of Marketing, University of New HampshireLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1892612022-09-10T10:01:19Z2022-09-10T10:01:19Z‘Collective religious narcissism’: how young Indonesian Muslims flex their faith on social media<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480721/original/file-20220824-20-jt1h0i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Pexels/Keira Burton)</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The word “narcissism” is often associated with selfies, posting content that boasts one’s achievements, or other forms of showing off.</p>
<p>In Indonesia, the world’s largest Muslim-majority country, “showing off” can also take the form of religious expression.</p>
<p>This was on display in the discrimination and attacks against heterodox Islamic groups such as the Shia community in <a href="https://www.e-journal.unair.ac.id/MKP/article/view/2467">East Java</a> and <a href="https://journal3.uin-alauddin.ac.id/index.php/voxpopuli/article/view/18369">South Sulawesi</a>, and also the Ahmadiyya community in <a href="https://journal.untar.ac.id/index.php/komunikasi/article/view/1507">Banten</a>.</p>
<p>These interdenominational conflicts involved younger and older adults, as a form of “collective religious narcissism”. This psychological tendency can span a community and is based on a certain religious bond.</p>
<p><a href="https://journal.uinsgd.ac.id/index.php/jw/article/view/6623/3924">My research</a> has attempted to understand this phenomenon, and investigate what it looks like in practice, by looking at four Instagram and Facebook pages of youth Muslim groups in Indonesia.</p>
<h2>Collective narcissism</h2>
<p>In psychology, the concept of narcissism is taken from Greek mythology. The Thespian hunter Narcissus is said to have fallen in love with his own reflection in a pool of water. His name was then adopted as a psychological term for someone exhibiting tendencies of extreme self-admiration.</p>
<p>Narcissism was then acknowledged in the fifth edition of the <a href="https://psychiatryonline.org/pb-assets/dsm/update/DSM5Update2016.pdf">Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders</a>. Its most extreme form entails a number of symptoms, including: intense fixation on one’s self; feelings of superiority; a lack of empathy; and tendencies to exploit others.</p>
<p>According to psychology researchers Kevin S. Carlson and Joshua Grubbs, narcissism is most prevalent among young people. Grubb’s research found people in the 18-25 age group are <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0215637">often more narcissistic</a> than their older peers.</p>
<p>Social psychologist <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0963721420917703">Agnieszka Golec de Zavala</a> also posited that narcissism, often starting at the individual level, can develop into a group symptom. For instance, narcissism can manifest in a range of collective phenomena, including ethnocentrism, hyper-nationalism, and religious extremism.</p>
<p>So how do these forms of collective narcissism show themselves among religious youths in Indonesia?</p>
<h2>Indonesian youth, in-group logic, and religious superiority</h2>
<p>My research attempts to investigate this by looking at a number of accounts on Instagram and Facebook.</p>
<p>These include the youth movements of Indonesia’s two largest Muslim majority organisations, Nahdlatul Ulama (@generasi_muda_nu_official) and Muhammadiyah (@pp.pemudamuhammadiyah). I also studied posts by @pemudahijrahyuk (a conservative Islamic youth movement) and Indonesia Tanpa Pacaran/ITP (a youth-led movement advocating for Muslims to reject modern dating). </p>
<p>Although my initial study was conducted in 2019, I argue these groups’ posts in 2022 still follow a similar pattern of advocacy and self-expression.</p>
<p>The youth wings of Nahdlatul Ulama (NU) and Muhammadiyah, for instance, show religious expressions that focus on in-group pride. Muhammadiyah projects <a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/BukVWPQlrj9/?igshid=YmMyMTA2M2Y%3D">messages of self-confidence</a>, potentially as an attempt to bolster a sense of loyalty within the organisation.</p>
<p>The young cadres of NU, similar to their Muhammadiyah counterparts, also proactively express themselves in the digital space.</p>
<p>They often share posts containing messages of self-belonging, pride and greatness. <a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/B3e6rLGA-_I/?igshid=YmMyMTA2M2Y%3D">In a 2019 post</a>, an NU regional leader was quoted saying that his organisation’s members are on the “right path to religious truth”.</p>
<p>However, they sometimes upload responses that can be considered aggressive or offensive toward those that do not share their views.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/ChBgdCxvTxu/?igshid=YmMyMTA2M2Y%3D">Earlier last month</a>, for instance, the account uploaded a post supporting Saudi Arabia’s call to behead Muslims that advocate for the establishment of Islamic states or caliphates, and urging Indonesia to do the same.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478890/original/file-20220812-25-imfieg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478890/original/file-20220812-25-imfieg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478890/original/file-20220812-25-imfieg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478890/original/file-20220812-25-imfieg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478890/original/file-20220812-25-imfieg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478890/original/file-20220812-25-imfieg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478890/original/file-20220812-25-imfieg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478890/original/file-20220812-25-imfieg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Left: A post quoting an NU regional leader, saying that his organisation’s cadres are on the right path to religious truth. Right: a post supporting Saudi Arabia’s call to behead Muslims that advocate for the establishment of Islamic states or caliphates.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Screenshots from @generasi_muda_nu_official's post on October 11th, 2019 and August 9th, 2022)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While the ‘collective narcissism’ exhibited by the two Muslim organisations above mostly focus on their sense of pride, posts by <em>Pemuda Hijrah</em> (roughly translated as ‘Youth Returning to Islam’) and <em>Indonesia Tanpa Pacaran</em> (roughly translated as ‘Indonesia Without Dating’) contain strong sentiments of superiority.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478891/original/file-20220812-20-gx33u5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478891/original/file-20220812-20-gx33u5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478891/original/file-20220812-20-gx33u5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=860&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478891/original/file-20220812-20-gx33u5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=860&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478891/original/file-20220812-20-gx33u5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=860&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478891/original/file-20220812-20-gx33u5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1081&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478891/original/file-20220812-20-gx33u5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1081&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478891/original/file-20220812-20-gx33u5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1081&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A post by Pemuda Hijrah attacking Muslim women who don’t ‘cover up’.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Screenshot from @pemudahijrahyuk's post on September 7th, 2019)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Posts by <em>Pemuda Hijrah</em> actively invite Muslims to adopt Islamic puritanism – a form of the religion that more closely conforms to its original teachings and social context in the 7th century. </p>
<p>The views of these youth-led movements are often viewed as conservative, although their social media posts sometimes also <a href="https://theconversation.com/ukhti-sekaligus-army-negosiasi-unik-antara-agama-dan-hiburan-pada-generasi-muda-muslim-di-indonesia-182694">reference popular culture</a>, from TikTok posts to Korean dramas.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/B2HcM2OFtqK/?igshid=YmMyMTA2M2Y%3D">In a 2019 post</a>, for instance, the group expresses concern and attacks other Muslim women who wear clothes they regard as provocative or revealing the “<em>awrah</em>” — men’s and women’s body parts that may be considered intimate in Islam.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, <em>Indonesia Tanpa Pacaran</em> represents a group that militantly rejects modern dating in Indonesia. In numerous posts, such as one <a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/CgS4QuZhQS3/?igshid=YmMyMTA2M2Y=">uploaded last July</a>, the group vilifies other Muslim women who participate in that culture.</p>
<p>From these social media accounts, we see examples of how Indonesia’s youth Muslim groups express various forms of collective religious narcissism. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478892/original/file-20220812-18-bmhw7t.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478892/original/file-20220812-18-bmhw7t.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478892/original/file-20220812-18-bmhw7t.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=873&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478892/original/file-20220812-18-bmhw7t.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=873&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478892/original/file-20220812-18-bmhw7t.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=873&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478892/original/file-20220812-18-bmhw7t.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1097&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478892/original/file-20220812-18-bmhw7t.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1097&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478892/original/file-20220812-18-bmhw7t.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1097&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Figure 5. A post by ITP vilifies Muslim women who participate in modern dating.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Screenshot from @indonesiatanpapacaran's post on July 22nd, 2022)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Some of them can be considered “positive”, in line with French psychoanalyst <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1002/j.2167-4086.2002.tb00020.x">Andre Green’s</a> argument, as being able to boost individuals’ self-esteem and drive for group activity.</p>
<p>On the other hand, others can be considered “negative” and exhibit narcissism that focus on feelings of religious superiority at the expense of those who do not share their views.</p>
<p>Some of those posts, for instance, express messages that tend to devalue other Muslims and push an “us versus them” narrative that could potentially cause discrimination and oppression.</p>
<h2>Young Indonesians need to be more aware and empathetic</h2>
<p>Based on the above examples, we still see some individuals and groups in Indonesia that champion certain labels of Islamic tradition in a way that tends to be hostile to others, fueled by their in-group logic.</p>
<p>These expressions can push individuals or communities to legitimise violent behaviour in the name of group loyalty.</p>
<p>Young people in Indonesia need to be aware of these social and psychological tendencies – particularly those that strive to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-19650-3_2602">exert social dominance</a> over other minority groups.</p>
<p>Training ourselves and the groups we’re involved in to be more empathetic, is now more important than ever to preserve harmony within our society, and in turn, suppress potential points of conflict between religious groups.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/189261/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Muhammad Naufal Waliyuddin tidak bekerja, menjadi konsultan, memiliki saham, atau menerima dana dari perusahaan atau organisasi mana pun yang akan mengambil untung dari artikel ini, dan telah mengungkapkan bahwa ia tidak memiliki afiliasi selain yang telah disebut di atas.</span></em></p>Narcissism among young people is often associated with selfies and showing off on social media, but it can also take the form of religious expression or fanaticism.Muhammad Naufal Waliyuddin, Researcher of Youth and Religious Studies. Doctoral candidate in Islamic studies, Universitas Islam Negeri Sunan KalijagaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1883602022-08-30T00:27:16Z2022-08-30T00:27:16ZIs narcissism a mental health problem? And can you really diagnose it online?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480708/original/file-20220824-18-l6jgne.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=43%2C51%2C5708%2C3768&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://images.unsplash.com/photo-1509029032154-54ba8b3216d4?ixlib=rb-1.2.1&ixid=MnwxMjA3fDB8MHxwaG90by1wYWdlfHx8fGVufDB8fHx8&auto=format&fit=crop&w=2940&q=80">Unsplash/Laurenz Kleinheider</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s not uncommon these days to hear someone – such as an <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-03-14/stephanie-wood-dark-side-of-dating/100631402">ex romantic partner</a> or a <a href="https://twitter.com/SusanSmithAus/status/1561929197336948736">politician</a> – described as a “narcissist”. </p>
<p>Singer <a href="https://uk.style.yahoo.com/project-different-robbie-williams-took-080000559.html">Robbie Williams</a> recently told an interviewer he took an online test to see if he was one. He revealed the test suggested a “mild indication of narcissistic personality disorder”.</p>
<p>But what is narcissism, when is it a problem and can an online test really provide a reliable diagnosis?</p>
<h2>A fixation on oneself</h2>
<p>According to the Greek myth, a beautiful young man called <a href="https://www.greekmythology.com/Myths/Mortals/Narcissus/narcissus.html">Narcissus</a> fell in love with his own reflection in a pool of water. He stayed staring at it for the rest of his life. His name gave rise to the term “narcissism”, characterised by a fixation on oneself.</p>
<p>Narcissism is a cluster of traits along a range of severity. At one end of the spectrum, people may be confident, charming and well-adapted.</p>
<p>In the middle of the spectrum, people may be overly focused on seeking out status, success and admiration at work or in their social lives. They can have a need to appear perfect, special or superior to others in order to feel OK about themselves.</p>
<p>At the very extreme end, it may become a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK556001/">disorder</a> in which people can be self-centred, grandiose and destructive.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480709/original/file-20220824-20-qpj3ls.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="painting on young man looking at his own reflection" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480709/original/file-20220824-20-qpj3ls.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480709/original/file-20220824-20-qpj3ls.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=727&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480709/original/file-20220824-20-qpj3ls.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=727&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480709/original/file-20220824-20-qpj3ls.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=727&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480709/original/file-20220824-20-qpj3ls.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=913&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480709/original/file-20220824-20-qpj3ls.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=913&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480709/original/file-20220824-20-qpj3ls.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=913&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Narcissus as painted by the Italian Baroque master Caravaggio, circa 1597–1599.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://uploads4.wikiart.org/00129/images/caravaggio/narcissus.jpg!HD.jpg">Wikiart</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/narcissists-theres-more-than-one-type-and-our-research-reveals-what-makes-each-tick-165636">Narcissists: there's more than one type – and our research reveals what makes each tick</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What’s ‘narcissistic personality disorder’?</h2>
<p>“Narcissistic personality disorder” is a mental health diagnosis given to people with extremely narcissistic traits. These traits have reached the point where they start to impact on the person’s ability to function at work or socially.</p>
<p>Narcissistic personality disorder is relatively rare. It is estimated around <a href="http://precaution.org/lib/dhawan_narcissistic_personality_disorder.2010.pdf">1% of the population</a> has a diagnosable form of the condition.</p>
<p>Men tend to be <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fa0038231">more narcissistic</a> than women. There is <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3020091/">no evidence</a> that young people are more narcissistic than previous generations at the same age.</p>
<p>Their symptoms are described as “<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK556001/">pervasive</a>”, meaning they are obvious across all of a person’s activities, not just in specific situations. So, on the face of it, pop star Robbie William’s <a href="https://www.msn.com/en-au/entertainment/celebrity/what-i-project-out-there-is-different-robbie-williams-took-a-test-to-see-if-hes-a-narcissist/ar-AA107H4E">insistence</a> his score on the quiz reflected only his narcissistic personality on stage is not quite accurate.</p>
<p>People with <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/narcissistic-personality-disorder/symptoms-causes/syc-20366662">narcissistic personality disorder</a> tend to overestimate their abilities and exaggerate their achievements. And they are surprised or angry when others don’t notice their accomplishments.</p>
<p>They need constant confirmation of their value, specialness or importance. They may have fantasies about power, success, having perfect lives or relationships, believing these are not only achievable but deserved.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1561692159748833281"}"></div></p>
<h2>Specialness by association</h2>
<p>People with narcissistic personality disorder might talk a lot about how people in their lives are extra special in some way – such as being the very best at something or leaders in a particular field – because it increases their own sense of specialness by association.</p>
<p>When their status or superiority is challenged they can respond with extreme anger, rage or belittling the person and their opinion. They find it difficult to tolerate the thought they may be flawed or vulnerable in some way.</p>
<p>In relationships, they can have exceedingly high expectations of devotion from partners and friends, but may themselves be low in empathy and lack of awareness of others’ needs. They may be envious of and unable to celebrate the success of others, and respond by devaluing them.</p>
<p>They are often unaware of the impact of their behaviours on others.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/impulsive-psychopaths-like-crypto-research-shows-how-dark-personality-traits-affect-bitcoin-enthusiasm-180782">'Impulsive psychopaths like crypto': research shows how 'dark' personality traits affect Bitcoin enthusiasm</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How is it diagnosed?</h2>
<p>Diagnosis should only be made by a mental health professional. Trying to diagnose yourself or someone else with an online quiz may give you results that are misleading and unhelpful.</p>
<p>Narcissistic personality disorder is a cluster of symptoms on a continuum and many diagnoses share similar symptoms. For a proper diagnosis, a clinician needs to assess which cluster of symptoms is present, how far along the continuum they are, and which other diagnoses to exclude.</p>
<p>But a symptom <a href="https://barendspsychology.com/narcissistic-personality-disorder-test/">checklist</a> might help you work out whether you should consider seeing a mental health professional for further assessment or support.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480710/original/file-20220824-24-6h01pu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="person holds phone with break up messages" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480710/original/file-20220824-24-6h01pu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480710/original/file-20220824-24-6h01pu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480710/original/file-20220824-24-6h01pu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480710/original/file-20220824-24-6h01pu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480710/original/file-20220824-24-6h01pu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480710/original/file-20220824-24-6h01pu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480710/original/file-20220824-24-6h01pu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">People with extreme narcissism can be demanding and destructive.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://images.pexels.com/photos/6669782/pexels-photo-6669782.jpeg?cs=srgb&dl=pexels-rodnae-productions-6669782.jpg&fm=jpg">Pexels</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/before-you-judge-personality-tests-consider-what-they-dont-judge-30856">Before you judge personality tests, consider what they don't judge</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How do people get this way?</h2>
<p>We don’t know exactly what <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK556001/">causes</a> narcissistic personality disorder.</p>
<p>There is probably a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3973692/">genetic component</a>. Traits such as aggression, poor emotional regulation and low tolerance to distress tend to be high in people diagnosed with narcissistic personality disorder.</p>
<p>Certain experiences in childhood are also more likely to lead to narcissistic personality disorder. These might be either particularly negative, such as trauma or rejection, or overly positive, such as excessive praise or being constantly told you have extraordinary abilities. Parenting styles that are either very neglectful or overly protective are also <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7216544/#:%7E:text=Moreover%2C%20combinations%20of%20parenting%20styles,with%20higher%20traits%20of%20narcissism.">associated</a> with the development of narcissism.</p>
<p>People with narcissistic personality disorder often have <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5819598/">other mental health</a> conditions, particularly mood disorders. They also have a high rate of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5191918/">suicide</a>. These conditions may have a common cause or they may be a result of the difficulties people with narcissistic personality disorder have with social interactions.</p>
<h2>Can it be treated?</h2>
<p>Narcissistic personality disorder is a lifelong condition that is considered manageable but not curable. There is <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25930131/">no standard medicine or psychological treatment</a> for narcissistic personality disorder.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.sane.org/information-and-resources/facts-and-guides/narcissistic-personality-disorder">Psychological treatment</a> aims to reduce the severity of symptoms, improve mood, manage impulses, and build communication and relationship skills. One of the main goals of therapy is to develop more realistic expectations of others.</p>
<p>Medicines that help with other mental health problems like anxiety, depression and bipolar disorder may also help reduce some symptoms.</p>
<p>People are more likely to seek help for <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/narcissistic-personality-disorder/symptoms-causes/syc-20366662">another mental health condition</a>, such as depression. Getting treatment for these conditions can also positively impact on personality disorder symptoms.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>If this article has raised issues for you, or if you’re concerned about someone you know, call Lifeline on 13 11 14.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/188360/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paula Ross is a psychologist and consultant in the alcohol and other drug sector and has a private practice. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nicole Lee works as a consultant in the health sector and a psychologist in private practice. She currently and has previously been awarded funding by Australian and state governments, NHMRC and other bodies for evaluation and research work.</span></em></p>It’s common to hear ex-lovers or friends and politicians described as ‘narcissists’. But what does this really mean and when it is a problem?Paula Ross, Sessional psychology lecturer, Australian Catholic UniversityNicole Lee, Professor at the National Drug Research Institute (Melbourne), Curtin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1807822022-04-11T19:57:25Z2022-04-11T19:57:25Z‘Impulsive psychopaths like crypto’: research shows how ‘dark’ personality traits affect Bitcoin enthusiasm<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457288/original/file-20220411-19-am14x3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=12%2C6%2C4077%2C2146&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/rear-view-asian-man-has-stock-2124669554">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Since the invention of Bitcoin in 2009 the global cryptocurrency market has grown from nothing to a value of <a href="https://money.com/crypto-market-doubled-value-whats-next/">around US$2 trillion</a>. From a price of US$1 in 2011, Bitcoin rose to an all-time high of more than US$63,000 in April 2021, and now hovers <a href="https://www.coinbase.com/price/bitcoin">around the US$42,000 mark</a>. </p>
<p>Large fluctuations in cryptocurrency prices are common, which makes them a highly speculative investment. What kind of people are willing to take the risk, and what motivates them? </p>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0191886921008321">We conducted a survey</a> to find out. In particular, we wanted to know about the relationship between the so-called “dark tetrad” personality traits and attitudes towards cryptocurrency. </p>
<h2>The dark tetrad</h2>
<p>In psychology, the “<a href="https://psychcentral.com/pro/exhausted-woman/2015/11/the-dark-tetrad-possibly-the-scariest-boss#1">dark tetrad</a>” refers to a group of four personality traits. These are Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy (together known as the “<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0092656602005056">dark triad</a>”), plus sadism. </p>
<p>They are called “dark” because of their “evil” qualities: extreme selfishness and taking advantage of others without empathy. The dark tetrad are also often related to risk-taking behaviours. </p>
<h2>The appeal of cryptocurrency</h2>
<p>We identified two main areas of appeal. First, the high risks and high potential returns of crypto trading make it attractive to the kind of people who like gambling. </p>
<p><iframe id="2PIjE" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/2PIjE/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>Second, cryptocurrencies are not issued or backed by governments like traditional or “fiat” currencies. This makes them attractive to people who distrust government.</p>
<h2>What are the personalities of crypto buyers?</h2>
<p>We asked 566 people to complete online personality surveys as well as answer questions about their attitudes to crypto and whether or not they planned to invest in it. Of our participants, 26% reported they own crypto and 64% showed interest in crypto investing. </p>
<p>We measured their dark tetrad traits using standard psychological tests. We also measured traits that might connect the dark tetrad to judgements about crypto: <a href="https://www.verywellmind.com/how-to-cope-with-fomo-4174664">fear of missing out</a> (FOMO; the feeling that others are experiencing better things than you are), <a href="https://www.berkeleywellbeing.com/positivity.html#:%7E:text=Positivity%20is%20the%20practice%20or,behaviors%20like%20kindness%20and%20generosity.">positivity</a> (the tendency to be positive or optimistic in life), and <a href="https://www.psypost.org/2021/06/new-psychology-research-uncovers-why-people-with-dark-tetrad-personality-traits-are-more-likely-to-believe-conspiracy-theories-61088">belief in conspiracy theories</a>. </p>
<h2>Why do people want to buy crypto? It’s not just about making money</h2>
<p>A common reason to invest in crypto is the hope of earning high returns. Beyond the desire to build wealth, our research shows dark personality traits also drive crypto buying. </p>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machiavellianism_(psychology)">Machiavellianism</a> is named after the Italian political philosophy of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli">Niccolò Machiavelli</a>. People who rate highly on this trait are good at deception and interpersonal manipulation. </p>
<p>Machiavellians take a calculated approach to achieving goals, and avoid impulsive decisions. They are less likely to engage in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_gambling#:%7E:text=Problem%20gambling%20or%20ludomania%20is,both%20social%20and%20family%20costs.">problem gambling</a>. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/behind-the-crypto-hype-is-an-ideology-of-social-change-177981">Behind the crypto hype is an ideology of social change</a>
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<p>Machiavellians also tend to believe strongly in government conspiracies. For example, they often believe politicians usually do not reveal their true motives, and that government agencies closely monitor all citizens. </p>
<p>We found Machiavellians like crypto primarily because they distrust politicians and government agencies. Many crypto supporters believe governments are corrupt, and <a href="https://theconversation.com/behind-the-crypto-hype-is-an-ideology-of-social-change-177981">crypto avoids government corruption</a>.</p>
<h2>Overconfidence and positivity</h2>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcissism">Narcissism</a> is a self-centred personality trait, characterised by feelings of privilege and predominance over others. Narcissists are overconfident and are more willing to do things like <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0191886911000055?casa_token=cFSsgSVVHyAAAAAA:mDeBqzKw0a7eaTCq8JCLHPeVGkiTCc3x_ZIpjtqtl-pmFMEwLVtQ9UUiIRlDtj0HV6VWuyLLl6g">make risky investments in the stock market</a> and gamble. </p>
<p>Narcissists tend to focus on the positive side of life. We found narcissists like crypto because of their great faith in the future, and because of their confidence their own lives will improve. </p>
<h2>Impulsive psychopaths like crypto</h2>
<p>Psychopathy is a callous, impulsive antisocial personality trait. Psychopathic people often find it difficult to perceive, understand, or address emotions due to a lack of emotional intelligence and empathy.</p>
<p>The reckless nature of psychopaths makes them more resistant to stress and anxiety. As a result, psychopaths like <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00662/full">stimulation-seeking</a> and risk-taking. They are prone to gambling and gambling addiction.</p>
<p>We found that impulsive psychopaths like crypto, because they fear missing out on investing rewards that others are experiencing. </p>
<h2>How is sadism involved?</h2>
<p>Everyday <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadistic_personality_disorder">sadism</a> relates to a personality enjoying another’s suffering. Sadists often display aggression and cruel behaviours. For example, sadists troll others on the Internet for enjoyment. </p>
<p>At first glance, buying crypto is unlikely to harm others. However, we found sadists like crypto because they do not want to miss out on investment rewards either. To them, perhaps both the pleasure from seeing another’s pain and the fear of missing out are related to selfishness. </p>
<p>Unlike narcissists, we found both psychopaths and sadists lack positivity about their prospects, which cancels out their liking of crypto.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457315/original/file-20220411-20-vx33pq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457315/original/file-20220411-20-vx33pq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457315/original/file-20220411-20-vx33pq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457315/original/file-20220411-20-vx33pq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457315/original/file-20220411-20-vx33pq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457315/original/file-20220411-20-vx33pq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457315/original/file-20220411-20-vx33pq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dark tetrad personality traits influence positivity, conspiracy beliefs, and fear of missing out, which in turn influence attitudes to cryptocurrency.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wes Mountain/The Conversation</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A psychological lens</h2>
<p>Studying cryptocurrency through the psychological lens of the dark tetrad offers insight into why people want to buy crypto. We are not suggesting that everyone interested in crypto displays dark tetrad traits.</p>
<p>We studied only a subset of people interested in crypto who do have these traits. If you happen to be a Bitcoin or other crypto holder, you may or may not exhibit them. </p>
<p>If you want to know how you score for dark tetrad traits, you can do the <a href="https://openpsychometrics.org/tests/SD3/">Dark Triad Personality Test</a> and <a href="https://www.psychmechanics.com/sadism-test/">Sadism Test</a> online.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/180782/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Narcissism and belief in conspiracy theories may be among the factors that motivate people to buy cryptocurrencies.Di Wang, Senior lecturer, Queensland University of TechnologyBrett Martin, Professor of Marketing, Queensland University of TechnologyJun Yao, Senior Lecturer in Marketing, Macquarie UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1787152022-03-16T12:07:24Z2022-03-16T12:07:24Z‘Dark empaths’: how dangerous are psychopaths and narcissists with empathy?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451885/original/file-20220314-17-ivtayz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=147%2C38%2C5013%2C3135&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">You may have psychopathic traits, too.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/woman-hair-covered-face-portrait-studio-1016735176">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>People with “dark personality traits”, such as psychopathy or narcissism, are more likely to be callous, disagreeable and antagonistic in their nature. Such traits exist on a continuum – we all have more or less of them, and this does not necessarily equate to being clinically diagnosed with a personality disorder. </p>
<p>Traditionally, people who are high in dark traits are considered to have <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00095/full">empathy deficits</a>, potentially making them more dangerous and aggressive than the rest of us. But we recently discovered something that challenges this idea. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886920303615?via%3Dihub">Our study</a>, published in Personality and Individual Differences, identified a group of individuals with dark traits who report above-average empathic capacities – we call them “dark empaths”. </p>
<p>Since this study, the dark empath <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tl20Ke2Y58g">has earned a reputation</a> as the most dangerous personality profile. But is this really the case?</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/Tl20Ke2Y58g?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
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<p>Dark personality traits include psychopathy, machiavellianism and narcissism, collectively called the <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00467/full">“dark triad”</a>. More recently, it has been suggested that sadism be added, culminating in a <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284274893_The_Dark_Tetrad">“dark tetrad”</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-a-psychopath-125660">Psychopathy</a> is characterised by a superficial charm and callousness. People high in such traits often show an erratic lifestyle and antisocial behaviour. <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00454/full">Machiavellianism</a> derives from the writings of <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/machiavelli/">Niccolò Machiavelli</a>, a Renaissance author, historian and philosopher. He described power games involving deception, treachery and crime. Thus, machiavellianism refers to an exploitative, cynical and manipulative nature. <a href="https://theconversation.com/narcissists-theres-more-than-one-type-and-our-research-reveals-what-makes-each-tick-165636">Narcissism</a> is characterised by an exaggerated sense of entitlement, superiority and grandiose thinking, while <a href="https://theconversation.com/from-psychopaths-to-everyday-sadists-why-do-humans-harm-the-harmless-144017">sadism</a> denotes a drive to inflict and enjoy pain in others.</p>
<p>The dark traits, particularly psychopathy and machiavellianism, have been consistently associated with aggressive and anti-social behaviour.</p>
<h2>The empathy puzzle</h2>
<p>Empathy can refer to the capacity to share feelings, namely “affective empathy” (if you are sad, I also feel sad). But it can also be the ability to understand other people’s minds, dubbed “cognitive empathy” (I know what you think and why you are feeling sad). </p>
<p>For example, the lack of (specifically affective) empathy is a well documented hallmark in clinical psychopathy used to explain their often persistent, instrumental violent behaviour. Our own work supports the notion that one of the reasons people with dark traits hurt other people or have difficulties in relationships is an underpinning lack of empathy. </p>
<p>Paradoxically, however, some researchers have previously reported <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01316/full">average or even higher levels of some aspects of empathy</a> in some people with dark traits.</p>
<p>This makes sense in a way, as to manipulate others for your own gain – or indeed enjoy the pain of others – you must have at least some capacity to understand them. Thus, we questioned whether dark traits and empathy were indeed mutually exclusive phenomena. </p>
<h2>Dark empaths</h2>
<p>We asked almost 1,000 people to complete assessments, based on questionnaires, on the dark triad and empathy. We then used a method called <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0001879120300701#:%7E:text=Latent%20profile%20analysis%20(LPA)%20is,a%20certain%20set%20of%20variables.">latent profile analysis</a> that allows you to establish clusters of people with different profiles of certain trait combinations.</p>
<p>As expected, we found a traditional dark triad group with low scores in empathy (about 13% of the sample). We also found a group with lower to average levels across all traits (about 34% were “typicals”) and a group with low dark traits and high levels of empathy (about 33% were “empaths”). However, the fourth group of people, the “dark empaths”, was evident. They had higher scores on both dark traits and empathy (about 20% of our sample). Interestingly, this latter group scored higher on both cognitive and affective empathy than the “dark triad” and “typical” groups. </p>
<p>We then characterised these groups based on measures of aggression, general personality, psychological vulnerability and wellbeing. The dark empaths were not as aggressive as the traditional dark triad group – suggesting the latter are likely more dangerous. Nevertheless, the dark empaths were more aggressive than typicals and empaths, at least on a measure of indirect aggression - that is, hurting or manipulating people through social exclusion, malicious humour and guilt-induction. Thus, although the presence of empathy was limiting their level of aggression, it was not eliminating it completely.</p>
<p>In line with this notion, empaths were the most “agreeable” (a personality trait showing how nice or friendly you are), followed by typicals, then dark empaths, and last dark triads. Interestingly, dark empaths were more extroverted than the rest, a trait reflecting the tendency to be sociable, lively and active. Thus, the presence of empathy appears to encourage an enjoyment of being or interacting with people. But it may potentially also be motivated by a desire to dominate them. </p>
<p>Moreover, dark empaths were a little higher in neuroticism, a type of negative thinking, but did not score higher on depression, anxiety or stress. Instead, their neuroticism may reflect sub-traits such as anger, hostility or self-doubt. Indeed, the dark empaths reported judging themselves more harshly than those with dark triad personalities. So it seems they may have a conscience, perhaps even disliking their dark side. Alternatively, their negative emotions may be a response to their self-loathing. </p>
<h2>Hidden dangers</h2>
<p>Though the aggression reported by the dark empaths was not as high as the traditional dark triad group, the danger of this personality profile is that their empathy, and likely resulting social skills, make their darkness harder to spot. We believe that dark empaths have the capacity to be callous and ruthless, but are able to limit such aggression. </p>
<p>It is worth noting, however, that those clinically diagnosed with an antisocial personality disorder (often showing excessive levels of dark traits), most certainly lack empathy and are dangerous predators – <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4059069/#:%7E:text=The%20psychopath%20has%20had%20and,in%20North%20American%20prison%20systems.">and many of them are in prison</a>. Our research is looking at people in the general population who have elevated levels of dark personality traits, rather than personality disorders.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Image of a psychological support group." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451888/original/file-20220314-3190-hi5run.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451888/original/file-20220314-3190-hi5run.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451888/original/file-20220314-3190-hi5run.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451888/original/file-20220314-3190-hi5run.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451888/original/file-20220314-3190-hi5run.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451888/original/file-20220314-3190-hi5run.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451888/original/file-20220314-3190-hi5run.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Empathy may protect against aggression.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://shutterstock.com/image-photo/rear-view-upset-man-feel-pain-1477336778">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We are continuing our quest to find out more about the characteristics of the dark empaths in relation to other psychological outcomes. For example, we are interested in their risk taking, impulsivity or physically aggressive behaviour. We also want to understand how they process emotions or facial expressions, or how they perceive and react to threats. </p>
<p>We are currently replicating and extending some of our findings using the dark tetrad instead. Our results are yet to be published, but indicate there are two further profiles in addition to the four groups we’ve already identified. One is an “emotionally internalised group”, with high levels of affective empathy and average cognitive empathy, without elevated dark traits. The other shows a pattern similar to autistic traits – particularly, low cognitive empathy and average affective empathy in the absence of elevated dark traits. </p>
<p>We are hoping this research may be able to shift our understanding of empathy in the context of the dark traits.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/178715/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Researchers used to believe people with ‘dark personalities’ had empathy deficits, but new research is challenging that.Nadja Heym, Senior Lecturer in Psychology, Nottingham Trent UniversityAlexander Sumich, Associate Professor of Psychology, Nottingham Trent UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1660862021-08-19T13:55:07Z2021-08-19T13:55:07ZCanadian election 2021: Why rural Canada must play a central role<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/416426/original/file-20210817-59076-7ezng7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C110%2C7360%2C4781&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The village of Westport, Ont., northeast of Kingston, is like many vibrant rural communities in Canada that deserve to be heard on election day. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source"> THE CANADIAN PRESS/Sean Kilpatrick </span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Depending on who you ask, Canada’s 44th election is either <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/trudeau-otoole-singh-federal-election-pandemic-1.6141903">poorly timed or urgent</a>, <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2021/08/14/canada-election-trudeau-liberals-conservatives-david-moscrop/">inconvenient or generation-defining</a>.</p>
<p>While <a href="https://www.samaracanada.com/research/2017-democracy-360/the-numbers/participation">political engagement and participation don’t start or end at the voting booth</a>, elections represent moments where the relationship between people and our governments feels incredibly close as well as precariously prone to rupture.</p>
<p>Who we elect and what they choose to do — or not do — on our behalf can shape our lives.</p>
<p>As a ruralist and a futurist, my interest in this election is focused on whether rural people and places will find themselves <a href="https://ottawacitizen.com/news/local-news/how-ontario-is-failing-its-rural-residents-and-why-it-matters">marginalized</a>, <a href="http://sorc.crrf.ca/recommendations/">pushed to the periphery</a> or tokenized with a single platform item (which <a href="https://nunatsiaq.com/stories/article/conservatives-ndp-promise-northerners-housing-broadband-internet/">appears to be rural broadband during this election cycle</a>) instead of <a href="https://fcm.ca/sites/default/files/documents/resources/report/rural-challenges-national-opportunities.pdf">appreciated and included</a> in policy proposals.</p>
<p>For too much public policy, <a href="https://www.thenationalcouncil.org/webinars/rural-health-addressing-structural-urbanism-in-rural-communities-through-innovative-partnerships-and-funding/">structural urbanism</a> (policy choices that use per-capita approaches, favouring large populations and high-density service delivery) and <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/pap0000179">geographic narcissism</a> (when urban experiences are assumed to be the default, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/pap0000179">definitive reality</a>) have left rural people <a href="http://sorc.crrf.ca/">feeling unheard and unsupported</a>.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/geographical-narcissism-when-city-folk-just-assume-theyre-better-127318">Geographical narcissism: when city folk just assume they're better</a>
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<p>Some have argued that an election wouldn’t have been called right now if the current wildfires affecting large portions of rural and remote British Columbia were impacting major urban centres.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1427111716303736836"}"></div></p>
<p>What do rural people deserve from the potential leaders of the next Parliament?</p>
<h2>Rural-urban interdependencies</h2>
<p>While much public policy reduces rural regions to the places where food and energy are produced, rural places are <a href="https://policyoptions.irpp.org/magazines/july-2020/will-post-covid-policies-realize-the-full-potential-of-rural-canada/">valuable in their own right</a> as places where people build lives and livelihoods. As such, rural places are where <a href="http://crrf.ca/riinfrastructure/">the impacts of climate change are often keenly felt</a> and where cracks in our <a href="http://crrf.ca/ri-drinkingwaternl/">infrastructure</a> and <a href="http://crrf.ca/ri-healthcareworkers/">holes in our</a><a href="http://crrf.ca/ri-mentalhealth/">social safety nets</a> are increasingly visible.</p>
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<img alt="The burnt remnants of a property amid scorched trees." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/416383/original/file-20210816-19-oa3ks0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/416383/original/file-20210816-19-oa3ks0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/416383/original/file-20210816-19-oa3ks0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/416383/original/file-20210816-19-oa3ks0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/416383/original/file-20210816-19-oa3ks0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/416383/original/file-20210816-19-oa3ks0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/416383/original/file-20210816-19-oa3ks0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">A property destroyed by the Lytton Creek wildfire is seen near the rural community of Lytton, B.C., in August 2021. Rural communities are keenly feeling the impact of climate change.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Darryl Dyck</span></span>
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<p><a href="https://policyoptions.irpp.org/magazines/february-2021/perception-and-reality-across-canadas-urban-rural-divide/">While rural and urban people are continuously framed as divided</a>, <a href="https://policyoptions.irpp.org/magazines/june-2019/urban-rural-divide-atlantic-canada-myth/">this myth</a> is <a href="https://nordregio.org/nordregio-magazine/issues/connecting-the-urban-and-the-rural/how-useful-is-the-concept-of-an-urban-rural-divide/">unproductive</a>, <a href="https://psmag.com/news/why-arent-rural-canadians-in-favor-of-trump">disingenuous</a> and increasingly <a href="https://policyoptions.irpp.org/magazines/june-2017/the-urbanrural-divide-and-a-more-inclusive-canada/">dangerous</a>. Canadian rural and urban communities <a href="http://cdnregdev.ruralresilience.ca/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/RU_Primer-WP-CRD5.pdf">are fundamentally interconnected and interdependent</a>.</p>
<p>Just as we understand that Toronto and Vancouver are very different cities, it’s important for decision-makers to consider <a href="https://www.dropbox.com/s/pc52ovjvto67tz2/CRRF2019Bollman.pptx?dl=0">the specific impacts their policies</a> will have on <a href="http://crrf.ca/building-the-canada-we-want-in-2050/">different types of rural communities</a> across the country.</p>
<p>This election provides the opportunity to recognize rural-urban interdependencies as a means to get past <a href="https://www.nationalobserver.com/2019/11/05/analysis/density-matters-clear-divide-between-urban-and-rural-canadian-voters">the kind of polarization</a> some have referred to as “<a href="https://voxeu.org/article/revenge-places-dont-matter%22%22">the revenge of the places that don’t matter</a>.” The cost of failing to recognize these ties will be an even more socially, economically and politically fractured country.</p>
<p>Rural places are not failed cities or cities-in-waiting, but something entirely different. Canada cannot afford platforms and policies built on incorrect or outdated <a href="https://financialpost.com/commodities/agriculture/why-your-assumptions-about-rural-canadians-are-probably-all-wrong">stereotypes</a><a href="https://briarpatchmagazine.com/articles/view/black-lives-matter-in-rural-canada-too">about rural people</a><a href="https://ipolitics.ca/2019/01/10/urban-and-rural-canada-may-be-closer-than-we-think/">and places</a>.</p>
<p><a href="http://bit.ly/ROI_2019ForesightPapers">Rural Canadians are just as likely to be entrepreneurs, health-care workers or corporate employees</a> as they are to be farmers, tourism operators or to work in the oil and gas industry — and many rural people are multi-hyphenate combinations. It’s time for <a href="https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/ruralReview/article/view/5965/5641.">public policy</a> <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LpqnS5S2oUg">to reflect</a> these current rural realities.</p>
<p>Rural Canada deserves nuanced, <a href="http://rplc-capr.ca/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Place-Based-Policy-Reflections-Weeden-Print-Version-2020-1.pdf%22%22">place-based policy</a>
<a href="http://cdnregdev.ruralresilience.ca/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/primerplacebaseddevelopment-markey.pdf">considerations</a> that reflect <a href="http://crrf.ca/ri-ruralrecoveryresilience/">rural priorities</a> and support vibrant and prosperous livelihoods.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A woman runs on an old railway bridge with mountains in the background." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/416423/original/file-20210817-6629-15nrwim.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/416423/original/file-20210817-6629-15nrwim.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/416423/original/file-20210817-6629-15nrwim.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/416423/original/file-20210817-6629-15nrwim.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/416423/original/file-20210817-6629-15nrwim.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/416423/original/file-20210817-6629-15nrwim.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/416423/original/file-20210817-6629-15nrwim.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An old railway bridge is used as a walking and cycling path for residents of Canmore, Alta.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Jeff McIntosh</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While rural Canada now has a minister of Rural Economic Development, our country has not had effective mechanisms for ensuring that public policies and programs consider rural-specific implications (for example, “<a href="https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/9f760bc0-en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/9f760bc0-en">rural proofing</a>”) since the <a href="http://ruraldev.ca/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/RuralProofinginCanada-HallGibson.pdf">disbandment of the Rural Secretariat in 2013</a>, which was itself a voluntary intervention that lacked enforcement or repercussions for non-use. </p>
<p>Prior to the dissolution of Parliament, government ministers had begun referring to <a href="https://www.ourcommons.ca/DocumentViewer/en/11304422">a “rural lens” for public policy</a>. However, nothing concrete or tangible has been shared about how this lens was developed and what, exactly, it entails. If, and how, political platforms have employed a rural lens is similarly unclear.</p>
<h2>Pointed questions</h2>
<p>Rural Canadians should be asking potential elected representatives pointed questions about how they will move beyond platform platitudes to develop concrete, evidence-based plans for supporting rural people and places. Similarly, rural voters must consider how their choices about who represents them in the House of Commons will shape their lives, their relationships to other places and the future of rural people for generations to come.</p>
<p>A diverse body of research indicates that any agenda that aims to support rural Canadians must invest in <a href="http://crrf.ca/building-the-canada-we-want-in-2050/">rural infrastructure </a>(<a href="https://www.cigionline.org/articles/the-digital-divide-has-become-a-chasm-heres-how-we-bridge-the-gap/">particularly broadband</a>); address affordable and attainable <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/red-hot-rural-canadian-towns-grapple-with-big-city-like-real-estate-boom-2021-05-13/">rural housing</a>; improve rural access to health care; support affordable and appropriate rural and regional <a href="http://www.northernpolicy.ca/article/public-transportation-not-just-an-urban-concern-293.asp">public transportation</a>, respond thoughtfully to <a href="http://crrf.ca/ri-employment/">changing</a> rural-urban <a href="http://crrf.ca/ri-newcomersmigrants/">demographics</a> and <a href="https://on360.ca/policy-papers/measuring-ontarios-urban-rural-divide/">dynamics</a>; and replace outdated and exploitative models of economic development with <a href="https://theconversation.com/rural-vs-urban-canada-no-one-size-fits-all-covid-19-recovery-157107">new approaches</a> that promote social, economic and environmental justice. </p>
<p>As rural researcher <a href="https://www.concordia.ca/artsci/cissc/faculty.html?fpid=bill-reimer">Bill Reimer</a> has argued: <a href="https://soundcloud.com/ruralroutes/s3e8-rural-urban-interaction">we know what works for rural communities</a>, we just need to do it.</p>
<h2>Climate action, income gap, reconciliation</h2>
<p>A major issue of this election campaign is likely to be the <a href="http://crrf.ca/a-rural-response-2021-federal-budget/">social and economic challenges</a> presented by the continuing COVID-19 pandemic. However, we’ll continue to face escalating crises if we don’t address the climate emergency, if we fail to reverse growing economic inequality and if we neglect to deal with Canada’s colonial past through meaningful work towards truth and reconciliation.</p>
<p>If the next Parliament is to manage our most pressing challenges — climate change, housing and <a href="http://crrf.ca/ri-agrifood/">food security</a>, infrastructure investment, respectful and meaningful nation-to-nation relations with Indigenous Peoples, and recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic — it will need to facilitate the full participation and support of rural people.</p>
<p>Rural communities <a href="http://crrf.ca/ri-ruralrecoveryresilience/">are valuable</a>, <a href="https://torontoist.com/2016/10/how-canadas-rural-communities-can-become-innovation-hubs/">vital players</a> in our <a href="http://sorc.crrf.ca/recommendations/">national economy and social fabric</a>. </p>
<p>Whether rural people feel seen, heard and valued by the political parties asking for their votes could be a key determinant to who successfully wins seats and sets the agenda for the critical years to come.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/166086/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>S. Ashleigh Weeden is a PhD Candidate in the School of Environmental Design and Rural Development at the University of Guelph. She has served as Project Coordinator and Editor for the 'Rural Insights Series: COVID-19' for the Canadian Rural Revitalization Foundation (CRRF) (supported by the Rural Policy Learning Commons (RPLC), a research network funded through a Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC) partnership grant). Ashleigh is involved in a variety of research initiatives related to future-oriented rural policy, rural infrastructure, and place-based approaches to rural development. She regularly serves as an expert advisor, convener, and facilitator for organizations interested in advancing rural policy priorities. Ashleigh has received funding from the RPLC, CRRF, the Ontario Agri-Food Innovation Alliance, the Digital Justice Lab, and the University of Guelph to support her research activities.</span></em></p>Whether Canada is able to address the most pressing challenges of the next several generations requires the full participation and support of rural people and places.S. Ashleigh Weeden, PhD Candidate, School of Environmental Design & Rural Development, University of GuelphLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1656362021-08-05T12:39:00Z2021-08-05T12:39:00ZNarcissists: there’s more than one type – and our research reveals what makes each tick<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/414545/original/file-20210804-15-syx8fm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=50%2C84%2C5615%2C3631&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Not all narcissists are loud.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/fashionable-woman-admires-herself-reflection-shop-657462577"> By K Petro/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Chances are you’ve met a narcissist. Someone who thinks they’re better than everyone else, dominates the conversation and loves the limelight. But scientists are increasingly realising that not all narcissists are the same – some are, in fact, extremely insecure.</p>
<p>In our new paper, <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/01461672211021189">published in Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin</a>, we describe the distinct types – and what motivates them.</p>
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<iframe id="noa-web-audio-player" style="border: none" src="https://embed-player.newsoveraudio.com/v4?key=x84olp&id=https://theconversation.com/narcissists-theres-more-than-one-type-and-our-research-reveals-what-makes-each-tick-165636&bgColor=F5F5F5&color=D8352A&playColor=D8352A" width="100%" height="110px"></iframe>
<p><em>You can listen to more articles from The Conversation, narrated by Noa, <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/audio-narrated-99682">here</a>.</em></p>
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<p>In classical Greek mythology, the hunter Narcissus was the son of the river god Cephissus and the nymph Liriope. He was known for his exceptional beauty and physique. One day when Narcissus was walking in the forest, the beautiful nymph Echo saw him and fell in love with him. However, he rejected her affections, leaving her heartbroken. </p>
<p>As a punishment, Nemesis, the goddess of revenge, lured him to a pool of water where he encountered his own reflection for the first time. Narcissus fell in love with his reflection, and, eventually realising that his love could not be reciprocated, pined away to his death.</p>
<p>The myth of Narcissus warns us of the dangers of excessive self-love, self-absorption and lack of empathy for others. It has had a profound influence on western culture, art and literature. </p>
<p>Narcissism is also a popular topic in psychology. The English physician <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/facilities/cadbury/rarebooks/havelockellis.aspx">Havelock Ellis</a> first identified narcissism as a mental disorder in the late 19th century. Sigmund Freud considered narcissism to be a <a href="https://psychcentral.com/pro/freud-and-the-nature-of-narcissism#1">normal part of a child’s development</a>, but argued that it could become a disorder if it persisted after puberty into adulthood.</p>
<p>In modern psychology, narcissism is usually conceptualised as a <a href="https://doi.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037/a0018229">personality trait</a>, which lies on a spectrum. Some people are more narcissistic, others less so. Narcissism <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/S15327965PLI1204_1">typically involves</a> an inflated view of oneself, a sense of superiority and entitlement and a lack of concern for others. The above portrait of a narcissist is a familiar one. But it isn’t the only one.</p>
<h2>Grandiose versus vulnerable</h2>
<p>In our research, we investigated two types of previously identified narcissism: <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2010.00711.x">grandiose and vulnerable</a>. Grandiose narcissists are arrogant, dominant and extroverted. They tend to have high self-esteem, be bold and assertive and feel happy and confident about their lives. </p>
<p>Vulnerable narcissists, on the other hand, are withdrawn, neurotic and insecure. They tend to have low self-esteem, be hypersensitive and feel anxious and depressed. However, these two types of narcissists also have something in common. Both are selfish, feel entitled to special treatment and privileges and relate to others in antagonistic ways.</p>
<p>You might be able to recognise the two types of narcissists by how they behave in social situations. Grandiose narcissists are socially competent. They are likely to be dominant and charming. Vulnerable narcissists, on the other hand, are less socially skilled. They are likely to be shy and anxious in social situations. What’s more, while grandiose narcissists are forthright and assertive in pursuing in their goals, seeking to maximise success, vulnerable narcissists are timid and defensive, <a href="https://guilfordjournals.com/doi/pdf/10.1521/pedi_2017_31_318">seeking to minimise failure</a>. </p>
<p>In our research, we examined the social motives and perceptions of both grandiose and vulnerable narcissists. In particular, we investigated their desires to attain social status and social inclusion. We also looked at whether they felt they had been successful in attaining <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037/a0038781">social status</a> and <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037/0022-3514.68.3.518">social inclusion</a>. </p>
<p>Social status refers to being respected and admired by others. It involves standing out and being seen as an important person in the social hierarchy. In contrast, social inclusion refers to being liked and accepted by others. It involves fitting in well with others as part of the social community. </p>
<p>Any given person may have or desire both status and inclusion, only one of the two, or neither. For example, in the TV show <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0096697/">The Simpsons</a>, the character of Mr Burns has high status but is not particularly liked and accepted, whereas the character of Homer Simpson is well liked and accepted but does not have high status.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Silhouette of a man pointing at himself at the mirror, his reflection wearing a crown." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/414547/original/file-20210804-19-1869wv3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/414547/original/file-20210804-19-1869wv3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414547/original/file-20210804-19-1869wv3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414547/original/file-20210804-19-1869wv3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414547/original/file-20210804-19-1869wv3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414547/original/file-20210804-19-1869wv3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414547/original/file-20210804-19-1869wv3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Grandiose narcissists are arrogant, dominant and extroverted.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/concept-narcissistic-egoistic-man-silhouette-standing-703750441">Prazis Images/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We conducted two studies, recruiting 676 adults based in the United States. We assessed their levels of both grandiose and vulnerable narcissism. We also assessed the extent to which they desired status and inclusion as well as the extent to which they felt they had attained their goals.</p>
<p>We found that both grandiose and vulnerable narcissists strongly desired social status. Interestingly, whereas grandiose narcissists felt they were successful in attaining this status, vulnerable narcissists felt they did not get the status they deserved. </p>
<p>What’s more, grandiose narcissists did not feel they had attained social inclusion but did not particularly desire it either. In contrast, vulnerable narcissists also did not feel they had attained social inclusion but strongly desired it. Grandiose narcissists therefore felt they had met their social goals, but vulnerable narcissists did not.</p>
<p>Both types of narcissists crave the respect and admiration of others. But while grandiose narcissists may be stars on the interpersonal stage, triumphantly capturing the spotlight, their vulnerable counterpart may be a bit player lurking on the sidelines, resentfully seeking, but failing to obtain, the applause they crave.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/165636/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nikhila Mahadevan does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Some narcissists want to feel included in by the group whereas others don’t really care.Nikhila Mahadevan, Lecturer in Psychology, University of EssexLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1558152021-05-25T12:12:58Z2021-05-25T12:12:58ZNarcissistic people aren’t just full of themselves – new research finds they’re more likely to be aggressive and violent<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/386187/original/file-20210224-21-1bi8v6e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=23%2C7%2C5224%2C3493&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">People who think they are superior have no qualms about attacking those they regard as inferior. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/man-looking-in-bathroom-mirror-adjusting-necktie-royalty-free-image/639549263">Sigrid Olsson/PhotoAlto Agency RF Collections via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take about interesting academic work.</em></p>
<h2>The big idea</h2>
<p>We recently reviewed 437 studies of narcissism and aggression involving a total of over 123,000 participants and found narcissism is related to a <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2021-48823-001">21% increase in aggression and an 18% increase in violence</a>.</p>
<p>Narcissism is defined as “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868316685018">entitled self-importance</a>.” The term narcissism comes from the mythical <a href="https://www.greekmythology.com/Myths/Mortals/Narcissus/narcissus.html">Greek character Narcissus</a>, who fell in love with his own image reflected in still water. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470561119.socpsy002023">Aggression is defined</a> as any behavior intended to harm another person who does not want to be harmed, whereas <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470561119.socpsy002023">violence is defined</a> as aggression that involves extreme physical harm such as injury or death. </p>
<p>Our review found that individuals high in narcissism are especially aggressive when provoked, but are also aggressive when they aren’t provoked. Study participants with high levels of narcissism showed high levels of physical aggression, verbal aggression, spreading gossip, bullying others and even displacing aggression against innocent bystanders. They attacked in both a hotheaded and coldblooded manner. Narcissism was related to aggression in males and females of all ages from both Western and Eastern countries.</p>
<p>People who think they are superior seem to have no qualms about attacking others whom they regard as inferior. </p>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>Research shows <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868316685018">everyone has some level of narcissism</a>, but some people have higher levels than others. The higher the level of narcissism, the higher the level of aggression. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/386191/original/file-20210224-15-1lgjx4b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A woman puckers her lips while taking a selfie." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/386191/original/file-20210224-15-1lgjx4b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/386191/original/file-20210224-15-1lgjx4b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/386191/original/file-20210224-15-1lgjx4b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/386191/original/file-20210224-15-1lgjx4b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/386191/original/file-20210224-15-1lgjx4b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/386191/original/file-20210224-15-1lgjx4b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/386191/original/file-20210224-15-1lgjx4b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A dark side to selfies?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/woman-puckers-up-for-a-selfie-royalty-free-image/477609082">CREATISTA/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>People high in narcissism tend to be <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2011-16529-030">bad relationship partners</a>, and they also tend to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2114">discriminate against others</a> and to be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2019.1645730">low in empathy</a>. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, narcissism is on the rise, and social media might be a contributing factor. Recent research found people who posted large numbers of selfies on social media <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/11/181109112655.htm">developed a 25% rise in narcissistic traits</a> over a four-month period. A 2019 survey by the smartphone company Honor found that <a href="https://news.sky.com/story/strike-a-pose-selfies-are-more-popular-than-ever-11890289">85% of people are taking more pictures of themselves than ever before</a>. In recent years, social media has largely evolved from keeping in touch with others <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/2019/12/19/end-decade-heres-how-social-media-has-evolved-over-10-years/4227619002/">to flaunting for attention</a>.</p>
<h2>What other research is being done</h2>
<p>One very important line of work investigates how people become narcissistic in the first place. For example, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1420870112">one study</a> found that when parents overvalue, overestimate and overpraise their child’s qualities, their child tends to become more narcissistic over time. Such parents think their child is more special and entitled than other children. This study also found that if parents want their child to have healthy self-esteem instead of unhealthy narcissism, they should give unconditional warmth and love to their child.</p>
<p>Our review looked at the link between narcissism and aggression at the individual level. But the link also exists at the group level. Research has found that “collective narcissism” – or “my group is superior to your group” – <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016904">is related to intergroup aggression</a>, especially when one’s in-group (“us”) is threatened by an out-group (“them”).</p>
<h2>How we do our work</h2>
<p>Our study, called a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470743386">meta-analytic review</a>, combined data from multiple studies investigating the same topic to develop a conclusion that is statistically stronger because of the increased number of participants. A meta-analytic review can reveal patterns that aren’t obvious in any one study. It is like looking at the entire forest rather than at the individual trees.</p>
<p>[<em>Get facts about coronavirus and the latest research.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=coronavirus-facts">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter.</a>]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/155815/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A meta-analysis of 437 studies found that egomaniacs aren’t just a bummer – they can be dangerous, too.Brad Bushman, Professor of Communication and Psychology, The Ohio State UniversitySophie L. Kjaervik, PhD Student in Communication, The Ohio State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1581832021-04-07T14:09:50Z2021-04-07T14:09:50ZHow to stop psychopaths and narcissists from winning positions of power<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/393783/original/file-20210407-13-tt9aa4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=26%2C26%2C2519%2C1603&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">People with narcissistic and psychopathic traits have a strong desire for dominance and are disproportionately common in leadership positions.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/concept-arrogance-bossy-manager-who-doesnt-1814392517">GoodStudio/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>One of the human race’s biggest problems has been that people who occupy positions of power are often incapable of using power in a responsible way. In the past, this was mostly due to hereditary systems which assigned power to kings and lords and others, who often didn’t have the intellectual or moral capacity to use their power well. But in more recent times, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S019188691730199X">it seems as though</a> power attracts ruthless and narcissistic people with a severe lack of empathy and conscience. </p>
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<p>In psychology, there is a concept of a “<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/dark-triad">dark triad</a>” of malevolent personality traits: psychopathy, narcissism and Machiavellianism. These traits are studied together because they almost always overlap and combine. If a person has psychopathic traits, then they tend to have narcissistic and Machiavellian traits <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0092656602005056?via%3Dihub">too</a>. </p>
<p>People with these personalities can’t sense other people’s feelings or see the world from any perspective apart from their own. They don’t have a sense of conscience or guilt to stop them behaving immorally. They feel superior and enjoy manipulating and controlling other people. At the same time, they need to feel respected and admired and like to be the centre of attention. </p>
<p>There’s a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S019188691730199X">great deal of evidence</a> that people with dark triad personalities are attracted to the corporate and political worlds. Research, for example, <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1002/per.1893">shows that</a> people with narcissistic and psychopathic traits have a strong desire for dominance and are disproportionately common in leadership positions. </p>
<p>As the psychologists Niklas Steffens and Alexander Haslam <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/346550812_The_narcissistic_appeal_of_leadership_theories">put it</a>, “like moths to a flame, narcissists may be drawn naturally to positions of power and influence”. Or as the psychologist <a href="http://www.hare.org/welcome/bio.html">Robert Hare</a> writes of psychopaths, they “are social predators and like all predators they are looking for feeding grounds. Wherever you get power, prestige and money, you will find them”.</p>
<p>The most evil leaders of the 20th-century, such as Stalin, Hitler, Mao Zedong, Pol Pot, Saddam Hussein and Colonel Gaddafi, clearly had severe dark triad traits. They didn’t become leaders because of their ability or intelligence, but simply because they had a tremendous desire for power and were incredibly ruthless and cruel in their pursuit of it. </p>
<p>Many present day politicians appear to have <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/2474736X.2019.1707697">psychopathic and narcissistic traits too</a>. It’s easy to spot such leaders, because they are always authoritarian, following hardline policies. They try to subvert democracy, to reduce the freedom of the press and clamp down on dissent. They are obsessed with national prestige, and often persecute minority groups. And they are always corrupt and lacking in moral principles. </p>
<h2>Narcissists and sociopaths</h2>
<p>In democratic countries such as the UK and the US, one could argue that there is less likelihood of psychopathic people becoming leaders. But there’s still a serious problem with highly narcissistic, ruthless and non-empathic people attaining power. This is clear from Donald Trump’s presidency. </p>
<p>Like many mental health professionals, the president’s niece, Mary Trump – a clinical psychologist – <a href="https://newrepublic.com/article/158422/mary-trump-diagnoses-president">voiced her opinion</a> that Trump suffers from a range of personality disorders. She suggested that his main issue was his severe narcissism, but also that he “meets the criteria for antisocial personality disorder, which in its severe form is generally considered sociopathy”.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Donald Trump against a stars and stripes backdrop." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/393784/original/file-20210407-15-1v0iqg1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/393784/original/file-20210407-15-1v0iqg1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393784/original/file-20210407-15-1v0iqg1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393784/original/file-20210407-15-1v0iqg1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393784/original/file-20210407-15-1v0iqg1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393784/original/file-20210407-15-1v0iqg1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393784/original/file-20210407-15-1v0iqg1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">‘Who me?’</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/search/donald+trump?kw=shutterstock&c3apidt=p11180842815&gclid=Cj0KCQiA7NKBBhDBARIsAHbXCB7iot13FcwSKEMn_e0D-L5iHdOAFkqQlpWQBHDTO0oZ7dMSuohAgfEaAqp8EALw_wcB&gclsrc=aw.ds">Evan El-Amin/Shutterstock</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>Over time, as sensible and responsible people left his administration, Trump attracted others with similar personality traits to himself. In this way, his regime became what the Polish psychologist Andrew Lobacewski called a “<a href="https://theconversation.com/pathological-power-the-danger-of-governments-led-by-narcissists-and-psychopaths-123118">pathocracy</a>” – a government consisting of people with personality disorders. In the UK there has also been a trend for <a href="https://www.refinery29.com/en-gb/2019/09/8482356/dark-triad-examples">leading politicians</a> to display signs of narcissism, ruthlessness and a lack of empathy. This also suggests a movement towards pathocracy. </p>
<p>The essence of the problem is that callous, low-empathy people are drawn to power, whereas empathic and responsible people (who would make ideal leaders) don’t have a desire for dominance. They usually prefer to remain on the ground, interacting with other people. This leaves positions of powers free for the wrong people.</p>
<h2>What can be done?</h2>
<p>Like others who have studied the problem of “corporate psychopathy”, the Australian psychologist <a href="https://www.utas.edu.au/profiles/staff/management/clive-boddy">Clive Boddy</a> has suggested that companies should screen leadership candidates for psychopathy. In my view, we should do something similar in politics. Every government (indeed every organisation) should employ psychologists to assess potential leaders and determine their suitability for power.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Office concept with woman wearing glasses in forefront." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/393785/original/file-20210407-21-1uhg7oy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/393785/original/file-20210407-21-1uhg7oy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393785/original/file-20210407-21-1uhg7oy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393785/original/file-20210407-21-1uhg7oy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393785/original/file-20210407-21-1uhg7oy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393785/original/file-20210407-21-1uhg7oy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393785/original/file-20210407-21-1uhg7oy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Could personality profiling help companies find suitable leaders?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/photo-of-woman-wearing-eyeglasses-3184405/">pexels/fauxels</a></span>
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<p>Personality tests might not be much use, because dark triad personalities are manipulative and dishonest. But other assessments could be used. It’s <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30576592/">widely accepted</a> there are childhood signs of dark triad traits, such as callousness and cruelty and a lack of empathy, guilt and emotion. So psychologists could examine the candidate’s life history, interviewing previous supervisors and coworkers. They could also speak to past acquaintances, former schoolteachers or university tutors. </p>
<p>Some might argue this would give too much power to psychologists, who would effectively become kingmakers – and perhaps become vulnerable to corruption themselves. While this is true, it’s surely preferable to the present situation, where there’s nothing to stop people with narcissistic and psychopathic traits gaining power and then using their power malevolently.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/158183/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Steve Taylor does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Why companies (and political parties) should screen leadership candidates for psychopathy and narcissism.Steve Taylor, Senior Lecturer in Psychology, Leeds Beckett UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1555162021-03-16T18:16:18Z2021-03-16T18:16:18ZCan narcissistic managers fake that they care?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/389435/original/file-20210314-21-mvvna2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C35%2C2000%2C1290&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">For narcissistic managers, it's all about them, not their employees. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/selfsatisfied-proud-caucasian-young-man-looks-755500357">Anna Koldunova/Shutterstock </a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Relationships at work matter greatly to our well-being, and perhaps no work relationship affects us more strongly than the one we have with our manager. In fact, people who leave their job frequently report that their manager is their <a href="https://www.gallup.com/workplace/237059/employee-burnout-part-main-causes.aspx">most important reason for doing so</a>.</p>
<p>Managers’ narcissistic tendencies are often a key issue that troubles their relationship with their <a href="https://theconversation.com/toxic-leaders-affect-companies-and-governments-how-to-deal-with-them-78265">employees</a>. Although narcissists tend to make a good first impression, their true nature unfolds over time and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797613491970">reveals</a> that they care above all about themselves, not about others.</p>
<p>Our recent <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/joop.12337">studies</a> show that narcissistic managers are poorly equipped to develop good, sustainable relationships with others because their selfish behaviour and disregard for others erodes what is the basis of all good relationships – trust.</p>
<p>My fellow researchers and I therefore wondered: Could some narcissistic managers develop the ability to camouflage their lack of concern for others and make others trust them by creating the impression that they care?</p>
<h2>How do narcissistic managers erode others’ trust in them?</h2>
<p>Narcissistic individuals display a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2006.10.005">range of self-centered characteristics</a>, including selfishness, entitlement, arrogance and the exploition of people for personal gain. They consider themselves as more important, talented, and attractive than others, but they are also insecure about themselves and have a strong need to be admired. Narcissists thus simultaneously crave other people’s reaffirmation and validation of their inflated self-image, and feel entitled to attention and admiration.</p>
<p>This duality of craving and feeling entitled to admiration leads narcissistic individuals to consider themselves born to be leaders and to feel entitled to leadership positions, positions in which they may be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691619873350">seen and admired</a>. Unfortunately, we tend to interpret a narcissistic individual’s overconfidence as a signal that they are, in fact, competent and that they would make a <a href="https://theconversation.com/narcissistic-leaders-even-children-fall-for-their-superficial-charms-154113">good leader</a>. So narcissists’ aspiration for leadership positions combined with the good first impressions that they make can cause them to rise in hierarchies, which results in narcissistic traits being <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/peps.12072">relatively common among managers</a>.</p>
<p>Although narcissistic individuals may make a good impression initially, they can be ill-suited to leadership positions, because effective leadership requires developing collaborative, reciprocal, trusting relationships with others. Instead, as our research consistently finds, narcissistic managers are considered less trustworthy by those who work for them. This is because developing trust requires integrity and caring about others, neither of which come natural to narcissistic individuals. </p>
<p>In fact, narcissistic managers are likely to put their own interests ahead of those of others and may even step on others when doing so is needed to achieve personal gain. Consequently, as our studies confirmed, a narcissistic, untrustworthy manager will make people feel unsafe to take risks, make mistakes, and express themselves openly.</p>
<h2>Is it easy to spot a narcissist?</h2>
<p>Because the effects of narcissistic leaders are likely to come out and their true nature may be revealed over time, it is tempting to think that we could easily detect a narcissistic manager. If this is the case, we may simply – through selection tests in organizational recruitments, for example – try to detect them and ensure that they’re not selected for leadership positions.</p>
<p>Such efforts certainly hold merit, as narcissistic individuals are typically not shy about admitting that they want to be admired or even that they overlook the interests of others. Indeed, in general, narcissists <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6494.00041">do not present themselves as agreeable or modest</a>. However, narcissists are not incompetent and they have the <em>capability</em> to learn that they may be even more effective in attaining their selfish goals if they present themselves in a socially acceptable way or, in other words, if they camouflage their lack of care and fly under the radar.</p>
<p>A consistent finding in our studies is that some narcissistic managers engage in techniques to manage the impression that others have of them – they actively seek to behave in ways that makes them <em>appear</em> sincere to others. Moreover, our findings indicate that these impression-management techniques can be successful: employees perceive highly narcissistic managers that try to make themselves appear sincere as more trustworthy than their highly narcissistic counterparts who do not engage in this impression management behaviour and, because of this, their employees feel safer to express themselves openly. In a nutshell, they can fake that they care and be successful in doing so.</p>
<h2>What might this fake caring look like?</h2>
<p>When someone behaves in a way that seems caring, it can be difficult to tell whether or not they are faking it. Fortunately, there may be some signs. In general, the fact that narcissistic individuals need to learn how to give others the impression that they care, means that they cannot rely on spontaneous behaviour and responses. This means that their seemingly sincere behaviour is likely to appear awkward or scripted. For example:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Someone who is truly caring is likely to spontaneously ask you how you are doing, and is likely to be aware of what is going on in your life. In contrast, a person who does not really care is less likely to ask you spontaneously. Instead, it could be that they only ever ask how you are after you have just asked them. It could simply be that your question reminded them to express caring about you in return. Moreover, they may be unlikely to ask follow-up questions after having shown their superficially caring behaviour. After all, they are not truly interested in you.</p></li>
<li><p>Someone who is truly caring is likely to listen and be more empathic. In contrast, if you find yourself telling a story about your own experience and the experience suddenly appears to be about them, their seemingly empathic response to your story might be only an opportunity for them to tell a story about themselves. Similarly, it is possible that their reaction to your story is not empathic at all, remains superficial, and only sticks to the facts.</p></li>
<li><p>At the same time, however, if they only let you talk and never share or relate to what you are saying, it may well be that they have made you believe that they are interested in you but that they do not actually care. Someone who is caring and trustworthy is likely to express trust in you as well – for example, by sharing about their own life – because trustworthy people are likely to see relationships as a two-way street.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Most people have a natural inclination to trust others who show signs of caring, so we are vulnerable to the assumption that narcissists have good intentions, especially those narcissists who engage in extra effort to appear sincere. Some awareness of this effect and the ways in which we might recognize fake caring is helpful to protect well-intentioned people from being exploited and manipulated.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/155516/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Melvyn R.W. Hamstra ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>Narcissism is relatively common among managers and can damage their relationships with employees. Yet some narcissists can enourage trust despite their shortcomings. So how can they be detected?Melvyn R.W. Hamstra, Assistant Professor in Leadership and Organizational Behavior, IÉSEG School of ManagementLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1541132021-02-05T14:14:56Z2021-02-05T14:14:56ZNarcissistic leaders: even children fall for their superficial charms<p>We live in an age of narcissistic leadership. Around the world, we are witnessing the rise and fall of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1048984306001111">narcissistic leaders</a> – people who hold grandiose views of themselves, who believe laws and regulations don’t apply to them, and who crave the respect and admiration of their followers.</p>
<p>Could narcissistic leadership have roots in childhood? As psychologists, my colleagues and I set out to investigate.</p>
<p>Narcissism is a personality trait that is characterised by an inflated sense of self-importance and entitlement. Our work shows that narcissism <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781119125556.devpsy316">develops in childhood</a>. From the age of seven, there are stable differences between children in their levels of narcissism. Narcissistic children are more likely to make <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00223890802108162?casa_token=t8sYpDf3W5cAAAAA%3AK4VMfXegz9P_eEYR50aKJiDKWr1tk5vgpwkreCSYe8dVYTL_yNGdy9wJPJiXWgGpQIPABIMpvyCufg">claims</a> such as “I am a very special person”, “kids like me deserve something extra”, and “I am a great example for other kids to follow”.</p>
<p>As adults, narcissists often <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/peps.12072">emerge as leaders in groups</a>. Narcissists captivate others with their alluring charm, bold vision, and unshakeable self-confidence.</p>
<p>Given that children spend most of their free time at school <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0272431614523134">in groups</a>, we wondered whether narcissistic children would be seen as leaders by their peers. They may be the playground’s prime ministers.</p>
<p>For our <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0956797620965536">study</a>, we recruited a sample of 332 children between the ages of seven and 14. We assessed their narcissism levels and then asked children to write down the names of classmates whom they perceived as a “true leader”. We explained that a leader is “someone who decides what a group does, someone who’s the boss”.</p>
<p>Narcissistic children were often seen by their classmates as true leaders. The association between narcissism and leadership was so consistent that it emerged in 96% of all the classrooms we investigated.</p>
<p>So now we know that narcissistic children often emerge as leaders in their classrooms. But do they actually excel as leaders?</p>
<p>To address this question, we invited children to perform a collaborative task. They formed a three-person committee to select the best police officer from several candidates. They received detailed descriptions of each candidate, with attributes such as “likes helping other people”, “is good at karate”, and “is afraid of the dark”. The task was designed so that children could only identify the best candidate when they shared information about candidates with their group members. <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2014-23797-001">Collaboration was key</a>.</p>
<p>We randomly assigned one child to be the leader. This child sat at the head of the table and was responsible for guiding the group discussion and making the final decision.</p>
<p>Despite having positive perceptions of their own leadership skills, narcissistic children did not excel as leaders. Compared to other leaders, they did not show better leadership and did not guide their groups to better performance. They were perfectly average.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A giant ballon depicting Donald Trump as a baby floating over London." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/382513/original/file-20210204-24-1uekqaq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/382513/original/file-20210204-24-1uekqaq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/382513/original/file-20210204-24-1uekqaq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/382513/original/file-20210204-24-1uekqaq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/382513/original/file-20210204-24-1uekqaq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/382513/original/file-20210204-24-1uekqaq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/382513/original/file-20210204-24-1uekqaq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Babies full of hot air are often picked to lead for the wrong reasons.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>If narcissistic children didn’t actually excel as leaders, why did their classmates still see them as true leaders? Children, like adults, may take the big talk of narcissistic individuals at face value. Indeed, people are often unable to look through the narcissistic façade, <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2011-03608-001">mistaking confidence for competence</a>.</p>
<p>This might help us understand what drives people to choose narcissists to lead them but it doesn’t mean that adult narcissistic leaders should be compared to children. It is concerning that former US president Donald Trump was, at various points, described as a “<a href="https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/T/bo51128380.html">toddler in chief</a>”, “<a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2016/03/18/opinion/no-not-trump-not-ever.html">an insecure boasting little boy</a>” and “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xSSExfcD2cM&ab_channel=RealTimewithBillMaher">a spoiled five-year old throwing a tantrum</a>”. That’s not only unfair to toddlers but also legitimises Trump’s behaviour while in office. An adult can be considered accountable for inciting violence and undermining democracy; a toddler cannot.</p>
<p>In 1931, Sigmund Freud <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/21674086.1932.11925132?journalCode=upaq20">wrote</a> that narcissists “impress others as ‘personalities’” and are well-suited “to take on the role of leaders”. Our work shows, however, that narcissists excel at impressing others – not at leading others. As a society, we should be more careful about selecting our leaders based on their competence rather than their confidence.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/154113/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Eddie Brummelman receives funding from the Jacobs Foundation. </span></em></p>Does our penchant for unfit but charismatic populists trace back to our playground politics?Eddie Brummelman, Assistant Professor and Jacobs Foundation Research Fellow 2021-2023, Research Institute of Child Development and Education, University of AmsterdamLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1511842021-01-05T14:41:41Z2021-01-05T14:41:41ZTrump’s dangerous narcissism may have changed leadership forever<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/377477/original/file-20210107-21-b08eyb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C301%2C5756%2C3222&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">U.S. President Donald Trump speaks during a rally protesting the electoral college certification of Joe as president on Jan. 6, 2021, in which he successfully incited a mob to storm Congress.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Evan Vucci)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Donald Trump and his narcissistic style of leadership will soon vacate the political stage, despite his recent attempt <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/trump-raffensperger-call-georgia-vote/2021/01/03/d45acb92-4dc4-11eb-bda4-615aaefd0555_story.html">to cajole elected officials</a> into illegally changing the outcome of November’s presidential election and <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/live/2021/01/06/us/electoral-vote?action=click&module=Spotlight&pgtype=Homepage">inciting a mob of supporters to storm the U.S. Capitol.</a> </p>
<p>But what about those who aspire to key leadership positions who have been inspired by Trump? Will they perpetuate this new model of dangerous leadership without understanding that the potential fallout could be viral and spread to their organizations and employees?</p>
<p>American psychologist and author John Gartner, formerly of Johns Hopkins University, sounded the alarm about Trump three years ago, <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/donald-trump-dangerous-mental-illness-yale-psychiatrist-conference-us-president-unfit-james-gartner-duty-warn-a7694316.html">calling on him to be removed from office because he was “psychologically incapable of competently discharging the duties of president.”</a> The petition garnered thousands of signatures.</p>
<p>Narcissism can be described as a grandiose sense of self-importance. A healthy dose of narcissism can be an integral part of a mature adult’s psyche. It can foster positive traits such as confidence, creativity, humour and wisdom.</p>
<p>These are of course important qualities that <a href="https://icpla.edu/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/Kohut-H.-Forms-and-Transformations-of-Narcissism-JAPA-vol.14-p.243-1966.pdf">many of the world’s genius artists, business people and scientists possess</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://hbr.org/2004/01/narcissistic-leaders-the-incredible-pros-the-inevitable-cons">But there’s a flip side to this coin</a>, since pathological narcissism may leave people extremely isolated, distrustful and lacking in empathy. Perceived threats can easily cause pathological narcissists to fall into fits of rage. </p>
<h2>How narcissism affects leadership styles</h2>
<p>Their confidence and larger-than-life attitude, after all, have propelled them to the top. Narcissistic leaders often emerge during times of crisis where followers seek the leadership of a <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2006.10.005">charismatic, confident and creative chief</a>.</p>
<p>To the outside world, narcissists appear self-assured, charming and likeable upon first glance. For this reason, they often emerge as leaders. However, important research has shown the thin veneer of these qualities becomes apparent over time, and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797611417259">there’s often a stark contrast between a narcissist’s perceived leadership abilities and their actual abilities</a>. The narcissistic leader’s weaknesses come to the surface.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374304/original/file-20201210-19-1mkft5a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C78%2C5248%2C3409&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Trump stands in the Oval Office" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374304/original/file-20201210-19-1mkft5a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C78%2C5248%2C3409&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374304/original/file-20201210-19-1mkft5a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374304/original/file-20201210-19-1mkft5a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374304/original/file-20201210-19-1mkft5a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374304/original/file-20201210-19-1mkft5a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374304/original/file-20201210-19-1mkft5a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374304/original/file-20201210-19-1mkft5a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Trump stands in the Oval Office in December 2020.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Evan Vucci)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While their hunger for power and admiration may yield positive results in the beginning, in the long run, narcissistic leaders are bound to leave damaged systems and relationships in their wake. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/narcissistic-personality-disorder/symptoms-causes/syc-20366662">Identifiable negative traits of narcissists</a> include sensitivity to criticism, poor listening skills, lack of empathy, intense desire to compete, arrogance, feelings of inferiority, need for recognition and superiority, hypersensitivity, anger, amorality, irrationality, inflexibility and paranoia. Some of these traits seem to fit Trump.</p>
<h2>‘Destructive tyrant’</h2>
<p>A leader who was perhaps once seen as a visionary slowly but surely transforming into a destructive tyrant can have grave consequences for organizations that are helmed by narcissists. Narcissistic leadership can negatively affect job satisfaction and morale while fuelling chaos of the type we saw at the U.S. Capitol as well as employee turnover.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1346976964842835975"}"></div></p>
<p>As time goes on, their insecurities, domineering nature and disregard for the feelings and needs of others lead to employees’ emotional exhaustion, burnout and withdrawal from the organization. In essence, only the leader’s beliefs, experiences and knowledge count. This was evident when Trump <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/video/trump-u-s-generals-dont-know-much-about-isis/">publicly stated he knew more than his generals</a> and even in his recently revealed phone call to Georgia officials, when he attempted <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/03/us/politics/trump-raffensperger-call-georgia.html">to browbeat and threaten them to “find” more than 11,000 votes</a>.</p>
<p>Indeed, there is no more relevant or obvious example of the damaging effects of excessive narcissism on leadership ability than Trump. His chaotic leadership style is useful to study since very few of us are trained to deal with this type of behaviour and this type of person. </p>
<p>Before he was elected president, Trump had made a name for himself in the mainstream media and turned his public persona into a lucrative brand. His 1988 book, <em>The Art of the Deal</em>, and later his NBC show, <em>The Apprentice</em>, garnered a large following of admirers, many in leadership positions. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A Trump supporter carrying a Trump 2020 sign stands near the president's vandalized star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/377018/original/file-20210104-17-5n4c08.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/377018/original/file-20210104-17-5n4c08.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/377018/original/file-20210104-17-5n4c08.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/377018/original/file-20210104-17-5n4c08.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/377018/original/file-20210104-17-5n4c08.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/377018/original/file-20210104-17-5n4c08.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/377018/original/file-20210104-17-5n4c08.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A Trump supporter stands near the president’s vandalized star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in July 2018.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Reed Saxon)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Of course, Trump floundered at times, <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2016/live-updates/general-election/real-time-fact-checking-and-analysis-of-the-first-presidential-debate/fact-check-has-trump-declared-bankruptcy-four-or-six-times/">declaring bankruptcy six times</a>, but he always managed to save himself and threaten his naysayers until they disappeared.</p>
<p>We’ve experienced signs of the destructiveness of his behaviour on the world stage. Rather than knowing the “art of a deal,” a president and any other leader should know the art of diplomacy, empathy and service. Unfortunately, these are words that aren’t part of Trump’s vocabulary. </p>
<p>What’s more, his erratic behaviour seems to have had a detrimental effect on his team members, who can never seem to control his outbursts. This should serve as a warning to organizational leaders flirting with this type of leader.</p>
<h2>Can the narcissist be managed?</h2>
<p>In today’s uncertain market, <a href="https://doi.org/10.2189/asqu.52.3.351">more and more companies are becoming comfortable with this type of unpredictable and chaotic leadership</a> style, hoping for big gains and magic.</p>
<p>It’s critical to understand that it’s possible for businesses to reap the benefits of a narcissistic leader as long there’s a trusted sidekick or No. 2 who can anchor their grandiose ideas and help control them. This is tricky to do and <a href="https://doi.org/10.2189/asqu.52.3.351">not common in contemporary organizations as they attempt to eradicate any perceived competition or control</a>.</p>
<p>Any type of controlling influence has been absent in the Trump administration as he operates without guardrails, creating great fallout. </p>
<p>The issue for followers is it never ends well. We have seen this real-time case study play out for the past four years of the Trump presidency. </p>
<p>The challenge is: How will current and future organizational leaders accept or reject the type of narcissistic and damaging leader who is determined to win at any cost?</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/151184/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Steven H. Appelbaum does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Donald Trump’s narcissism and destructive style of leadership may influence organizational leaders who were impressed by what he was able to get away with during his four years as president.Steven H. Appelbaum, Professor of Management, Concordia UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1497402020-11-10T01:02:43Z2020-11-10T01:02:43ZWhy can’t some people admit defeat when they lose?<p>When US President-Elect Joe Biden and Deputy Vice President-Elect Kamala Harris gave their victory speeches on Saturday evening, local time, the tally of Electoral College votes showed they had decisively passed the crucial 270-vote threshold, delivering them to the White House this January.</p>
<p>Tradition dictates the losing candidate also gives their own speech to concede defeat. But their vanquished opponent, Donald Trump, hasn’t done that.</p>
<p>We cannot psychoanalyse Trump from a distance, though I am sure many of us have tried. We can, however, apply psychological theories and models to understand the denial of defeat. My area of research — personality psychology — may prove particularly useful here.</p>
<p>Reluctance to admit defeat, even when the battle is hopelessly lost, is a surprisingly understudied phenomenon. But there is some research that can help give an insight into why some people, particularly those who display a trait called “grandiose narcissism”, might struggle to accept losing. Put simply, these people may be unable to accept, or even comprehend, that they have not won. </p>
<p>Other psychological theories, such as cognitive dissonance (resulting from the discrepancy between what we believe and what happens) can also help explain why we double down on our beliefs in the face of overwhelming contrasting evidence.</p>
<h2>If you think you’re better than everyone, what would losing mean?</h2>
<p>Personality traits may provide insight as to why someone could be unwilling to accept defeat.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0092-6566(02)00505-6">Narcissism</a> is one such trait. There is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2010.00711.x">evidence to suggest</a> there are two main forms of narcissism: grandiose narcissism and vulnerable narcissism.</p>
<p>In this article, we’ll focus on grandiose narcissism, as characteristics of this trait seem most relevant to subsequent denial of defeat. People who show hallmarks of grandiose narcissism are likely to exhibit grandiosity, aggression, and dominance over others. According to researchers from Pennsylvania State University, publishing in the Journal of Personality Disorders, this type of narcissism is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1521/pedi.17.3.188.22146">associated with</a>: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>…overt self-enhancement, denial of weaknesses, intimidating demands of entitlement … and devaluation of people that threaten self-esteem.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The grandiose narcissist is competitive, dominant, and has an inflated positive self-image regarding their own skills, abilities, and attributes. What’s more, grandiose narcissists <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.02.027">tend to have higher self-esteem</a> and inflated self-worth.</p>
<p>For the grandiose narcissist, defeat may compromise this inflated self-worth. According to researchers from Israel, these people find setbacks in achievement particularly threatening, as these setbacks could indicate a “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2010.29.8.874">failure to keep up with the competition</a>”.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1325716193332883456"}"></div></p>
<p>Instead of accepting personal responsibility for failure and defeat, these individuals externalise blame, attributing personal setbacks and failures <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110280">to the shortcomings of others</a>. They do not, or even cannot, recognise and acknowledge the failure could be their own. </p>
<p>Based on the profile of the grandiose narcissist, the inability to accept defeat may best be characterised by an attempt to protect the grandiose positive self-image. Their dominance, denial of weaknesses, and tendency to devalue others results in a lack of comprehension it’s even possible for them to lose. </p>
<h2>Why do some people double down despite evidence to the contrary?</h2>
<p>In the 1950s, renowned psychologist Leon Festinger published <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/When_Prophecy_Fails">When Prophecy Fails</a>, documenting the actions of a cult called The Seekers who believed in an imminent apocalypse on a set date. </p>
<p>Following the date when the apocalypse did not occur, The Seekers did not question their beliefs. Rather, they provided alternative explanations — doubling down on their ideas. To explain this strengthened denial in the face of evidence, <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24936719">Festinger proposed cognitive dissonance</a>. </p>
<p>Cognitive dissonance occurs when we encounter events that are inconsistent with our attitudes, beliefs, and behaviour. This dissonance is uncomfortable as it challenges what we believe to be true. To reduce this discomfort, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12362">we engage in strategies</a> such as ignoring new evidence and justifying our behaviour. </p>
<p>Here’s an example of dissonance and reduction strategies.</p>
<p>Louise believes she is an excellent chess player. Louise invites a new friend, who has barely played chess, to play a game of chess with her. Rather than the easy win Louise thought it might be, her new friend plays a very challenging game and Louise ends up losing. This loss is evidence that contradicts Louise’s belief that she is an excellent chess player. However, to avoid challenging these beliefs, Louise tells herself that it was beginner’s luck, and that she was just having an off day. </p>
<p>Some researchers think experiencing dissonance has an <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X19002176">adaptive purpose</a>, as our strategies to overcome dissonance help us navigate an uncertain world and reduce distress. </p>
<p>However, the strategies we use to reduce dissonance can also make us unyielding in our beliefs. Ongoing rigid acceptance of our beliefs could make us unable to accept outcomes even in the face of damning evidence.</p>
<p>Let’s consider how grandiose narcissism might interact with cognitive dissonance in the face of defeat. </p>
<p>The grandiose narcissistic has an inflated positive self-image. When presented with contrary evidence, such as defeat or failure, the grandiose narcissist is likely to experience cognitive dissonance. In an attempt to reduce the discomfort of this dissonance, the grandiose narcissist redirects and externalises the blame. This strategy of reducing dissonance allows the grandiose narcissists’ self-image to stay intact.</p>
<p>Finally, the act of not apologising for one’s behaviour could also be a dissonance strategy. <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ejsp.1901">One study by researchers in Australia</a> found refusing to apologise after doing something wrong allowed the perpetrator to keep their self-esteem intact. </p>
<p>It might be safe to say that, if Donald Trump’s denial of the election loss is a product of grandiose narcissism and dissonance, don’t hold your breath for an apology, let alone a graceful concession speech.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/149740/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Evita March does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Grandiose narcissists do not, or even cannot, recognise and acknowledge a failure could be their own.Evita March, Senior Lecturer in Psychology, Federation University AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1480512020-10-19T13:49:35Z2020-10-19T13:49:35ZMuch like Dorian Gray’s portrait, Trump is a reflection of America’s soul<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363779/original/file-20201015-21-bwq28s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2420%2C1654&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">In 'The Picture of Dorian Gray,' the protagonist remains youthful while a portrait of him ages.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>As many have noted, United States President Donald Trump <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/trump-is-the-embodiment-of-the-worst-of-america/article28111767/">embodies the very worst American traits</a>. If one were to caricature America’s vices, from bombast to narcissism, heartless individualism and toxic machismo, one would come up with someone who looks very much like Trump. </p>
<p>Yet, by imbuing the president with all of America’s faults, supporters of Joe Biden and the Democratic ticket place too much faith in electoral politics. The removal of Trump will not erase America’s faults. Instead, like Irish playwright Oscar Wilde’s <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/174/174-h/174-h.htm"><em>The Picture of Dorian Gray</em></a>, Trump is just a reflection of America’s very soul.</p>
<p>By all means vote and otherwise participate in electoral politics. But don’t shy away from the painful process of self-examination in order to discover effective ways to heal divisions and address injustices in your own life and circle. </p>
<p>For my part, I have been striving to learn the ways I have benefited from the status quo and taking some concrete steps to better understand and support those who have been left out. There are many things we can do on a much more regular basis beyond voting every few years, and much closer to home. In my own context as a white settler in Canada, <a href="https://www.ictinc.ca/books/21-things-you-may-not-know-about-the-indian-act">this book</a> — which explains Canada’s Indian Act and its repercussions — has helped.</p>
<p>First published in <em>Lippincott’s Monthly Magazine</em> in 1890, and then a year later in extended book form, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-Picture-of-Dorian-Gray-novel-by-Wilde"><em>The Picture of Dorian Gray</em></a> is Wilde’s take on the Faustian bargain. In it, the protagonist makes a deal with the devil for short-term gain followed by an inevitable downfall. </p>
<h2>Dorian’s downfall</h2>
<p>In Wilde’s novel, the young Dorian Gray sits for a portrait painted by his friend, Basil Hallward. Upon seeing the painting, Gray is struck by its youthful beauty and vigour, and despairs that, unlike the painting, he will age and decay. If only he could remain as youthful as the painting! </p>
<p>Unwittingly, by wishing so, Gray ensures that the painting itself will take on all the ravages of age and the distortions of wickedness, while Gray himself remains young and untainted by his actions, no matter how selfish and evil. </p>
<p>At first horrified by this situation and repulsed by the painting as it grows ever more sinister, Gray gives himself over to a life of hedonism, leaving many ruined lives in his wake. By the novel’s end — spoiler alert! — Gray is driven mad by his ludicrously consequence-free life, and recognizes that even though he has avoided the physical effects of his actions, his soul is as guilty as the painting is repulsive. </p>
<p>Stuck in a cycle of hurting others and living an unfulfilled and meaningless life of base pleasures, Gray turns to the painting as the cause of his inability to change for the better. </p>
<p>In the end, he thrusts a knife through the painting to destroy it and break its hold over him, but only manages to kill himself. The painting reverts to its former beauty as the twisted and newly aged body of the real Dorian Gray lies dead on the floor.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363781/original/file-20201015-13-1ypg98z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An illustration of a young man holding a framed portrait — the person in the portrait is a twisted version of the man and appears to be emerging from the frame" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363781/original/file-20201015-13-1ypg98z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363781/original/file-20201015-13-1ypg98z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363781/original/file-20201015-13-1ypg98z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363781/original/file-20201015-13-1ypg98z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363781/original/file-20201015-13-1ypg98z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363781/original/file-20201015-13-1ypg98z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363781/original/file-20201015-13-1ypg98z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An artist’s interpretation of a young Dorian Gray interacting with his sinister portrait.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Honest reflections</h2>
<p>In a certain sense, America is fortunate to have in Trump a shocking image of its own excesses and divisions. Shocking images, after all, have the power to, well, shock. And sometimes a system needs a shock in order to correct itself. </p>
<p>Canada has many of the same vices as America, including growing inequality, an out-of-touch and cynical political class and its own demons of historic and systemic racism and exclusion, but it remains easy for many Canadians to say: “Well, at least we live in Canada!” </p>
<p>Without a figure like Trump reflecting their sins like Dorian Gray’s hideous portrait, Canadians are harder to rouse to react against the injustices and inequalities that surround them. Trump offers a useful focal point.</p>
<p>But such a focal point runs the risk of becoming a scapegoat. </p>
<p>Even if they might have been exacerbated over the past four years, America’s most pressing problems — such as deepening divisions in everything from income and wealth to political views, horrors facing desperate immigrants on the southern border and an <a href="https://theconversation.com/partisan-supreme-court-battles-are-as-old-as-the-united-states-itself-146657">absurdly partisan Supreme Court</a> — pre-existed Trump and will outlast him.</p>
<h2>A reckoning</h2>
<p>Electoral politics up to this point, and even the administrations of <a href="https://apnews.com/article/election-2020-democratic-national-convention-ap-fact-check-immigration-politics-2663c84832a13cdd7a8233becfc7a5f3">supposedly “good” presidents</a>, saw these pressing problems grow in intensity, and a Biden presidency will almost certainly do the same. </p>
<p>Like Dorian Gray, America is due for a reckoning with its own soul. Removing Trump will do no more good than destroying Gray’s portrait did. </p>
<p>Oscar Wilde used his protagonist to <a href="https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2011/08/08/deceptive-picture">comment on</a> late 19th-century English high society. Even though Dorian Gray represents an extreme example of the hedonism and indolence of the wealthy aristocracy — a caricature, even — Wilde certainly meant for his contemporaries to see themselves in the pages of his novel. Good literature, like all good art, should cause us to think critically about our world and our place in it. The best literature has the capacity to shock us into a new awareness, and even concrete action. </p>
<p>Many artistic works have been brought to bear to comment on current events, such as Margaret Atwood’s <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/tv/news/amy-coney-barrett-confirmation-hearings-senate-vote-handmaids-tale-protests-b992825.html"><em>The Handmaid’s Tale</em></a>. I suggest that <em>The Picture of Dorian Gray</em> should remind us, especially those of us gearing up for an important election, that the picture itself was never the problem.</p>
<p>Instead, the picture only revealed the darkness of Gray’s own soul, just as Trump lays bare the darkness in America’s soul (and the soul of many other nations besides).</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/148051/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Matthew A. Sears does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>In Oscar Wilde’s novel, ‘The Picture of Dorian Gray,’ a painted portrait of the protagonist becomes ugly and twisted with age, much like Trump is represented as reflecting all of America’s evils.Matthew A. Sears, Associate Professor of Classics & Ancient History, University of New BrunswickLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.