tag:theconversation.com,2011:/id/topics/oxytocin-2271/articlesOxytocin – The Conversation2024-02-08T13:38:26Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2145432024-02-08T13:38:26Z2024-02-08T13:38:26ZBreastfeeding benefits mothers as much as babies, but public health messaging often only tells half of the story<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558172/original/file-20231107-19-cjfj8i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=23%2C23%2C7961%2C5303&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Breastfeeding lowers the risk of diabetes as well as breast and ovarian cancers for mothers.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/smiling-mom-holding-her-baby-boy-in-her-arms-while-royalty-free-image/1370476365?phrase=black+mothers+breastfeeding&adppopup=true">Goodboy Picture Company/E+ via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Four babies are born <a href="https://www.theworldcounts.com/populations/world/births">every second in the world</a>, and there are only two options for their first food at birth: human milk or formula. </p>
<p>Global and U.S. health authorities agree, however, that human milk provides the optimal nutrition for infants. The World Health Organization and the American Academy of Pediatrics <a href="https://www.who.int/health-topics/breastfeeding#tab=tab_2">recommend exclusive breastfeeding</a> for the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2022-057988">first six months of an infant’s life</a>. Following the introduction of solid foods, these organizations recommend continued breastfeeding up to two years and beyond. </p>
<p>Human milk can be given to infants directly through breastfeeding or by pumping or expressing human milk into a cup or bottle. The health benefits of breastfeeding and human milk for infants stem from its composition, which includes <a href="https://www.aap.org/en/patient-care/newborn-and-infant-nutrition/newborn-and-infant-breastfeeding/">vitamins, minerals and antibodies</a> that can prompt its composition to change over time to meet the growing infant’s needs. The dynamic nature of human milk leads to commonly known benefits, such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/apa.13151">lower risks of ear</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/apt.14291">gastrointestinal infections among infants</a> who are breastfed. </p>
<p>However, there are other benefits for infants that many people aren’t aware of, as well as for the breastfeeding mother and society.</p>
<p>We are women’s health scholars with combined professional expertise in <a href="https://sc.edu/study/colleges_schools/nursing/faculty-staff/riversj.php">maternal obstetrics nursing</a> and <a href="https://sc.edu/study/colleges_schools/nursing/faculty-staff/feldert.php">public health</a>. Together, we co-founded <a href="https://www.instagram.com/mochamamasmilk/">Mocha Mamas Milk</a>, a research and support initiative focused on improving <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/01939459211045431">breastfeeding among Black families in South Carolina</a>, a <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/66/wr/mm6627a3.htm">state where just 55.1% of Black infants are breastfed</a>, compared with 75.2% of white infants. </p>
<p>Human milk is personalized medicine that can benefit both the mother and infant. We are personally and professionally passionate about this because many people are not aware that some of these benefits can save lives and reduce persistent health disparities.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Breast milk provides benefits to the infant that no other food source can.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Lesser-known benefits of breastfeeding for infants</h2>
<p>One significant benefit of breastfeeding not widely known by the public is its ability to lower the risk of <a href="https://www.childrenshospital.org/conditions/sudden-infant-death-syndrome-sids#">sudden infant death syndrome</a>, or SIDS. SIDS, sometimes referred to as “crib death,” is the unexplained death of a baby, usually under 1 year of age. </p>
<p>Some risk factors include stomach- or side-lying sleep, low birth weight, sleeping on a soft surface or overheating. A large analysis of studies found that infants who received any human milk for at least two months had nearly a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2017-1324">50% lower risk of SIDS</a>. </p>
<p>This reduction is notable for two reasons. First, the reduction in risk occurs about 60 days following birth, which is several months before the six-month exclusive breastfeeding guideline is met. Second, the protection from SIDS was the same for infants who were exclusively breastfed compared to infants who may have received formula in addition to any breastfeeding. </p>
<p>In addition, breastfeeding can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.pcl.2012.09.008">significantly protect premature infants</a> – those <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/preterm-birth">born before 37 weeks of pregnancy</a> – from developing a condition called <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK513357/#">necrotizing enterocolitis</a>, an inflammation of the intestines that <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12051322">can be fatal</a>. While this condition is rare in full-term infants, it <a href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2FNNR.0000000000000483">occurs in 5% to 15% of preterm infants</a>.</p>
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<h2>Benefits for mom, too</h2>
<p>Breastfeeding also provides important benefits for the mother, such as reducing <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.294.20.2601">risks of diabetes</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(02)09454-0">breast</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaoncol.2020.0421">ovarian cancers</a>. Breastfeeding for any length of time compared to never is associated with a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4855244">10% decrease in hormone receptor-negative breast cancers</a>, which are more common in younger women. These cancers cannot be treated with hormonal therapy and <a href="https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/breast-cancer/understanding-a-breast-cancer-diagnosis/breast-cancer-hormone-receptor-status.html">often grow faster</a> than the more commonly diagnosed hormone receptor-positive breast cancers. </p>
<p>The reduction in risk from breastfeeding is even greater for Black women, who are more likely to be diagnosed with these hormone receptor-negative breast cancers and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-20-1784">have worse prognoses and fewer treatment options</a>. Any way of reducing the risk for Black women is critically important because, compared to white women, Black women are 40% more likely to die from breast cancer, <a href="https://www.cancer.org/research/acs-research-news/breast-cancer-death-rates-are-highest-for-black-women-again.html">yet 4% less likely to be diagnosed </a> with the disease.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Tisha Felder explains the vision behind Mocha Mamas Milk to help improve the way that Black mothers think about breastfeeding. Figures presented in the 2021 film were from the National Immunization Survey, 2011–2015.</span></figcaption>
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<p>There is also growing research suggesting the positive impact of breastfeeding on a mother’s mental health. One possible reason for this is that <a href="https://www.yourhormones.info/hormones/oxytocin/">oxytocin</a> – often <a href="https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/oxytocin-the-love-hormone">called the “love hormone” because of its association with bonding</a> – plays a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ijnss.2019.09.009">role in the maternal-infant bonding process</a>. </p>
<p>After delivery, the release of oxytocin causes human milk to flow – a process called the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK148970/#">letdown reflex</a> – and initiate breastfeeding. This release of milk can satisfy the new baby and leave the mom with “warm and fuzzy” feelings toward her baby. Research also suggests that breastfeeding can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/s0033291713001530">reduce the risk of depression </a>. A 2021 study also found that the longer a woman breastfed, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/phn.12969">the lower her risk for postpartum depression</a>. </p>
<h2>Closing racial gaps</h2>
<p>Despite the benefits of breastfeeding to both infants and mothers, few U.S. families are able to sustain breastfeeding over time. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2022 Breastfeeding Report Card – the latest data that is currently available – shows that more than 80% of infants start out receiving human milk, yet just over a quarter of them <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/breastfeeding/pdf/2022-Breastfeeding-Report-Card-H.pdf">are exclusively breastfed through six months</a>.</p>
<p>Black infant-mother pairs not only have the lowest breastfeeding rates in South Carolina, but they also have the lowest rates nationally, compared to other U.S. racial and ethnic groups. More recent data from the National Vital Statistics System of U.S. infants born in 2020 and 2021, shows that <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/pcd/issues/2023/23_0199.htm">only 74.5% of Black infants were breastfed</a>, compared with non-Hispanic Asian infants (90.1%), non-Hispanic white infants (84.0%) and Hispanic infants (86.8%), based on analysis of birth records collected by the CDC. </p>
<p>Black infants are also more likely <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK513376/">to die from SIDS</a> and to be born prematurely. So <a href="https://www.contemporarypediatrics.com/view/breastfeeding-least-2-months-provides-sids-protection">increasing breastfeeding among Black families</a> could lead to saving significantly more Black infant lives. </p>
<p>The Southeast U.S. is where the <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/70/wr/mm7021a1.htm?s_cid=mm7021a1_w">widest racial gaps in breastfeeding exist</a>. In addition, infants living in Southern states are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41372-022-01535-x">less likely to achieve national goals for breastfeeding</a> at 6 or 12 months old compared to infants living in other regions of the country.</p>
<h2>Removing barriers to breastfeeding</h2>
<p>Reducing barriers is critical to closing racial and geographic gaps in breastfeeding and allowing U.S. mothers and their infants the opportunity to benefit from the life-saving qualities of human milk. Studies show that addressing work-related barriers by making investments in paid family leave, for example, could <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ehb.2023.101308">increase exclusive breastfeeding rates by 15%</a>. </p>
<p>The U.S. is one of the only countries in the world that <a href="https://www.worldpolicycenter.org/policies/is-paid-leave-available-for-both-parents-of-infants">does not provide national paid family leave</a>. </p>
<p>Workplaces that support breastfeeding breaks and provide safe and clean spaces for expressing and storing human milk are also <a href="https://www.unicef.org/sites/default/files/2019-07/UNICEF-policy-brief-family-friendly-policies-2019.pdf">important in promoting breastfeeding</a>. Given that U.S. women’s labor force participation rates are <a href="https://www.bls.gov/opub/ted/2023/labor-force-participation-rate-for-people-ages-25-to-54-in-may-2023-highest-since-january-2007.htm">at a record high</a>, the importance of reducing barriers in the workplace cannot be overstated.</p>
<p>The U.S. Agency for International Development estimates that every U.S. dollar invested in breastfeeding <a href="https://www.usaid.gov/global-health/resources/fact-sheets/breastfeeding#">yields $35 in economic returns</a>.</p>
<p>Societal investments in breastfeeding-friendly workplace policies will not only yield cost savings and extend breastfeeding rates, but they will shift the burden of breastfeeding from simply being an individual choice to being a public health priority.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/214543/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tisha Felder receives funding from the Patient Centered Research Outcomes Institute (PCORI) and National Institutes of Health (NIH).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joynelle Jackson receives funding from Patient Centered Research Outcomes Institute (PCORI). </span></em></p>Some states, especially in the Southeastern US, have large disparities in breastfeeding among racial groups, making clear the need to lower barriers for breastfeeding in the workplace and elsewhere.Tisha Felder, Associate Professor of Behavioral Sciences, University of South CarolinaJoynelle Jackson, Associate Professor of Nursing, University of South CarolinaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2134922023-09-28T15:52:31Z2023-09-28T15:52:31ZFace pareidolia: how pregnant women could help us understand why we see faces in inanimate objects<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550076/original/file-20230925-17-4zy1hu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C58%2C5615%2C3673&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/coffee-cup-funny-smiling-face-top-2300998749">Zuzha/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Sometimes we see faces that aren’t really there. You may be looking at the front of a car or a <a href="https://theconversation.com/holy-grilled-cheese-sandwich-what-is-pareidolia-14170">burnt piece of toast</a> when you notice a face-like pattern. This is called <a href="https://kids.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/frym.2017.00067">face pareidolia</a> and is a mistake made by the brain’s face detection system. </p>
<p>But it’s an error that can help us understand the workings of the human mind. A
<a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2023.0126">recent study</a> has argued that having a baby may affect this aspect of our brains, suggesting it may vary across our lifetimes. </p>
<p>Many scientific studies <a href="https://theconversation.com/science-experiments-traditionally-only-used-male-mice-heres-why-thats-a-problem-for-womens-health-205963">exclude pregnant women</a> out of concern that the dramatic changes to their hormone levels may affect results. But researchers from the University of Queensland in Australia realised these hormonal changes can give us interesting insights. </p>
<p>They found women who had had recently given birth were more likely to see face-like patterns than those who were pregnant. The researchers have suggested this might be because of changing levels of the hormone oxytocin. However, the full picture may be more complicated.</p>
<p>People have evolved to be sensitive to faces and face-like patterns <a href="https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article-abstract/56/4/544/78642/Visual-Following-and-Pattern-Discrimination-of?redirectedFrom=fulltext">from birth</a>, probably because attention to faces underlies our social interactions and may also help us stay safe (it’s how we tell friends and family from strangers). <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/pdf/S0960-9822(17)30812-6.pdf">Monkeys also show face pareidolia</a>, suggesting that we share features of our face-detection system, including the mistakes that it makes, with other species.</p>
<p>It’s well established that chemical messengers in the brain play a role in our social interactions. For instance, oxytocin is often called the “love hormone” due to its links with <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666497621000813">social bonding and reproduction</a>. Studies have shown that artificially increasing levels of oxytocin, using a nasal spray, causes people to spend longer looking at the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0006322307006178">eye regions of faces</a> and enhances recognition of <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00213-010-1780-4">positive facial expressions</a>.</p>
<p>Oxytocin levels change naturally within women who are pregnant and after they have given birth. Previous research that compared women at different stages in their pregnancy and postpartum has found that levels of oxytocin and other hormones <a href="https://bmcpregnancychildbirth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12884-016-0937-5">vary dramatically</a>. </p>
<p>The Australian researchers decided to test whether levels of oxytocin (given its role in face perception) and the likelihood of seeing face-like patterns are related to each other. They predicted that postpartum women would have higher levels of oxytocin than pregnant women, therefore making it easier for them to see faces in face-like patterns.</p>
<h2>Seeing faces in objects</h2>
<p>The researchers compared two groups of women on a test of face pareidolia. One group were pregnant while the other group had given birth in the last 12 months. During the test, all of the women were shown three types of images: human faces, ordinary objects and illusory faces (objects with face-like patterns in them). The women were asked to respond to the images using an 11-point scale from zero (no, I don’t see a face) to ten (yes, I definitely see a face). </p>
<p>The results showed that the postpartum women did indeed report seeing more faces for the illusory face images (median response was 7.08) in comparison with the pregnant women (median response of 5.30). As expected, these groups didn’t differ much in their responses to the images of human faces and ordinary objects. </p>
<p>The authors concluded that women’s sensitivity to levels of face pareidolia may be heightened during early parenthood, and might encourage social bonding, which is obviously important for mothers and their infants. This increase in sensitivity, according to the researchers, is caused by heightened levels of oxytocin in the months after giving birth.</p>
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<img alt="Pebble on sand, indentations in the rock seem to form a face" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550222/original/file-20230926-27-1l1pk3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550222/original/file-20230926-27-1l1pk3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550222/original/file-20230926-27-1l1pk3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550222/original/file-20230926-27-1l1pk3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550222/original/file-20230926-27-1l1pk3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550222/original/file-20230926-27-1l1pk3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550222/original/file-20230926-27-1l1pk3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Seeing faces in objects is known as face pareidolia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/pebble-on-sand-beach-background-funny-1114294052">Valeriana Y/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>The authors of the study noted that they didn’t actually measure their participants’ oxytocin levels. Instead, they assumed oxytocin differences caused the differences in face pareidolia. </p>
<p>However, this means other differences between the two groups may have led to their result. Perhaps pregnant and postpartum women differ in their levels of anxiety, stress, or fatigue, all of which could affect their performance on the task. </p>
<p>It may also be that pregnant and postpartum women who choose to complete online psychology experiments differ in some way that we’re not aware of. Carrying out a follow-up study which compares the same women during pregnancy and after they’ve given birth could rule out some of these alternatives.</p>
<p>There is also another problem with assuming that oxytocin differences underlie the face pareidolia result. While the study’s authors reason that oxytocin levels will be higher postpartum than during pregnancy, this idea isn’t clearly supported by previous research. </p>
<p>In fact, some studies seem to show that oxytocin levels <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.02010.x">don’t differ</a> from pregnancy to postpartum, are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/jog.15023">lower postpartum</a>, or that they rise during pregnancy but <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpubh.2014.00001/full">then fall during the postpartum period</a>. At the very least, these studies seem to agree that <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0196978107001544">women vary greatly</a> in the patterns they show.</p>
<h2>Some more than others</h2>
<p>While the Australian study focused on pregnant and postpartum women, we know that most people experience seeing face-like patterns. However, <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1017/prp.2019.27">there are large differences</a> in how susceptible you might be. </p>
<p>For instance, studies have shown that <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0130363">women report seeing these illusory faces</a> more often than men do, while <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/acp.2874">strong believers in paranormal phenomena</a> and religions show more frequent experiences than sceptics and non-believers. Researchers have even found that <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02056.x">loneliness may cause people</a> to see these face-like patterns more often. </p>
<p>Face pareidolia is also less commonly experienced by some groups like those with <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-02790-1">autism spectrum disorder</a>, as well as genetic disorders like <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01131/full">Williams syndrome</a> and <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02583/full">Down syndrome</a>. </p>
<p>And we know that some <a href="https://theconversation.com/i-should-know-you-face-blindness-and-the-problem-of-identifying-others-8884">people are “face blind”</a> (prosopagnosic) and can struggle to recognise even their family and close friends. These people also show <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010945222001204">less sensitivity to face-like patterns</a>.</p>
<p>As a preliminary study, this team’s new finding that postpartum women show increased face pareidolia is certainly an interesting one. If sensitivity to face-like patterns changes across our lifetimes, and is also determined by underlying hormone levels, then measuring face pareidolia could represent a useful tool for monitoring more complex internal changes that might underlie mental health issues.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/213492/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Robin Kramer does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>It’s pretty common to see face-like patterns in objects – but this quirk can give us insights into human psychology and evolution.Robin Kramer, Senior Lecturer in the School of Psychology, University of LincolnLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2063002023-06-05T12:12:54Z2023-06-05T12:12:54ZFive ways to be a good ‘housemate’ to your parents<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529565/original/file-20230601-25-k8cap5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4000%2C2669&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">More and more young adults are living at home with their parents. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/mother-talking-her-daughter-while-having-623013362">Martin Novak/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>According to data from the most recent <a href="https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationestimates/articles/moreadultslivingwiththeirparents/2023-05-10">census</a>, there was an <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2023/may/11/its-a-win-win-the-adult-children-living-at-home">almost 15% rise</a> in the number of non-dependent adult children living at home with their parents in England and Wales between 2011 and 2021.</p>
<p>If we look at young adults aged in their 20s and 30s, on average nearly <a href="https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationestimates/articles/moreadultslivingwiththeirparents/2023-05-10">one in four</a> live at home, though the proportion declines with age.</p>
<p>Young adults may choose to stay living at home or return home for a range of reasons, such as a global pandemic, the rising cost of living, because they’re studying, or simply because they enjoy the comfort and location of the family home.</p>
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<p><em><strong><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/quarter-life-117947?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=UK+YP2022&utm_content=InArticleTop">This article is part of Quarter Life</a></strong>, a series about issues affecting those of us in our twenties and thirties. From the challenges of beginning a career and taking care of our mental health, to the excitement of starting a family, adopting a pet or just making friends as an adult. The articles in this series explore the questions and bring answers as we navigate this turbulent period of life.</em></p>
<p><em>You may be interested in:</em></p>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/he-is-always-there-to-listen-friendships-between-young-men-are-more-than-just-beers-and-banter-200301?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=UK+YP2022&utm_content=InArticleTop">‘He is always there to listen’: friendships between young men are more than just beers and banter</a></em></p>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/the-importance-of-solitude-why-time-on-your-own-can-sometimes-be-good-for-you-204393?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=UK+YP2022&utm_content=InArticleTop">The importance of solitude – why time on your own can sometimes be good for you</a></em></p>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-rewire-your-brain-to-feel-good-on-mondays-199236?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=UK+YP2022&utm_content=InArticleTop">How to rewire your brain to feel good on Mondays</a></em></p>
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<p>In a survey of adults living with at least one parent in mid-2021, roughly <a href="https://www.cso.ie/en/releasesandpublications/fp/fp-pslhrlpla/pulsesurvey-lifeathome2021rentersloneparentsandadultslivingaloneorwithaparent/respondentswholivewithaparent/">one in four</a> reported that their relationship with their parents had improved since the beginning of the pandemic. But for most, the experience could have been more positive. </p>
<p>Living with parents takes work. Unlike with other housemates, a complex family background can mean that any discomfort, gripes or personality clashes from the past are constantly bubbling under the surface, especially at times of stress. This dynamic can make it harder to be a “nice” housemate and may result in conflict.</p>
<p>So, if you’re a young adult living at home with your parents – or likewise with step-parents, grandparents or carers – how can you be a better housemate and build a stronger, more mature relationship with them? While both sides need to make a concerted effort, here are a few things you can do.</p>
<h2>1. Reframe your problems</h2>
<p>On days when you want to bring a date home, have a house party, or you disagree with your parents about something, you may feel fed up with your circumstances. While making a radical change such as moving out may be an option, reframing your thoughts is another way to take charge of this situation. </p>
<p>A daily reflection on <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/educational-and-developmental-psychologist/article/abs/positive-education-for-school-leaders-exploring-the-effects-of-emotiongratitude-and-actiongratitude/9A791659EABD9885998A7D11F806EB4D">what went well</a> during the day creates balance in our experiences. You might just think about these things, or write a few down. </p>
<p>The bad stuff becomes mere context to the day, not its central point. This helps you to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1693418/pdf/15347528.pdf?inf_contact_key=9944754ba1372fa9ce5ee1421d8427bc">build resilience and cope more effectively</a> with these challenges.</p>
<p>And, if possible, share what you are grateful for with your family. Witnessing <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31414873/">gratitude</a> can positively affect others, creating a warm feeling.</p>
<h2>2. Share a meal</h2>
<p>When movie directors want to portray happiness through deep human connection, they usually show people sitting around a table eating, drinking and talking enthusiastically.</p>
<p>It’s true that eating together is a great social ritual and can bring people closer. Among <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3906952/">chimpanzees</a>, sharing food is associated with the release of oxytocin, a hormone that is known to help humans bond with loved ones. </p>
<p>In an era when everyone is so time poor, finding time to eat together can seem like a tall order. But you only need a few minutes to share a bowl of cereal with your parents in the morning, or a quick fajita in the evening. </p>
<p>Plus, eating with others is associated with <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26116391/">health benefits</a> including consuming more <a href="https://nutritionj.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12937-018-0424-0">nutritious food</a> and better <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26116391/">weight management</a>, compared with eating alone.</p>
<h2>3. Savour the time</h2>
<p>Spending time with your loved ones is a powerful way of showing that you care. Ensuring that you share quality time, or savouring the time spent together, will improve your relationship further.</p>
<p>Savouring is a process by which we increase the intensity of positive experiences. We can savour past events (for example, by reviewing old photo albums), the present (by enjoying an activity together), and even the future (for example, by anticipating good things to come or planning a holiday).</p>
<p>All this can help us become <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2015-52064-001">more positive and feel closer</a> to our loved ones. If you have <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/smi.2822">depression</a> or a <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/298897774_Savoring_moderates_the_association_between_cancer-specific_physical_symptoms_and_depressive_symptoms">physical illness</a>, evidence has shown that savouring positive experiences may also reduce symptoms.</p>
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<img alt="A young man playing chess with an older man." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529566/original/file-20230601-10948-693hog.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529566/original/file-20230601-10948-693hog.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529566/original/file-20230601-10948-693hog.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529566/original/file-20230601-10948-693hog.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529566/original/file-20230601-10948-693hog.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529566/original/file-20230601-10948-693hog.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529566/original/file-20230601-10948-693hog.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Spend time with your parents doing activities you enjoy.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/senior-asian-father-middle-aged-son-1793130295">Ju.Stocker/Shutterstock</a></span>
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</figure>
<h2>4. Commit acts of kindness</h2>
<p>Small acts of kindness benefit both those giving and receiving them, boosting <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1820947/">happiness</a> and <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2013-08793-067">self-regard</a> (how positively we view ourselves). </p>
<p>Apart from psychological benefits, kindness may improve our physical wellbeing. It can <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2021-97941-001">reduce pain</a> in adults with chronic illness, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8848115/">decrease stress</a> and <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2079-7737/12/2/183">increase oxytocin</a>. </p>
<p>We can practise acts of kindness in many ways. Look for opportunities during the day when you can help your parents carry a shopping bag, make them a cuppa, or give them a genuine smile, for example. You could also take the time to help them with something, such as a problem they’re having with their smartphone or computer. </p>
<h2>5. Practise independence</h2>
<p>Early and mid-20s are generally the time a young adult <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10842426/">transitions</a> to complete independence. But in recent years, this has been <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13676261.2019.1634250?journalCode=cjys20">delayed</a> for many, mainly due to the extension of education and difficulty finding a well-paid job.</p>
<p>Despite this challenge, young people living with their parents can do a lot to develop their independence and build emotional resilience. They’re in a unique position where they can engage in adult life, yet have the safety of their homes to go back to. Staying at home with the folks can be conducive to building financial independence too, often providing additional capacity to save money. </p>
<p>But it’s also a good idea to spend some time away from your parents, whether developing hobbies, connecting with people socially, or adding value to society, for example through volunteering. These activities can improve your wellbeing, make you feel more autonomous, and help you cope more effectively with challenges. They can also help your parents feel better about letting you enter the big wide world.</p>
<p>Soon, you may find yourself in a mature relationship with your parents that is built on mutual respect. A relationship that will let go of teenage angst and create a pathway towards developing genuine friendships with your folks – where you spend time with each other not only because you have to, but because you really want to.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/206300/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jolanta Burke does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Living with your folks as an adult takes work.Jolanta Burke, Senior Lecturer, Centre for Positive Health Sciences, RCSI University of Medicine and Health SciencesLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1826642022-05-29T19:55:48Z2022-05-29T19:55:48ZIf you cry while watching movies, it is probably a sign of your emotional strength<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/461880/original/file-20220509-20-gm2fi4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5120%2C2874&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>You have probably found yourself weeping quietly, or even suddenly sobbing uncontrollably, while watching a movie. Common culprits include Marley and Me, The Color Purple, Schindler’s List and The Lion King. </p>
<p>You may have tried to blubber discretely so your dry-eyed companions didn’t think you were a sook (and no doubt you had a sneaky look sideways to see if they were glassy-eyed too), or you may have boldly sobbed away.</p>
<p>Why do we cry in movies? Is this a sign of emotional weakness (hence hiding it from your friends) or an indicator of strength – evidence of emotional intelligence?</p>
<p>Good movies are carefully crafted to engage us and be deeply absorbing. They transport us into the world of their characters: to see as they see, feel as they feel, and even totally identify with a character in some cases. We know movies are not real, but we are so engrossed that we emotionally react as though they are. </p>
<p>Some are based on true stories, and knowing this makes them even more potent. The emotional power of some movies is especially captivating: they’re not called tearjerkers for nothing. </p>
<h2>The love hormone</h2>
<p>Neuroscientist Paul Zak <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4445577/">has studied</a> the effects of compelling stories, showing watching them can cause the release of oxytocin.</p>
<p>Oxytocin is best known for its role in childbirth and breast feeding, increasing contractions during labour and stimulating the milk ducts. It is also released in response to positive physical contact – hugging, kissing, sexual intimacy and even petting animals – as well as through positive social interactions. </p>
<p>Consequently, it has been called the “<a href="https://www.healthline.com/health/love-hormone">love hormone</a>”.</p>
<p>As social animals, our survival depends on social bonding, and oxytocin is critical. It helps us to identify and attach with our essential caregivers and protective social groups. </p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/four-health-benefits-of-hugs-and-why-they-feel-so-good-160935">Four health benefits of hugs – and why they feel so good</a>
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<p>According to another neuroscientist, Robert Froemke, <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-neuro-102320-102847">recent research</a> shows oxytocin has an even broader impact and acts as a “volume dial”, amplifying brain activity related to whatever a person is currently experiencing. </p>
<p>So, although oxytocin may be targeted biologically at ensuring strong social bonds, it also serves to enhance emotional responses.</p>
<p>Crying in the movies is a sign that oxytocin has been triggered by the connections you feel due to vicarious social experience. Your attention is captured and emotions elicited by the movie’s story. </p>
<p>Oxytocin is then associated with heightened feelings of empathy and compassion, further intensifying feelings of social connectedness and you pay even further attention to the social cues of the characters in the movie. Hence the sudden emotional outpour! </p>
<h2>Empathy is a sign of strength</h2>
<p>Empathy is a key component of emotional intelligence.</p>
<p>Emotional intelligence is the ability to identify and regulate your own emotions and to understand and manage the emotions of others. </p>
<p>According to psychologist Daniel Goleman, empathy is one of <a href="https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/26329.Emotional_Intelligence">five key</a> emotional intelligence characteristics, along with self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation and social skills.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/461890/original/file-20220509-23-bv5j45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Asian woman crying" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/461890/original/file-20220509-23-bv5j45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/461890/original/file-20220509-23-bv5j45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=316&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461890/original/file-20220509-23-bv5j45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=316&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461890/original/file-20220509-23-bv5j45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=316&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461890/original/file-20220509-23-bv5j45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461890/original/file-20220509-23-bv5j45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461890/original/file-20220509-23-bv5j45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Crying in response to a movie reveals high empathy, social awareness and connection.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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<p>High emotional intelligence has <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00334.x">been shown</a> to be associated with effective leadership, professional success and academic achievement, as well as better social and intimate relationships. It <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.05.029">is linked to</a> with psychological and physical health and well-being, and greater emotional intelligence helps to deal with stress and conflict.</p>
<p>Crying in response to a movie reveals high empathy, social awareness and connection – all aspects of emotional intelligence. As such, it is an indicator of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4445577/">personal strength</a> rather than weakness. </p>
<p>Sobbing openly may be a particular sign of strength, as it shows that a person is unafraid to display their emotional reaction to others.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/you-cant-be-happy-all-the-time-how-encanto-and-turning-red-can-help-families-wrestle-with-anger-and-sadness-181782">You can't be happy all the time: how Encanto and Turning Red can help families wrestle with anger and sadness</a>
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<h2>Crying is not a sign of weakness</h2>
<p>A reason why crying in movies has been viewed as a sign of emotional weakness is that crying, especially crying in response to the pain of others, is seen as a <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02288">stereotypically</a> female behaviour. </p>
<p>Add in that oxytocin, and its relationship with empathy and social bonding, is strongly associated with child-bearing, and the crying = female = weak connection is established.</p>
<p>But there is nothing weak about demonstrating your emotional intelligence. Emotional crying is a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/pst0000342">uniquely</a> human behaviour. Good movies embed us in another world, eliciting powerful emotions and triggering biological processes in our brain. </p>
<p>Suddenly being awash in tears shows a strong empathy response. Blubber away and be proud of your emotional intelligence – and maybe search out tearjerker movies to check out the emotional response of your friends.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/182664/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Debra Rickwood does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Suddenly being awash in tears shows a strong empathy response – a key component of emotional intelligence.Debra Rickwood, Professor of Psychology, University of CanberraLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1729642021-12-13T14:22:17Z2021-12-13T14:22:17ZPoor knowledge and practice around oxytocin could put women in Nigeria at risk during childbirth<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436893/original/file-20211210-23-1r24ic3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Maternal mortality is still major concern in sub-Saharan Africa. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">GettyImages</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Severe bleeding after childbirth – postpartum haemorrhage – is a leading cause of maternal morbidity and mortality in middle-income countries. Oxytocin is an affordable and effective drug that’s recommended to prevent postpartum haemorrhage. </p>
<p>But there are concerns about the quality of oxytocin available for use by healthcare workers in most low- and middle-income countries, including Nigeria.</p>
<p>Oxytocin requires cold chain supply from the point of manufacture to the point of use for it to maintain its effectiveness. But <a href="https://www.ghspjournal.org/content/1/2/249">most facilities</a> in low- and middle-income countries, especially those at the primary healthcare level, have no refrigerators or reliable electricity supply. </p>
<p>A 2018 study looked into the <a href="https://bmcpregnancychildbirth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12884-018-1671-y">quality of medicines for maternal health</a> in Nigeria. It reported that 74% of oxytocin samples failed laboratory tests. This means there was a high prevalence of substandard oxytocin available in the country. </p>
<p>There is growing evidence that when poor-quality oxytocin is used, it fails to prevent post-partum haemorrhage. Poor-quality medicines may be an unaccounted root cause of high maternal mortality in low- and middle-income countries. But healthcare providers often do not suspect this. As a result, they do not document or discuss the poor quality of medicine. </p>
<p>Another concern is the apparent lack of adequate knowledge around oxytocin among healthcare providers. A pilot <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/related?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0208367">study</a> in Lagos assessed the knowledge and use of oxytocin among 705 doctors and nurses. It found that only 52% of the respondents knew oxytocin should be stored at 2˚C to 8˚C – and 41% used double the recommended dose. Only about 13% of respondents reported they had used an ineffective brand of oxytocin and of this, just 12% had the needed pharmacovigilance form in their health facilities to report the ineffectiveness. </p>
<p>We then expanded the Lagos study to get a broader picture. The <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0258096">national study</a> selected 12 states and a sample of 6,299 healthcare workers (including doctors, nurses, midwives and community health workers). The study assessed their knowledge, use, storage practices and perceived quality of oxytocin used for prevention of post-partum haemorrhage. We found significant gaps in knowledge of best practice and this could endanger the lives of women giving birth. </p>
<p>Our findings should be used to establish clinical guidelines and training. Healthcare providers need to improve their knowledge, storage practices and use to safeguard the quality of these lifesaving medicines.</p>
<h2>Lack of knowledge</h2>
<p>In our study only 46% of respondents (52.8% in private, 40.0% in public sector) had proper knowledge that oxytocin should be stored in the refrigerator. The healthcare workers in the private sector had better knowledge compared to the public sector. Those with more than 10 years in practice had better knowledge compared to those with fewer than 10 years in practice. But only 34% reported that they actually stored oxytocin in the refrigerator in their facilities (in practice).</p>
<p>The dose of oxytocin recommended by the WHO for the prevention of post-partum haemorrhage is 10IU. About 5% of the respondents used a dose of 15IU. And 41% used double or more the recommended dose. Among the respondents, 23% reported experiencing the failure of oxytocin to prevent bleeding after delivery. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://advancefamilyplanning.org/sites/default/files/resources/Nigeria%20taskshifting%20policy-Aug2014%20REVISEDCLEAN%20_Approved%20October%202014.pdf">task shifting and sharing policy</a> of Nigeria has allowed community health workers to take on some of the tasks of more trained providers, including the use of oxytocin. Community health workers used oxytocin more than doctors and nurse or midwives. </p>
<p>The findings from our study showed that oxytocin is most frequently (77%) administered via intravenous infusion. Most community health workers do not have the requisite skill to administer intravenous medications. Yet they are the ones who most often use the oxytocin. In addition, community health workers had the least knowledge of appropriate storage of the medicine – only 28.4% had correct knowledge. </p>
<p>Community health workers should receive adequate and continuous training to give them a clear understanding of how to store oxytocin, when and how to use it, in addition to knowing the limit of their responsibilities. </p>
<p>Recommended practice for <a href="https://www.who.int/medicines/areas/quality_safety/safety_efficacy/EMP_PV_Indicators_web_ready_v2.pdf">reporting lack of medicine efficacy</a> is that health workers should document and report cases of treatments not working. But our findings showed that health workers do not suspect poor quality of oxytocin and consequently do not report it. They keep increasing the dose until they achieve the desired contraction to stop the bleeding. Only one in three respondents documented perceived ineffectiveness of the oxytocin used. Of these, just 4.6% documented it through the correct channel - pharmacovigilance form, this is similar to the findings of the Lagos study. So quality issues were not being raised.</p>
<h2>Going forward</h2>
<p>Beyond developing clinical guidelines and regulation on the use of oxytocin, there is a need to continuously train healthcare providers – especially nurses, midwives and community healthcare workers. This is the critical first step needed to create awareness and ensure adherence to the recommended standards for oxytocin dosage, storage along the supply chain, quality concerns, and the appropriate actions when oxytocin fails to prevent post-partum haemorrhage. Training is also needed to improve reporting of therapeutic ineffectiveness.</p>
<p>The healthcare providers who help deliver babies are in the best position to unveil quality concerns of the medicines they use. They are at the end of the supply chain and logistics management of medicines.</p>
<p>This study also shows that key stakeholders (medicine regulators and all players along the medicine supply chain, up to the health facility management) should take urgent action on the management of the cold chain.</p>
<p>Governments must provide alternative sources of energy to ensure availability of electricity especially in remote public health facilities.</p>
<p>Final considerations could be the use of other medicines that are more suitable for the Nigerian climate and conditions. In 2018 the WHO <a href="https://www.who.int/news/item/27-06-2018-who-study-shows-drug-could-save-thousands-of-women%E2%80%99s-lives">recommended</a> the use of carbetocin (heat-stable formulation) as an alternative for postpartum haemorrhage prevention. The Nigerian government should encourage the availability of this alternative. Manufacturers could also consider the development of oxytocin with alternative routes of administration for ease of use among non-highly skilled health workers.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/172964/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The National project was supported by funding from MSD, through MSD for Mothers, the company’s $500 initiative to help create a world where no woman died giving life. MSD for Mothers is an initiative of Merck&Co.,Inc., Kenilworth, NJ USA. The funders had no role in the study design, decision to publish, or preparation of this article.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chimezie Anyakora used to work with USP which was funded by USAID.</span></em></p>There is growing evidence that when poor-quality oxytocin is used, it fails to prevent post-partum haemorrhage.Chioma S. Ejekam, Consultant Public Health Physician, University of LagosChimezie Anyakora, Professor, Pan Atlantic UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1687182021-09-29T15:14:04Z2021-09-29T15:14:04ZThe music of proteins is made audible through a computer program that learns from Chopin<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423473/original/file-20210928-18-1783wgm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C962%2C579&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Training an algorithm to play proteins like Chopin can produce more melodious songs.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:FI_CHOPIN.jpg">Frederic Chopin/Wikimedia Commons</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>With the right computer program, proteins become pleasant music.</p>
<p>There are many surprising analogies between <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-a-protein-a-biologist-explains-152870">proteins</a>, the basic building blocks of life, and musical notation. These analogies can be used not only to help advance research, but also to make the complexity of proteins accessible to the public.</p>
<p>We’re <a href="https://scholar.google.com.sg/citations?user=Ic2nqDsAAAAJ&hl=en">computational</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=784B-f0AAAAJ&hl=en">biologists</a> who believe that hearing the sound of life at the molecular level could help inspire people to learn more about biology and the computational sciences. While creating music based on proteins <a href="https://news.mit.edu/2019/translating-proteins-music-0626">isn’t new</a>, different musical styles and composition algorithms had yet to be explored. So we led a team of high school students and other scholars to figure out how to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e07933">create classical music from proteins</a>.</p>
<h2>The musical analogies of proteins</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/protein-structure-14122136/">Proteins</a> are structured like folded chains. These chains are composed of small units of 20 possible amino acids, each labeled by a letter of the alphabet. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423442/original/file-20210927-27-3uc4g3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Illustration of the four levels of protein structure." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423442/original/file-20210927-27-3uc4g3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423442/original/file-20210927-27-3uc4g3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1046&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423442/original/file-20210927-27-3uc4g3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1046&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423442/original/file-20210927-27-3uc4g3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1046&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423442/original/file-20210927-27-3uc4g3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1315&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423442/original/file-20210927-27-3uc4g3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1315&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423442/original/file-20210927-27-3uc4g3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1315&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Aspects of potein structure can be analogous to musical notation.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Main_protein_structure_levels_en.svg">LadyofHats/Wikimedia Commons</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A protein chain can be represented as a string of these alphabetic letters, very much like a string of music notes in alphabetical notation.</p>
<p>Protein chains can also fold into wavy and curved patterns with ups, downs, turns and loops. Likewise, music consists of sound waves of higher and lower pitches, with changing tempos and repeating motifs. </p>
<p>Protein-to-music algorithms can thus map the structural and physiochemical features of a string of amino acids onto the musical features of a string of notes.</p>
<h2>Enhancing the musicality of protein mapping</h2>
<p>Protein-to-music mapping can be fine-tuned by basing it on the features of a specific music style. This enhances musicality, or the melodiousness of the song, when converting amino acid properties, such as sequence patterns and variations, into analogous musical properties, like pitch, note lengths and chords.</p>
<p>For our study, we specifically selected 19th-century <a href="https://courses.lumenlearning.com/musicapp_historical/chapter/romantic-music/">Romantic period classical piano music</a>, which includes composers like Chopin and Schubert, as a guide because it typically spans a wide range of notes with more complex features such as <a href="https://hellomusictheory.com/learn/chromatic-scale/">chromaticism</a>, like playing both white and black keys on a piano in order of pitch, and chords. Music from this period also tends to have lighter and more graceful and emotive melodies. Songs are usually <a href="https://hellomusictheory.com/learn/homophonic-texture/">homophonic</a>, meaning they follow a central melody with accompaniment. These features allowed us to test out a greater range of notes in our protein-to-music mapping algorithm. In this case, we chose to analyze features of <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gus4dnQuiGk">Chopin’s “Fantaisie-Impromptu”</a> to guide our development of the program. </p>
<p>To test the algorithm, we applied it to 18 proteins that play a key role in various biological functions. Each amino acid in the protein is mapped to a particular note based on how frequently they appear in the protein, and other aspects of their biochemistry correspond with other aspects of the music. A larger-sized amino acid, for instance, would have a shorter note length, and vice versa.</p>
<p>The resulting music is complex, with notable variations in pitch, loudness and rhythm. Because the algorithm was completely based on the amino acid sequence and no two proteins share the same amino acid sequence, each protein will produce a distinct song. This also means that there are variations in musicality across the different pieces, and interesting patterns can emerge. </p>
<p>For example, music generated from the receptor protein that binds to the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.2001.81.2.629">hormone and neurotransmitter oxytocin</a> has some recurring motifs due to the repetition of certain small sequences of amino acids. </p>
<p><audio preload="metadata" controls="controls" data-duration="215" data-image="" data-title="OXTR protein music" data-size="3436911" data-source="Zhang et al." data-source-url="https://EMBARGO.com" data-license="CC BY-NC-ND" data-license-url="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">
<source src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/audio/2282/music-oxtr.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<div class="audio-player-caption">
OXTR protein music.
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" rel="nofollow" href="https://EMBARGO.com">Zhang et al.</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a><span class="download"><span>3.28 MB</span> <a target="_blank" href="https://cdn.theconversation.com/audio/2282/music-oxtr.mp3">(download)</a></span></span>
</div></p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423439/original/file-20210927-21-5qw03m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Oxytocin receptor protein structure" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423439/original/file-20210927-21-5qw03m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423439/original/file-20210927-21-5qw03m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=299&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423439/original/file-20210927-21-5qw03m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=299&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423439/original/file-20210927-21-5qw03m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=299&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423439/original/file-20210927-21-5qw03m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423439/original/file-20210927-21-5qw03m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423439/original/file-20210927-21-5qw03m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">OXTR, or the oxytocin receptor, has repeating sequences of amino acids.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://alphafold.ebi.ac.uk/entry/P30559">AlphaFold Data/EMBL-EBI</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>On the other hand, music generated from <a href="https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/gene/tp53/">tumor antigen p53</a>, a protein that prevents cancer formation, is highly chromatic, producing particularly fascinating phrases where the music sounds almost <a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/toccata">toccata-like</a>, a style that often features fast and virtuoso technique.</p>
<p><audio preload="metadata" controls="controls" data-duration="139" data-image="" data-title="TP53 protein music" data-size="2223993" data-source="Zhang et al." data-source-url="https://PENDING EMBARGO.com" data-license="CC BY-NC-ND" data-license-url="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">
<source src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/audio/2281/music-tp53.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<div class="audio-player-caption">
TP53 protein music.
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" rel="nofollow" href="https://PENDING%20EMBARGO.com">Zhang et al.</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a><span class="download"><span>2.12 MB</span> <a target="_blank" href="https://cdn.theconversation.com/audio/2281/music-tp53.mp3">(download)</a></span></span>
</div></p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423441/original/file-20210927-15-vgtzsi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Tumor protein p53 protein structure" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423441/original/file-20210927-15-vgtzsi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423441/original/file-20210927-15-vgtzsi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=299&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423441/original/file-20210927-15-vgtzsi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=299&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423441/original/file-20210927-15-vgtzsi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=299&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423441/original/file-20210927-15-vgtzsi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423441/original/file-20210927-15-vgtzsi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423441/original/file-20210927-15-vgtzsi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">TP53, or tumor protein p53, produces chromatic music.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://alphafold.ebi.ac.uk/entry/P04637">AlphaFold Data/EMBL-EBI</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>By guiding analysis of amino acid properties through specific music styles, protein music can sound much more pleasant to the ear. This can be further developed and applied to a wider variety of music styles, including pop and jazz.</p>
<p>Protein music is an example of how combining the biological and computational sciences can produce beautiful works of art. Our hope is that this work will encourage researchers to compose protein music of different styles and inspire the public to learn about the basic building blocks of life.</p>
<p><em>This study was collaboratively developed with Nicole Tay, Fanxi Liu, Chaoxin Wang and Hui Zhang.</em></p>
<p>[<em>Get our best science, health and technology stories.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/science-editors-picks-71/?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=science-best">Sign up for The Conversation’s science newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/168718/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Many features of proteins are analogous to music. Mapping these features together creates new musical compositions that help researchers learn about proteins.Peng Zhang, Postdoctoral Researcher in Computational Biology, The Rockefeller UniversityYuzong Chen, Professor of Pharmacy, National University of SingaporeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1609352021-05-17T13:09:59Z2021-05-17T13:09:59ZFour health benefits of hugs – and why they feel so good<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/401033/original/file-20210517-23-c14522.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=17%2C0%2C5973%2C3997&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Our sense of touch is important for creating and maintaining social bonds.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/african-american-couple-wear-medical-face-1952299942">DimaBerlin/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>For many people, the thing they’ve missed most during the pandemic is being able to hug loved ones. Indeed, it wasn’t until we lost our ability to hug friends and family did many realise just how important touch is for many aspects of our health – <a href="https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/why_physical_touch_matters_for_your_well_being">including our mental health</a>. </p>
<p>But now that vaccine programmes are being rolled out and restrictions are beginning to ease in much of the UK, many people will be keen to hug again. And the good news is that not only do hugs feel good – they also have many health benefits.</p>
<p>The reason hugs feel so good has to do with our sense of touch. It’s an extremely important sense which allows us not only to physically explore the world around us, but also to communicate with others by creating and <a href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/82120998.pdf">maintaining social bonds</a>.</p>
<p>Touch consists of two distinct systems. The first is “fast-touch”, a system of nerves which allows us to rapidly detect contact (for example, if a fly landed on your nose, or you touched something hot). The second system is “slow-touch”. This is a population of recently discovered nerves, called <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0149763408001693">c-tactile afferents</a>, which process the emotional meaning of touch.</p>
<p>These c-tactile afferents have essentially evolved to be “cuddle nerves” and are typically activated by a very specific kind of stimulation: a gentle, skin-temperature touch, the kind typical of a hug or caress. We see c-tactile afferents as the neural input stage in signalling the rewarding, pleasurable aspects of social tactile interactions such as hugging and touching. </p>
<p>Touch is the first sense to start working in the womb (around 14 weeks). From the moment we’re born, the gentle caress of a mother has multiple health benefits, such as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031938418308126">lowering heart rate</a> and promoting the growth of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2865952/">brain cell connections</a>.</p>
<p>When someone hugs us, the stimulation of c-tactile afferents in our skin sends signals, via the spinal cord, to the brain’s emotion processing networks. This induces a cascade of neurochemical signals, which have proven health benefits. Some of the neurochemicals include the hormone <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01529/full">oxytocin</a>, which plays an important role in social bonding, slows down heart rate and reduces stress and anxiety levels. The release of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0149763420306898?via%25253Dihub">endorphins</a> in the brain’s reward pathways supports the immediate feelings of pleasure and wellbeing derived from a hug or caress.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A young girl runs to hug her grandpa, who is wearing a mask outdoors." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/401034/original/file-20210517-15-ztze7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/401034/original/file-20210517-15-ztze7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/401034/original/file-20210517-15-ztze7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/401034/original/file-20210517-15-ztze7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/401034/original/file-20210517-15-ztze7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/401034/original/file-20210517-15-ztze7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/401034/original/file-20210517-15-ztze7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hugging releases many important neurochemicals.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/virus-rules-stay-there-grandfather-granddaughter-1703507518">Mladen Zivkovic/ Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Hugging has such a relaxing and calming effect that it also benefits our health in other ways.</p>
<p><strong>It improves our sleep:</strong>
From the benefits of <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31655427/">co-sleeping</a> with infants to <a href="https://www.sleep.org/cuddling-and-sleep/">cuddling your partner</a>, gentle touch is known to regulate our sleep, as it lowers levels of the hormone cortisol. Cortisol is a key regulator of our sleep-wake cycle but also increases when we’re stressed. So it’s no wonder high levels of stress can delay sleep and cause fragmented <a href="https://jcsm.aasm.org/doi/full/10.5664/jcsm.7100">sleep patterns or insomnia</a>.</p>
<p><strong>It reduces reactivity to stress:</strong>
Beyond the immediate soothing and pleasurable feelings provided by a hug, social touch also has longer-term benefits to our health, making us <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/ejn.14951">less reactive to stress</a> and building resilience. </p>
<p>Nurturing touch, during early developmental periods, produces higher levels of oxytocin receptors and lower levels of cortisol in brain regions that are vital for <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01529/full">regulating emotions</a>. Infants that receive high levels of nurturing contact grow up to be less reactive to stressors and show <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0045446">lower levels of anxiety</a>.</p>
<p><strong>Increases wellbeing and pleasure:</strong>
Across our lifespan, social touch bonds us together and helps <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306452220307405">maintain our relationships</a>. As noted, this is because it releases endorphins, which makes us see hugs and touch as rewarding. Touch provides the “glue” that holds us together, underpinning our physical and emotional wellbeing. </p>
<p>And when touch is desired, the benefits are shared by both people in the exchange. In fact, even stroking your pet can have benefits on health and wellbeing – with oxytocin levels increasing in both the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5645535/">pet and the owner</a>.</p>
<p><strong>It could help us fight off infections:</strong>
Through regulation of our hormones – including oxytocin and cortisol – touching and hugging can also affect our body’s immune response. Whereas high levels of stress and anxiety can suppress our ability to <a href="http://www.sakkyndig.com/psykologi/artvit/segerstrom2004.pdf">fight infections</a>, close, supportive <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/imm.12341">relationships benefit health and well-being</a>. </p>
<p>Research even suggests that cuddling in bed could <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25526910/">protect us against the common cold</a>. By monitoring hugging frequency among just over 400 adults who were then exposed to a common cold virus, researchers found the “huggers” won hands-down in being less likely to get a cold. And even if they did, they had less severe symptoms.</p>
<h2>Hug it out</h2>
<p>While it’s important we continue to keep ourselves safe, it’s equally as important that we don’t give up hugs forever. Social isolation and loneliness are known to <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1745691614568352?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&amp;rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&amp;rfr_dat=cr_pub%252520%2525200pubmed">increase our chances of premature death</a> – and perhaps future research should investigate whether it’s a lack of hugs or social touch that may be driving this. Touch is an instinct that is all-around beneficial for our <a href="https://www.cell.com/neuron/fulltext/S0896-6273(14)00387-0">mental and physical health</a> – so we should celebrate its return.</p>
<p>Of course, not everyone craves a hug. So for those that don’t, there’s no reason to worry about missing out on the benefits of hugs – as giving yourself a hug has also been shown to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006899314001395">regulate emotional processes</a> and reduce stress.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/160935/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Francis McGlone has received funding from The Leverhulme Trust, BIAL, </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Susannah Walker receives funding from The Leverhulme Trust and BIAL. </span></em></p>Touch is the first sense to develop in the womb.Francis McGlone, Professor in Neuroscience, Liverpool John Moores UniversitySusannah Walker, Senior Lecturer, Natural Sciences & Psychology, Liverpool John Moores UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1484842020-10-26T12:00:55Z2020-10-26T12:00:55ZYour dog’s nose knows no bounds – and neither does its love for you<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364859/original/file-20201021-17-11td3l0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=773%2C680%2C4437%2C3000&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Dogs have been constant companions to many during the COVID-19 pandemic.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/woman-using-a-laptop-with-her-dog-sitting-on-her-royalty-free-image/1280869184">NickyLloyd/E+ via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>I have discovered one positive amid the pandemic: I love working with two dogs at my feet. </p>
<p>As someone who <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=9Ctdn8QAAAAJ">studies dog cognition</a>, I often wonder: What is Charlie learning when he stops to sniff the crisp fall air? What is Cleo thinking when she stares at me while I write? Are my dogs happy?</p>
<p>I’m not alone in finding myself suddenly spending more time with my pups and contemplating what’s on their minds. <a href="https://news.stanford.edu/2020/06/29/snapshot-new-working-home-economy/">More people in the U.S. are working from home now</a> than are working in the workplace, and many now <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2020/03/13/people-are-working-from-home-with-pets-during-coronavirus-outbreak.html">share home offices with their canine companions</a>. What’s more, many are finding their lives enriched with the addition of a new pet, as people started <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2020/08/12/adoptions-dogs-coronavirus/">adopting dogs at massive rates during the pandemic</a>.</p>
<p>This uptick in dog time means <a href="https://will.illinois.edu/21stshow/story/decoding-dogs">I have been fielding questions</a> from new and experienced dog owners alike about their companions’ mentalities. Many questions center on the same themes I ponder: What is my dog thinking? Am I doing everything I can to ensure my pup is content?</p>
<p>Fortunately, research on dog cognition can <a href="https://www.audible.com/pd/Decoding-Dogs-Inside-the-Canine-Mind-Audiobook/B08FXRKSK3">help unravel what is on their minds</a> and provide insight into what they need for psychologically fulfilling and happy lives.</p>
<h2>Smelling superstars</h2>
<p>Dogs are both familiar and yet fascinatingly alien. To appreciate their “otherness” all you need to do is consider their sensory world. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364860/original/file-20201021-23-zeezzs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A close up shot of a shaggy dog smelling the ground and looking at camera." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364860/original/file-20201021-23-zeezzs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364860/original/file-20201021-23-zeezzs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364860/original/file-20201021-23-zeezzs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364860/original/file-20201021-23-zeezzs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364860/original/file-20201021-23-zeezzs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364860/original/file-20201021-23-zeezzs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364860/original/file-20201021-23-zeezzs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A dog’s nose dominates its face for good reason.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/dog-smelling-the-ground-and-looking-at-camera-royalty-free-image/1184184071">Capuski/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>My dogs and I have very different experiences when we walk a trail. I marvel at the beautiful autumn day, but my dogs have their heads to the ground, seemingly ignoring the wonders around them. </p>
<p>However, they are appreciating something I can’t perceive: the scent of the fox who scampered through last night, the lingering odor of the dogs who’ve walked this way and the footsteps of my neighbor, who last wore her hiking shoes in woods my dogs have never visited.</p>
<p>You’ve probably heard about dogs who <a href="https://www.akc.org/expert-advice/news/meet-americas-cancer-sniffing-canines/">sniff out cancer</a>, <a href="https://www.dhs.gov/explosive-detection-canine-teams">weapons</a> <a href="https://time.com/5898049/covid-19-sniffing-dogs/">or even coronavirus</a>. These dogs are not special in their nose power: Your dog could do the same thing. In fact, the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(89)92257-5">first dog to sniff out cancer</a> sniffed a mole on his owner’s leg so frequently that she went to the dermatologist, where she was diagnosed with melanoma.</p>
<p>A dog’s sense of smell is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2005.07.009">estimated to be 10,000 to 100,000 times better than that of a human</a>. This is due, in large part, to staggering differences in odor processing in humans and dogs. </p>
<p>While we have about 6 million olfactory receptors, <a href="https://www.simonandschuster.com/books/Being-a-Dog/Alexandra-Horowitz/9781476796024">dogs have a staggering 300 million</a>. Their epithelium, or <a href="https://www.scribd.com/book/267676942/K9-Scent-Training-A-Manual-for-Training-Your-Identification-Tracking-and-Detection-Dog">nasal tissue, is about 30 times larger than ours</a>. And while people have between 12 million and 40 million olfactory neurons – specialized cells involved in transmitting odor information to the brain – dogs, depending on the breed, <a href="https://archive.org/details/themagicofthesenses">can have 220 million to 2 billion</a>! </p>
<p>How can you even conceptualize this breathtaking difference in abilities? This disparity is like <a href="https://www.simonandschuster.com/books/Being-a-Dog/Alexandra-Horowitz/9781476796024">detecting one teaspoon of sugar</a> in enough water to fill two Olympic sized swimming pools. </p>
<p>Now that your mind has been blown about your dog’s incredible sense of smell, you can use this information to make your dog happier by taking it on the occasional “<a href="https://www.patriciamcconnell.com/theotherendoftheleash/take-your-dog-on-a-sniff">sniffy walk</a>” – letting it lead the way and take as much time to smell as it would like. <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2015.00069">Such walks can make dogs happier</a> by allowing them to gain lots of information about the world around them.</p>
<h2>The love is mutual</h2>
<p>While there are parts of a dog’s mind that are alien, there are also parts that feel very familiar. Chances are, your dog occupies a special place in your heart. Recent research suggests your dog feels the same way about you. <a href="https://www.clivewynne.com/book-1">Your dog adores you</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364861/original/file-20201021-21-fgv78r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A golden retriever type dog looks up adordingly at its owner." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364861/original/file-20201021-21-fgv78r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364861/original/file-20201021-21-fgv78r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364861/original/file-20201021-21-fgv78r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364861/original/file-20201021-21-fgv78r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364861/original/file-20201021-21-fgv78r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364861/original/file-20201021-21-fgv78r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364861/original/file-20201021-21-fgv78r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The average dog spends a lot of time gazing at its owner – creating a ‘love-loop.’</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/close-up-of-woman-with-dog-royalty-free-image/697631131">Murat Natan/EyeEm via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Dogs attach to their owners in much the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7036.112.3.219">same way human infants attach to their parents</a>. Like babies, dogs show distress when left with a stranger and rush to reunite upon their person’s return. </p>
<p>A recent study found that dogs that have been deprived of food and owners <a href="https://www.hmhbooks.com/shop/books/dog-is-love/9780358414230">choose to greet their owners before eating</a>. Further, their brain’s <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/08/science/gregory-berns-dogs-brains.html">reward centers “light up” upon smelling their owners</a>. And, when your eyes meet your dog’s, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1261022">both your brains release oxytocin</a>, also know as the “cuddle hormone.” </p>
<p>[<em>Deep knowledge, daily.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=deepknowledge">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter</a>.]</p>
<p>All of this research shows that you can make your dog happier with just one ingredient: you. Make more eye contact to release that cuddle hormone. Touch it more – <a href="https://doi.org/10.1101/062703">dogs like pats better than treats</a>! Go ahead and “baby talk” to your dog – <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-04671-z">it draws the dog’s attention to you more</a> and <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-43315466#:%7E:text=Using%20%22dog%2Dspeak%22%20is,University%20of%20York%20have%20found.&text=PhD%20student%20Alex%20Benjamin%20said,who%20used%20a%20high%20pitch">may strengthen your bond</a>.</p>
<p>Understanding your dog’s mind can not only sate your curiosity about your companion, but can also help you ensure your pup lives a good, happy life. The more you know about your furry friends the more you can do to meet their needs. </p>
<p>And now I am off to gaze into Cleo’s bright blue eyes, give Charlie a belly rub, and then let them take me on a “sniffy” walk.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/148484/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ellen Furlong has written for Audible / The Great Courses. She has received funding from The National Institute of Health. She is a member of The Animal Behavior Society, The Comparative Cognition Society, The American Psychological Association, and The Society for Teaching of Psychology. </span></em></p>Dogs process the sensory world very differently than humans, but love in a way that is entirely familiar.Ellen Furlong, Associate Professor of Psychology, Illinois Wesleyan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1426012020-08-10T12:07:27Z2020-08-10T12:07:27Z‘Morality pills’ may be the US’s best shot at ending the coronavirus pandemic, according to one ethicist<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/351641/original/file-20200806-18-1o03yut.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=373%2C137%2C3780%2C2821&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A psychoactive substance to make you act in everyone's best interest?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/close-up-of-capsule-on-spoon-over-white-background-royalty-free-image/956911912">Sayanh Kaew Mni/EyeEm via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>COVID-19 is a collective risk. It threatens everyone, and we all must cooperate to lower the chance that the coronavirus harms any one individual. Among other things, that means <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/index.html">keeping safe social distances and wearing masks</a>. But <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/06/23/most-americans-say-they-regularly-wore-a-mask-in-stores-in-the-past-month-fewer-see-others-doing-it/">many people choose not to do these things</a>, making spread of infection more likely.</p>
<p>When someone chooses not to follow public health guidelines around the coronavirus, they’re defecting from the public good. It’s the moral equivalent of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_commons#:%7E:text=The%20tragedy%20of%20the%20commons,resource%20through%20their%20collective%20action.">tragedy of the commons</a>: If everyone shares the same pasture for their individual flocks, some people are going to graze their animals longer, or let them eat more than their fair share, ruining the commons in the process. Selfish and self-defeating behavior undermines the pursuit of something from which everyone can benefit.</p>
<p>Democratically enacted enforceable rules – mandating things like mask wearing and social distancing – might work, if defectors could be coerced into adhering to them. But <a href="https://www.aarp.org/health/healthy-living/info-2020/states-mask-mandates-coronavirus.html">not all states have opted to pass them</a> or <a href="https://www.clickondetroit.com/news/local/2020/05/15/several-michigan-sheriffs-say-they-wont-enforce-parts-of-executive-orders/">to enforce the rules</a> that are in place.</p>
<p><a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=oEHIR14AAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">My research in bioethics</a> focuses on questions like how to induce those who are noncooperative to get on board with doing what’s best for the public good. To me, it seems the problem of coronavirus defectors could be solved by moral enhancement: like receiving a vaccine to beef up your immune system, people could take a substance to boost their cooperative, pro-social behavior. Could a psychoactive pill be the solution to the pandemic?</p>
<p>It’s a far-out proposal that’s <a href="https://slate.com/technology/2017/03/why-we-are-so-alarmed-by-the-idea-of-a-moral-enhancement-pill.html">bound to be controversial</a>, but one I believe is worth at least considering, given the importance of social cooperation in the struggle to get COVID-19 under control.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/351642/original/file-20200806-18-1gju1on.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Protesters outside California state capital building" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/351642/original/file-20200806-18-1gju1on.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/351642/original/file-20200806-18-1gju1on.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351642/original/file-20200806-18-1gju1on.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351642/original/file-20200806-18-1gju1on.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351642/original/file-20200806-18-1gju1on.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=492&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351642/original/file-20200806-18-1gju1on.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=492&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351642/original/file-20200806-18-1gju1on.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=492&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">People in California protested stay-at-home orders in May – prioritizing the personal over the collective.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/hundreds-of-people-gather-to-protest-the-stay-at-home-news-photo/1211479844">Josh Edelson/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
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</figure>
<h2>Public goods games show scale of the problem</h2>
<p>Evidence from experimental economics shows that defections are common to situations in which people face collective risks. Economists use <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_goods_game#:%7E:text=The%20public%20goods%20game%20is,put%20into%20a%20public%20pot.">public goods games</a> to measure how people behave in various scenarios to lower collective risks such as from climate change or a pandemic and to prevent the loss of public and private goods.</p>
<p>The evidence from these experiments is no cause for optimism. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0504902103">Usually everyone loses</a> because people won’t cooperate. This research suggests it’s not surprising people aren’t wearing masks or social distancing – lots of people defect from groups when facing a collective risk. By the same token, I’d expect that, as a group, we will fail at addressing the collective risk of COVID-19, because groups usually fail. <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/cases-updates/cases-in-us.html">For more than 150,000 Americans so far</a>, this has meant losing everything there is to lose.</p>
<p>But don’t abandon all hope. In some of these experiments, the groups win and successfully prevent the losses associated with the collective risk. What makes winning more likely? Things like keeping a running tally of what others are contributing, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-50964-w">observing others’ behaviors</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1102493108">communication and coordination</a> before and during play, and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nature13530">democratic implementation of an enforceable rule requiring contributions</a>. </p>
<p>For those of us in the United States, these conditions are out of reach when it comes to COVID-19. You can’t know what others are contributing to the fight against the coronavirus, especially if you socially distance yourself. It’s impossible to keep a running tally of what the other 328 million people in the U.S. are doing. And communication and coordination are not feasible outside of your own small group.</p>
<p>Even if these factors were achievable, they still require the very cooperative behavior that’s in short supply. The scale of the pandemic is simply too great for any of this to be possible.</p>
<h2>Promoting cooperation with moral enhancement</h2>
<p>It seems that the U.S. is not currently equipped to cooperatively lower the risk confronting us. Many are instead pinning their hopes on the rapid development and distribution of an enhancement to the immune system – a vaccine.</p>
<p>But I believe society may be better off, both in the short term as well as the long, by boosting not the body’s ability to fight off disease but the brain’s ability to cooperate with others. What if researchers developed and delivered a moral enhancer rather than an immunity enhancer?</p>
<p>Moral enhancement is the use of substances to make you more moral. The psychoactive substances act on your ability to reason about what the right thing to do is, or your ability to be empathetic or altruistic or cooperative.</p>
<p>[<em>You need to understand the coronavirus pandemic, and we can help.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=coronavirus-help">Read The Conversation’s newsletter</a>.]</p>
<p>For example, oxytocin, the chemical that, among other things, can induce labor or increase the bond between mother and child, may cause a person to be more empathetic and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1189047">altruistic</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0001128">more giving and generous</a>. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/ijnp/pyx047">The same goes for psilocybin</a>, the active component of “magic mushrooms.” These substances have been shown to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s40732-015-0139-y">lower aggressive behavior in those with antisocial personality disorder</a> and to improve the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2017.07.483">ability of sociopaths to recognize emotion in others</a>. </p>
<p>These substances interact directly with the psychological underpinnings of moral behavior; others that make you more rational could also help. Then, perhaps, the people who choose to go maskless or flout social distancing guidelines would better understand that everyone, including them, is better off when they contribute, and rationalize that the best thing to do is cooperate. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/351643/original/file-20200806-14-1wz4hlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Hand injecting a shot into a bare upper arm" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/351643/original/file-20200806-14-1wz4hlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/351643/original/file-20200806-14-1wz4hlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=445&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351643/original/file-20200806-14-1wz4hlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=445&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351643/original/file-20200806-14-1wz4hlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=445&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351643/original/file-20200806-14-1wz4hlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351643/original/file-20200806-14-1wz4hlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351643/original/file-20200806-14-1wz4hlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A moral booster rather than an immunological one?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/person-receiving-a-vaccine-royalty-free-image/83290870">Jeffrey Hamilton/DigitalVision via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Moral enhancement as an alternative to vaccines</h2>
<p>There are of course pitfalls to moral enhancement.</p>
<p>One is that the science isn’t developed enough. For example, while oxytocin may cause some people to be more pro-social, it also <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1015316108">appears to encourage ethnocentrism</a>, and so is probably a bad candidate for a widely distributed moral enhancement. But this doesn’t mean that a morality pill is impossible. The solution to the underdeveloped science isn’t to quit on it, but to direct resources to related research in neuroscience, psychology or one of the behavioral sciences.</p>
<p>Another challenge is that the defectors who need moral enhancement are also the least likely to sign up for it. As some have argued, a solution would be to <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/unfit-for-the-future-9780198707929">make moral enhancement compulsory</a> or <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/bioe.12496">administer it secretly, perhaps via the water supply</a>. These actions require weighing other values. Does the good of covertly dosing the public with a drug that would change people’s behavior outweigh individuals’ autonomy to choose whether to participate? Does the good associated with wearing a mask outweigh an individual’s autonomy to not wear one?</p>
<p>The scenario in which the government forces an immunity booster upon everyone is plausible. And the military has been <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2012/02/more-than-human-the-ethics-of-biologically-enhancing-soldiers/253217/">forcing enhancements like vaccines or “uppers” upon soldiers</a> for a long time. The scenario in which the government forces a morality booster upon everyone is far-fetched. But a strategy like this one could be a way out of this pandemic, a future outbreak or the suffering associated with climate change. That’s why we should be thinking of it now.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/142601/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Parker Crutchfield does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Rather than a vaccine to beef up your immune system, a psychoactive substance could boost your cooperative, pro-social behavior – curtailing the selfish actions that spur on coronavirus’s spread.Parker Crutchfield, Associate Professor of Medical Ethics, Humanities and Law, Western Michigan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1433012020-07-27T16:24:41Z2020-07-27T16:24:41ZCould ‘love hormone’ oxytocin help treat Alzheimer’s disease? Here’s what researchers currently know<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/349564/original/file-20200727-31-retvfe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=12%2C6%2C4181%2C2785&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The study investigated what role oxytocin had in memory.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/little-girl-hugs-her-grandmother-1112166590">De Visu/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Oxytocin is often called “the love hormone” because of its role in social bonding, reproduction and childbirth. This hormone may also affect our memory – though in ways that aren’t completely clear. </p>
<p>Not only has oxytocin been found <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15501488/">to cause</a> memory impairment and amnesic effects in humans, it can <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnhum.2018.00349/full">strengthen or weaken</a> performance on memory tasks depending on the personality of the person tested. Animal studies have also found it to have <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12598900/">beneficial effects</a> on memory in some cases. </p>
<p>Interestingly, a post mortem study found that people with Alzheimer’s disease had <a href="https://n.neurology.org/content/37/6/1001.short">higher levels</a> of oxytocin in memory-related areas of their brain – implying that elevated levels in these areas could cause memory issues. But now, the findings of a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006291X20307725?via%3Dihub">recent study in mice</a> suggest that oxytocin could potentially help against factors causing memory issues found in Alzheimer’s disease.</p>
<p>In order to see how oxytocin was shown to have this protective effect, it’s important to understand one of the mechanisms that causes memory impairment in people with Alzheimer’s disease. People with Alzheimer’s have an accumulation of a toxic form of a naturally occurring peptide called <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/beta-amyloid">beta-amyloid</a> in their brain.</p>
<p>In its non-toxic form, beta-amyloid is thought to be involved in the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5996906/">regulation, protection and repair</a> of the central nervous system. But in its toxic form, beta-amyloid <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemical-engineering/oligomers#:%7E:text=Abstract-,Oligomers%20are%20low%20molecular%20weight%20polymers%20comprising%20a%20small%20number,direct%20applications%20in%20material%20science">groups together</a> in the brain, which can eventually form deposits called plaques in the brain. These plaques may disrupt brain cell function, and may eventually kill neurons, which can lead to <a href="https://portlandpress.com/biochemsoctrans/article/35/5/1219/85580/Synaptic-memory-mechanisms-Alzheimer-s-disease">memory loss</a>. </p>
<p>Animal and cell-based studies have shown that even short-term exposure to toxic beta-amyloid activates the brain’s <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0090698002001119">innate immune system</a>. A misplaced immune response, where the immune system kills its own neurons – as opposed to protecting them – is linked to the development of Alzheimer’s disease.</p>
<p>Even short-term exposure to toxic beta-amyloid can also reduce the ability of the brain cells’ synapses to be able to change how they communicate and create connections with other cells (an ability brain cells have, known as synaptic plasticity). Synaptic plasticity <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.neuro.23.1.649?journalCode=neuro">plays an</a> important role in our ability to learn and remember. </p>
<p>Previous animal studies have found that oxytocin <a href="https://news.feinberg.northwestern.edu/2013/07/oxytocin_stress/">can strengthen</a> social memory and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12598900/">improve spatial memory</a> during motherhood in mice. But, until now, no studies had investigated whether oxytocin could stop toxic beta-amyloid from <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006291X20307725?via%3Dihub">lowering synaptic plasticity</a> – potentially with beneficial effects for memory in Alzheimer’s disease. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A synapse sending brain signals." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/349565/original/file-20200727-15-1957ai6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/349565/original/file-20200727-15-1957ai6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349565/original/file-20200727-15-1957ai6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349565/original/file-20200727-15-1957ai6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349565/original/file-20200727-15-1957ai6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349565/original/file-20200727-15-1957ai6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349565/original/file-20200727-15-1957ai6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Neurons use synapses to communicate.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/synapse-neuron-cells-sending-electrical-chemical-432573415">Andrii Vodolazhskyi/ Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Using brain samples from male mice, researchers treated them with toxic beta-amyloid. This was to confirm that the protein does indeed cause the brain’s synaptic plasticity to worsen. Then they treated samples with toxic beta-amyloid and oxytocin together. This seemed to stop the toxic beta-amyloid from negatively affecting synaptic plasticity. But when the samples were treated with oxytocin on its own, they found it had no effect on improving synaptic plasticity. </p>
<p>The researchers concluded that oxytocin might be a future treatment for memory loss associated with cognitive disorders, such as Alzheimer’s disease. This is an interesting finding, though the evidence is not yet strong enough to suggest that oxytocin can prevent or reverse cognitive issues from Alzheimer’s, for a number of reasons.</p>
<h2>Future focus</h2>
<p>In theory, being able to stop groups of toxic beta-amyloid from forming could potentially prevent memory loss and cognitive decline. Unfortunately, Alzheimer’s disease is way more complicated than just an accumulation of beta-amyloid in the brain. </p>
<p>Indeed, hallmarks of Alzheimer’s disease, such as beta-amyloid aggregates, have been found in the brains of people who don’t have <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30103319/">Alzheimer’s or dementia symptoms</a> and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6007878/">do not develop symptoms</a> during their lifetime. This alone shows the disease is extremely complex. </p>
<p>Other factors, such as the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627314003900">protein tau</a>, and <a href="https://www.nia.nih.gov/health/alzheimers-disease-genetics-fact-sheet">genetics</a> have also been found to play a serious role in the development of Alzheimer’s disease – which in this case the researchers didn’t investigate. </p>
<p>Additionally, all attempts to create a medication that targets toxic beta-amyloid have ended in failure. Even a recent promising study was halted at the late stages of clinical trials due to the drug’s <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2019/03/another-major-drug-candidate-targeting-brain-plaques-alzheimer-s-disease-has-failed">inability to</a> stop cognitive decline.</p>
<p>The study also only focused on male mice. This doesn’t take into account that oxytocin affects males and females differently on both <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1089/gg.2017.0017">a molecular</a> and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4941426/">behavioural level</a>. </p>
<p>There are also <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6390276/">sex differences</a> found in Alzheimer’s disease. For example, women have a <a href="https://www.alzheimers.org.uk/blog/why-dementia-different-women">greater risk</a> of developing Alzheimer’s disease. Differences in the severity of some symptoms, including <a href="https://www.alzheimers.org.uk/blog/why-dementia-different-women">memory issues</a> have also been reported, with women having better verbal memory. This may cause issues in diagnosing the disease. </p>
<p>Last but not least, animals and humans also have different <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18038275/">physiology and responses</a> to Alzheimer’s disease. No animal model used for studying Alzheimer’s disease has perfectly replicated the symptoms of the disease as seen in humans. This mean positive results seen in the mice during this study may not be replicated in humans because of these physiological differences.</p>
<p>Nevertheless, this study explores how something already in our bodies might have the power to interfere with one factor that can cause Alzheimer’s. These results should be treated with caution for now. As mentioned before, oxytocin might negatively interfere with memory formation in humans, and the consequences that might have in Alzheimer’s disease patients has not been studied. But if the results of the recent study can be replicated in humans – and show similar positive changes – it could be very promising for treatment of some of the symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/143301/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Eleftheria Kodosaki does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Though a recent study’s results were promising, there is still much that researchers don’t know.Eleftheria Kodosaki, Academic associate in Biomedical Sciences, Cardiff Metropolitan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1359222020-04-29T12:08:51Z2020-04-29T12:08:51ZVery good dogs don’t necessarily make very good co-workers<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/326948/original/file-20200409-130026-aq84nw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Working from home involves new co-workers.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/dog-sitting-on-a-chair-at-a-table-with-laptop-in-royalty-free-image/1142537289?adppopup=true">Halfpoint Images/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Because of the COVID-19 pandemic, many of us are working from home in close proximity to our human children or fur babies.</p>
<p>Cats have their fans, but I want to focus on dogs. </p>
<p>Dogs are great companions. Science suggests <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08927936.2019.1673033?casa_token=Nz3cwWmzkW0AAAAA:Q5lVEFM33_Wxx0ayJmZMH3H5ZQadZDOUanDK0y16bOLV3KUr2AOUleYxPp9cO4u-5xtTNpIiV139Pg">owning one may benefit mental health</a>. Just <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/348/6232/333.abstract?casa_token=eWMKl2Bi9YgAAAAA:LhK7QvRCADGnGWXnQACCEokq5MCqsgwKu4TyIj7cvkBB7VR-rbMcbQQWSD1Fnl8-SE17K9hxCResRR8">making eye contact with your dog can release the feel-good hormone oxytocin</a>.</p>
<p>But, as a researcher who <a href="https://pennstate.academia.edu/JessicaMyrick">studies emotions, procrastination and how people interact with pets</a>, I can tell you that sometimes work emphasizes getting things done over feel-good chemicals. So what do we know about how this new-found time with your dog might be affecting your productivity?</p>
<h2>Good dog, bad dog</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/17538351211215366/full/html?utm_campaign=dc.ourcommunitynow.com%20website&utm_source=ocn_story&utm_medium=website&utm_content=Virginia%20Commonwealth%20University">There’s evidence</a> that bringing your dog to work with you can reduce your perceived stress levels as the day progresses. And <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F1072-5245.12.4.409">research on stress management</a> has shown that employees who feel good are more productive.</p>
<p>Taken together, those findings bode well for including your canine companions in your at-home work routines.</p>
<p>Keep in mind, <a href="https://theconversation.com/lockdown-can-be-stressful-for-pets-too-heres-how-to-keep-your-dog-entertained-135156">pets can get stressed when their surroundings or routines change</a>, and it may take a while for both you and your pup to settle into a new working-with-your-dog lifestyle.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/326955/original/file-20200409-119167-12uf4vc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/326955/original/file-20200409-119167-12uf4vc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/326955/original/file-20200409-119167-12uf4vc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/326955/original/file-20200409-119167-12uf4vc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/326955/original/file-20200409-119167-12uf4vc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/326955/original/file-20200409-119167-12uf4vc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/326955/original/file-20200409-119167-12uf4vc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sometimes the best co-workers have four legs and a tail.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/female-professionals-using-laptops-while-sitting-royalty-free-image/991160798?adppopup=true">Maskot/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Working with pet videos</h2>
<p>If you don’t have a pet but want to benefit from the same potential boosts in mood or productivity, there is always the internet.</p>
<p>In a cross-sectional <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0747563215004343?casa_token=93B6CsXRvGUAAAAA:77tsamV-uhMnokx4a-6y9GqsAhM0mr0zO6ePqCWSmeP6U4IPgZWRhmBG3n8zzS6Oy-uSW5jz_bI">survey I conducted with 7,000 internet users</a> in 2015, I found that watching cat videos can give people a quick boost of happiness and energy. While this study focused on felines, dog lovers may get similar benefits from watching videos of their favorite pooches. </p>
<p><a href="https://jvme.utpjournals.press/doi/abs/10.3138/jvme.1016-162r">A study of veterinary students</a> tested this idea. The course instructor picked 20 class days and on half showed a cute or funny video featuring dogs or cats during the middle of the lecture.</p>
<p>Students were surveyed during all 20 class days. On the days they viewed animal videos they reported more positive mood, greater interest in the course material and deeper understanding of the course material.</p>
<p>While you are not going to get a lot of work done watching hours of pet videos on YouTube, some research suggests that taking short breaks for a mood-boosting activity, be it <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08927936.2017.1370244?casa_token=ArJR2Cf4xu8AAAAA:xZEW0yuDeckjv2HuoOWizEjQMBoQCTtqBze5Tcf-VpKz-Lt_bD5Jee3bFYajo1JSf9RfUZ8Lx8YUfg">petting an actual dog</a> or <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0747563215004343?casa_token=DofGpKpBOQQAAAAA:fhZ53HzuMs2rNzc3koMqXfhxOt0IlIycluHXy25dvy_ua-PUZW0SomfjSpNLkqch_K6cX01DZT8">watching a video of one online</a>, may not only improve your mood but also decrease stress or re-energize you when you do return to your work.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/326972/original/file-20200409-59613-14bp631.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/326972/original/file-20200409-59613-14bp631.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/326972/original/file-20200409-59613-14bp631.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/326972/original/file-20200409-59613-14bp631.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/326972/original/file-20200409-59613-14bp631.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/326972/original/file-20200409-59613-14bp631.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/326972/original/file-20200409-59613-14bp631.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">While Mom works hard, Fido is hardly working.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/business-woman-working-at-office-with-dog-royalty-free-image/673510431?adppopup=true">Kohei Hara/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Finding a solution</h2>
<p>More studies are needed in this area to come to a stronger scientific consensus on the relationship between working alongside your dog and your productivity.</p>
<p>The value of having a dog with you during your workday will depend on the type of work, the workplace or work-from-home environment, the type of dog and your own style of work.</p>
<p>In the meantime, pick up your dog for a minute so all your co-workers can make eye contact with her via the group Zoom video session and share in your <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/made-each-other/201005/dog-good">oxytocin boost</a>.</p>
<p>[<em>Like what you’ve read? Want more?</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=likethis">Sign up for The Conversation’s daily newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/135922/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jessica Myrick does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Are the best co-workers really the ones with four legs and a tail? Science says it depends.Jessica Myrick, Associate Professor of Media Studies, Penn StateLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1332802020-03-30T09:06:20Z2020-03-30T09:06:20ZBonding with baby: what it should feel like and how long it may take<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/320144/original/file-20200312-111268-18os20i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">By six months, the vast majority of parents have bonded with their baby.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/parents-sitting-on-sofa-cuddling-baby-562380934">Monkey Business Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>We often assume that giving birth triggers immediate feelings of joy and unconditional love that last a lifetime. But after a long and painful delivery, not every parent feels immediately attracted to the wrinkled and crying newborn who desperately wants to get back into the womb. If this sounds shocking, it may be because a social stigma around “slow bonding” makes people reluctant to share such experiences.</p>
<p>While many parents really do experience the birth of their baby as a major and happy life event, some have an immediate reaction of wishing it had never have happened. And a large proportion of parents will fall somewhere in between, perhaps having simultaneous feelings of wonder and anxiety or even frustration. But what is normal and what constitutes a problem? And what can you do to increase your chances of successful bonding?</p>
<p>Parent-infant bonding is often confused with <a href="https://theconversation.com/parenting-practices-around-the-world-are-diverse-and-not-all-about-attachment-111281">infant-parent attachment</a>. Bonding is the parental feeling of being connected with the infant, experiencing a sense of unconditional love and closeness. Attachment, on the other hand, describes the infant’s need to be close to a protective caregiver. Both develop gradually during the first year of life, based on a biological preparedness and the experience of frequent interactions.</p>
<p>False beliefs about bonding proliferate on social media and the internet, often under the umbrella of “<a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2012/05/what-everyones-missing-in-the-attachment-parenting-debate/257918/">attachment parenting</a>” – suggesting that, for example, early skin-to-skin contact is indispensable for bonding, or that <a href="https://bmcpregnancychildbirth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12884-019-2264-0">breastfeeding</a> and <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/298427230_Parent-child_bed-sharing_The_good_the_bad_and_the_burden_of_evidence">co-sleeping</a> would be needed – or even the female gender. </p>
<p>But research on infants adopted at around six months after birth demonstrates that bonding within the first few weeks or even months is <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2009-02007-019">not necessary for a secure attachment</a> between the infant and a mother or father to emerge. Nevertheless, pregnancy, delivery and breastfeeding might help the human mind to prepare for the new parental responsibilities.</p>
<h2>How common is slow bonding?</h2>
<p>The fact that bonding is an ongoing process rather than a bolt of lightening that hits you once and for all can perhaps explain the fact that people have such different experiences. The number of parents who report not falling in love immediately with their newborn varies, but it <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1523-536X.2001.00274.x">can be between 25% and 35%</a> depending on definition and type of measure. </p>
<p>But even if bonding can take time, it normally happens for all parents eventually. According to a recent Scandinavian survey, at six months after birth, only about 4% of the mothers and 5.5% of the fathers <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.3109/03009734.2016.1143540">showed “impaired bonding”</a> (“slow” is a better word).</p>
<p>So what helps parents bond? When women get pregnant, they experience huge hormonal changes. Their oxytocin levels <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3902863/">increase during pregnancy</a>, and peak around childbirth and when breastfeeding. A first effect of oxytocin is that it is relaxing and makes us forget painful experiences – which is rather welcome after giving birth.</p>
<p>But oxytocin also affects the salience of social signals, making parents more attentive to signs that the baby is happy or distressed. In our brain scanning studies, we gave women a nose spray with oxytocin to investigate its effect further. We found that women with higher oxytocin levels had more <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21470595">connectivity between the brain’s reward centres</a> when they listened to infant laughter – suggesting they enjoyed it more than others.</p>
<p>At the same time, when listening to infant crying, oxytocin led these same women to have less activity in the amygdala, a brain region involved in anxiety, and more activity in empathy-related brain regions. Given that it takes only seconds after birth before babies cry, and around six weeks before they smile, the hormonal system helps young parents to overcome the first tiring weeks.</p>
<p>Oxytocin may also help distinguish between baby cries that need an immediate response and crying that is not urgent, but instead marks the transition from being awake to being asleep in some babies. The brains of women who sniffed oxytocin as part of our study showed less activity when we told them the cry came from a “bored baby” than when it came from a “sick baby”. Such context information, colouring the meaning of the very same cry sound, was <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24734297">better taken into account</a> when oxytocin levels were high.</p>
<p>Oxytocin also help fathers. When we asked fathers to take a sniff of it <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22544470">they played</a> in a more stimulating and sensitive way with their child. And we know that fathers’ oxytocin levels <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323385506_Interoception_sensitivity_in_the_parental_brain_during_the_first_months_of_parenting_modulates_children's_somatic_symptoms_six_years_later_The_role_of_oxytocin">increase in the first six months</a> after the baby’s born, and go up during active play with their infants. </p>
<p>So experience helps, too. A new study has shown that the brains of parents <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330749972_Towards_a_neural_model_of_infant_cry_perception">respond differently to infant crying</a> than the brains of non-parents – they process the sound in a more immediate and emotional way. This is in contrast with non-parents, who use more cognitive processing. Moreover, <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/111/27/9792">one study in fathers</a> showed that connections in the brain that support caregiving increase with the number of hours they are directly responsible for infant care.</p>
<h2>Bonding support</h2>
<p>A lack of bonding <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.3109/03009734.2016.1143540">is strongly associated with</a> experiencing exhaustion, burn-out, sleepless nights and postnatal depression. These are things that can mess with our brain chemistry.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/320150/original/file-20200312-111289-6c81ca.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/320150/original/file-20200312-111289-6c81ca.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=465&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/320150/original/file-20200312-111289-6c81ca.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=465&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/320150/original/file-20200312-111289-6c81ca.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=465&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/320150/original/file-20200312-111289-6c81ca.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=585&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/320150/original/file-20200312-111289-6c81ca.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=585&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/320150/original/file-20200312-111289-6c81ca.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=585&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Babies can bond with many people.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">mimagephotography/shutterstock</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>Raising and successfully bonding with newborns therefore requires all parents to share the workload. Mothers are in fact evolved to <a href="http://www.naturalhistorymag.com/features/09270/meet-the-alloparents?page=2">rely on the support of others</a> to raise their offspring, and children have evolved to become attached to more than one caregiver for survival in a dangerous world.</p>
<p>That means <a href="https://theconversation.com/do-mothers-really-have-stronger-bonds-with-their-children-than-fathers-do-57590">there’s no reason to assume</a> that babies can’t become attached to fathers just as easily as they can be attached to mothers. It is also an argument for societies to facilitate (slow) bonding of both mothers and fathers through paid parental leave. The majority of countries, however, <a href="https://srcd.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/cdep.12347">fail to provide paid paternity leave</a>.</p>
<p>There are also tricks to speed the process up. For example, many parents <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352250X17300428?via%3Dihub">benefit from watching videos</a> of pleasurable experiences derived from moments of smooth interplay with their baby. Baby carriers might also be helpful to sooth a crying baby, and to strengthen parental bonding. </p>
<p>Ultimately, the birth of a baby is a major life event and bonding helps parents cope. But it is a process and can take time. A lack of initial bonding doens’t mean you have failed – the vast majority of parents successfully bond with their baby after the first few months, after they get to know her. And for anyone struggling at this point, talk to a health professional about getting support.</p>
<p>With time, practice and support to learn the new language of the baby, bonding is likely to develop – slowly but definitely.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/133280/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marinus van IJzendoorn receives funding from the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (Spinoza prize). He is additionally supported by the Gravitation program of the Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture, and Science and the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO grant number 024.001.003).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marian Bakermans-Kranenburg receives funding from the European Research Council (ERC AdG), and is supported by the Gravitation program of the Dutch Ministery of Education, Culture, and Science and the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO grant number 024.001.003).. </span></em></p>Up to 35% of mothers and fathers don’t fall in love with their baby immediately.Marinus van IJzendoorn, Honorary Senior Visiting Fellow of Primary Care, University of CambridgeMarian Bakermans-Kranenburg, Professor of Clinical Child and Family Studies, Vrije Universiteit AmsterdamLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1292012020-02-13T07:57:10Z2020-02-13T07:57:10ZLove: is it just a fleeting high fuelled by brain chemicals?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/310913/original/file-20200120-69539-14hnq9r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The real thing?
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/young-couple-kissing-field-asian-woman-286019726">Oneinchpunch/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>I am head over heels in love but my cynical friends keep telling me that love is nothing but a cocktail of pheromones, dopamine and oxytocin, and that these wear off after a couple of years. The thought scares me, it makes the whole thing seem meaningless. Is love really just brain chemistry?</em> Jo, London.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Licence my roving hands, and let them go,</p>
<p>Before, behind, between, above, below.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>It is no accident that arguably <a href="https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/50340/to-his-mistress-going-to-bed">the most erotic line</a> of English poetry is all prepositions. The essence of love, at least of passionately romantic love, is revealed in its very grammar. We <em>fall</em> in love, not wander into it. And, as you say, we fall <em>head over heels</em>, not dragging our feet – often at <em>first sight</em> rather than on careful inspection. We fall in love <em>madly</em>, <em>blind</em> to the other’s vices, not in rational appraisal of their virtues.</p>
<p>At its root, romantic love is spontaneous, overwhelming, irresistible, <em>ballistic</em>, even if, over time, its branches take on <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118951866.ch10">more complex hues</a>. It is in control of us more than we are ever in control of it. In one sense a mystery, it is in another pure simplicity – its course, once engaged, predictable and inevitable and its cultural expression more or less uniform across time and space. The impulse to think of it in terms of simple causes precedes science. Consider the arrow of Cupid, the potion of a sorcerer – love seems elemental.</p>
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<iframe id="noa-web-audio-player" style="border: none" src="https://embed-player.newsoveraudio.com/v4?key=x84olp&id=https://theconversation.com/love-is-it-just-a-fleeting-high-fuelled-by-brain-chemicals-129201&bgColor=F5F5F5&color=D8352A&playColor=D8352A" width="100%" height="110px"></iframe>
<p><em>You can listen to more articles from The Conversation, narrated by Noa, <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/audio-narrated-99682">here</a>.</em></p>
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<p>Yet love is not easily conquered by science. Let us look at why. Sex pheromones, chemicals designed to broadcast reproductive availability to others, are <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-26751949">often quoted</a> as key instruments of attraction. It is an appealing idea. But while pheromones play an important role in insect communication, there is <a href="https://theconversation.com/theres-no-evidence-human-pheromones-exist-no-matter-what-you-find-for-sale-online-38318">very little evidence</a> that they even exist in humans.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/313328/original/file-20200203-41485-1foofme.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/313328/original/file-20200203-41485-1foofme.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313328/original/file-20200203-41485-1foofme.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313328/original/file-20200203-41485-1foofme.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313328/original/file-20200203-41485-1foofme.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313328/original/file-20200203-41485-1foofme.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313328/original/file-20200203-41485-1foofme.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><strong><em>This article is part of <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/lifes-big-questions-80040?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=LifesBigQuestionsUK">Life’s Big Questions</a></em></strong>
<br><em>The Conversation’s new series, co-published with BBC Future, seeks to answer our readers’ nagging questions about life, love, death and the universe. We work with professional researchers who have dedicated their lives to uncovering new perspectives on the questions that shape our lives.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>If a chemical can signal attraction outside the body, why not inside it? The neuropeptide <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxytocin">oxytocin</a>, often inaccurately described as a “bonding hormone” and known for its role in lactation and uterine contraction, is the leading candidate here. This has been extensively studied, mainly in the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41583-018-0072-6">prairie vole</a>, whose monogamy and public displays of affection make it an ideal model animal. </p>
<p>Blocking oxytocin disrupts the pair bonding that is here a surrogate for love, and makes the voles more restrained in their emotional expressions. Conversely, inducing an excess of oxytocin in other, non-monogamous vole species blunts their taste for sexual adventure. In humans, though, the effects are much less dramatic – <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/110/50/20308.short">a subtle change</a> in the romantic preference for the familiar over the new. So oxytocin is far from proven to be essential to love.</p>
<h2>Love’s letterbox?</h2>
<p>Of course, even if we could identify such a substance, any message – chemical or otherwise – needs a recipient. So where is the letterbox of love in the brain? And how is the identity of the “chosen one” conveyed, given that no single molecule could possibly encode it? </p>
<p>When romantic love is <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1053811903007237">examined with imaging of the brain</a>, the areas that “light up” overlap with those supporting reward-seeking and goal-oriented behaviour. But that parts of our brains are set ablaze by one thing does not tell us much if they are just as excited by a very different, other thing. And the observed patterns of romantic love are not that different from those of maternal bonding, or even from <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan/article/12/5/718/3051628">the love of one’s favourite football team</a>. So we can only conclude that neuroscience is yet to explain this “head over heels” emotion in neural terms.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/313070/original/file-20200131-41490-1c9bx6x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/313070/original/file-20200131-41490-1c9bx6x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313070/original/file-20200131-41490-1c9bx6x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313070/original/file-20200131-41490-1c9bx6x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313070/original/file-20200131-41490-1c9bx6x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313070/original/file-20200131-41490-1c9bx6x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313070/original/file-20200131-41490-1c9bx6x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Not so simple.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">NaNahara Sung/Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Do we simply need more experiments? Yes, is usually the scientist’s answer, but here that assumes love is simple enough to be captured by a mechanistic description. And that is extremely unlikely, as nature would resist it. Evolutionarily speaking, love is ultimately about reproduction. Consider what would happen to an organism whose sexual attraction operated through a very simple mechanism involving a string of critical molecules, or a dozen or so vital neural nodes. </p>
<p>Its reproductive success would then be gated by the integrity of very few genetic elements, with the potential to be knocked out entirely by a mutation or two. A predator could evolve a poison that rendered its victim not just compliant, but positively amorous, only too happy to slide from a <em>petite mort</em> to the real thing. Were some inanimate thing to contain the key molecule in abundance, the entire species could become <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_sexuality">objectum sexuals</a>, choosing to play with it over sex with each other. This is almost the joke <a href="https://petpigworld.com/how-do-pigs-find-truffles/">truffles play on wild pigs</a>, and it is telling that the animals are only temporarily diverted by it. </p>
<p>But the evolutionary vulnerability goes deeper. Remember that sex is not primarily about the reproduction of the species, but about its optimisation, and not just in response to the world as it is now, but as it might be across the widest range of hypothetical futures. This requires that organisms are diverse across their traits, as much as selected for their fitness. Were it not so, a sudden change in the environment could make a species go extinct overnight. </p>
<p>So each reproductive decision can be neither simple nor uniform, for we cannot be allowed to be guided by any single characteristic, let alone the same one. Universally attractive though tallness might be, if biology allowed us to select on height alone we would all have gigantism by now. And if the decisions have to be complex, so must the neural apparatus that makes them possible. </p>
<p>While this explains why romantic attraction must be complex, it doesn’t explain why it can feel so instinctual and spontaneous – unlike the deliberative mode we reserve for our most important decisions. Wouldn’t a cool, detached rationality be better? To see why it would not, consider what explicit reasoning <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-it-rational-to-trust-your-gut-feelings-a-neuroscientist-explains-95086">is there for in the first place</a>. Evolving later than our instincts, we need rationality only to detach ourselves from the grounds for a decision so that others can record, understand and apply it independently of us. </p>
<p>But there is no need for anyone else to understand the grounds for our love, indeed the last thing we want to do is provide others with a recipe to steal our object of desire. Equally, in ceding control to recorded cultural practice, evolution would place too much “trust” in a capacity – collective rationality – that is, in evolutionary terms, far too young.</p>
<p>It is also a <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-it-rational-to-trust-your-gut-feelings-a-neuroscientist-explains-95086">mistake to think of instinct as simple</a>, and inferior to careful deliberation. That it is tacit makes it potentially more sophisticated than rational analysis, for it brings into play a wider array of factors than we could ever hold simultaneously in our conscious minds. The truth of this stares us in the face: think how much better we are at recognising a face compared with describing it. Why should the recognition of love be any different? </p>
<p>Ultimately, if the neural mechanisms of love were simple, you should be able to induce it with an injection, to extinguish it with a scalpel while leaving everything else intact. The cold, hard logic of evolutionary biology makes this impossible. Were love not complicated, we would never have evolved in the first place.</p>
<p>That said, love – like all our thoughts, emotions and behaviours – rests on physical processes in the brain, a very complex interplay of them. But to say that love is “just” brain chemistry is like saying Shakespeare is “just” words, Wagner “just” notes and Michelangelo “just” calcium carbonate – it just misses the point. Like art, love is more than the sum of its parts.</p>
<p>So those of us lucky to experience its chaos should let ourselves be carried by the waves. And if we end up wrecked on the surf-hidden rocks, we can draw comfort from knowing reason would have got us no further.</p>
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<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/death-can-our-final-moment-be-euphoric-129648?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=LifesBigQuestionsUK">Death: can our final moment be euphoric?</a></em></p></li>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/are-humans-still-part-of-nature-or-is-it-now-just-our-dominion-128790?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=LifesBigQuestionsUK">Nature: have humans now evolved beyond the natural world, and do we still need it?</a></em></p></li>
</ul><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/129201/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Parashkev Nachev receives funding from the Wellcome Trust and the UCLH NIHR Biomedical Research Centre.</span></em></p>When it comes to love, science has not yet got it right. And there’s a wonderful reason why.Parashkev Nachev, Professor of Neurology, UCLLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1248352019-10-25T13:30:17Z2019-10-25T13:30:17ZBaby seals: ‘love hormone’ research reveals swift weight gain in pups<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/298331/original/file-20191023-119419-134emss.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption"></span> <span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Parenthood is a demanding time for many creatures, and all species that take care of their young are highly motivated to ensure their offspring get the best start to life. Infancy is a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169534701021243">crucial time for growth</a> and there is enormous pressure on parents to get newborns gaining weight as quickly as possible to ensure healthy development.</p>
<p>Looking after infants so they can thrive in early life without exhausting a parent’s own resources is a difficult balancing act, and we have been studying how mothers and offspring are physiologically linked so that both parties can get the most out of this important time.</p>
<h2>Mother-infant dynamics</h2>
<p>Best known as <a href="https://www.livescience.com/42198-what-is-oxytocin.html">the “love” or “cuddle” hormone</a>, <a href="https://www.newsweek.com/love-hormone-oxytocin-seals-615335">oxytocin</a> also influences many other behaviours and biological processes in the body. It is essential for <a href="https://www.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/physrev.00031.2017">forming bonds</a> with others and behaving socially towards them, and this is true for <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/345/6198/771">parents and infants</a>, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0091302209000284">friends or romantic partners</a> and even <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/348/6232/333.abstract">pets and their owners</a>.</p>
<p>But oxytocin also affects processes related to <a href="https://academic.oup.com/endo/article/154/2/589/2423243">energy balance in the body</a>, including appetite regulation and weight changes. If these two areas of the hormone’s functionality are linked, then oxytocin release from bonding and interacting could also be affecting weight changes.</p>
<p>We have been studying <a href="https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/marine/marine-mammals-and-sea-turtles/grey-seal">wild grey seals</a> in Scotland to help us understand how the oxytocin release, behaviour and energy balance of mothers and infants are connected. Grey seals come on land to breed once a year and stay in a colony while they rear their pups.</p>
<p>They are a great species to study mother-infant dynamics because mothers don’t feed during this time, making it much easier to investigate how they use their energy. The same mothers can also be identified year after year and can be observed over the entire period mothers and pups are together (only 18 days in this species). </p>
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</figure>
<h2>Connecting bonded pairs</h2>
<p>The first thing we found was that the levels of oxytocin in mothers and pups <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306453019303592">are linked</a>, with high-oxytocin mothers producing high-oxytocin pups. This happens because oxytocin acts in a positive feedback loop and can <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1365-2826.1996.04557.x">stimulate its own release</a>.</p>
<p>Individuals that share a bond are motivated to be together, and the sight, sound and touch of a bonded partner can <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3041266/">cause oxytocin release</a>, which in turn leads to more social behaviour between the pair and even more oxytocin release. This can lead to bonded individuals having higher levels of oxytocin in circulation when they are together, which we can use to identify bonded pairs.</p>
<p>Having detected oxytocin levels in seal mothers and pups, we could then establish if there was any relationship to weight changes in the pairs. We found the higher the oxytocin levels in pups, the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306453019303592">quicker they put on weight</a>.</p>
<p>This could have happened if these pups simply drank more milk while they were with their mothers. However, <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0144577">the behavioural data</a> showed that across the range of oxytocin values in the pups there was no difference in the total time spent feeding or how often they fed. We also showed there was no increased weight loss for the high oxytocin mothers who were producing the pups with higher weight gain rates. Remarkably, these pups were gaining more weight per day without any additional energetic input from their mothers.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/298335/original/file-20191023-119419-lpijbe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/298335/original/file-20191023-119419-lpijbe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298335/original/file-20191023-119419-lpijbe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298335/original/file-20191023-119419-lpijbe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298335/original/file-20191023-119419-lpijbe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298335/original/file-20191023-119419-lpijbe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298335/original/file-20191023-119419-lpijbe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Grey seal pups only have 18 days to feed from their mothers, so they have to gain weight fast to survive.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Changing behaviour or physiology?</h2>
<p>At present, we don’t know why this is happening, but there are a few possible explanations. There may be behavioural reasons, with oxytocin release reducing behaviours that result in unnecessary energy expenditure. Oxytocin encourages individuals to stay close to each other, even in <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rspb.2017.0554">young seals</a>, and by keeping close to their mothers, high oxytocin pups may spend less energy travelling around the breeding colony, getting into trouble with other seals.</p>
<p>Pups could also be sheltered from the cold Scottish climate while snuggled up to their mothers, reducing the energy needed to keep warm. However, there are also studies showing that manipulating oxytocin levels can cause changes to <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/pr199891">fat</a>, <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fendo.2015.00079/full">bone</a> and <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms5082">muscle</a> development, so it is possible that high oxytocin levels in these pups is directly affecting tissue growth.</p>
<p>Understanding the factors affecting infant growth during early life is vital. As oxytocin is found in all <a href="https://www.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/physrev.00031.2017">mammal species</a>, defining its role linking functional social bonds and optimal weight gain in infants could help us develop interventions for animal husbandry or medical care.</p>
<p>In humans, problems with infant nutrition and development are estimated to cause <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S014067361360937X">45% of deaths in children under five</a> globally. By uncovering the physiology underlying interactions between care-givers and infants, we can better understand connections between positive relationships and health, and ultimately help those that are struggling to thrive during this crucial time.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/124835/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kelly Robinson receives funding from the Natural Environmental Research Council. </span></em></p>The physiology underlying mother-infant bonding can help us understand the connections between positive relationships and health.Kelly Robinson, Research Fellow, Sea Mammal Research Unit, Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St AndrewsLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1096472019-02-08T11:31:25Z2019-02-08T11:31:25ZHow your genes could affect the quality of your marriage<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/255435/original/file-20190124-196250-8ec1z5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Does a good marriage depend on having the right genes?
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/couple-sitting-outdoors-champagne-flutes-scenic-125067149?src=vCL3jOJJUTcsNekfwYfUFw-1-13">Tiffany Bryant/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>How important is it to consider a romantic partner’s genetic profile before getting married? </p>
<p>It is logical to think that genetic factors may underlie many <a href="http://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.04.006">traits already used by matching sites</a> - like personality and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073911421379">empathy</a> - which many assume could promote initial chemistry and long-term potential in specific couples. So it is perhaps not surprising that there are now websites that combine genetic testing and matchmaking. </p>
<p>But does matching intimate partners on the basis of specific genes have any scientific foundation? Studies have shown that genetically identical twins, raised separately, rate the overall quality of their marriages similarly, suggesting some enduring <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.18.1.107">genetic contribution to marital life</a>. However, the specific genes that are relevant to marriage, and why, remain a mystery. </p>
<p>As such, predicting marital compatibility on the basis of specific combinations of genetic profiles rests on tenuous scientific footing. Currently, researchers are just beginning to identify the genes that may be associated with marital bliss and through what processes. </p>
<h2>Why study the effects of genes on marriage?</h2>
<p>As a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=S1sMgBEAAAAJ&view_op=list_works&gmla=AJsN-F77stmAUmgQmt-4s2pnaWMg_dTe3Fm1XViucVibQwaVX_b-Xyvqva9CRxaJBXr1mhUjvv5LZdtnEa_pF9KaqC3PfLsEFC7WN3SMR2S0k1wHB68yFNs">scientist and clinical psychologist</a>, I have a longstanding interest in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781412958479.n413">identifying the factors that contribute to a happy marriage</a>, such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6811.2010.01315.x">how couples manage conflict</a>. My interest in exploring genetic determinants, however, developed more recently. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/256173/original/file-20190129-108364-1ut5t1c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/256173/original/file-20190129-108364-1ut5t1c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/256173/original/file-20190129-108364-1ut5t1c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/256173/original/file-20190129-108364-1ut5t1c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/256173/original/file-20190129-108364-1ut5t1c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1006&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/256173/original/file-20190129-108364-1ut5t1c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1006&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/256173/original/file-20190129-108364-1ut5t1c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1006&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Are you and your partner the ideal genetic match?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/dna-strand-shape-heart-140379022?src=RkgeeM6EfFrvZxmsy3O5Hg-1-1">VectorFrenzy/SHutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Genes are segments of DNA that encode a particular trait. A gene can take on various forms called alleles, and the combination of the two alleles inherited from both parents represent one’s genotype. Differences in genotype correspond to observable differences within that trait across individuals. </p>
<p>Though genes underlie individual differences in a broad range of characteristics believed to be relevant to marriage, I am specifically interested in the oxytocin receptor (OXTR) gene. Oxytocin, sometimes referred to as the “love” hormone, appears to play a significant role in emotional attachment. For example, oxytocin floods a new mother at the birth of a child and it spikes during sex. Therefore, I reasoned that the gene that regulates oxytocin, OXTR, might be a good one to study in the context of marriage, as it is frequently implicated in how we become attached to other humans. Moreover, OXTR has been associated with a range of phenomena linked to <a href="http://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2012.00004">human social behavior, including trust</a> and <a href="http://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1003296107">sociability</a>. </p>
<p>Of greatest interest to me is that the OXTR gene has been linked with physiological <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2016.02.007">responses to social support</a> and traits believed to be <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12152">critical to support processes</a>, like empathy. Considered alongside findings that the quality of social support is a <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0017578">major determinant of overall marital quality</a>, the evidence implied that variations on the OXTR gene could be tethered to later marital quality by influencing how partners support each other. To test this hypothesis, I pulled together a multidisciplinary team of scientists including <a href="https://www.stonybrook.edu/commcms/psychology/faculty/faculty_profiles/jdavila">psychologists with</a> additional expertise in marital research, <a href="http://www.upstate.edu/search/?tab=people&ID=middletf">a geneticist</a> and a <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/psychology/people/profile.html?id=ncameron-BD02A8667FFAC2FAAA78B6835C6CC314">neuroendocrinologist</a> specializing in oxytocin. </p>
<p>Together our team recruited 79 different-sex married couples to participate in our study. We then asked each partner to identify an important personal problem – unrelated to the marriage – to discuss with their spouse for 10 minutes. </p>
<p>These discussions were recorded and later coded according to how each partner solicited and provided “positive” support by scoring elements like problem-solving and active listening. Couples responded separately to several questionnaires including a measure of perceived quality of the support they received during the interaction. Each person also provided saliva samples that our team analyzed to determine which two alleles of the OXTR gene each person carried. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/256436/original/file-20190130-108351-ljb0wz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/256436/original/file-20190130-108351-ljb0wz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/256436/original/file-20190130-108351-ljb0wz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/256436/original/file-20190130-108351-ljb0wz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/256436/original/file-20190130-108351-ljb0wz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/256436/original/file-20190130-108351-ljb0wz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/256436/original/file-20190130-108351-ljb0wz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">His genes may prevent him from perceiving his wife’s support. This lack of understanding could make their marriage more rocky.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/abused-angry-elderly-man-eyewear-stands-793122112?src=HszbILTrl9TJiNsMvbEV3w-1-49">WAYHOME studio/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Genetic variation and marital quality</h2>
<p>Based on prior evidence, we focused our attention on two specific locations on the OXTR gene: <a href="https://www.snpedia.com/index.php/Rs1042778">rs1042778</a> and <a href="https://www.snpedia.com/index.php/Rs4686302">rs4686302</a>. As expected, higher quality social support was associated with marital quality. Also, genetic variation at each OXTR site for both husbands and wives was linked with how partners behaved during the support discussions. </p>
<p>However, individuals did not appear more or less satisfied with the support they received based on differences in the positive skills their partners used during the interaction. </p>
<p>Rather, we found that husbands with two copies of the T allele at a specific location on OXTR (rs1042778) perceived that their partners provided lower quality support. This was regardless of whether his partner’s support skills were strong or weak. </p>
<p>To us, this implied that husbands with the TT genotype had greater difficulty interpreting their respective wife’s behavior as supportive. This is consistent with other findings implicating this same genotype <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2012.01.009">in social-cognitive deficits</a>, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11689-010-9071-2">as well as autism</a>. </p>
<p>Notably, the husband and wife in couples also reported being less satisfied with their marriage overall, when compared to those with different combinations of alleles. This suggests that couples in which the husband carries two copies of the T allele were worse off, in part, because these men had trouble perceiving their wife’s behavior as supportive – a notion that our statistical analysis ultimately supported. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/256174/original/file-20190129-108364-cxuqmh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/256174/original/file-20190129-108364-cxuqmh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=632&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/256174/original/file-20190129-108364-cxuqmh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=632&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/256174/original/file-20190129-108364-cxuqmh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=632&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/256174/original/file-20190129-108364-cxuqmh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=794&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/256174/original/file-20190129-108364-cxuqmh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=794&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/256174/original/file-20190129-108364-cxuqmh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=794&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Are there genes that raise the odds for a bad marriage?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/risk-word-3d-letters-within-dna-243658768?src=c94fVb_vY4knb-OwBoNing-6-1">iQoncept</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Practical implications</h2>
<p>Do we have the evidence necessary to start screening potential husbands for specific combinations of genes that seem harmful to marriage? </p>
<p>I would not recommend doing so for a few reasons. Foremost is that genes can influence a broad range of characteristics, which may be detrimental to a marriage in some respects but beneficial in others. Although we found that having two copies of the T allele seems to be a liability in the context of social support, exploratory analyses revealed that this combination appeared to also confer some positive influence on the marriage. The exact mechanism remains unclear, but we speculate that being less sensitive to social nuance may be protective in other areas of marriage by, for example, blunting hostile exchanges during disagreements. </p>
<p>More to the point, assuming that a single gene can make or break a marriage underestimates the complexity of genetics and marriage. It is possible that certain genes may be more or less detrimental depending on the rest of a partner’s genetic profile. However, there is currently no published data on which to rest any type of proposed match. So, ruling out prospective husbands on the basis of variations within or across genes doesn’t make much sense. </p>
<p>Nevertheless, there are still practical implications to our current findings. Researchers have shown that social support from intimate partners can buffer the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5538-09.2010">deleterious effects of stress on mental</a> and physical health.
To the extent that particular genotypes impair an individual’s ability to feel supported, that person may be more susceptible to the effects of stress. Thus, screening men for the TT genotype on OXTR could assist in identifying those at risk for stress-related problems. In addition, future research may highlight how to tailor the delivery of social support in ways that can benefit these individuals. </p>
<p>There are also several <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0026067">other potentially relevant locations on OXTR</a>, as well as other genes that may be relevant to relationships. Our study provides a template for approaching the study of marital genetics.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/109647/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Richard Mattson received funding from SUNY Collaborative Fund to conduct this reesarch. </span></em></p>Will your marriage be better if you and your partner are genetically compatible? Is there any evidence that certain genes make someone a better or worse partner? And if so, which genes should we test?Richard Mattson, Associate Professor & Director of Graduate Studies in Psychology, Binghamton University, State University of New YorkLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/979702018-06-08T10:51:24Z2018-06-08T10:51:24ZWhy Mister Rogers’ message of love and kindness is good for your health<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/222226/original/file-20180607-137306-nwj9r6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Fred Rogers at a taping of his famous show on June 28, 1989. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Mr-Rogers-Anniversary/a4bf47e9eab047c58f230ac6c45e86f5/207/0">Gene J. Puskar/AP File</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The release of the Mister Rogers documentary, <a href="https://slate.com/culture/2018/06/mr-rogers-documentary-wont-you-be-my-neighbor-reviewed.html">“Won’t You Be My Neighbor?”</a> calls to mind the essential message of Rogers’ long-running children’s program, “Mister Rogers’ Neighborhood.” <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2003/02/28/arts/mister-rogers-tv-s-friend-for-children-is-dead-at-74.html">Fred McFeely Rogers</a>, who died in 2003, was also an ordained Presbyterian minister. Over the course of three decades on public broadcasting, he brought to millions of children what his faith’s <a href="https://www.pcusa.org/resource/minutes-215th-general-assembly-2003-part-i-journal/">General Assembly</a> referred to as “unconditional love.”</p>
<p>In preaching love, Rogers wasn’t just attending to the moral character of his youthful audience. He believed that he was also promoting their health. As he said in <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/copyright/cases/464_US_417.htm#464us417n27">1979</a>, “My whole approach in broadcasting has always been, ‘You are an important person just the way you are. You can make healthy decisions.’ Maybe I’m going on too long, but I just feel that anything that allows a person to be more active in the control of his or her life, in a healthy way, is important.”</p>
<p>Since Rogers’ death, evidence has mounted that he was on to something – namely, that love and kindness truly are healthful, and that people who express them regularly really do lead healthier lives. Simply put, people who are generous and volunteer their time for the benefit of others seem to be happier than those who don’t, and <a href="https://www.dartmouth.edu/wellness/emotional/rakhealthfacts.pdf">happy people</a> tend to have fewer health complaints and live longer than those who are unhappy.</p>
<h2>Love gave rise to a calling</h2>
<p>Born in Pennsylvania in 1928, as a young minister Rogers regretted the messages television was conveying to children in the 1960s. He <a href="https://www.salon.com/1999/08/10/rogers_2/">said</a>, “I went into television because I hated it so, and I thought there’s some way of using this fabulous instrument to nurture those who would watch and listen.” “Mr. Rogers’ Neighborhood” debuted nationally in 1968 and won its creator and host many <a href="https://www.fredrogers.org/fred-rogers/bio/">accolades</a>, including a Presidential Medal of Freedom, two Peabody Awards, and over 40 honorary degrees.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/222241/original/file-20180607-121234-1xjmawt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/222241/original/file-20180607-121234-1xjmawt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222241/original/file-20180607-121234-1xjmawt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222241/original/file-20180607-121234-1xjmawt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222241/original/file-20180607-121234-1xjmawt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=613&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222241/original/file-20180607-121234-1xjmawt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=613&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222241/original/file-20180607-121234-1xjmawt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=613&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Fred Rogers with Pres. George W. Bush, who is about to place the Presidential Medal of Freedom on Rogers in a July 9, 2002 ceremony.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Associated-Press-Domestic-News-Dist-of-Columbi-/ce46a8a7dfe6da11af9f0014c2589dfb/2/0">Kenneth Lambert/AP Photo</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Rogers believed that the need to love and be loved was universal, and he sought to cultivate these capacities through every program, saying in a 2004 <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0433376/">documentary</a> hosted by actor Michael Keaton, one of his former stagehands, “You know, I think everybody longs to be loved, and longs to know that he or she is lovable. And consequently, the greatest thing we can do is to help somebody know they’re loved and capable of loving.”</p>
<h2>Love and health</h2>
<p>As it turns out, there are many ways in which love and kindness are good for health. For one thing, they tend to reduce <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27100366">factors</a> that undermine it. Doing something nice for someone causes the release of endorphins, which help to relieve pain. People who make kindness a habit have lower levels of <a href="https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2015/12/17/460030338/be-kind-unwind-how-helping-others-can-help-keep-stress-in-check">stress hormones</a> such as cortisol. Intentionally helping others can even lower levels of <a href="https://health.clevelandclinic.org/acts-kindness-can-ease-social-anxiety/">anxiety</a> in individuals who normally avoid social situations.</p>
<p>Carrying out acts of kindness, or even merely <a href="https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/how_our_bodies_react_human_goodness">witnessing</a> them, also increases levels of <a href="https://www.hormone.org/hormones-and-health/hormones/oxytocin">oxytocin</a>, a hormone with <a href="https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0ac8/c14228b62b9c87636f5b6eb536a434fd04de.pdf">health benefits</a> as diverse as lowering blood pressure, promoting good sleep and reducing cravings for drugs such as cocaine and alcohol. That oxytocin should have so many health benefits is not so surprising when we recall its central role in stimulating uterine contractions during birth, the letdown of milk during lactation, the pleasure associated with orgasm and pair bonding.</p>
<p>Acts of generosity and compassion also appear to be good for mood. A <a href="https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/11189976/dunn,%20aknin,%20norton_prosocial_cdips.pdf?sequence=1">2010 study</a> showed that while people with money tend to be somewhat happier than those without it, people who spend money on others report even greater levels of happiness, an effect that can be detected even in toddlers. When people give money to others, areas of the brain associated with <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17569866">pleasure</a> are activated, and this response is greater when the transfer is voluntary rather than mandatory.</p>
<p>Such happiness can have big benefits in longevity. For example, a <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1758-0854.2010.01045.x">review</a> of 160 published studies concluded that there is compelling evidence that life satisfaction and optimism are associated with better health and enhanced longevity. Another <a href="http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2011/10/happiness-associated-longer-life">study</a> of older people showed that, even after correcting for other factors such as age, disease and health habits, those who rated their happiness highest were 35 percent less likely to die in five years than those who were least content.</p>
<h2>What would Mister Rogers say?</h2>
<p>Of course, Rogers would remind us that there are reasons to be committed to love and kindness that extend far beyond their health benefits. Rogers was, after all, not a physician but a minister, and ultimately he was ministering to an aspect of human wholeness that cannot be analyzed by blood tests or visualized with CT scans. In a <a href="https://news.dartmouth.edu/news/2018/03/revisiting-fred-rogers-2002-commencement-address">commencement address</a> at Dartmouth College in 2002, he focused less on the body than what he might have called the spirit:</p>
<p>“When I say it’s you I like, I’m talking about that part of you that knows that life is far more than anything you can ever see or hear or touch. That deep part of you that allows you to stand for those things without which humankind cannot survive. Love that conquers hate, peace that rises triumphant over war, and justice that proves more powerful than greed.”</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/222240/original/file-20180607-137309-1diror5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/222240/original/file-20180607-137309-1diror5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222240/original/file-20180607-137309-1diror5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222240/original/file-20180607-137309-1diror5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222240/original/file-20180607-137309-1diror5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=549&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222240/original/file-20180607-137309-1diror5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=549&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222240/original/file-20180607-137309-1diror5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=549&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">A pair of Mister Rogers’ sneakers at the LBJ Library exhibition to celebrate the 50th anniversary of Pres. Johnson signing the public broadcasting act in 1967.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jay Godwin/LBJ Foundation</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When Rogers encouraged children to be kinder and more loving, he believed that he was not only promoting public health but also nurturing the most important part of a human being – the part that exhibits a divine spark. As Rogers indicated in another <a href="https://archive.org/details/rogers_speech_5_27_01">commencement speech</a> the year before at Middlebury College, “I believe that appreciation is a holy thing, that when we look for what’s best in the person we happen to be with at the moment, we’re doing what God does; so in appreciating our neighbor, we’re participating in something truly sacred.”</p>
<p>In expressing such deeply religious sentiments, Rogers was not trying to undermine a concern with bodily health. In fact, he regularly encouraged his viewers to adopt healthy life habits, and Rogers himself was a committed <a href="https://www.huffingtonpost.com/michael-g-long/what-would-mister-rogers-eat_b_6193910.html">vegetarian</a> and lifelong swimmer who maintained a low body weight his entire life. Yet he also believed that health alone does not a full life make, and he regarded the soundness of the body as but part of the wellness of whole persons and communities, which may explain why he was able to face his own mortality with such equanimity.</p>
<p>Just a few months before he died, Rogers recorded a <a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/watch-fred-rogers-heart-warming-final-message-grownup-fans">message</a> for the many adult fans who had grown up watching “Mister Rogers’ Neighborhood.” In it, he practiced what he preached, saying:</p>
<p>“I would like to tell you what I often told you when you were much younger. I like you just the way you are. And what’s more, I’m so grateful to you for helping the children in your life to know that you’ll do everything you can to keep them safe. And to help them express their feelings in ways that will bring healing in many different neighborhoods. It’s such a good feeling to know that we’re lifelong friends.”</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/97970/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Richard Gunderman does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>As the documentary about ‘Mister Rogers’ Neighborhood’ hits theaters, it’s worth noting that Rogers’ emphasis on kindness and love is proving to be very important to good health.Richard Gunderman, Chancellor's Professor of Medicine, Liberal Arts, and Philanthropy, Indiana UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/846892017-10-17T00:55:43Z2017-10-17T00:55:43ZHow childhood trauma changes our hormones, and thus our mental health, into adulthood<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/188498/original/file-20171003-4693-bf5wqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Early life trauma can affect our hormone systems for the rest of our lives. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Exposure to traumatic experiences in childhood can have a negative impact on the development of the brain when it’s most vulnerable. Cases of childhood maltreatment are more common than reported; <a href="https://aifs.gov.au/cfca/publications/child-abuse-and-neglect-statistics">conservative estimates show over 45,000</a> Australian children were exposed to maltreatment in 2015 and 2016. Adversity in childhood can include experiences such as emotional, physical, and sexual abuse, neglect, and the sudden loss of a parent or caregiver.</p>
<p>Early life adversity is a major risk factor for the development of psychological and behavioural problems later in life. Higher rates of depression, suicidality, anxiety disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder, and aggressive behaviour <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19167067">have been reported in adults</a> who experienced childhood maltreatment. </p>
<p>Traumatic childhood events also contribute to increased drug use and dependence. Initiation of drug-taking behaviour <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19248397">begins at a much younger age</a> in those who’ve experienced childhood trauma. Exposure to stressful events in childhood can increase the impact of stressful events throughout life. Add divorce or unemployment to childhood trauma and someone can be more likely to develop psychological disorders or addiction.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/complex-trauma-how-abuse-and-neglect-can-have-life-long-effects-32329">Complex trauma: how abuse and neglect can have life-long effects</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<p>But <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00213-010-2118-y">not all children who experience early life stress</a> go on to develop mental illness. It seems how you cope with stressful experiences is not only influenced by your prior experiences, but also your genes, coping responses and brain regulation. Chemicals in the brain such as cortisol and oxytocin are important for stress and emotional regulation.</p>
<h2>What is oxytocin?</h2>
<p>Oxytocin is a hormone naturally produced by the brain. It’s commonly called the “love hormone” as it promotes sociability, emotional regulation, and bonds between a mother and child, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/306394207_The_neurocircuitry_involved_in_oxytocin_modulation_of_methamphetamine_addiction">as well as between romantic partners</a>. </p>
<p>The amount of oxytocin in the brain varies from person to person. Women and men differ in their regulation of oxytocin, but it’s <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0091302215000278">important in day-to-day functioning</a> for everyone. Variations in the oxytocin gene even affect <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0018506X11002911">how we respond to stress</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/188521/original/file-20171003-12138-okvklv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/188521/original/file-20171003-12138-okvklv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/188521/original/file-20171003-12138-okvklv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/188521/original/file-20171003-12138-okvklv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/188521/original/file-20171003-12138-okvklv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/188521/original/file-20171003-12138-okvklv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/188521/original/file-20171003-12138-okvklv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/188521/original/file-20171003-12138-okvklv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Affection from our parents in early life sets up a healthy oxytocin system.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>Environmental factors can also influence the development of the oxytocin system, which starts to develop in the womb and continues to develop after birth. <a href="http://journals.lww.com/behaviouralpharm/Abstract/2016/12000/Adversity_impacting_on_oxytocin_and_behaviour__.5.aspx">Critical changes occur</a> during infancy, childhood, and adolescence, based on our experiences. Positive or negative experiences early in life <a href="http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fendo.2015.00032/full">can shape the oxytocin system</a>. </p>
<p>Exposure to nurturing and loving parents can contribute to the normal development of this system. Exposure to adversity, such as stress or illness, can <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24056025">detrimentally affect the development</a> and functioning of oxytocin and the oxytocin receptor.</p>
<h2>The impact of early life stress</h2>
<p>Studies in rodents have taught us how the development of the oxytocin system is altered by early trauma. Early life stress <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17433558">changes oxytocin levels</a> within the hypothalamus and the amygdala, which are important brain regions in the production of oxytocin and emotional regulation respectively. Even the functioning of the oxytocin receptor is <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19560475">altered following early life trauma</a>.</p>
<p>Similar changes are also clear in humans exposed to childhood trauma. Women who were exposed to child abuse showed <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18957940">reduced oxytocin levels</a> later in life, as did <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21682649">men who had experienced childhood stress</a>. Oxytocin levels were <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/102/47/17237.full">also lower in children</a> who had been raised in neglectful conditions in a Romanian orphanage.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/getting-em-young-how-early-does-mental-health-intervention-need-to-be-1344">Getting 'em young: how early does mental health intervention need to be?</a>
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<p>These long-lasting changes affect behavioural outcomes. Exposure to early life adversity <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20650569">increases anxiety and depressive behaviours</a> in rodents, which endures well into adulthood. </p>
<p>Research has shown how early life stress can impact on the developing oxytocin system resulting in a greater susceptibility to develop drug dependence and being <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24056025">less capable to cope with stress</a>. </p>
<p>In turn, a well-regulated oxytocin system can support greater resilience against excessive drug use and addiction. Animal studies show oxytocin can boost the reward of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18475254">social connection</a>, lower the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/306394207_The_neurocircuitry_involved_in_oxytocin_modulation_of_methamphetamine_addiction">effect of drugs</a>, <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S016622361200152X">reduce anxiety</a>, and <a href="https://academic.oup.com/endo/article-lookup/doi/10.1210/endo.138.7.5255">improve management of stressors</a>. But we still need more research in humans.</p>
<p>Early life stressors do not only impact the oxytocin system. A number of other systems that work with oxytocin <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24056025">also change</a>, such as important neurotransmitters and the stress system. This results in changes to how these systems interact and contributes to changes in the oxytocin system and ultimately behaviour. </p>
<p>As oxytocin is critically involved in emotional regulation, understanding how the developing oxytocin system can be affected early in life can help us understand how early adversities can have a long-lasting impact on mental health.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/84689/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sarah Baracz has received research funding from the British Society for Neuroendocrinology, the Australian government, and Macquarie University. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Femke Buisman-Pijlman is affiliated with The Robinson Research Institute and a committee member of the Australasian Society for Social and Affective Neuroscience (AS4SAN). Femke Buisman-Pijlman is affiliated with Virginia Commonwealth University as Affiliate Graduate Faculty. She teaches the Master of Science in Addiction Studies with VCU and King's College London. Reckitt-Benckiser Pharmaceuticals offers partial merit based scholarship to students in this degree. Femke has received funding from governments in Australia, The Netherlands and the USA to support teaching, research and travel. Her PhD project was funded in a collaboration between Utrecht University and Solvay Pharmaceuticals (now Abbott) She works as an educational advisor for PwC and several schools.
</span></em></p>The “love hormone” system starts to develop in the womb and is important in helping us deal with stress.Sarah Baracz, Associate lecturer, Macquarie UniversityAssociate Professor Femke Buisman-Pijlman, Senior Lecturer Addiction Studies, University of AdelaideLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/840412017-09-25T10:22:45Z2017-09-25T10:22:45Z3 reasons why we are addicted to smartphones<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/187208/original/file-20170922-11625-10vcujn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">What attaches us so deeply to our phones?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/60035031@N06/15991371957/in/photolist-qn6XKB-8YBd9w-9ixb13-5Yqrzf-pNxGr4-5FnHV7-5G28Jq-7hKbWd-eC2bGz-bLYWzi-5EYxDX-9nqaBE-butXsS-6PLfme-6PT1wS-aw5uyi-6Rfy4r-bpbPXM-6LfJgE-6vo4eT-c9EuUJ-TZLYYN-auXatY-mhKizR-91qBpn-7FsdJU-amC5EX-5QNgQm-6HnGTi-6u47m1-4kDE2a-5MrB3n-3PsEws-79zzZW-9TGfx6-9qVfBz-9witBV-asd5cw-4kpp23-4zR5N4-6CxqVr-cQwv4j-oVfE92-7sd47R-5wutRb-SY6uUh-UxxTuz-4s2FrG-SLVPeU-6BKda8">Al Case</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Apple recently announced the <a href="https://www.apple.com/apple-events/september-2017/">launch of its iPhone 8 and iPhone X</a>, which come with sleek, new features. Apple also hopes to start a new community around the iPhones. Ahead of the launch, Angela Ahrendts, head of retail at Apple, said their stores will be called <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/angela-ahrendts-apple-svp-of-retail-redesign-today-at-apple/">“Town Squares,”</a> and would double as public spaces, complete with outdoor plazas, indoor forums and boardrooms. </p>
<p>The much-anticipated product launch was followed by millions who watched the event via livestream and on internet forums, blogs and in the news media.</p>
<p>I, too, was among them.</p>
<p>So, what draws people to these phones? Surely, it is not just the groundbreaking design or the connection with a community. As a minister, psychotherapist and scholar studying our relationship with hand-held devices, I believe there is much more going on. </p>
<p>In fact, I’d argue, as I do in my book <a href="http://www.baylorpress.com/Book/507/Growing_Down.html">“Growing Down: Theology and Human Nature in the Virtual Age,”</a> the phones tap into our basic yearnings as humans. </p>
<p>Here are my three reasons why we love our phones. </p>
<h2>1. Part of an extended self</h2>
<p>Our sense of self is shaped while we are still in the womb. The development of the self, however, <a href="https://web.stanford.edu/class/cs379c/archive/2013/suggested_reading_list/supplements/documents/GieddetalNN-99.pdf">accelerates after birth</a>. A newborn, first and foremost, attaches herself to the primary caregiver and later to things – acquiring what has been called an “extended self.”</p>
<p>The leading 20th-century American psychologist <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/William-James">William James</a> was among the first to argue for an extended self. In his <a href="http://store.doverpublications.com/0486203816.html">“Principles of Psychology,”</a> James defined the self as “the sum total of all that a man can call his, not only his body and his psychic powers, but his clothes and his house, his wife and children.” Losing any of this extended self, which could include money or another prized object, as he explained, could lead to a sense of great loss. In early childhood, for example, babies and toddlers cry if they suddenly lose their pacifier or favorite soft toy, objects that become part of their extended selves. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/187209/original/file-20170922-11625-26zau6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/187209/original/file-20170922-11625-26zau6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/187209/original/file-20170922-11625-26zau6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/187209/original/file-20170922-11625-26zau6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/187209/original/file-20170922-11625-26zau6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/187209/original/file-20170922-11625-26zau6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/187209/original/file-20170922-11625-26zau6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Phones become part of our extended selves?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/thenickster/3797377308/in/photolist-6MyxYy-5G28Jq-6BDxAu-7hKbWd-eC2bGz-bLYWzi-5EYxDX-7t9AfQ-9nqaBE-butXsS-6PT1wS-aw5uyi-7LfNct-6MunZx-6Rfy4r-84tdZ5-bpbPXM-qn6XKB-7FsdJU-amC5EX-5QNgQm-6vo4eT-c9EuUJ-6HnGTi-6u47m1-4kDE2a-5MrB3n-TZLYYN-79zzZW-9qVfBz-9witBV-asd5cw-4zR5N4-6CxqVr-cQwv4j-oVfE92-auXatY-awdtzq-5wutRb-6J4KnR-7k7G8x-SY6uUh-8nLQ5C-UxxTuz-hxZmy3-be9LEP-7CuW9N-6ciEyJ-4bSG9i-7YQqpi">Nicki Dugan Pogue</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Phones, I argue, play a similar role. It is not uncommon for me to feel a sudden onset of anxiety should I drop my phone or am unable to find it. In my experience, many individuals feel the same way. It is also reflected in how often many of us check our devices. </p>
<p>Psychologist <a href="http://drlarryrosen.com/about/">Larry Rosen</a> and his colleagues at California State University found that 51 percent of individuals born in the 1980s and 1990s experienced moderate to high levels of anxiety when they were kept from checking in with their devices <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0747563212003172">for more than 15 minutes</a>. Interestingly, the percentage drops slightly – to 42 percent – for those born between 1965 and 1979. </p>
<p>This is primarily because they came into being during a time where hand-held technologies were only beginning to make their entry. For this group, phones became part of their extended self only as late teens or as young adults. </p>
<h2>2. Recalling caring relationships</h2>
<p>When we hold our phones, it reminds us of moments of intimacy – whether from our childhood or from our adult life. The <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01906">brain chemical dopamine and love hormone oxytocin</a>, which play a role in the addiction “high,” kick in. These chemicals also create a sense of belonging and attachment. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/187210/original/file-20170922-13425-60o5u2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/187210/original/file-20170922-13425-60o5u2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/187210/original/file-20170922-13425-60o5u2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/187210/original/file-20170922-13425-60o5u2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/187210/original/file-20170922-13425-60o5u2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/187210/original/file-20170922-13425-60o5u2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/187210/original/file-20170922-13425-60o5u2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Phone addiction?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/mermaidkween/2191430771/in/photolist-4kDE2a-5MrB3n-TZLYYN-79zzZW-9qVfBz-9witBV-asd5cw-4zR5N4-6CxqVr-cQwv4j-oVfE92-auXatY-awdtzq-5wutRb-6J4KnR-7k7G8x-SY6uUh-8nLQ5C-UxxTuz-hxZmy3-be9LEP-7CuW9N-6ciEyJ-4bSG9i-7YQqpi-eatTGf-SLVPeU-bB1Xvc-5RbGeP-6BKda8-9sXSV2-f4bgBN-e1pd28-8tGWFc-bsoLC9-hMw2fb-55E7Lx-61D7sA-9HYPXt-7MkKGy-bK99bc-85VbB3-4Thnu9-6NhXRn-jca6UJ-aJLNxp-nnN6GA-cqJyFU-5HQxKu-bBPPZX">Tiffany Nevin</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Holding our phone has the same effect as when a parent looks lovingly at her child or when two lovers gaze into each other’s eyes. In the <a href="http://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2017/09/12/550428192/apple-unveils-three-new-iphones-but-the-watch-sends-shares-up">words of Apple executive Philip Schiller</a>: The iPhone X “learns who you are.” </p>
<p><a href="http://www.baylorpress.com/Book/507/Growing_Down.html">Theological reflection</a> also supports what we have learned about dopamine and oxytocin. The Judeo-Christian tradition, for example, identifies God as an intimate God who seeks face time and creates caring environments. In <a href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=NUmbers+6%3A24-26&version=CEB">Bible, Numbers 6:24-26</a>, we read: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“The Lord bless you and protect you. The Lord make his face shine on you and be gracious to you. The Lord lift up his face to you and grant you peace.”</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>3. Fulfills need to produce and reproduce</h2>
<p>Anthropologist <a href="http://anthropology.columbia.edu/people/profile/376">Michael Taussig</a> <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Mimesis-and-Alterity-A-Particular-History-of-the-Senses/Taussig/p/book/9780415906876">reminds us</a> that it is in our “second nature to copy, imitate, make models, [and] explore difference” as we try to become a better or different self. </p>
<p>Phones help us do that. We take pictures, manipulate images, join discussions, curate a selfie and reach out to others. By texting back and forth, we weave together a conversation. Through searching, we become knowledgeable (even if we lack wisdom). Thus, we join ancestors who painted on <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352409X17303760">cave walls</a> and told stories around fires.</p>
<p>It should not come as a surprise then that smartphones use for internet searches is <a href="https://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/solutions/collateral/service-provider/visual-networking-index-vni/vni-hyperconnectivity-wp.html">on a rapid rise</a>. This is expected to grow to 75 percent by 2021. We are destined, it seems, to live with our phones in hand. </p>
<h2>Living with technology</h2>
<p>Having said this, sometimes, however, I would argue, we need to show up in person and make a difference. </p>
<p>We can be disappointed if we limit our spaces and relationships to small screens or to “town squares.” We need intimate relationships where we give and receive touch, where we gaze into someone’s eyes. We also need spaces – some will be online – where deep connections can be made, where we can rest, play and discover.</p>
<p>So, as some of us head over to the Town Square to purchase the latest iPhone or venture online, it would be best to remember the <a href="http://www.vqronline.org/essay/technology-history-and-culture-appreciation-melvin-kranzberg">dictum</a> of historian of technology <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/1995/12/09/us/melvin-kranzberg-78-historian-of-technology.html?mcubz=0">Melvin Kranzberg</a>: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“Technology is neither good nor bad; nor is it neutral.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p><em>This article has been updated to correct the data on smartphone use for internet use.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/84041/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jaco J. Hamman does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Why we love our phones so much might be related to our basic yearnings as human beings, explains a scholar, who is also a pastor.Jaco J. Hamman, Professor of Religion, Psychology and Culture, Vanderbilt UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/488122015-11-04T03:08:11Z2015-11-04T03:08:11ZExplainer: what is naloxone and how can it help save drug users who overdose?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/99431/original/image-20151023-27631-vcrtwn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Most opioid overdoses occur among experienced users.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-147732503/stock-photo-syringe-on-a-grunge-surface-closeup.html?src=8cw-kBNumrGRjcT3dsYwIg-4-53">Alexander Trinitatov/Flickr</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Naloxone, commonly known as Narcan, is a medicine that temporarily reverses the effects of opioid drugs such as heroin, morphine and oxycodone. If a person overdoses on an opioid, administering naloxone can help revive them.</p>
<p>Naloxone has been widely used in hospital emergency departments and many ambulance services since the 1970s. It <a href="http://espace.library.curtin.edu.au/R?func=dbin-jump-full&local_base=gen01-era02&object_id=212929">has been shown</a> to be remarkably safe, reliable and effective.</p>
<p>In most countries, including Australia, naloxone is only available in the community on prescription. But since the mid-1990s, clinicians and advocates have called for regulators to make naloxone more widely available to opioid users, their peers and family members who might be present or nearby when an overdose occurs.</p>
<p>Earlier this month Australia’s Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) heeded this advice and <a href="https://www.tga.gov.au/scheduling-decision-interim/reasons-scheduling-delegates-interim-decision-and-invitation-further-comment-acms-october-2015">recommended</a> rescheduling naloxone to allow over-the-counter (OTC) purchase of single-use pre-filled syringes through pharmacies. </p>
<p>It is likely that from February 2016 Australia will become the second country (after Italy in 1995), to have naloxone formally available without a prescription.</p>
<h2>Prescription take-home naloxone programs</h2>
<p>Take-home naloxone programs involving supply through prescription have successfully operated in Australia since April 2012, when a program was launched in the Australian Capital Territory. This was soon followed by programs in New South Wales, Western Australia, Victoria and South Australia. </p>
<p>A <a href="http://www.atoda.org.au/wp-content/uploads/Naloxone-Evaluation-Report-FINAL_August-2015_BI.pdf">recent evaluation</a> found that over two years, the ACT program reversed 57 overdoses. The program trained more than 200 participants (mostly opioid users) in overdose-prevention and management, and naloxone administration.</p>
<p>A 2010 survey of naloxone programs operating in the United States since 1996 found that 53,000 kits containing naloxone were distributed through 188 programs across 16 US states. This distribution <a href="http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6106a1.htm">was reported</a> to have resulted in over 10,000 successful overdose reversals.</p>
<p>Growing international research on implementation of take-home naloxone programs provides further evidence that people who are at risk for overdose and other bystanders are willing and able to be trained to prevent overdoses and administer naloxone. </p>
<p>Recent <a href="http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2458/14/297">research shows</a> that even very brief minimal training in using the medicine can be all that is needed to safely administer naloxone.</p>
<p>There is no evidence that wider availability of naloxone leads to riskier or more widespread drug use.</p>
<p>In 2014 the World Health Organization <a href="http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/publications/management_opioid_overdose/en/">recommended</a> that people likely to witness an overdose should have access to naloxone.</p>
<h2>How does naloxone reverse overdoses?</h2>
<p>When a person has an opioid overdose, they lose consciousness and their breathing can slow and even eventually stop. This results in damage to the brain and other organs and, eventually, death.</p>
<p>Most opioid overdoses occur among experienced users. People are most at risk of overdose when their opioid tolerance drops after a period of abstinence or reduced opioid use, such as after prison release, or if they use other drugs such as alcohol or sleeping pills in addition to the opioids.</p>
<p><a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1093%2Fjurban%2Fjtg022">Research shows</a> that most overdose deaths occur more than an hour after last injection and that others, such as friends or family, are usually nearby. </p>
<p>However, in most fatal cases, tragically, there is no intervention before death. This is primarily because most people are ill-equipped to respond to overdose (wrongly) assuming, for example, that the deep snoring or gurgling associated with impending respiratory collapse means that the person can be left to “sleep it off”. </p>
<p>But opioid overdose can be managed by monitoring the person, maintaining their airway, providing ventilation (with rescue breathing), basic life support and calling an ambulance. </p>
<p>Naloxone administration can greatly assist in reversing overdose by helping to quickly restart normal breathing.</p>
<p>Naloxone has a very specific action in reversing the effects of opioid intoxication. It does not produce any intoxication itself and has no effect on people who don’t have opioids in their system. </p>
<p>In an emergency situation, naloxone is typically administered by injection into a muscle. It can also be provided in a device so it can be sprayed into the nostrils, but naloxone is not licensed for nasal use in Australia.</p>
<h2>Taking the next step</h2>
<p>While over-the-counter access to naloxone will be an important step in facilitating wider access to the medicine, a number of measures will be needed to expand naloxone availability sufficiently to have a significant impact on the rate of lethal overdoses in the community. </p>
<p>Work will be done over the next few months to make the naloxone product packaging and instruction materials suitable for lay people buying it over-the-counter. Systems must also be developed to train people in how to use the medicine, such as through brief advice from pharmacy staff.</p>
<p>Naloxone is not a silver bullet for preventing overdose deaths. But its wider availability should be one important component of an effective strategy to prevent opioid overdose fatalities. The rescheduling of naloxone in Australia will set a new precedent for other countries and will help save lives for years into the future.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/48812/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Simon Lenton is supported by funding from the Australian Government under the Substance Misuse Prevention and Service Improvement Grants Fund through its core funding of The National Drug Research Institute at Curtin University. For more than 10 years he has conducted research based advocacy calling for the wider availability of naloxone.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paul Dietze receives funding from the National Health and Medical Research Council, the Australian Research Council, the National Drug Law Enforcement Research Fund and government health departments. </span></em></p>Naloxone, commonly known as Narcan, is a medicine that temporarily reverses the effects of opioid drugs such as heroin, morphine and oxycodone.Simon Lenton, Deputy Director and Project Leader, NDRI, Curtin UniversityPaul Dietze, Head of Alcohol and other Drug Research, Centre for Population Health; Burnet Principal for Alcohol, other drugs and harm reduction, Burnet InstituteLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/498082015-10-27T19:19:52Z2015-10-27T19:19:52ZOxytocin may benefit some children with autism, but it’s not the next wonder drug<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/99784/original/image-20151027-4985-1ncrcru.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The effects observed in the study are still small and inconsistent. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-222984865/stock-photo-young-boy-sitting-watching-something-off-to-the-left-of-the-frame-resting-his-head-on-his-crossed.html?src=56GH1KBvSv6zp4n19Pskaw-6-99">racorn/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A synthetic version of the “trust” hormone oxytocin, delivered as a nasal spray, has been shown to improve social responsiveness among some children with autism, researchers from the University of Sydney have found. </p>
<p>Published today in the journal <a href="http://www.nature.com/mp/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/mp2015162a.html">Molecular Psychiatry</a>, the trial is the first to rigorously examine the effects of oxytocin over a long time period in young children with autism spectrum conditions (ASC). ASC affect many aspects of a child’s development, including social and communication development.</p>
<p>But while it’s an important step forward, the effects observed in the study are simply too small and too inconsistent – and the stakes are simply too high – for anyone to herald a new autism wonder drug. </p>
<h2>Current treatments</h2>
<p>Behavioural therapies are considered the first line of therapies for ASC, and on many fronts these have proven to be effective. The drawbacks, which are not discussed as often as they should, are the considerable costs.</p>
<p>Consider for a moment that one recommended regimen of behavioural therapy is upwards of 20 hours per week. Highly trained therapists cost approximately A$150 for every one hour session, and so the financial burden adds up very quickly. Only a small number of families have the capacity to allocate the necessary resources to these kind of programs. This leaves the majority of families seeking therapy alternatives.</p>
<p>The search for effective pharmaceutical therapies is not just due to the financial and time costs associated with behavioural interventions, but also because these behavioural therapies are not highly effective for all children with ASC.</p>
<p>Autism has had a faddish relationship with pharmaceuticals. Numerous drugs over the past half a century have shown promise for benefiting individuals with ASC, and almost instantaneously achieve world-wide fame. But without fail, after further rigorous research, each of these drugs have been found to be no more effective than a placebo. </p>
<p>Other drugs have been found to be ineffective in reducing core ASC behaviours, such as social and repetitive behaviours, but may provide benefits for associated difficulties, such as sleep or anxiety.</p>
<p>Fads come and go. Hope gets raised and inevitably dashed. It was into this landscape that oxytocin began being tested as a potential pharmaceutical for ASC.</p>
<h2>What is oxytocin?</h2>
<p>Oxytocin is a hormone that affects social cognition and behaviour, and has been the “molecule of the moment” for close to a decade. The human brain produces oxytocin naturally, and is involved in promoting childbirth and lactation reflexes.</p>
<p>Research in ASC has focused on the possible effects of providing the brain with a dose of synthetic oxytocin. In studies of adults, the administration of oxytocin as a nasal spray has been found to improve <a href="http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v435/n7042/full/nature03701.html">trust</a> as well as several aspects of social ability, including <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17888410">eye gaze</a> and <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Oxytocin+increases+retention+of+social+cognition+in+autism">emotion recognition</a>. These latter abilities are characteristic difficulties of individuals with ASC, and so oxytocin was very quickly examined as a potential pharmaceutical therapy for ASC.</p>
<p>Until this point, studies examining the effects of oxytocin on individuals with ASC have produced contradictory findings. Several research groups have identified small improvements in social behaviours in <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Intranasal+oxytocin+versus+placebo+in+the+treatment+of+adults+with+autism+spectrum+disorders%3A+a+randomized+controlled+trial">adults</a> with ASC, while others have identified little to no benefits (in <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25087908">studies of adults</a> children, and adolescents).</p>
<h2>The new study</h2>
<p>The study included 31 children with an ASC aged between three and eight years of age. </p>
<p>The study used what is called a “cross-over” design, which involves two phases of drug administration. In the first phase, each child is allocated into receiving either oxytocin or the placebo. After five weeks of taking the drug, the groups then switch, so that the group that received the oxytocin in the first phase now receives the placebo, and vice versa for the group that initially received the placebo. </p>
<p>This is a neat design because it means that participants act as their own “control”. This enables scientists to directly compare each child’s abilities after taking oxytocin with their abilities after taking the placebo.</p>
<p>The children received the oxytocin or a placebo through a nasal spray bottle. The placebo looked and smelled exactly like the oxytocin spray, but contained none of this active ingredient. Children received one spray of the relevant bottle in each nostril, morning and night. </p>
<p>Importantly, the study was “double blind”, which meant that neither the family nor the investigators knew what was in the spray bottle during each phase until the conclusion of the trial. After the trial finished, the researchers were “unblinded” to the content of the spray bottles. </p>
<p>The key finding was that the children with ASC showed significant improvements in “social responsiveness” after a period receiving oxytocin, but no improvements after a period receiving the placebo. Social responsiveness refers to abilities such as social awareness, reciprocal social interaction and social anxiety avoidance. In this study, social responsiveness was assessed by the parent using a widely used <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12959421">questionnaire</a>.</p>
<p>However, oxytocin was found to be no more effective than the placebo in its effect on measures of repetitive behaviours and emotional difficulties.</p>
<h2>What does this mean?</h2>
<p>This was a rigorously conducted trial, and the results indicate that oxytocin may provide small benefits to some children with ASC.</p>
<p>There are limitations to this study that must be acknowledged. While the number of children included in this trial is among the largest of any previous study – particularly given the “cross-over” design, which increases the statistical power – the sample size is too small to make any sweeping conclusions about the importance of oxytocin in ASC intervention.</p>
<p>But the study does provide a strong platform upon which further science can be conducted.</p>
<p>Larger studies of oxytocin as a potential therapeutic for ASC are currently underway in both the United States and Australia, and will provide a greater evidence base in this area, as will studies examining the effect of oxytocin in conjunction with more traditional behavioural therapies.</p>
<p>However, despite these preliminary positive findings, it is important to remain keen observers of the complicated history between ASC and the limited progress into new pharmaceuticals. </p>
<p>And in that context, the decade of research on oxytocin that has preceded this study is highly instructive. Oxytocin may provide benefit to some children with ASC, but it is not a panacea and it cannot yet be recommended for children until further studies are conducted.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/49808/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew Whitehouse receives funding from the NHMRC, ARC, Autism CRC, Telethon-Perth Children's Research Fund, and the Perpetual Trust. Andrew Whitehouse is a scientific collaborator of the study's senior author, and is a chief investigator on a trial examining the effects of oxytocin in children with autism in Perth and Sydney (funded by the NHMRC). </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gail Alvares receives funding from the Autism CRC and Perpetual Philanthropic.Gail Alvares is a scientific collaborator of the study's senior author and has previously co-authored publications with the study's senior author on the effects of oxytocin in autism and other psychiatric disorders.</span></em></p>A synthetic version of the hormone oxytocin has been shown to improve social responsiveness among some children with autism.Andrew Whitehouse, Winthrop Professor, Telethon Kids Institute, The University of Western AustraliaGail Alvares, Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Telethon Kids InstituteLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/421022015-05-20T10:04:10Z2015-05-20T10:04:10ZWhy the ‘love hormone’ may be less rosy and more rosé than we thought<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/82372/original/image-20150520-11411-19c6x4o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Like alcohol, oxytocin can make certain people aggressive.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>A decade ago, <a href="http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v435/n7042/full/nature03701.html">a revolutionary paper</a> showed that a hormone called oxytocin can actually make us trust other people. This spawned a flurry of research that revealed oxytocin’s potential to boost social interactions. Now a new study has shown that the hormone is actually <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25956250">very similar to alcohol</a>, a well-known social lubricant. However, just like alcohol, it has a dark side.</p>
<p>In the first study, published in 2005, volunteers were asked to invest money in an anonymous trustee whose honesty could not be guaranteed. People who received a dose of oxytocin chose to invest more than those given a placebo – they were more trusting. <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0001128">Subsequent experiments</a> have shown that oxytocin also leads people to become more empathetic, generous and co-operative. They become better at reading social nuances and facial expressions, believe others to be more approachable and become less fearful and anxious in social situations.</p>
<p>Not only this, it seems that oxytocin may help to promote fidelity. Evidence for this comes most clearly in two intensively studied and closely related rodent species. One, the prairie vole, is monogamous; mated couples form close pair bonds and share nest-building and parental duties. In the other, the meadow vole, males leave the female with the babies and will try to mate again.</p>
<p>The two species <a href="http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/361/1476/2187#sec-4">vary in their sensitivity to oxytocin</a>. However, experiments that increase the effective sensitivity to oxytocin by increasing hormone dosage or blocking receptors in the brain can actually change pair-bonding behaviour, making it easier for female prairie voles to choose partner and turning previously promiscuous meadow vole males into monogamous, caring dads. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/82309/original/image-20150519-30501-7i3kfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/82309/original/image-20150519-30501-7i3kfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=456&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/82309/original/image-20150519-30501-7i3kfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=456&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/82309/original/image-20150519-30501-7i3kfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=456&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/82309/original/image-20150519-30501-7i3kfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=572&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/82309/original/image-20150519-30501-7i3kfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=572&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/82309/original/image-20150519-30501-7i3kfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=572&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">You can totally take care of the kids tonight. Take another sniff and you’ll be fine!</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/30793552@N04/7523368472/in/photolist-8xqd9g-sybnqr-pn5edT-rQtEFb-csPekw-3KJsYo">theNerdPatrol/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In our own species, oxytocin has been shown to <a href="http://www.jneurosci.org/content/32/46/16074.abstract?ijkey=fe65ca8efa071fa8f1aba467aeae244fd2dfd69b&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha">inhibit men already in relationships</a> from approaching other attractive women; enhance activation of the <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/110/50/20308.full">brain’s reward systems</a> when they see their partner’s face compared to other attractive women and help couples <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19027101">deal positively with conflict</a>. </p>
<p>Along with other functions, mainly in the formation of <a href="http://pss.sagepub.com/content/18/11/965">mother-infant bonding</a>, the rosy glow of the “love hormone” seems to know no bounds – and its potential application for helping to cement and maintain loving relationships is clear. Its effects on facilitating social interaction have made it an appealing possible <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4120070/">therapeutic tool</a> in patients who struggle with social situations and communication, including in autism, schizophrenia and mood or anxiety disorders.</p>
<p>Even better, it is very easy to use. All the human studies on it use intranasal sprays to boost oxytocin levels. These sprays are readily available, including through the internet, and appear safe to use, at least in the short term – no one yet knows whether there is any long-term harm.</p>
<h2>Adverse effect</h2>
<p>In the past few years, however, concerns expressed by some researchers have begun to rein in the enthusiasm about the potential applications of oxytocin as a therapeutic tool. </p>
<p>Recent studies are showing that the positive effects can be much weaker – or even detrimental – in those that need it the most. In contrast to socially competent or secure individuals, exposure can reduce co-operativeness and trust in <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21115541">those prone to social anxiety</a>. It also increases <a href="http://spp.sagepub.com/content/5/6/691">inclination for violence</a> towards intimate partners. Although this is seen only in people who tend to be more aggressive in general, these would be the same people who might have most to gain from such a treatment, were it available.</p>
<p>These apparently paradoxical effects are hard to explain, particularly since the brain mechanisms responsible are still poorly understood. But a new study may help to provide the answer. A team from the University of Birmingham decided to tackle the issue by comparing studies on the effects of oxytocin with those of alcohol and were struck by the incredible similarities between the two compounds.</p>
<p>Like oxytocin, <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-alcohol-makes-you-friendlier-but-only-to-certain-people-41730">alcohol can have helpful effects</a> in social situations. It increases generosity, fosters bonding within groups and suppresses the action of neural inhibitions on social behaviour, including fear, anxiety and stress.</p>
<p>But, of course, acute alcohol consumption also comes with significant down sides. Aside from the health implications of chronic use, it interferes with recognition of <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-alcohol-makes-you-friendlier-but-only-to-certain-people-41730">emotional facial expression</a>, influences <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2213493">moral judgements</a> and increases <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16350769">risk-taking</a> and <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12529070">aggression</a>. And as with oxytocin, the increase in aggression is limited to those who have an existing disposition to it.</p>
<p>The researchers argue that the striking similarities in behavioural outcome tell us something about the biological mechanisms involved. Although oxytocin and alcohol target different brain receptors, activation of these receptors appear to produce analogous physiological effects. Indeed, they also note similarities with how other compounds work, including benzodiazepines which are commonly used to treat anxiety. Our understanding of how one chemical elicits its effects might thus help us to understand the action of the others. </p>
<p>But, if this new interpretation is correct, it may presage further bad press for the love hormone. It may be that the darkening clouds that threaten to tarnish its reputation are only just beginning to gather. At the very least, it should give us cause for careful evaluation before we rush into using it as a remedy.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/42102/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>S Craig Roberts does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A study has shown that alcohol and oxytocin, often dubbed “the love hormone” are more similar than we thought.S Craig Roberts, Senior Lecturer in Psychology, University of StirlingLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/389532015-03-20T20:43:58Z2015-03-20T20:43:58ZHow testosterone and oxytocin hormones interact in male work and parenting effort<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/75505/original/image-20150320-14595-1s39dz0.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Tsimane hunter with prey after a successful hunt. How are his hormones responding?</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Benajmin Trumble</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Much of human behavior is influenced by hormones. There’s cortisol, involved in our stress response and energy balance. Testosterone, a male sex hormone, tends to make men <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364661311000787?np=y">more competitive</a>. Oxytocin has various <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1357272509002854">social and physiological functions</a> in the brain and the body, but is sometimes referred to as the “love hormone” due to its role in <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1992.tb34356.x/abstract">social bonding</a>. These are all simplifications, but hormones do underlie many aspects of what we do and what we feel.</p>
<p>Researchers often investigate the effects of hormones on behavior in laboratory experiments with student subjects. Some studies show that when you give people oxytocin they become more <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0001128#pone-0001128-g001">generous</a> and <a href="http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v435/n7042/abs/nature03701.html">trusting</a>. In others that administer testosterone to men, the <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0008330">opposite</a> <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/107/22/9991.short">happens</a>. The strength of such studies is that they can demonstrate cause and effect – the behavior change only occurs in subjects receiving hormones, not in those who get a placebo. But this research has weaknesses as well: it often focuses on single hormones, ignoring their potential interactions, and behavior is measured with highly artificial tasks.</p>
<p>To address these shortcomings, we conducted some hormone research in the field – literally. Working with a population of indigenous people in the Amazon, we found that oxytocin and testosterone interact in important ways.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/75507/original/image-20150320-14636-1oyo23c.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/75507/original/image-20150320-14636-1oyo23c.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/75507/original/image-20150320-14636-1oyo23c.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/75507/original/image-20150320-14636-1oyo23c.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/75507/original/image-20150320-14636-1oyo23c.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/75507/original/image-20150320-14636-1oyo23c.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/75507/original/image-20150320-14636-1oyo23c.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/75507/original/image-20150320-14636-1oyo23c.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Tsimane family that live in the Bolivian Amazon.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Adrian Jaeggi</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Out of the lab, into the forest</h2>
<p>To untangle the ways different hormones together influence behavior in more naturalistic contexts, we worked with the Tsimane people in Bolivia. Traditional societies like the Tsimane are not living relics of the past, but their lifeways – small, tight-knit communities that produce their own food – can reveal the kinds of situations our hormone systems are well adapted to.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/75512/original/image-20150320-14606-1lbzh0y.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/75512/original/image-20150320-14606-1lbzh0y.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/75512/original/image-20150320-14606-1lbzh0y.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/75512/original/image-20150320-14606-1lbzh0y.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/75512/original/image-20150320-14606-1lbzh0y.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/75512/original/image-20150320-14606-1lbzh0y.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/75512/original/image-20150320-14606-1lbzh0y.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/75512/original/image-20150320-14606-1lbzh0y.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Tsimane hunter takes aim.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Benjamin Trumble</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For this study, one of us, Ben Trumble, followed Tsimane men as they went hunting for food. Typically, Tsimane men set out alone or with a partner in the early morning and search in the forest for prey such as wild pigs, deer, monkeys, or the rare tapir. Following long looping trails they might be gone for eight or nine hours, traveling about six miles (ten kilometers). Ben collected saliva samples throughout the hunt in order to measure changes in men’s hormone levels.</p>
<p>We had <a href="http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/281/1776/20132876.short">previously reported</a> that successful hunters experienced a surge in testosterone that lasted from the moment they made a kill until their return home – a “winner effect,” rewarding them for their work. Testosterone reinforces the hunting activity and simultaneously helps with muscle regeneration afterwards - similar to the elated feeling we might have after doing sports or other exercise.</p>
<p>Now we showed that hunters returning home also have <a href="http://rsbl.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/11/3/20150058">increased oxytocin levels</a>, especially if they were gone for a long time, and if their testosterone was high.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/75509/original/image-20150320-14620-76gzcr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/75509/original/image-20150320-14620-76gzcr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/75509/original/image-20150320-14620-76gzcr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/75509/original/image-20150320-14620-76gzcr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/75509/original/image-20150320-14620-76gzcr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/75509/original/image-20150320-14620-76gzcr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/75509/original/image-20150320-14620-76gzcr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/75509/original/image-20150320-14620-76gzcr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Tsimane hunter heading for home with prey.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Benjamin Trumble</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Oxytocin and testosterone balancing together</h2>
<p>Given some of the earlier studies, it seems counterintuitive that oxytocin and testosterone would rise in tandem in an individual. Oxytocin tends to make people more social and generous, while testosterone can have the opposite effect. In the case of hunting, testosterone seems inevitably to increase as part of the successful activity.</p>
<p>But returning hunters also need to share meat with their families and friends; this is where oxytocin comes into play. It can help overcome the potentially negative social effects of testosterone. Men who were absent for longer seem to need more oxytocin to reconnect with their families; it seems that absence does indeed make the heart grow fonder, via an oxytocin blast.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/75124/original/image-20150317-22297-ddi2bc.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/75124/original/image-20150317-22297-ddi2bc.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/75124/original/image-20150317-22297-ddi2bc.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/75124/original/image-20150317-22297-ddi2bc.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/75124/original/image-20150317-22297-ddi2bc.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/75124/original/image-20150317-22297-ddi2bc.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/75124/original/image-20150317-22297-ddi2bc.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/75124/original/image-20150317-22297-ddi2bc.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Tsimane man with his two wives and hunted prey after a successful hunt.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Benjamin Trumble</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The need to balance hunting pride and social obligations, and the necessity to reconnect with a family that depends on their provisioning were likely experienced by men throughout much of <a href="http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.1086/595620?sid=21106165097203&uid=2&uid=3737760&uid=4">human evolutionary history</a>. Oxytocin is found in all mammals and originated in the mother-infant bond, where it helps with childbirth, nursing and bonding. In some species, this existing hormonal mechanism could then be harnessed for novel contexts – for instance, men investing in pair-bonding and family provisioning, which is rare among mammals.</p>
<p>Naturalistic studies like ours can help unravel the <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/evan.21412/abstract;jsessionid=4D86754E10CD18EEC787D22FAC54911A.f01t02?systemMessage=Wiley+Online+Library+will+be+disrupted+on+21st+March+from+10%3A30+GMT+up+to+six+hours+and+from+05%3A30+EDT+up+to+six+hours+for+essential+maintenance.++Apologies+for+the+inconvenience.&userIsAuthenticated=false&deniedAccessCustomisedMessage=">evolutionary history and function of these hormones</a>. Basically, the fact that hormone mechanisms have been tweaked during evolution suggests that the behaviors they promote have provided fitness benefits in the past. In this case, hunting and sharing meat must have increased men’s reproductive success.</p>
<p>In this context, it’s also interesting that like testosterone, oxytocin can be involved in <a href="http://www.nature.com/ncomms/2014/140610/ncomms5082/full/ncomms5082.html">muscle regeneration</a>. While more research needs to be done on this, it would make sense for the same hormone to have both social and regenerative functions if the opportunity and need for both predictably coincided, as when coming home after a day’s work.</p>
<p>Naturalistic studies like ours can help unravel the evolutionary history and function of these hormones in a way artificial lab studies can’t.</p>
<p>[<em>You’re smart and curious about the world. So are The Conversation’s authors and editors.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/weekly-highlights-61?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=weeklysmart">You can get our highlights each weekend</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/38953/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Adrian Jaeggi has received funding from the Swiss National Science Foundation, the SAGE Center for the Study of the Mind, the Cogito Foundation, and the A. H. Schultz Foundation.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ben Trumble receives funding from NIH (NIA, NICHD) and NSF</span></em></p>Levels of a male sex hormone known to influence aggression and a “love” hormone that promotes bonding both rise in traditional hunters headed home after the kill. What’s going on?Adrian Jaeggi, Postdoctoral Scholar of Anthropology, University of California, Santa BarbaraBen Trumble, Postdoctoral Scholar of Anthropology, University of California, Santa BarbaraLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/378552015-02-23T23:24:38Z2015-02-23T23:24:38ZCould research into oxytocin and alcohol lead to a ‘sobriety pill’?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/72750/original/image-20150223-32238-16l3q9a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">What if we had a pill that nullified some of the negative effects of alcohol and helped alcoholics drink less?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/carbonnyc/8686574743/in/photolist-eeAY34-pcLepZ-d135Eu-gubuQ1-tgLsw-6KpmFc-69mdTa-9KZDdk-c6WdSQ-dC9bQW-7jpVsh-4AfhTX-4Afik4-92Efy7-ja5j7-fyHGiw-61kmiC-8pYi9q-4A8gGt-dxomPh-6DtJ5V-7WtLCE-ehvzvH-51AfA3-7rDbu6-5rkGVB-pS94c-89g2X7-6PAEaw-drzG99-AV33q-ftPrit-o3YBAx-8HrnEu-fqKzC-5qDmtn-5b747n-bB3QUc-2o5ue-kTZe2y-2k8aah-9U7zdS-xZba-8Lwa8n-kWyqX-9YCLMM-dACPRL-apo9St-5eWDMm-8tTuUZ">David Goehring/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Each year over <a href="http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2014/alcohol-related-deaths-prevention/en/">three million people</a> die due to alcohol-related causes. To put that in perspective, that’s a whopping 5.9% of all deaths worldwide. Meanwhile, countless others endure the adverse health effects of <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/alcohol">alcohol use</a>. Unfortunately, current psychological and pharmacological treatments for alcohol-use disorders are only marginally better than placebo in reducing intake.</p>
<p>Imagine, then, if problem drinkers could be given a pill that makes them less likely to drink, less intoxicated if they do drink and more capable of enduring the potentially life-threatening alcohol withdrawal syndrome that emerges shortly after going “cold-turkey”. </p>
<p>Recent research exploring interactions between the neuropeptide <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/oxytocin">oxytocin</a> and alcohol gives some grounds for hope that such a pill might one day exist. </p>
<p>Oxytocin is sometimes referred to as the “<a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2786760/The-love-hormone-revealed-Scientists-unravel-sexual-sparked-females.html">love hormone</a>” or “cuddle hormone”. It has a high profile in popular culture due to its role in promoting sociability and long-term bonding. Numerous human studies, often involving nasal puffs of oxytocin, show various <a href="http://www.webmd.com/sex-relationships/news/20131125/how-the-love-hormone-works-its-magic">prosocial effects</a>. </p>
<p>Oxytocin is also known to interact with alcohol. In the 1980s it was discovered that oxytocin can prevent the development of tolerance to alcohol’s sedative and body temperature reducing effects in rodents, and reduce the severity of alcohol withdrawal.</p>
<p>More recently, we reported that oxytocin causes both immediate and long-lasting inhibition of <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0027237">alcohol consumption in rodents</a>. Furthermore, repeated exposure to oxytocin promotes <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0018506X11002765">addiction-resistant behaviour</a> characterised by reduced anxiety, higher sociability and greater activity of the natural oxytocin system.</p>
<h2>Oxytocin blocks alcohol intoxication</h2>
<p>In research published this week in the <a href="http://www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1416900112">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a> we provide perhaps one of the most striking demonstrations to-date of oxytocin’s interaction with alcohol.</p>
<p>We infused oxytocin into the brains of rats that were then given an intoxicating dose of alcohol. The oxytocin completely prevented the discoordination caused by the alcohol in the rat equivalent of a field sobriety test. You can see the results in the video below:</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/xkQSlVQMi0M?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The rat given oxytocin behaves just like the sober rat, even though it has been given a high dose of alcohol.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We then went on to demonstrate that oxytocin prevents alcohol from acting at specific sites in the brain involved in alcohol intoxication, sites known as delta subunit-containing GABA-A receptors. This was a particularly striking discovery in that oxytocin is normally thought to bind primarily to its own oxytocin receptors and a population of receptors for the closely related peptide vasopressin.</p>
<p>Other recent research suggests that delta subunit GABA-A receptors also play a role in alcohol addiction and tolerance. Changing the density of these receptors using a specially engineered virus can lead to a reduced appetite for alcohol.</p>
<p>Our demonstration that oxytocin prevents alcohol acting at these receptors therefore suggests a hitherto unknown mechanism involved in the wide-ranging interactions between alcohol and oxytocin as reported in other studies. </p>
<h2>Developing a ‘sobriety’ pill</h2>
<p>So in rodents, at least, oxytocin reduces alcohol consumption in both the short- and long-term. It also prevents alcohol-induced intoxication, reduces the severity of alcohol withdrawal and promotes behaviour resistant to addiction and relapse. </p>
<p>These wide ranging effects of oxytocin on addiction-relevant behaviours sound much like the “sobriety” pill imagined at the beginning of this article. The challenge now is to translate these findings into humans.</p>
<p>One major hurdle will be to make sure that we can deliver the large oxytocin molecule in a way that allows it to effectively enter the brain. In rodent studies we do this by administering oxytocin directly into the brain or by giving very high doses peripherally.</p>
<p>In human studies, oxytocin is usually given via a nasal spray, with the theory being that this provides a “back-door” into the brain. But there is debate as to how effective this actually is in raising brain oxytocin levels. </p>
<p>To-date only one small pilot trial of oxytocin in the <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1530-0277.2012.01958.x/abstract">clinical treatment of alcoholism</a> has been published. Alcoholics undergoing inpatient detoxification who were treated with intranasal oxytocin had reduced alcohol cravings and required less standard pharmacological treatment to treat their withdrawal symptoms. This study requires extension and replication but is an encouraging start.</p>
<p>But we’re yet to demonstrate the “sobering-up” effect of oxytocin in humans, although we’re planning to test that in future studies. Assuming enough of the oxytocin reaches the brain, we suspect that oxytocin might reduce motor discoordination after consuming alcohol and also rescue slurred speech and impaired cognition. We’re also interested in the pacifying and anti-aggressive effects of oxytocin. </p>
<p>Each year in Australia there are around <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-07-31/15-australians-die-each-day-from-alcohol-related-illness-study/5637050">65,000 hospitalisations and 1,500 deaths</a> due to alcohol-related injuries. If oxytocin is able to inhibit intoxication in these people it could greatly reduce their risk of such injury. But even better, it might prevent excessive alcohol consumption in the first place.</p>
<p>It’s still early days, but the more we learn about <em>how</em> oxytocin causes such a wide range of positive effects on alcohol-induced behaviours, the closer we may get to a “sobriety” pill being science fact rather than science fiction.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/37855/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael T. Bowen currently receives funding from The National Health and Medical Research Council for oxytocin-related research. He is an inventor on a patent relating to oxytocin's inhibitory effects on alcohol consumption (<a href="http://www.google.com/patents/US20120270785">http://www.google.com/patents/US20120270785</a>).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Iain S. McGregor currently receives and has previously received funding from The National Health and Medical Research Council for oxytocin-related research. He is an inventor on a patent relating to oxytocin's inhibitory effects of alcohol consumption (<a href="http://www.google.com/patents/US20120270785">http://www.google.com/patents/US20120270785</a>). </span></em></p>Imagine a pill that nullified some of the nasty effects of alcohol. A new study looking at oxytocin suggests such a pill might be possible.Michael T. Bowen, NHMRC Peter Doherty Biomedical Fellow, University of SydneyIain S McGregor, Professor of Psychopharmacology at the School of Psychology, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/57422012-03-16T03:01:29Z2012-03-16T03:01:29Z‘Men react more aggressively to stress’ … sure, but you’re missing the point<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/8664/original/7cpk3bnc-1331853943.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Reading oversimplified science stories is stressful business.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Michael Clesle</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>There’s this gene that about half of all people carry. It’s a pretty nasty gene – it massively increases the risk of the carrier being a murderer or a murder victim, going to jail or dying in an accident. And a <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/bies.201100159/abstract">new paper in Bioessays</a> – by Prince Henry’s Institute researchers <a href="http://www.princehenrys.org/dr-joohyung-lee">Joohyung Lee</a> and <a href="http://www.princehenrys.org/prof-vincent-harley">Vincent R. Harley</a> – suggests this gene might be responsible for an aggressive response to sudden stresses.</p>
<p>That could explain the bit about murder, accidents and jail.</p>
<p>Despite all the bad press this gene gets, it isn’t all bad. Carriers have the same number of children as non-carriers. And the biggest winners in our evolutionary history – the people who have left the most descendants – have all been carriers.</p>
<p>The gene is called <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SRY">SRY</a> – short for “sex-determining region on the Y chromosome”. It’s the crucial genetic instruction that triggers an embryo to develop into a male. Without SRY, the embryo becomes a girl. </p>
<p>New findings about the way SRY works might explain the differences in how men and women respond to stress. These findings might also explain why men are more susceptible than women to <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-parkinsons-disease-698">Parkinson’s Disease</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/topics/schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/topics/autism">autism</a>.</p>
<h2>Running on adrenaline</h2>
<p>The hormone <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epinephrine">epinephrine</a> achieved fame and brand-name recognition as adrenaline. Everyone from weekend warriors to elite BASE jumpers (is there any other kind?) professes its near-magical capacity to elicit superhuman feats of strength and speed. When the chips are down and the boys need to give 110%, that old adrenaline rush kicks in.</p>
<p>Not only does that adrenaline rush cause many of us to speak in seamless cliché, it prepares us to fight or to flee from whatever threatens us. And that rush actually comes by way not only of adrenaline, but two other hormones in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catecholamine">catecholamine group</a>: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norepinephrine">norepinephrine</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopamine">dopamine</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/8666/original/nwtwm6h2-1331853949.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/8666/original/nwtwm6h2-1331853949.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=945&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/8666/original/nwtwm6h2-1331853949.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=945&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/8666/original/nwtwm6h2-1331853949.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=945&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/8666/original/nwtwm6h2-1331853949.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1188&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/8666/original/nwtwm6h2-1331853949.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1188&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/8666/original/nwtwm6h2-1331853949.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1188&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="attribution"><span class="source">emidiobatista</span></span>
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<p>For some decades, the catecholamine-mediated fight-or-flight response was considered the dominant human response to stress. But most detailed studies were done on men. As psychologist <a href="http://shelley.taylor.socialpsychology.org/">Shelley E. Taylor</a> and colleagues from the University of California (Los Angeles) first proposed in a 2000 study, women’s fight-or-flight response isn’t nearly as strong.</p>
<p>Instead, Taylor argued, there is another suite of responses to stress, to which she attached the catchy name <a href="http://scholar.harvard.edu/sites/scholar.iq.harvard.edu/files/marianabockarova/files/tend-and-befriend.pdf">“tend-and-befriend”</a>. “Tending” involves our nurturing responses – protecting and reassuring ourselves and others. “Befriending” involves creating social networks and seeking out their protection under stress.</p>
<p>Women, according to Taylor, more often respond to stress with this nurturing and social response than with the familiar fight-or-flight. And the urges behind tend-and-befriend behaviours are often regulated by <a href="https://theconversation.com/i-nd-to-spk-2-u-mum-why-texting-wont-make-you-feel-the-love-5200">oxytocin</a> – a hormone important in breastfeeding and mother-child bonding – and by female reproductive hormones.</p>
<h2>Different strokes for different folks</h2>
<p>The discovery that people differ in their response to stress provided a real step forward in the biological study of behaviour. But is the notion that men, when presented with danger, either fight or flee, while womenfolk band together to defend and reassure the nursery herd, any improvement?</p>
<p>To my mind, pop-science simplifications like this play to the outdated <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_versus_nurture">nature-nurture dichotomy</a> – the idea that our behaviour is either biological and genetic in origin or that it depends entirely on context, experience and social environment.</p>
<p>Catecholamines stimulate men <em>and</em> women to fight or to flee, even if they differ, on average, in their level of arousal, how readily they fight or how quickly they flee. Likewise, even though oxytocin has long been recognised as an important hormone in women, it also functions in men.</p>
<p>In both sexes, oxytocin facilitates parent-offspring bonding, couple formation and the <a href="https://theconversation.com/aint-no-t-in-teamwork-fool-testosterone-makes-us-bad-collaborators-5233">building of trust</a>. Men tend-and-befriend too, even if they do it on average less often than, and in different ways to women.</p>
<p>The crucial caveat “on average” really counts here. Within each sex, people differ in their tendency to fight-flight or tend-befriend and in how they adopt these broad types of response to stress. And the circumstances of the stress, plus the individual’s life experience, interact with the hormones and hormone receptors to produce a huge variety of behaviours.</p>
<p>Those various behaviours fall – with varying degrees of accuracy – into categories such as tend-and-befriend and fight-or-flight. But the variation within and among individuals is every bit as interesting as the gross average differences observed between sexes.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/8665/original/sd4kv72r-1331853949.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/8665/original/sd4kv72r-1331853949.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/8665/original/sd4kv72r-1331853949.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/8665/original/sd4kv72r-1331853949.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/8665/original/sd4kv72r-1331853949.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/8665/original/sd4kv72r-1331853949.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/8665/original/sd4kv72r-1331853949.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/8665/original/sd4kv72r-1331853949.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="attribution"><span class="source">carolitajohnson</span></span>
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<h2>A new role for SRY</h2>
<p>All of this is why a recent <a href="http://au.wiley.com/WileyCDA/PressRelease/pressReleaseId-102717.html">press release</a> caught my attention. “Men respond more aggressively than women to stress”, trumpeted the media office of the Bioessays journal, “and it’s all down to a single gene”.</p>
<p>Just as oxytocin and female sex hormones gave Shelley Taylor the female-centric basis for tend-and-befriend, the new paper by Lee and Harley suggested the male bias in fight-or-flight might be due to SRY.</p>
<p>The idea flows from some exciting new research on the SRY gene. For over 20 years we have known that SRY determines sex by making a protein (called, surprisingly, SRY protein) that stimulates a few key embryonic cells to develop into testes.</p>
<p>Testosterone from the testes then signals other tissues to make the body into a male. Without SRY protein, the body follows the default settings and those same embryonic cells become ovaries. For some time, researchers thought that once SRY had initiated testes development its work was done.</p>
<p>In recent years, however, various researchers, including Harley, have found SRY protein in the human <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982206000662">brain</a>, and <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8111368">other tissues</a>. And in those places it interacts with catecholamines such as adrenaline and dopamine.</p>
<p>Lee and Harley’s new paper suggests SRY protein could make male tissues more susceptible than female tissues (which lack SRY protein) to the fight-or-flight symptoms of increased nervous activity, circulation and capacity to move rapidly.</p>
<p>For too long, explanations of male-biased behaviour have looked no further than testosterone. Men tend to have about ten times as much circulating testosterone as women, and sex differences are often casually written off to differences in testosterone concentration.</p>
<p>Excitingly, Lee and Harley make the very testable suggestion that an exclusively male gene – known to be involved in catecholamine signalling – might make men more prone to the fight-or-flight response than women.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/8663/original/fsnq98kd-1331853943.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/8663/original/fsnq98kd-1331853943.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/8663/original/fsnq98kd-1331853943.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/8663/original/fsnq98kd-1331853943.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/8663/original/fsnq98kd-1331853943.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/8663/original/fsnq98kd-1331853943.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/8663/original/fsnq98kd-1331853943.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Michael Clesle</span></span>
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<h2>Bad press</h2>
<p>Unfortunately – and I’m not too surprised given the breathless press release – the interesting and important implications of this finding have been largely overlooked by a news media hungry for simple, familiar stories.</p>
<p>According to <a href="http://elitedaily.com/elite/2012/macho-gene-men-behave-aggressively/">one report</a> “the macho gene that makes men behave aggressively has been found”. Let’s leave aside the fact that SRY was <a href="http://www.embryology.ch/anglais/ugenital/molec02.html">identified in 1985</a>, and the quite obvious fact that because SRY makes men male it is as responsible as any gene can be for differences between males and females.</p>
<p>But reports such as the above simply stoke the idea that complex social issues – such as sex differences in behaviour – can be entirely understood with the identification of a gene involved.</p>
<p>Once we know, as we do, that men are many times more likely than women to be murderers and murder victims, go to jail or to suffer from certain diseases, our work has barely even begun. These facts require both explanations and an understanding of how they come to be before they can become anything more than interesting observations.</p>
<p>What excites me most about Lee and Harley’s paper is that it suggests new pathways for research into male-specific disorders. Parkinson’s Disease, autism, schizophrenia and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder are all more common in men than in women. And they all involve altered catecholamine levels.</p>
<p>In Parkinson’s Disease, for example, nerve cells sensitive to dopamine are progressively lost. Could the presence of SRY somehow make male nerve cells more vulnerable to death? Perhaps doctors could use this knowledge to minimise the harmful consequences of SRY protein in the brain.</p>
<p>To me, understanding how evolution has generated differences in men’s and women’s susceptibility to appalling diseases is so much more interesting and important than another round of titillating stereotypes about badly behaved men and über-nurturing women.</p>
<p><em>You can follow Rob Brooks on Twitter <a href="http://twitter.com/brooks_rob">@Brooks_Rob</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/5742/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rob Brooks receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p>There’s this gene that about half of all people carry. It’s a pretty nasty gene – it massively increases the risk of the carrier being a murderer or a murder victim, going to jail or dying in an accident…Rob Brooks, Professor of Evolutionary Ecology; Director, Evolution & Ecology Research Centre, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/52002012-02-09T01:40:05Z2012-02-09T01:40:05ZI nd to spk 2 U mum: why texting won’t make you feel the love<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/7447/original/sx5mv4bx-1328585932.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Sending an SMS might be easy, but catching up in person feels better.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jhaymesiviphotography </span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Things have changed. Much of the time we used to spend chatting with friends or strangers in person is now spent tweeting, texting or updating our Facebook status. </p>
<p>Although technology allows us to rapidly communicate, how these indirect interactions affect our bodies and minds is not yet known. A <a href="http://www.ehbonline.org/article/S1090-5138%2811%2900047-X/abstract">new study</a> by researchers at the University of Wisconsin-Madison suggests that not all human interactions are created equal – at least not biochemically.</p>
<h2>Hormonally yours</h2>
<p>Hormones govern everything about our lives – from fetal development and the uncomfortable coming-of-age we all experience during puberty, to our susceptibility to foods high in sugars, and the inevitable crumbling of our reproductive systems. </p>
<p>Of all the hormones coursing through our bodies, it’s the effect of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxytocin">oxytocin</a> we’re perhaps most familiar with. That’s because oxytocin is the hormone responsible for delivering the euphoric feeling we associate with love. </p>
<p>Among its myriad roles, oxytocin is critical for strengthening bonds between people and reducing stress and anxiety. Without it, we drift towards a more narcissistic, manipulative, reclusive and sociopathic lifestyle. One could easily imagine an Orwellian dystopia should this simple molecule not exist.</p>
<p>Apart from the daily doses of oxytocin our body automatically produces, direct social interactions with people close to us trigger further releases. This is especially helpful after stressful events and explains why we share such personal experiences with close friends and relatives. </p>
<p>The words of support we hear from those close to us trigger a welcome release of oxytocin that reduces our feelings of stress. </p>
<p>But is it the words themselves or the tonal sounds conveying the meaning of those words that provides this comfort? </p>
<h2>Hearing what others say </h2>
<p>Building on their <a href="http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/277/1694/2661.full">previous work</a> showing young girls’ stress levels reduced quicker thanks to an oxytocin release after speaking with their mothers, the University of Wisconsin-Madison researchers wanted to determine why this would be the case.</p>
<p>Did the mothers’ comforting words help daughters regain their composure, or was it <em>hearing</em> those words that soothed their stressed souls?</p>
<p>The experiment involved subjecting girls between the ages of seven-and-a-half and 12 to a written test in front of an audience “trained to maintain a neutral facial expression” – a potentially terrifying experience, regardless of age!</p>
<p>After the test, the girls were allowed to either communicate with their mothers directly, over the phone, by texting, or not at all. </p>
<p>The team then measured salivary cortisol levels (a direct measure of stress) and urinary oxytocin levels (the body’s response to stress) to determine how the young girls’ bodies were coping. </p>
<p>Not surprisingly, the girls able to directly interact with their mothers had much lower stress levels and higher oxytocin levels. The girls who only interacted over the phone likewise enjoyed the recuperative effects of oxytocin. </p>
<p>The girls who only texted – thereby <em>reading</em>, not hearing, their mother’s responses – had higher stress levels and lower oxytocin releases, matching those girls not allowed to interact with anyone. </p>
<h2>Evolution vs. technology</h2>
<p>We’re born into a world where a mother’s voice and a baby’s cooing response results in a cascade of hormones in both parties that sets our course for development. This kind of bond exists because vocal communication is millions of years old, which is the timeframe needed for a connection between our physiology and vocal communication to evolve. </p>
<p>Written communication, by contrast, is comparably young, with the first known case arising approximately <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_writing">5,000 years ago</a>. This timeframe is simply too short in an evolutionary sense for a similar physiological connection to evolve with text. </p>
<p>Also, textual communication can be ambiguous compared with the tonal nuances used in vocal communication. This in turn means a physiological response to text is even less likely to evolve.</p>
<p>What does this mean? Letting everyone on Facebook know we’ve had a nosebleed, received a promotion or ditched our soulmate is fine for keeping people up to date. But these indirect interactions may lack the underlying physiological responses our bodies require to strengthen our bonds with others. </p>
<p>The long-term result our increasing neglect of vocal communication will have is impossible to imagine, but there’s a reason we want to chat to someone, not text them, after a particularly stressful day. </p>
<p>Although a Shakespearean sonnet can evoke strong emotional responses, it is not the words themselves but hearing them from a lover’s lips that evokes the euphoria within. Not even the most polished prose can deliver the physiological relief we receive upon hearing a mother’s “I’m sure you did great”!</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/5200/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Kasumovic receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p>Things have changed. Much of the time we used to spend chatting with friends or strangers in person is now spent tweeting, texting or updating our Facebook status. Although technology allows us to rapidly…Michael Kasumovic, Lecturer, ARC DECRA Fellow, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.