tag:theconversation.com,2011:/id/topics/public-safety-6733/articlesPublic safety – The Conversation2024-02-19T02:50:03Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2237292024-02-19T02:50:03Z2024-02-19T02:50:03ZAsbestos in mulch? Here’s the risk if you’ve been exposed<p>Mulch containing asbestos has now been found at <a href="https://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/news/media-releases/2024/epamedia240219-asbestos-investigation-updates">41 locations</a> in New South Wales, including Sydney parks, <a href="https://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/news/media-releases/2024/epamedia240211-asbestos-mulch-found-at-liverpool-west-public-school">schools</a>, <a href="https://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/news/media-releases/2024/epamedia240216-epa-to-conduct-priority-testing-at-sydney-schools">hospitals</a>, a <a href="https://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/news/media-releases/2024/epamedia240219-asbestos-investigation-updates">supermarket</a> and at least <a href="https://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/testing-for-asbestos-tainted-mulch-across-sydney-set-to-begin/0d6wo7hx6">one regional site</a>. Tests are under way at <a href="https://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/news/media-releases/2024/epamedia240219-asbestos-investigation-updates">other sites</a>. </p>
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<p>As a precautionary measure, some parks have been <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/sydney-parks-cordoned-off-mardi-gras-event-cancelled-after-asbestos-concerns-2024-02-15/#:%7E:text=SYDNEY%2C%20Feb%2016%20(Reuters),toxic%20material%20from%20public%20spaces.">cordoned off</a> and some schools have <a href="https://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/news/media-releases/2024/epamedia240219-asbestos-investigation-updates">closed</a> temporarily. Fair Day – a large public event that traditionally marks the start of Mardi Gras – <a href="https://whatson.cityofsydney.nsw.gov.au/events/fair-day">was cancelled</a> after contaminated mulch was found at the site.</p>
<p>The New South Wales government has announced a new <a href="https://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/news/media-releases/2024/epamedia240215-new-asbestos-taskforce-to-support-investigation-into-mulch">taskforce</a> to help investigate how the asbestos ended up in the mulch.</p>
<p>Here’s what we know about the risk to public health of mulch contaminated with asbestos, including “friable” asbestos, which <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2024/feb/14/nsw-opposition-calls-for-central-register-of-sites-under-investigation-amid-asbestos-crisis#:%7E:text=The%20City%20of%20Sydney%20announced%20on%20Tuesday%20that%20friable%20asbestos,been%20found%20at%20Regatta%20Park.">has been found</a> in one <a href="https://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/news/media-releases/2024/epamedia240216-epa-to-conduct-priority-testing-at-sydney-schools">site</a> (<a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/asbestos-found-in-multiple-sydney-parks-20240213-p5f4ep.html">Harmony Park</a> in Surry Hills). </p>
<h2>What are the health risks of asbestos?</h2>
<p>Asbestos is a naturally occurring, heat-resistant fibre that was widely used in building materials from the <a href="https://www.cancer.org.au/cancer-information/causes-and-prevention/workplace-cancer/asbestos">1940s to the 1980s</a>. It can be found in either a <a href="https://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/safety-topic/hazards/asbestos/overview">bonded or friable</a> form. </p>
<p>Bonded asbestos means the fibres are bound in a cement matrix. Asbestos sheeting that was used for walls, fences, roofs and eaves are examples of bonded asbestos. The fibres don’t escape this matrix unless the product is severely damaged or worn. </p>
<p>A lot of asbestos fragments from broken asbestos products are still considered bonded as the fibres are not released as they lay on the ground.</p>
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<img alt="Bonded asbestos" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576359/original/file-20240219-16-54tww8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576359/original/file-20240219-16-54tww8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=322&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576359/original/file-20240219-16-54tww8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=322&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576359/original/file-20240219-16-54tww8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=322&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576359/original/file-20240219-16-54tww8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576359/original/file-20240219-16-54tww8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576359/original/file-20240219-16-54tww8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Asbestos sheeting was used for walls and roofs.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://theconversation.com/diy-renovators-now-most-at-risk-of-asbestos-cancers-3206">Tomas Regina/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>Friable asbestos, in contrast, can be easily crumbled by touch. It will include raw asbestos fibres and previously bonded products that have worn to the point that they crumble easily.</p>
<p>The risk of disease from asbestos exposure is due to the <a href="https://www.asbestossafety.gov.au/asbestos-health-risks-and-exposure/asbestos-health-risks">inhalation of fibres</a>. It doesn’t matter if those fibres are from friable or bonded sources. </p>
<p>However, fibres can more easily become airborne, and therefore inhalable, if the asbestos is friable. This means there is more of a risk of exposure if you are disturbing friable asbestos than if you disturb fragments of bonded asbestos.</p>
<h2>Who is most at risk from asbestos exposure?</h2>
<p>The most important factor for disease risk is exposure – you actually have to inhale fibres to be at risk of disease. </p>
<p>Just being in the vicinity of asbestos, or material containing asbestos, does not put you at risk of asbestos-related disease. </p>
<p>For those who accessed the contaminated areas, the level of exposure will depend on disturbing the asbestos and how many fibres become airborne due to that disturbance. </p>
<p>However, if you have been exposed to, and inhaled, asbestos fibres it does not mean you will get an asbestos-related disease. Exposure levels from the sites across Sydney will be low and the chance of disease is highly unlikely.</p>
<p>The evidence for disease risk from ingestion remains <a href="https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/350932/WHO-HEP-ECH-WSH-2021.4-eng.pdf">highly uncertain</a>, although you are not likely to ingest sufficient fibres from the air, or even the hand to mouth activities that may occur with playing in contaminated mulch, for this to be a concern.</p>
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<p>The risk of disease from exposure depends on the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/j.1445-5994.2011.02451.x">intensity, frequency and duration of that exposure</a>. That is, the more you are exposed to asbestos, the greater the risk of disease. </p>
<p>Most asbestos-related disease has occurred in people who work with raw asbestos (for example, asbestos miners) or asbestos-containing products (such as building tradespeople). This has been a tragedy and fortunately asbestos is now banned. </p>
<p>There have been cases of asbestos-related disease, most notably mesothelioma – a cancer of the lining of the lung (mostly) or peritoneum – from non-occupational exposures. This has included people who have undertaken DIY home renovations and may have only had <a href="https://www.mja.com.au/journal/2011/195/5/increasing-incidence-malignant-mesothelioma-after-exposure-asbestos-during-home">short-term exposures</a>. The level of exposure in these cases is not known and it is also impossible to determine if those activities have been the only exposure. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/diy-renovators-now-most-at-risk-of-asbestos-cancers-3206">DIY renovators now most at risk of asbestos cancers</a>
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<p>There is no <em>known</em> safe level of exposure – but this <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/j.1445-5994.2011.02451.x">does not mean that one fibre will kill</a>. Asbestos needs to be treated with caution.</p>
<p>As far as we are aware, there have been no cases of mesothelioma, or other asbestos-related disease, that have been caused by <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/resp.14648">exposure from contaminated soils or mulch</a>.</p>
<h2>Has asbestos been found in mulch before?</h2>
<p>Asbestos contamination of mulch is, unfortunately, <a href="https://www.perthnow.com.au/news/wa/asbestos-mulch-fears-in-perth-southern-suburb-aubin-grove-ng-1b39c602956a6588f35f42b90be75e40">not new</a>. Environmental and health agencies have dealt with these situations in the past. All jurisdictions have strict regulations about removing asbestos products from the green waste stream but, as is happening in Sydney now, this does not always happen. </p>
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<img alt="Mulch" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576363/original/file-20240219-30-nbwq6k.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576363/original/file-20240219-30-nbwq6k.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576363/original/file-20240219-30-nbwq6k.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576363/original/file-20240219-30-nbwq6k.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576363/original/file-20240219-30-nbwq6k.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=473&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576363/original/file-20240219-30-nbwq6k.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=473&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576363/original/file-20240219-30-nbwq6k.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=473&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Mulch contamination is not new.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/barking-mulch-617198870">gibleho/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<h2>What if I’ve been near contaminated mulch?</h2>
<p>Exposure from mulch contamination is generally much lower than from current renovation or construction activities and will be many orders of magnitude lower than past occupational exposures. </p>
<p>Unlike activities such as demolition, construction and mining, the generation of airborne fibres from asbestos fragments in mulch will be very low. The asbestos contamination will be sparsely spread throughout the mulch and it is unlikely there will be sufficient disturbance to generate large quantities of airborne fibres. </p>
<p>Despite the low chance of exposure, if you’re near contaminated mulch, do not disturb it. </p>
<p>If, by chance, you have had an exposure, or think you have had an exposure, it’s highly unlikely you will develop an asbestos-related disease in the future. If you’re worried, the <a href="https://www.asbestossafety.gov.au/asbestos-home">Asbestos Safety and Eradication Agency</a> is a good source of information.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/asbestos-still-haunts-those-exposed-as-kids-in-mining-towns-9487">Asbestos still haunts those exposed as kids in mining towns</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223729/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter Franklin is on the board of Reflections, a not-for-profit organisation for the asbestos awareness and support of people with asbestos-related disease. </span></em></p>The most important factor for disease risk is exposure – you actually have to inhale asbestos fibres to be at risk of disease. But asbestos needs to be treated with caution.Peter Franklin, Associate Professor and Director, Occupational Respiratory Epidemiology, The University of Western AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2226672024-02-06T13:28:37Z2024-02-06T13:28:37ZSelf-extinguishing batteries could reduce the risk of deadly and costly battery fires<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573199/original/file-20240203-17-od3sxj.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=7%2C3%2C1270%2C674&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Cutaway view of a Nissan Leaf electric vehicle showing part of its battery array (silver boxes).</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_vehicle_battery#/media/File:Nissan_Leaf_012.JPG">Tennen-gas/Wikipedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-024-01275-0">newly published study</a>, we describe our design for a self-extinguishing rechargeable battery. It replaces the most commonly used electrolyte, which is highly combustible – a medium composed of a lithium salt and an organic solvent – with materials found in a commercial fire extinguisher. </p>
<p>An electrolyte allows lithium ions that carry an electric charge to move across a separator between the positive and negative terminals of a lithium-ion battery. By modifying affordable commercial coolants to function as battery electrolytes, we were able to produce a battery that puts out its own fire.</p>
<p>Our electrolyte worked well across a wide temperature range, from about minus 100 to 175 degrees Fahrenheit (minus 75 to 80 degrees Celsius). Batteries that we produced in the lab with this electrolyte transferred heat away from the battery very well, and extinguished internal fires effectively. </p>
<p>We subjected these batteries to the nail penetration test, a common method for assessing lithium-ion battery safety. Driving a <a href="https://belltestchamber.com/why-do-we-need-to-do-the-nail-penetration-test.html">stainless steel nail through a charged battery</a> simulates an internal short circuit; if the battery catches fire, it fails the test. When we drove a nail through our charged batteries, they withstood the impact without catching fire.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Infographic showing the parts of lithium-ion battery" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=708&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=708&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=708&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">When a lithium-ion battery delivers energy to a device, lithium ions – atoms that carry an electrical charge – move from the anode to the cathode. The ions move in reverse when recharging.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/8Erh2x">Argonne National Laboratory/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
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<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>By nature, a battery’s temperature changes as it charges and discharges, due to <a href="https://data.energizer.com/pdfs/batteryir.pdf">internal resistance</a> – opposition within the battery to the flow of lithium ions. <a href="https://www.latimes.com/business/story/2023-07-13/how-a-heat-wave-will-hurt-your-ev-battery">High outdoor temperatures</a> or uneven temperatures within a battery pack seriously threaten batteries’ safety and durability. </p>
<p>Energy-dense batteries, such as the lithium-ion versions that are widely used in electronics and electric vehicles, contain an electrolyte formulation dominated by organic molecules that are highly flammable. This worsens the risk of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/thermal-runaway">thermal runaway</a> – an uncontrollable process in which excess heat inside a battery speeds up unwanted chemical reactions that release more heat, triggering further reactions. Temperatures inside the battery can rise by hundreds of degrees in a second, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kHTlVmBbnPA&t=5s">causing a fire or explosion</a>.</p>
<p>Another safety concern arises when lithium-ion batteries are charged too quickly. This can cause chemical reactions that produce very sharp lithium needles called dendrites on the battery’s anode – the electrode with a negative charge. Eventually, the needles penetrate the separator and reach the other electrode, short-circuiting the battery internally and leading to overheating.</p>
<p>As scientists studying <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=jCXInTYAAAAJ&hl=en">energy generation</a>, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=KsW8rMMAAAAJ&hl=en">storage and conversion</a>, we have a strong interest in developing energy-dense and safe batteries. Replacing flammable electrolytes with a flame-retardant electrolyte has the potential to make lithium-ion batteries safer, and can buy time for longer-term improvements that reduce inherent risks of overheating and thermal runaway. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/5oX4r6DUsjI?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Lithium-ion battery fires in vehicles have become a major concern for firefighters because the batteries burn at very high temperatures for long periods.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>How we did our work</h2>
<p>We wanted to develop an electrolyte that was nonflammable, would readily transfer heat away from the battery pack, could function over a wide temperature range, was very durable, and would be compatible with any battery chemistry. However, most known nonflammable organic solvents contain fluorine and phosphorus, which are expensive and can have <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/phosphorus-and-water">harmful effects</a> <a href="https://www.stormwater.com/home/article/21146477/examining-the-impact-of-fluorine-on-soil-and-plant-health">on the environment</a>.</p>
<p>Instead, we focused on adapting affordable commercial coolants that already were widely used in fire extinguishers, electronic testing and cleaning applications, so that they could function as battery electrolytes. </p>
<p>We focused on a mature, safe and affordable commercial fluid called <a href="https://www.3m.com/3M/en_US/p/d/b40044871/">Novec 7300</a>, which has low toxicity, is nonflammable and does not contribute to global warming. By combining this fluid with several other chemicals that added durability, we were able to produce an electrolyte that had the features we sought and would enable a battery to charge and discharge over a full year without losing significant capacity. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Standard lithium-ion batteries failing the nail penetration test.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>What still isn’t known</h2>
<p>Because lithium – an alkali metal - is scarce in our Earth’s crust, it is important to investigate how well batteries that use other, more abundant alkali metal ions, such as potassium or sodium, fare in comparison. For this reason, our study focused predominantly on self-extinguishing potassium-ion batteries, although it also showed that our electrolyte works well for making self-extinguishing lithium-ion batteries. </p>
<p>It remains to be seen whether our electrolyte can work equally well for other types of batteries that are in development, such as <a href="https://www.pnnl.gov/news-media/new-sodium-aluminum-battery-aims-integrate-renewables-grid-resiliency">sodium-ion, aluminum-ion</a> and <a href="https://www.technologyreview.com/2023/09/06/1079123/zinc-batteries-boost-eos/">zinc-ion</a> batteries. Our goal is to develop practical, environmentally friendly, sustainable batteries regardless of their ion type. </p>
<p>For now, however, since our alternative electrolyte has similar physical properties to currently used electrolytes, it can be readily integrated with current battery production lines. If the industry embraces it, we expect that companies will be able to manufacture nonflammable batteries using their existing lithium-ion battery facilities.</p>
<p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take on interesting academic work.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222667/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Apparao Rao receives funding from the R. A. Bowen Endowed Professorship funds at Clemson University.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bingan Lu does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Lithium-ion battery fires are becoming increasingly common as electric vehicles spread, and are hard to extinguish. A new approach uses an electrolyte based on a commercial fire extinguisher.Apparao Rao, Professor of Physics, Clemson UniversityBingan Lu, Associate Professor of Physics and Electronics, Hunan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2176402023-12-04T13:28:30Z2023-12-04T13:28:30ZCertain states, including Arizona, have begun scrapping court costs and fees for people unable to pay – two experts on legal punishments explain why<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/562784/original/file-20231130-19-9k4bbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Several U.S. states are eliminating criminal fines and fees for people who can't afford them. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/dollars-bills-with-law-gavel-legal-issues-royalty-free-image/1479990448?phrase=excessive+courts+costs+US&adppopup=true">Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In today’s American criminal legal system, courts impose fines and fees as a means to punish people and hold them accountable for legal violations. </p>
<p>At times, people are sentenced to pay without incarceration, but frequently people across the U.S. are sentenced to both jail time and fiscal penalties. <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1745-9133.12442">Those costs</a> are assessed by individual courts and include processing and filing charges, jury fees and fiscal penalties such as interest charges and late penalty fees. The collected money is then used to pay for costs such as the administration of court-appointed attorneys, probation, detention and diversion programs.</p>
<p>But these fines and fees are often levied without any consideration for an individual’s ability to pay – and <a href="https://www.thecharlottepost.com/news/2023/10/11/local-state/how-north-carolina-turns-the-poor-into-criminals/">can add up</a> to thousands of dollars. Given the potential consequences of legal debt on people unable to pay, including the loss of the right to vote and further criminal infractions, we conducted a <a href="https://www.rsfjournal.org/content/8/2/1/tab-article-info">multistate study</a> on the impact of fines and fees.</p>
<p>What we found is that these types of sanctions do not improve public safety or serve as an effective deterrent in reducing further crime. More troubling is that the negative consequences of fines and fees are disproportionately felt by people of color and those who are poor. </p>
<p>Because of these potential financial hardships and adverse effects, U.S. lawmakers have begun to limit the types and amounts of fines and fees that can be charged.</p>
<h2>What the research shows</h2>
<p>In <a href="https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2022.8.2.01">our study of eight states</a> – California, Illinois, Minnesota, New York, Washington, Georgia, Missouri and Texas – we found extreme variations in how court-imposed fines and fees were used.</p>
<p>Some states had <a href="https://www.rsfjournal.org/content/8/1/221">statutes mandating a minimum amount</a> of fines and fees to be imposed on people for specific crimes and infractions; other states did not. Some local judges sentenced people unable to pay to jail as a violation of their sentence; other judges in different counties within the same state did not. To collect outstanding debts, some states <a href="https://www.rsfjournal.org/content/8/1/82">even sued</a> formerly incarcerated people for the cost of their room and board; other states did not.</p>
<p>In Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, for instance, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1541204016669213">our research</a> there showed that financial burden increased the chances among juvenile offenders to commit additional crimes within two years of their initial arrests.</p>
<p>In another statewide <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/15412040231180816?journalCode=yvja">study in Florida</a>, we found that fees increased recidivism and, in particular, that Black youth with restitution fees had a higher recidivism likelihood. Our study further found that Black and Hispanic youth tended to receive higher fees compared to white youth regardless of the alleged crimes. The average fees for Black juveniles was US$709.50, and $633.30 for Hispanic youths. In stark contrast, the average fees for white juveniles was $426.50.</p>
<p>A wealth of <a href="https://www.rsfjournal.org/content/8/1/221">research has illustrated</a> how unpaid court fines and fees force people to make decisions regarding <a href="https://www.rsfjournal.org/content/8/2/57">housing</a>, <a href="https://www.rsfjournal.org/content/8/2/36">medical care</a>, education and even food and <a href="https://www.russellsage.org/publications/pound-flesh">medication</a>. </p>
<p>In an <a href="https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/justice-department-issues-dear-colleague-letter-courts-regarding-fines-and-fees-youth-and">April 23, 2023, letter</a>, the U.S. Department of Justice warned court officials and state agencies that <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/national-security/2023/04/22/justice-department-fines-pardons-gupta/">imposing fines and fees</a> on offenders who cannot pay may result in them losing their jobs, driver’s license, right to vote or even their home. </p>
<h2>Changes across the country</h2>
<p>Depending on the crime, Arizona juveniles and their parents faced <a href="https://www.azcourts.gov/selfservicecenter/Juvenile-Law/Vacating-Juvenile-Monetary-Obligations#Vacated">a slew of costs</a>, including probation supervision fees, family counseling services, drug and alcohol screenings and even a $25 administrative fee for court-appointed attorneys.</p>
<p>But <a href="https://legiscan.com/AZ/text/SB1197/2023">a new law</a> says they don’t have to pay any of those anymore. </p>
<p>Though the law does not put an end to fines relating to restitution charges or driving under the influence of alcohol charges, it does eliminate all fees assessed by a juvenile court — for court-appointed attorneys, probation, detention and diversion programs.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A white woman stands in front of an American flag as she delivers a speech." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/562549/original/file-20231129-23-wg1e6n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/562549/original/file-20231129-23-wg1e6n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562549/original/file-20231129-23-wg1e6n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562549/original/file-20231129-23-wg1e6n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562549/original/file-20231129-23-wg1e6n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562549/original/file-20231129-23-wg1e6n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562549/original/file-20231129-23-wg1e6n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Arizona Gov. Katie Hobbs has eliminated various fines and fees for juvenile offenders.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/arizona-gov-katie-hobbs-gives-a-brief-speech-prior-to-news-photo/1695716056?adppopup=true">Rebecca Noble/Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>Arizona was not alone. Indiana, Illinois, Montana, California, Louisiana, New Jersey, New Mexico, Oregon, Texas and Virginia have also enacted similar laws that eliminate or reduce juvenile fines and fees. </p>
<p>As these states have learned, monetary sanctions do far more harm than good and inflict disproportionate hardship on those least able to pay them. </p>
<p>“These fees put unnecessary financial stress on children and their families when they should be focused on rehabilitation,” <a href="https://gilavalleycentral.net/governor-hobbs-signs-bill-relieving-arizona-families-from-excessive-legal-fees/">Arizona Gov. Katie Hobbs</a> said in October 2023. “They hold individuals back at a time in their life when what they really need is help moving forward.”</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/217640/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alexes Harris receives funding from Arnold Ventures. She is affiliated with the Fines and Fees Justice Center as a board member.
Dr. Harris is the chair of the Washington State Advisory Committee to the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights (non-partisan, Federally appointed). She is also the faculty regent to the University of Washington Board of Regents. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alex R. Piquero received funding from Arnold Ventures to undertake the study in Florida referred to in the article. Professor Piquero receives no funding at this time from any sources and no external sources of funding were used to prepare this piece. </span></em></p>The imposition of fines and fees on people unable to pay has had a disproportionate impact on Black and Latino communities.Alexes Harris, Professor of Sociology, University of WashingtonAlex R. Piquero, Professor of Sociology & Criminology and Arts & Sciences Distinguished Scholar, University of MiamiLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2183412023-11-24T00:20:59Z2023-11-24T00:20:59ZTaylor Swift’s Brazil concert was hammered by extreme heat. How to protect crowds at the next sweltering gig<p>Electrifying music concerts and other mass events are increasingly under threat from severe weather events, such as extreme heat.</p>
<p>The tragic <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-11-22/heatwave-humidity-warnings-follow-brazil-taylor-swift-fan-death/103132476">incident</a> at a Taylor Swift concert in Brazil recently, which resulted in the death of one fan, is a stark reminder of what can happen.</p>
<p>The concert took place in a stadium during a heatwave. Fans lined up for hours outside the Rio de Janeiro venue, with temperatures reportedly over 40°C. With the high humidity, this would have felt like almost 60°C, according to a measure known as the “<a href="https://www.weather.gov/ama/heatindex#:%7E:text=The%20heat%20index%2C%20also%20known,for%20the%20human%20body%27s%20comfort.">heat index</a>”.</p>
<p>As well as the fatality, fans <a href="https://www.news.com.au/entertainment/music/tours/taylor-swift-concert-goers-struck-with-seconddegree-burns/news-story/e1a597d52f642c46c1a8f45b5c816fdb">reported</a> burns after touching hot metal floors and railings.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/extreme-weather-is-landing-more-australians-in-hospital-and-heat-is-the-biggest-culprit-216440">Extreme weather is landing more Australians in hospital – and heat is the biggest culprit</a>
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<h2>There have been other similar events</h2>
<p>What happened at the Swift concert is the consequence of insufficient preparation for extreme weather conditions during a large-scale event. However, this is not an isolated case. There is a <a href="https://www.billboard.com/lists/concerts-affected-climate-change-2023-full-list/july-4/">long list</a> of mass gatherings and events affected by extreme weather in 2023. </p>
<p>In August, a <a href="https://variety.com/2023/music/news/beyonce-dc-metro-trains-weather-delays-renaissance-1235689650/">Beyoncé concert</a> in a Washington DC stadium took place during severe weather conditions. This time it was heavy rain and lightning. Attendees were ordered to shelter in place.</p>
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<p>Lightning posed a direct threat to their safety. Those inside the stadium were directed to shelter under covered areas and ramps. Afterwards, several fans were reportedly treated for <a href="https://wjla.com/news/local/fedex-field-shelter-in-place-beyonce-concert-renaissance-tour-weather-lightening-rain-cover-thunderstorms-sunday-performance#:%7E:text=After%20a%20shelter,Nov%202023%2011%3A50%3A08%20GMT">heat exhaustion</a>. </p>
<p>The directive to shelter in place could have led to overcrowding in covered areas, potentially increasing the risk of incidents, such as a crowd crush.</p>
<p>Another US example was <a href="https://www.nbcnewyork.com/news/national-international/17-hospitalized-2-go-into-cardiac-arrest-at-ed-sheeran-concert-amid-extreme-heat/4497016/#:%7E:text=,working%20during%20the%20Ed">Ed Sheeran’s concert</a> at a Pittsburgh stadium during a July heatwave. </p>
<p>Some 17 people were hospitalised. Health emergencies included heat exhaustion and two cardiac arrests (when the heart stops beating).</p>
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<h2>We must prepare</h2>
<p>Climate change makes extreme weather events more frequent and intense. So risk assessments should include detailed weather monitoring and structural assessments for outdoor set-ups to ensure shade structures, for instance, can cope with crowds.</p>
<p>Contingency plans for a rapid response are also needed. These need to include plans to supply water or protective equipment (such as plastic ponchos) and timely safety directions and information. </p>
<p>Such planning should encompass not just the likelihood of extreme weather but also its potential impact on infrastructure, crowd control and emergency medical responses.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/from-burning-man-to-woodstock-to-fyre-festival-what-turns-a-festival-into-a-disaster-212859">From Burning Man to Woodstock to Fyre Festival: what turns a festival into a disaster?</a>
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<h2>Artists play a role too</h2>
<p>While the primary onus of safety lies with event organisers and venues, artists can also play a significant role in public safety during extreme weather. So we need to keep them informed about identified potential risks and planned countermeasures.</p>
<p>For instance, artists can influence crowd behaviour positively and prevent catastrophic outcomes, such as a crowd crush. They can appeal for calm or can announce any planned evacuation procedures.</p>
<p>In the most recent incident, Swift <a href="https://www.insider.com/taylor-swift-crew-give-water-fans-during-hot-brazil-concert-2023-11">paused her show</a> to ask crew members to distribute water to fans.</p>
<h2>Be safety aware</h2>
<p>People who attend mass events also need to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0925753523002345">be aware</a> of the safety issues related to extreme weather and be prepared.</p>
<p>Public education campaigns can help, as can effectively disseminating safety information to empower attendees to make informed decisions.</p>
<p>For instance, an event organiser can send a text message to all attendees to warn of upcoming weather conditions and a reminder to bring water or wear sunscreen. </p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/astroworld-tragedy-heres-how-concert-organisers-can-prevent-big-crowds-turning-deadly-171397">Astroworld tragedy: here's how concert organisers can prevent big crowds turning deadly</a>
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<h2>We can expect more of these events</h2>
<p>The tragic incident at the Swift concert and similar examples are not isolated but indicate a broader trend. With climate change, extreme weather events will pose a more common risk at such mass gatherings. </p>
<p>So we need to recognise and integrate this into how we plan for, and assess the risk associated with, future events. This is vital to ensure these gatherings remain celebratory landmarks rather than avoidable disasters.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/218341/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Milad Haghani receives funding from the Australian Research Council (Grant No. DE210100440). </span></em></p>One fan died and others reported burns at the Swift concert. And we’re going to see similar incidents at future concerns if we don’t start planning for extreme weather.Milad Haghani, Senior Lecturer of Public Safety, Disaster Resilience & Urban Mobility, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2144532023-10-03T12:32:53Z2023-10-03T12:32:53ZNationwide test of Wireless Emergency Alert system could test people’s patience – or help rebuild public trust in the system<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552198/original/file-20231004-23-qzt96a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=1232%2C0%2C1703%2C2791&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">This message probably popped up on your phone on Oct. 4, 2023. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/EmergencyAlert/b25b11fb1d8a4816b37913430d2b28b4/photo">AP Photo/Wayne Partlow</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The <a href="https://www.fcc.gov/public-safety-and-homeland-security/policy-and-licensing-division/alerting/general/wireless#block-menu-block-4">Wireless Emergency Alert system</a> had its third <a href="https://apnews.com/article/fema-wireless-emergency-alert-television-7f393986770e111d88ed727a82de58ca">nationwide test</a> on Oct. 4, 2023. The Wireless Emergency Alert system is a public safety system that allows authorities to alert people via their mobile devices of dangerous weather, missing children and other situations requiring public attention.</p>
<p>Similar tests in 2018 and 2021 caused a degree of <a href="https://theconversation.com/covid-19-messages-make-emergency-alerts-just-another-text-in-the-crowd-on-your-home-screen-161153">public confusion</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-5973.12438">and resistance</a>. In addition, there was confusion around the first test of <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2023/apr/21/how-the-uk-emergency-alert-system-test-has-been-years-in-the-making">the U.K. system in April 2023</a>, and an outcry surrounding accidental alert messages such as those sent in <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2018/01/30/us/hawaii-false-missile-alert-timeline/index.html">Hawaii in January 2018</a> and in <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/04/20/us/florida-emergency-alert.html">Florida in April 2023</a>.</p>
<p>The federal government lists <a href="https://www.fema.gov/emergency-managers/practitioners/integrated-public-alert-warning-system/public/wireless-emergency-alerts">five types of emergency alerts</a>: National (formerly labeled Presidential), Imminent Threat, Public Safety, America’s Missing: Broadcast Emergency Response (Amber), and Opt-in Test Messages. You can opt out of any except National Alerts, which are reserved for national emergencies. The Oct. 4 test was a National Alert.</p>
<p>We are a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=XZhS9CMAAAAJ&hl=en">media studies researcher</a> and a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=4u167qAAAAAJ&hl=en">communications researcher</a> who study emergency alert systems. We believe that concerns about previous tests raise two questions: Is public trust in emergency alerting eroding? And how might the Oct. 4 test rebuild it?</p>
<h2>Confusion and resistance</h2>
<p>In an ever-updating digital media environment, emergency alerts appear as part of a constant stream of updates, buzzes, reminders and notifications on people’s smartphones. Over-alerting is <a href="https://publisher.abc-clio.com/9781440866036/">a common fear in emergency management circles</a> because it can lead people to ignore alerts and not take needed action. The sheer volume of different updates can be similarly overwhelming, burying emergency alerts in countless other messages. Many people have even <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-5973.12438">opted out of alerts</a> when possible, rummaging through settings and toggling off every alert they can find. </p>
<p>Even when people receive alerts, however, there is potential for confusion and rejection. All forms of emergency alerts <a href="https://nyupress.org/9781479811632/in-case-of-emergency/">rely on the recipients’ trust</a> in the people or organization responsible for the alert. But it’s not always clear who the sender is. As one emergency manager explained to one of us regarding alerts used during COVID-19: “People were more confused because they got so many different notifications, especially when they don’t say who they’re from.”</p>
<p>When the origin of an alert is unclear, or the recipient perceives it to have a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S1537592721000049">political bias counter to their own views</a>, people may become confused or resistant to the message. Prior tests and use of the Wireless Emergency Alert system have indicated strong anti-authority attitudes, particularly following the much-derided 2018 test of what was then called the Presidential Alert <a href="https://www.fema.gov/emergency-managers/practitioners/integrated-public-alert-warning-system/public/wireless-emergency-alerts">message class</a>. There are also <a href="https://apnews.com/article/fact-check-fema-test-graphene-oxide-covid-vaccine-517946413392">conspiracy theories</a> online about the Oct. 4 test. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">People receive mobile alerts from then-president Donald Trump in a ‘Saturday Night Live’ sketch aired on Oct. 6, 2018.</span></figcaption>
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<p>Trust in alerts is further reduced by the overall lack of testing and public awareness work done on behalf of the Wireless Emergency Alert system since its <a href="https://www.fcc.gov/news-events/notes/2022/06/09/wireless-emergency-alerts-turn-10-years-old">launch in June 2012</a>. As warning expert Dennis Mileti explained in his 2018 <a href="https://www.fema.gov/blog/preptalks-dr-dennis-mileti-modernizing-public-warning-messaging">Federal Emergency Management Agency PrepTalk</a>, routine public tests are essential for warning systems’ effectiveness. However, the Wireless Emergency Alert system had been tested at the national level only twice before the Oct. 4 test, and there has been little public outreach to explain the system by either the government or technology companies.</p>
<h2>More exposure and info leads to more trust</h2>
<p>The Oct. 4 nationwide test may offer a moment that could rebuild trust in the system. A survey administered in the days immediately following the 2021 national test found that more respondents believed that the National Alert message class label <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-5973.12438">would signal more trustworthy information</a> than the Presidential Alert message class label. </p>
<p>Similarly, in contrast to the 2021 test, which targeted only select users, the Oct. 4 test was slated to reach all compatible devices in the U.S. Since users cannot opt out of the National Alert message class, the Oct. 4 test is a powerful opportunity to build awareness about the potential benefits of a functional federal emergency alert system.</p>
<p>The Oct. 4 test message stated, “THIS IS A TEST of the National Wireless Emergency Alert system… No action is required by the public.” We instead suggest that action is, in fact, urgently needed to help people better understand the rapidly changing mobile alert and warning ecosystem that confronts them. Familiarity with this system is what will allow it to support public health and safety, and address the crises of the 21st century. </p>
<p>Here are steps that you can take now to help make the Wireless Emergency Alert system more effective:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>The Wireless Emergency Alert system is only one form of emergency alert. Identify which mobile notification systems are used by your local emergency management organizations: police, fire and emergency services. Know which systems are opt-in and opt-out, and opt in to those needed. Ensure access to other sources of information during an emergency, such as local radio and television, or National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration weather radio.</p></li>
<li><p>Understand the meaning of mobile device notification settings. Just because you are opted in to “Emergency Alerts” on your cellphone does not necessarily mean you are signed up to receive notifications from local authorities. Check the <a href="https://www.fema.gov/emergency-managers/practitioners/integrated-public-alert-warning-system/public/wireless-emergency-alerts">FEMA website</a> for information about the Wireless Emergency Alert system and your local emergency management organizations’ websites about opt-in systems. </p></li>
<li><p>Have a plan for contacting family, friends and neighbors during an emergency. Decide in advance who will help the vulnerable members of your community.</p></li>
<li><p>Find out if your local emergency management organizations test their alert systems, and make sure to receive those local tests. </p></li>
<li><p>Anticipate the possibility that mobile systems will be damaged or unavailable during a crisis and prepare essentials for sheltering in place or quick evacuation.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Finally, push back on the lack of information and rise of misinformation about alerts by sharing reliable information about emergency alerts with your family and friends.</p>
<p><em>This article was updated to indicate that the test occurred on Oct. 4, 2023.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/214453/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hamilton Bean has received funding from the Department of Homeland Security and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elizabeth Ellcessor does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>If an alert from the federal government popped up on your phone, did you notice it? Did you know who it was from? Did you trust it?Elizabeth Ellcessor, Associate Professor of Media Studies, University of VirginiaHamilton Bean, Associate Professor of Communication, University of Colorado DenverLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2093592023-09-26T12:24:07Z2023-09-26T12:24:07ZLithium-ion battery fires are a growing public safety concern − here’s how to reduce the risk<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549853/original/file-20230924-31-w9syu7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=17%2C35%2C5973%2C3952&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">In June 2023, a fire started at this e-bike shop in New York City and spread to upper floors of the building.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/EBikeBatteriesFires/832138180d9d4e699f17a2629753f9fd/photo">AP Photo/Bebeto Matthews</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In today’s electronic age, rechargeable lithium-ion batteries are ubiquitous. Compared with the lead-acid versions that have dominated the battery market for decades, lithium-ion batteries can charge faster and store more energy for the same amount of weight.</p>
<p>These devices make our electronic gadgets and electric cars lighter and longer-lasting – but they also have disadvantages. They contain a lot of energy, and if they catch fire, they burn until all of that stored energy is released. A sudden release of huge amounts of energy can lead to explosions that threaten lives and property.</p>
<p>As scientists who study <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=jCXInTYAAAAJ&hl=en">energy generation</a>, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=KsW8rMMAAAAJ&hl=en">storage</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=z7C3_h8AAAAJ&hl=en">conversion</a>, and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=4WwXknoAAAAJ&hl=en">automotive engineering</a>, we have a strong interest in the development of batteries that are energy-dense and safe. And we see encouraging signs that battery manufacturers are making progress toward solving this significant technical problem.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Avoiding overcharging is one way to reduce the risk of lithium-ion battery fires.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>A new fire hazard</h2>
<p>Urban transportation is undergoing a transformative shift toward electrification. As concerns grow in cities around the world about climate change and air quality, <a href="https://theconversation.com/boosting-ev-market-share-to-67-of-us-car-sales-is-a-huge-leap-but-automakers-can-meet-epas-tough-new-standards-203663">electric vehicles</a> have taken center stage. </p>
<p>At the same time, e-bikes and electric scooters are transforming urban transit by providing convenient, low-carbon ways to navigate crowded streets and reduce traffic congestion. From 2010 through 2022, shared e-bikes and e-scooters – those owned by rental networks – accounted for <a href="https://nacto.org/2022/12/01/half-a-billion-rides-on-shared-bikes-and-scooters/">more than half a billion trips</a> in U.S. cities. Privately owned e-bikes add to that total: In 2021, <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/electric-bike-sustainable-transportation">more than 880,000 e-bikes were sold in the U.S.</a>, compared with 608,000 electric cars and trucks. </p>
<p>Battery-powered vehicles account for <a href="https://www.vox.com/the-highlight/2023/1/17/23470878/tesla-fires-evs-florida-hurricane-batteries-lithium-ion">a small share</a> of car fires, but <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/lithium-ion-battery-fires-electric-cars-bikes-scooters-firefighters/">controlling EV fires is difficult</a>. Typically, an EV fire burns at roughly 5,000 degrees Fahrenheit (2,760 Celsius), while a gasoline-powered vehicle on fire burns at 1,500 F (815 C). It takes about 2,000 gallons of water to extinguish a burning gasoline-powered vehicle; putting out an EV fire can take <a href="https://www.bostonglobe.com/2023/01/20/metro/tesla-fire-takes-over-two-hours-20000-gallons-water-extinguish-after-wakefield-crash-police-say/">10 times more</a>.</p>
<p>This is a major concern in large cities where electric vehicles are popular. Fire departments in New York City and San Francisco report handling <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/lithium-ion-battery-fires-electric-cars-bikes-scooters-firefighters/">more than 660 fires</a> involving lithium-ion batteries since 2019. In New York City, these fires caused <a href="https://www.nyc.gov/office-of-the-mayor/news/195-23/mayor-adams-plan-combat-lithium-ion-battery-fires-promote-safe-electric-micromobility#/0">12 deaths and more than 260 injuries</a> from 2021 through early 2023. Clearly, there is a need for safer handling and charging practices, as well as technical improvements to batteries.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549854/original/file-20230924-27-qr7gss.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An e-bike with an Uber Eats bag hanging from the handlebars leans against a building." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549854/original/file-20230924-27-qr7gss.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549854/original/file-20230924-27-qr7gss.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549854/original/file-20230924-27-qr7gss.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549854/original/file-20230924-27-qr7gss.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549854/original/file-20230924-27-qr7gss.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549854/original/file-20230924-27-qr7gss.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549854/original/file-20230924-27-qr7gss.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">E-bikes are popular for urban delivery services, which means that many users rely on them for income.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/uber-eats-electric-bike-parked-on-sidewalk-manhattan-new-news-photo/1428511600">Lindsey Nicholson/UCG/Universal Images Group via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Many batteries in an EV</h2>
<p>To understand lithium-ion battery fires, it’s important to know some basics. A battery holds chemicals that contain energy, with a separator between its positive and negative electrodes. It works by <a href="https://engineering.mit.edu/engage/ask-an-engineer/how-does-a-battery-work/">converting this energy into electricity</a>.</p>
<p>The two electrodes in a battery are surrounded by an electrolyte – a substance that allows an electrical charge to flow between the two terminals. In a lithium-ion battery, for example, lithium ions carry the electric charge. When a device is connected to a battery, chemical reactions take place on the electrodes and create a flow of electrons in the external circuit that powers the device.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Infographic showing the parts of lithium-ion battery" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=708&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=708&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=708&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">When a lithium-ion battery delivers energy to a device, lithium ions – atoms that carry an electrical charge – move from the anode to the cathode. The ions move in reverse when recharging.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/8Erh2x">Argonne National Laboratory/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Cellphones and digital cameras can operate on a single battery, but an electric car needs much more energy and power. Depending on its design, an EV may contain <a href="https://www.samsungsdi.com/column/all/detail/54344.html">dozens to thousands of single batteries</a>, which are known as cells. Cells are clustered together in sets called modules, which in turn are assembled together in packs. A standard EV will contain one large battery pack with many cells inside it.</p>
<h2>What causes battery fires</h2>
<p>Typically, a battery fire <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41557-023-01254-6">starts in a single cell</a> inside a larger battery pack. There are three main reasons for a battery to ignite: mechanical harm, such as crushing or penetration when vehicles collide; electrical harm from an external or internal <a href="https://www.thespruce.com/what-causes-short-circuits-4118973">short circuit</a>; or overheating. </p>
<p>Battery short circuits may be caused by faulty external handling or unwanted chemical reactions within the battery cell. When lithium-ion batteries are charged too quickly, chemical reactions can produce very sharp lithium needles called dendrites on the battery’s anode – the electrode with a negative charge. Eventually, they penetrate the separator and reach the other electrode, short-circuiting the battery internally. </p>
<p>Such short circuits heat the battery cell to over 212 F (100 C). The battery’s temperature rises slowly at first and then all at once, spiking to its peak temperature in about one second. </p>
<p>Another factor that makes lithium-ion battery fires challenging to handle is oxygen generation. When the metal oxides in a battery’s cathode, or positively charged electrode, are heated, they <a href="https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1526722">decompose and release oxygen gas</a>. Fires need oxygen to burn, so a battery that can create oxygen can sustain a fire. </p>
<p>Because of the electrolyte’s nature, a 20% increase in a lithium-ion battery’s temperature causes some unwanted chemical reactions to occur much faster, which releases excessive heat. This excess heat increases the battery temperature, which in turn speeds up the reactions. The increased battery temperature increases the reaction rate, creating a process called <a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/first-xray-views-into-overheating-lithiumion-batteries">thermal runaway</a>. When this happens, the temperature in a battery can rise from 212 F (100 C) to 1,800 F (1000 C) in a second. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/kHTlVmBbnPA?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">In thermal runaway, a lithium-ion battery enters an uncontrollable, self-heating state that can lead to fire or explosion.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Managing the thermal runaway problem</h2>
<p>Methods to ensure battery safety can focus on conditions outside or inside of the battery. External protection typically involves using electronic devices, like temperature sensors and pressure valves, to ensure that the battery isn’t subjected to heat or force that could cause an accident.</p>
<p>However, these mechanisms make the battery larger and heavier, which can reduce the performance of the device it powers. And they may not be reliable under extreme temperatures or pressures, such as those produced in a car crash.</p>
<p>Internal protection strategies focus on using intrinsically safe materials for battery components. This approach offers an opportunity to address potential hazards at their source.</p>
<p>Making a thermal runaway in a battery pack less intense requires a mix of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ensm.2017.05.013">software and hardware improvements</a>. Scientists are working to develop cathodes that release less oxygen when they break down; nonflammable electrolytes; <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-023-01178-3">solid-state electrolytes</a>, which do not catch fire and also may help alleviate dendrite growth; and separators that can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202302280">withstand high temperatures without melting</a>. </p>
<p>Another solution is already in use: <a href="https://www.synopsys.com/glossary/what-is-a-battery-management-system.html">battery management systems</a>. These are hardware and software packages built into battery packs that can monitor vital battery parameters, such as the state of charge, internal pressure and the temperature of the cells in the battery pack. </p>
<p>Just as a physician uses a patient’s symptoms to diagnose and treat their illness, battery management systems can diagnose conditions within the battery pack and make autonomous decisions to shut off batteries with hot spots, or to alter the load distribution so that any individual battery does not get too hot. </p>
<p>Battery chemistries are evolving rapidly, so new designs will require new battery management systems. Many battery producers are <a href="https://www.graphene-info.com/nanotech-energy-soteria-battery-innovation-group-and-voltaplex-energy-join">forming partnerships</a> that bring together manufacturers with complementary battery expertise to tackle this challenge. </p>
<p>Users can also take steps to <a href="https://www.usfa.fema.gov/prevention/vehicle-fires/electric-vehicles/">maximize safety</a>. Use manufacturer-recommended charging equipment and outlets, and avoid overcharging or leaving an EV plugged in overnight. Inspect the battery regularly for signs of damage or overheating. Park the vehicle <a href="https://www.latimes.com/business/story/2023-07-13/how-a-heat-wave-will-hurt-your-ev-battery">away from extremely hot or cold surroundings</a> – for example, park in shade during heat waves – to prevent thermal stress on the battery. </p>
<p>Finally, in the event of a collision or accident involving an EV, follow the manufacturer’s safety protocols and disconnect the battery if possible to minimize the risk of fire or electrocution.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/209359/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Lithium-ion batteries power many electric cars, bikes and scooters. When they are damaged or overheated, they can ignite or explode. Four engineers explain how to handle these devices safely.Apparao Rao, Professor of Physics, Clemson UniversityBingan Lu, Associate Professor of Physics and Electronics, Hunan UniversityMihir Parekh, Postdoctoral Fellow in Physics and Astronomy, Clemson UniversityMorteza Sabet, Research Assistant Professor of Automotive Engineering, Clemson UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2133302023-09-20T12:47:01Z2023-09-20T12:47:01ZAmericans do talk about peace − just not the same way people do in other countries<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549141/original/file-20230919-29-46yjz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Children wave peace doves at a concert for peace in Bogota, Colombia, in August 2022. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/choir-made-up-of-more-than-10000-children-wave-peace-doves-news-photo/1419832116?adppopup=true">Chepa Beltran/Long Visual Press/Universal Images Group via Getty Images </a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Americans don’t talk much about peace. But <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/lsi.2022.94">it turns out</a> they care about it a lot – they just don’t talk about it the way people who have experienced war or civil conflict do. </p>
<p>When public opinion polls in the U.S. ask people about peace, it’s either in the context of <a href="https://www.thearda.com/data-archive?fid=GSSPANEL2">religion</a> or <a href="https://news.gallup.com/poll/245705/americans-higher-hopes-prosperity-peace-2019.aspx">world peace</a>.</p>
<p>Instead of using the word peace, Americans are more likely to say that they care deeply about safety and security and issues like <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2023/02/06/economy-remains-the-publics-top-policy-priority-covid-19-concerns-decline-again/">terrorism, crime, illegal drugs and immigration</a>. </p>
<p>But they still care about the same things people in places that have faced war are focused on. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549142/original/file-20230919-15-3xgj0l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="People wear face masks and hold large yellow and white peace signs on a city street." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549142/original/file-20230919-15-3xgj0l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549142/original/file-20230919-15-3xgj0l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549142/original/file-20230919-15-3xgj0l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549142/original/file-20230919-15-3xgj0l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549142/original/file-20230919-15-3xgj0l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549142/original/file-20230919-15-3xgj0l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549142/original/file-20230919-15-3xgj0l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Protestors hold peace signs in support of Black Lives Matter in July 2020 in Oakland, Calif.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/protesters-hold-peace-signs-in-support-of-black-lives-news-photo/1258684586?adppopup=true">Natasha Moustache/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What is peace?</h2>
<p><a href="https://sps.columbia.edu/faculty-staff/peter-dixon-phd">We are</a> <a href="https://www.scu.edu/cas/political-science/faculty--staff/fiorella-vera-adrianzen/">social scientists</a> who are part of a <a href="https://www.everydaypeaceindicators.org/team">network of peace and conflict</a> <a href="https://www.scu.edu/cas/political-science/faculty--staff/naomi-levy/">researchers </a> and <a href="https://possibilitylab.berkeley.edu/">community-engaged</a> <a href="https://gspp.berkeley.edu/research-and-impact/faculty/amy-e-lerman">scholars</a> at several universities. We and our other colleagues have spent a lot of time talking with different communities that have experienced war, including in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/jhuman/huac030">Colombia</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/17502977.2020.1812893">Afghanistan</a> and <a href="https://www.everydaypeaceindicators.org/_files/ugd/849039_a2d4c66b63cc4e67815a6b736cc42cd5.pdf">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a>, about what <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-photography-can-build-peace-and-justice-in-war-torn-communities-166143">peace looks like</a> to them.</p>
<p>Peace is hard to define. In the dictionary, it’s equated with tranquility or the absence of war. We see it as broader. Peace is the ability for people to live in harmony with themselves and with each other. In practice, however, that can mean <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0263395715622967">many different things</a> to different people. </p>
<p><a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/everyday-peace-9780197563397?cc=us&lang=en&">We know</a> that <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/reclaiming-everyday-peace/BEB6532292D692933AABC68EFFF9ACB3">people who directly experience conflict</a> and violence tend to have very broad, but also nuanced, definitions of peace. </p>
<p>In Colombia, for example, many communities told us they felt at peace when they had the infrastructure necessary to supply basic needs, like clean water, or when they could actively participate in regular social gatherings. In Bosnia, residents highlighted the ability to use public spaces, including rebuilt ruins from the war, as well as the presence of more day-to-day amenities like streetlights and parking.</p>
<p>But until a recent project in Oakland, California, we weren’t thinking about our work in America as also being about peace. </p>
<p>Since 2021, we’ve been working with six community organizations in Oakland to understand how people define and experience safety and well-being in their everyday lives. As it turns out, these concepts helped us get at how Americans, who have not experienced war like the people in other regions we’ve worked with, might also understand peace.</p>
<h2>Re-imagining safety</h2>
<p>Our research’s focus on safety was inspired by a number of <a href="https://www.nlc.org/post/2021/02/16/nlc-assembles-task-force-of-local-leaders-to-reimagine-public-safety-in-communities-across-the-u-s/">cities and towns</a>, like <a href="https://www.columbus.gov/reimaginesafety/">Columbus, Ohio</a>, and <a href="https://www.austintexas.gov/publicsafety">Austin, Texas</a>, that have launched projects to reform how public safety is conceived of and protected following the widespread <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/07/03/us/george-floyd-protests-crowd-size.html">Black Lives Matter protests</a> in 2020. </p>
<p>Oakland has undergone a similar process of asking residents to help their local government <a href="https://www.oaklandca.gov/topics/reimagining-public-safety">rethink what safety</a> means. And, like <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-voters-rejected-plans-to-replace-the-minneapolis-police-department-and-whats-next-for-policing-reform-171183">other cities</a>, Oakland residents have had an intense <a href="https://www.sfchronicle.com/crime/article/The-Oakland-Police-Department-claims-it-is-16386039.php">debate over the police department</a> and how the government should reform its approach to crime. </p>
<p>We spoke to over 500 residents across parts of Oakland that have been especially hard hit by crime and violence and who live in areas that have historically been both overpoliced and underserved with public resources. </p>
<p>We asked questions like, “What does safety or the lack of safety look like here,” and “What are some signs that the community is doing well or not doing well?”</p>
<p>These conversations covered a lot of ground – ground that was similar to other conversations we’ve had about peace with people who live in conflict zones or countries with long histories of war.</p>
<p>Some Oakland residents spoke about how kids are desensitized to gunshots and violence or are arrested or kicked out of their homes. We heard that these kids and teenagers ultimately lose sight of how their lives – and the lives of others – have value.</p>
<p>High school students also reflected on the prevalence of guns, shootings and gangs in their lives. As one told us, “I want to go back” to a more innocent time, when “I didn’t know nothing about any of this.”</p>
<p>But just as we know that violence and security are only two aspects of people’s understandings of peace, the same is true of safety. The police – and even crime – are just two aspects of how communities think about safety in their everyday lives. They also think about economic opportunities, public space and social connections.</p>
<p>We heard about how, when kids have basic life skills and job skills training, or have mentors and role models, this can give them choices that are alternatives to criminal activity and help them invest back in their communities.</p>
<p>We heard about block parties and <a href="https://www.townnights.org/">town nights</a>, which inspire people of different races and ethnicities to look out for each other and build trust with their neighbors. “By us, for us,” as one resident put it.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549145/original/file-20230919-25-r870wu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="The back of a man flashing two peace signs with his hands is seen on a city street, with many other people walking past him." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549145/original/file-20230919-25-r870wu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549145/original/file-20230919-25-r870wu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549145/original/file-20230919-25-r870wu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549145/original/file-20230919-25-r870wu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549145/original/file-20230919-25-r870wu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=478&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549145/original/file-20230919-25-r870wu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=478&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549145/original/file-20230919-25-r870wu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=478&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A man flashes the peace sign as protesters march during an Occupy Oakland protest in November 2011 in Oakland, Calif.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/man-flashes-the-peace-sign-as-thousands-of-protestors-march-news-photo/131201340?adppopup=true">Justin Sullivan/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>From safety to peace</h2>
<p>The United Nations marks the annual <a href="https://www.un.org/en/observances/international-day-peace">International Day of Peace</a> on Sept. 21, 2023. </p>
<p>In general, the U.S. does not widely recognize or celebrate global holidays like these, including <a href="https://medium.com/age-of-awareness/america-started-international-womens-day-so-why-don-t-we-celebrate-it-50b10ec7829e">International Women’s Day</a> or <a href="https://www.npr.org/2022/04/30/1095729592/what-is-may-day-history">International Labor Day </a>. </p>
<p>But, like peace, safety is about far more than reducing violence. It’s being able to trust that police <a href="https://law.yale.edu/yls-today/news/whats-next-policing">have communities’ interests in mind</a> and knowing that residents will receive fair treatment in the courts. </p>
<p>It’s also being able to breathe clean air and access work and educational opportunities. It’s about being able to openly share past trauma, feel loved and connected, and so much more.</p>
<p>This all has important implications for what Americans want – and what they actually get – from their local governments. When policymakers define safety as the absence of violence and benchmark it primarily against metrics like <a href="https://theconversation.com/republicans-say-crime-is-on-the-rise-what-is-the-crime-rate-and-what-does-it-mean-192900">crime statistics</a>, they limit the kinds of policies that cities and their residents can look to. </p>
<p>Typically, the main policy responses in the U.S. to crime and violence have centered on policing and incarceration.</p>
<p>In contrast, our conversations across Oakland suggest that communities are already using different frameworks and language to assess safety. These in turn offer up a more holistic set of potential interventions. What, we might ask, would city leaders focus on if they were evaluating the success of public safety reforms by whether children are playing outside in the park, or whether people know the names of their neighbors?</p>
<p>Building safety in the U.S. is more akin to building peace internationally than many Americans may think. As we celebrate world peace, we think people should remember that these conversations matter here at home, too.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/213330/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter Dixon received funding for this project from Santa Clara University. He is a Board Member of Everyday Peace Indicators. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amy E Lerman received funding for this project from the California Community Foundation / California 100 Initiative.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Fiorella Vera-Adrianzen received funding for this project from California Community Foundation / California 100 Initiative through Santa Clara University. She is a research associate at Everyday Peace Indicators.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Naomi Levy received funding for this project from the California Community Foundation / California 100 Initiative. She is a member of the Everyday Peace Indicators Board of Directors. </span></em></p>While Americans tend not to use the word “peace,” and instead opt for terms like “safety and security,” their desires and fears are not so different from what people in war-torn places express.Peter Dixon, Associate Professor of Practice, Negotiation and Conflict Resolution, Columbia UniversityAmy E Lerman, Professor of Political Science & Public Policy and Executive Director, Possibility Lab, University of California, BerkeleyFiorella Vera-Adrianzén, Political science lecturer, Santa Clara UniversityNaomi Levy, Associate Professor of Political Science, Santa Clara UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2120952023-09-07T20:02:01Z2023-09-07T20:02:01ZDrowning risk increases during heatwaves in unexpected ways – here’s how to stay safe this summer<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546791/original/file-20230907-17-gmk89q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C154%2C4264%2C3098&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/HuXaTzMDNWc">Dallas Morgan/Unsplash</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>We know <a href="https://www.royallifesaving.com.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/72752/Royal-Life-Saving-Summer-Drowning-Report-2023.pdf">more people drown in summer</a>. It’s the perfect time to visit the beach, river or local pool. Aussies love hitting the water to cool down. </p>
<p>But the connection between drowning and heatwaves in Australia has not been explored until now. Our new research, published today in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1136/ip-2023-044938">Injury Prevention</a>, is the first to examine this link. </p>
<p>We found drowning risk during heatwaves was highest for males, older people and teenagers. But people of all ages were more likely to die from swimming or bathing in the heat. Drowning risk increased during low-intensity heatwaves and was higher still during severe heatwaves, but dropped back a little during extreme heatwaves, though the risk remained higher than usual. </p>
<p>Based on our findings, we want to raise awareness of drowning risk ahead of predicted heatwaves. We also offer strategies people can use to reduce their risk of drowning.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/FFOBqExhZPw?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The Royal Life Saving National Drowning Report 2022 reveals a disturbing trend.</span></figcaption>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/drowning-for-love-5-ways-to-protect-your-life-while-youre-trying-to-rescue-someone-in-trouble-in-the-water-197411">'Drowning for love' – 5 ways to protect your life while you're trying to rescue someone in trouble in the water</a>
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<h2>Drowning and climate change</h2>
<p>Drowning deaths are at an <a href="https://www.royallifesaving.com.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/67687/RLS_NationalDrowningReport2022_SPG_LR.pdf">generational high</a> in this country. Fatalities are the highest they’ve been since 1996. </p>
<p>A range of factors contribute to this upward trend, including climate. Drowning is inextricably linked to climate drivers such as extreme rainfall, as seen in the <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-02-28/lismore-flood-emergency-levee-breaks-largest-on-record/100866296">tragic flood emergencies across northern New South Wales</a>. In 2021-22, 13% of drowning deaths in Australia were flood-related. </p>
<p>Overseas, <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0241222">warmer winters</a> have led to an increase in drowning deaths in typically ice-covered regions, due to ice instability. </p>
<h2>What we did</h2>
<p>Using data from both the Australian Bureau of Statistics and the Bureau of Meteorology we looked at Queensland between 2010 and 2019. We examined the “incidence rate ratio” of drowning on a heatwave day compared to a non-heatwave day. </p>
<p>This means we compared the 248 non-heatwave drowning deaths and 603,892 non-heatwave days, with the 92 heatwave drowning deaths occurring on 191,420 heatwave days. In this way, we sought to identify any increased risk of drowning. </p>
<p>Queensland is a vast state that experiences wide variations in climate, so it’s a good case study. </p>
<h2>What we found</h2>
<p>We identified a 17% greater risk of drowning during a heatwave, compared to non-heatwave days. Within this though, there are variations. </p>
<p>Men were 22% more likely to drown during a heatwave than during non-heatwave days, compared to 5% for women. People 65 and over were 36% more likely to drown on heatwave days. This was higher than children and teenagers (24% more likely) and 20-64-year olds (7% more likely). </p>
<p>There was also a difference in terms of the activities we are doing in the water. </p>
<p>Drowning risk during heatwaves was highest for swimming and bathing-related drowning with a 28% increase compared to a non-heatwave day. </p>
<p>The risk of drowning due to a water transport-related incident (such as boating) was 27% lower during a heatwave. </p>
<h2>The level of risk varies</h2>
<p>We also found the link between heatwaves and drowning risk is not linear, meaning risk doesn’t necessarily climb as the temperature does. As heatwave intensity increases, so does drowning risk but only to a point. While risk rises from 17% during low-intensity heatwaves to 26% during severe heatwaves, risk of drowning reduced to just 9% during extreme heatwaves (the highest intensity). </p>
<p>Our results suggest hotter temperatures see more people in the water and therefore exposure to risk of drowning increases. For those with pre-existing medical conditions <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00484-023-02430-6">exacerbated by the heat</a>, this likely also contributes to drowning risk.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/your-first-emotion-is-panic-rips-cause-many-beach-drownings-but-we-can-learn-from-the-survivors-210982">'Your first emotion is panic': rips cause many beach drownings, but we can learn from the survivors</a>
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<h2>Staying safe this summer</h2>
<p>It’s important to communicate the increased drowning risk ahead of predicted heatwaves, just as we do ahead of other <a href="https://www.canberratimes.com.au/story/8056972/drowning-warning-as-australia-day-nears/">peak periods for drowning</a> such as public and school holidays. It is also vital to educate people on simple strategies they can take to reduce their risk of drowning. </p>
<p>Some advice is pertinent regardless of the temperature. These include encouraging people to swim between the flags at <a href="https://beachsafe.org.au/">patrolled beaches</a>, supervising young children around the water, and wearing a lifejacket when boating or rock fishing. </p>
<p>But other safety messaging may be even more relevant during heatwaves. Alcohol intoxication dramatically increases drowning risk and our previous research on alcohol consumption at rivers shows a <a href="https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-018-6256-1">clear link</a> between excessive drinking and the air temperature. That is, the hotter it is, the more people drink. </p>
<p>And given drowning risk <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/19/14/8863">increases for people with particular medical conditions</a>, such as epilepsy and cardiac conditions, it is important to be mindful of the increased risk to health that is present during a heatwave, even before entering the water. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Surf Life Saving Australia’s 2018 powerful public safety campaign.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>What it means for those who keep us safe</h2>
<p>Our research findings also have important implications for those who provide supervision around water, such as pool lifeguards and surf life savers. </p>
<p>During heatwaves, patrols could be staggered, starting earlier, with a break in the middle of the day, and extending longer into the evening, particularly with the sun setting later and warmer temperatures continuing into the night. </p>
<p>Extra resources are likely to be needed during low and severe heatwaves, but not necessarily heatwaves which reach extreme levels, as there appears to be a change in people’s behaviour and thus reduced drowning risk. </p>
<p>Those who respond to drowning emergencies must also prepare for more drowning incidents during heatwave conditions. Our excess mortality calculations identify heatwaves contributed to an additional 13 drowning deaths between 2010 and 2019. </p>
<p>Action on climate change is urgently needed for a range of reasons, including <a href="https://injuryprevention.bmj.com/content/28/2/185">drowning risk</a>. With global heat records being broken, Australia needs to be prepared for a potentially cruel summer and if you’re planning to hit the water, we urge you to be safe. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-8-deadly-days-of-christmas-how-to-stay-safe-from-drowning-in-australia-this-summer-167440">The 8 deadly days of Christmas: how to stay safe from drowning in Australia this summer</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/212095/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amy Peden is an honorary Senior Research Fellow with Royal Life Saving Society - Australia and is the co-founder of the UNSW Beach Safety Research Group. She receives funding from the National Health and Medical Research Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hannah Mason receives funding from the Queensland Government Department of Environment and Science.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jemma King is affiliated with the Australian Health Promotion Association and holds an executive position with the Queensland Branch. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Richard Franklin receives funding from Queensland Government Department of Environment and Science, Agrifutures, and Queensland Government Fire and Emergency Services. He is affiliated with Royal Life Saving Society - Australia as a Volunteer Board Member and Senior Research Officer, Kidsafe as President and Board member, Farmsafe Australia as a Board Member, Australasian College of Tropical Medicine as a Board Member, and the Public Health Association of Australia as Co-Convenor of the Injury Prevention Special Interest Group.</span></em></p>New research reveals drowning risk increases during Australian heatwaves, especially severe heatwaves. Here’s who is most at risk and what we can all do to stay safe.Amy Peden, NHMRC Research Fellow, School of Population Health & co-founder UNSW Beach Safety Research Group, UNSW SydneyHannah Mason, Research assistant, James Cook UniversityJemma King, Lecturer, Public HealthRichard Franklin, Professor, James Cook UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2098632023-07-19T20:00:25Z2023-07-19T20:00:25ZThe Northern Territory does not have a crocodile problem – and ‘salties’ do not need culling<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538192/original/file-20230719-27-ek02my.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4260%2C2831&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Last week, a 67-year-old man was bitten on the arm by a saltwater crocodile at a waterhole in the Northern Territory’s Top End. Predictably, the incident has prompted debate over whether a crocodile cull is needed. </p>
<p>The incident occurred in Litchfield National Park at Wangi Falls, a popular tourist spot. The man was hospitalised with non-life threatening injuries. Authorities later removed and killed the 2.4 metre crocodile responsible for the attack.</p>
<p>Fatal crocodile attacks in the NT <a href="https://www.ntnews.com.au/news/northern-territory/record-year-for-fatal-crocodile-attacks-in-northern-territory/news-story/e71d7ee8dd4b30641447d9b114cb1039">peaked in 2014</a> when four people died. The last fatal incident in the territory occurred in 2018 when an Indigenous ranger <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2018/oct/12/indigenous-ranger-attacked-and-taken-by-crocodile-in-northern-territory">was killed</a> while fishing with her family.</p>
<p>Despite the low number of fatal attacks in recent years, NT Chief Minister Natasha Fyles said last week the territory’s crocodile population had risen dramatically in recent decades and “it’s time for us to consider” if culling should be reintroduced.</p>
<p>This is an over-reaction to a fairly isolated incident. Data suggest the saltwater crocodile population in the NT does not need to be culled and their management does not need changing. </p>
<h2>Getting to grips with ‘salties’</h2>
<p>Saltwater crocodiles, fondly known in Australia as “salties”, are the <a href="http://www.iucncsg.org/365_docs/attachments/protarea/18%20--8088e67a.pdf">largest</a> in the crocodilian order of reptiles and can grow to six metres.</p>
<p>Hundreds of saltwater crocodile attacks on humans are reported globally each year. This, as well as demand for <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-07-12/should-crocodile-culling-be-reintroduced-in-the-nt/102588160">crocodile skins</a>, has resulted in the species being eradicated from much of its former range. </p>
<p>The saltwater crocodile was once found <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/372405960_Sideleau_and_Nguyen_2021">widely</a> across the Indo-Pacific region. Now, there are no saltwater crocodiles in <a href="http://www.iucncsg.org/365_docs/attachments/protarea/18%20--8088e67a.pdf">several countries</a> including Cambodia, China, Seychelles, Thailand and Vietnam.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537799/original/file-20230717-184356-pfat4r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537799/original/file-20230717-184356-pfat4r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=359&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537799/original/file-20230717-184356-pfat4r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=359&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537799/original/file-20230717-184356-pfat4r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=359&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537799/original/file-20230717-184356-pfat4r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537799/original/file-20230717-184356-pfat4r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537799/original/file-20230717-184356-pfat4r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Current and historical distribution of the saltwater crocodile. Green = present, yellow = possibly present, orange = extinct.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">CrocAttack: The Worldwide Crocodilian Attack Database</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Elsewhere, saltwater crocodile populations declined dramatically last century. In the Northern Territory, crocodile numbers dropped to <a href="https://nt.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/443581/crocodile-management-program.pdf">about 5,000</a> before a culling ban was introduced in 1971. The species’ numbers have since rebounded to <a href="https://nt.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/202579/crocodile-populations.pdf">more than 100,000</a>.</p>
<p>In some areas, recovering crocodile populations come into conflict with humans. This can occur when, for example, humans destroy the species’ habitat or their prey becomes scarce due human activity such as overfishing and poaching. This can force the species to relocate, bringing them closer to people.</p>
<p>Saltwater crocodiles have long been known to enter Wangi Falls during the wet season, when the location is closed to the public. In fact, a 3.4 metre crocodile <a href="https://7news.com.au/news/crocodile/massive-croc-caught-at-popular-swimming-spot-c-9622519">was captured</a> there in January this year. </p>
<p>It’s never 100% safe to swim at locations within the natural range of saltwater crocodiles. However, Wangi Falls is considered reasonably <a href="https://becrocwise.nt.gov.au/crocodiles-and-me/stay-safe-while-swimming">safe</a> for swimming during the dry season (May to October) because park officials survey and remove crocodiles before it opens to the public each year. </p>
<p>So what went wrong in this case? We don’t know for sure. The crocodile in question was relatively small: perhaps it wasn’t spotted during surveys. Or it could have just arrived after surveys were conducted.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/friday-essay-reckoning-with-an-animal-that-sees-us-as-prey-living-and-working-in-crocodile-country-160260">Friday essay: reckoning with an animal that sees us as prey — living and working in crocodile country</a>
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<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="a saltwater crocodile" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537798/original/file-20230717-219717-qhspp8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537798/original/file-20230717-219717-qhspp8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537798/original/file-20230717-219717-qhspp8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537798/original/file-20230717-219717-qhspp8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537798/original/file-20230717-219717-qhspp8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537798/original/file-20230717-219717-qhspp8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537798/original/file-20230717-219717-qhspp8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A saltwater crocodile incident last week has reignited the debate about culling.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Brandon Sideleau</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
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<h2>The current approach works</h2>
<p>Following last week’s crocodile attack, Fyles said culling may be needed, <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-07-11/natasha-fyles-saltwater-crocodile-culling/102585956">telling the media</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I think it’s time for us to consider: do we need to go back to culling considering the significant increase in the crocodile population, and the impact it’s happening, not just on our tourists and visitors, but also locals?</p>
</blockquote>
<p>These comments are surprising. Recent data for the Top End <a href="https://depws.nt.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/437639/SW-Crocodile-Monitoring-Report-2014.pdf">suggests</a> crocodile populations are stabilising. And the rarity of fatal attacks on humans indicates the territory’s <a href="https://becrocwise.nt.gov.au/crocodile-management/crocodile-management-program#:%7E:text=The%20NT%20Government%20uses%20a,techniques%20appropriate%20to%20the%20location">crocodile management plan</a> is effective.</p>
<p>The plan involves, among other measures, removing problem crocodiles, raising public awareness around safely co-existing with the animals, and monitoring their impact. </p>
<p>Since 2018, the NT has experienced one fatal saltwater crocodile attack while <a href="https://environment.des.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0022/227434/crocodile-attacks-queensland.pdf">Queensland</a> has experienced <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2023/may/03/human-remains-found-in-euthanised-crocodile-believed-to-be-missing-queensland-fisher">two</a>. That’s despite an average saltwater crocodile density in the territory <a href="https://environment.des.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0020/244613/qld-estuarine-croc-monitoring-program-2016-19-report.pdf">of 5.3 individuals per kilometre</a> – three times more than in Queensland. </p>
<p>This, coupled with data from outside Australia, suggests the frequency of crocodile attacks depends more on human behaviour and population density than how many crocodiles are in a given area.</p>
<p>In Indonesia, crocodiles <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2023/may/02/crocodile-catch-conservationists-warn-against-proposed-queensland-cull">killed at least 71 people</a> last year alone. Yet the crocodile population there is likely small and recovering, based on the limited number of surveys conducted.</p>
<p>In the Indonesian province of East Nusa Tenggara, for example, crocodiles killed <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/mf/MF20237">at least 60 people</a> between 2009 and 2018. Yet surveys suggest their average density is <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1755-1315/591/1/012044">only 0.4 per kilometre</a>. The situation is similar on <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320990083_Impacts_of_anthropogenic_pressures_on_the_contemporary_biogeography_of_threatened_crocodilians_in_Indonesia">the island of Sumatra</a>, as well as <a href="https://www.thestar.com.my/news/environment/2023/07/15/culling-sabah039s-crocodiles-will-not-reduce-croc-attacks?fbclid=IwAR0Jn_Dn-wOc9X5CXDsI7ucgZi_ost8WJ5WNCSaPeH2bNP9D1fBURfK9Y2Q">parts</a> of <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/358152489_Human-Crocodile_Conflicts_in_Sarawak_Malaysian_Borneo_An_analysis_of_crocodile_attacks_from_2000_until_2020">Malaysia</a>.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-how-did-crocodiles-survive-the-asteroid-that-killed-the-dinosaurs-172390">Curious Kids: how did crocodiles survive the asteroid that killed the dinosaurs?</a>
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<img alt="saltwater crocodile swimming underwater" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538197/original/file-20230719-23-su836y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538197/original/file-20230719-23-su836y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538197/original/file-20230719-23-su836y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538197/original/file-20230719-23-su836y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538197/original/file-20230719-23-su836y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538197/original/file-20230719-23-su836y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538197/original/file-20230719-23-su836y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">NT Chief Minister Natasha Fyles said crocodile culling may be needed.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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<h2>The downsides of culling crocs</h2>
<p>Culling saltwater crocodiles isn’t just bad for the species. It can also have negative consequences for humans.</p>
<p>The public could be <a href="https://theconversation.com/crocodile-culls-wont-solve-crocodile-attacks-11203">lulled into a false sense of security</a> and think a location is safe for swimming, even though crocodiles remain. </p>
<p>And seeing saltwater crocodiles in the wild is <a href="https://www.kindnessproject.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/Crocodile-Transition-Plan-final.pdf">important to the NT’s economy</a>. Culling them could damage the NT’s reputation as an ecotourism destination.</p>
<p>Lastly, culling dominant male crocodiles can be dangerous. Saltwater crocodiles are the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Cm-Gienger-2/publication/319502789_Patterns_of_human-crocodile_conflict_in_Queensland_A_review_of_historical_estuarine_crocodile_Crocodylus_porosus_management/links/5c4a0b87a6fdccd6b5c59d4a/Patterns-of-human-crocodile-conflict-in-Queensland-A-review-of-historical-estuarine-crocodile-Crocodylus-porosus-management.pdf">most territorial</a> of all crocodilians. When one is removed, other large crocodiles <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/file?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0126778&type=printable">begin to compete</a> for the newly available territory. This can present a threat to public safety. </p>
<p>The crocodile population in the NT does not need to be culled. Indeed, the territory’s current crocodile management plan is an example of large predator conservation done right.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-living-alongside-crocodiles-can-teach-us-about-coexisting-with-wildlife-139144">What living alongside crocodiles can teach us about coexisting with wildlife</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/209863/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brandon Michael Sideleau is a member of the IUCN Crocodile Specialist Group</span></em></p>A non-fatal crocodile attack on a tourist last week made headlines. But talk of culling is an over-reaction to a fairly isolated incident.Brandon Michael Sideleau, PhD student studying human-saltwater crocodile conflict, Charles Darwin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1998462023-05-14T11:18:59Z2023-05-14T11:18:59ZWe need to prepare for the public safety hazards posed by artificial intelligence<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525641/original/file-20230511-18-3z6quf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C17%2C3888%2C2566&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Emergency management should account for the risks posed by artificial intelligence.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>For the most part, the focus of contemporary emergency management has been on <a href="https://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/rsrcs/pblctns/2023-nrp-pnr/index-en.aspx">natural, technological and human-made hazards</a> such as flooding, earthquakes, tornadoes, industrial accidents, extreme weather events and cyber attacks. </p>
<p>However, with the increase in the availability and capabilities of artificial intelligence, we may soon see emerging public safety hazards related to these technologies that we will need to mitigate and prepare for.</p>
<p>Over the past 20 years, my colleagues and I — along with many other researchers — have been <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11518-009-5121-2">leveraging AI</a> to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1108/IJES-03-2012-0001">develop models</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18010268">applications</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1504/IJEM.2020.117201">that can</a> identify, assess, predict, monitor and detect hazards to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-020-04124-3">inform emergency response operations and decision-making</a>.</p>
<p>We are now reaching a turning point where AI is becoming a potential source of risk at a scale that should be incorporated into risk and emergency management phases — mitigation or prevention, preparedness, response and recovery. </p>
<h2>AI and hazard classification</h2>
<p>AI hazards can be classified into two types: intentional and unintentional. Unintentional hazards are those caused by <a href="https://www.phe.gov/Preparedness/planning/RISC/Documents/risc-tham-narrative.pdf">human errors or technological failures</a>. </p>
<p>As the use of AI increases, there will be more adverse events caused by human error in AI models or technological failures in AI based technologies. These events can occur in all kinds of industries including transportation (like drones, trains or self-driving cars), electricity, oil and gas, finance and banking, agriculture, health and mining.</p>
<p>Intentional AI hazards are potential threats that are caused by using AI to harm people and properties. AI can also be used to gain unlawful benefits by compromising security and safety systems.</p>
<p>In my view, this simple intentional and unintentional classification may not be sufficient in case of AI. Here, we need to add a new class of emerging threats — the possibility of AI overtaking human control and decision-making. This may be triggered intentionally or unintentionally. </p>
<p>Many AI experts have already warned <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/03/29/technology/ai-artificial-intelligence-musk-risks.html">against such potential threats</a>. A recent open letter by researchers, scientists and others involved in the development of AI <a href="https://www.wired.com/story/chatgpt-pause-ai-experiments-open-letter/">called for a moratorium on its further development</a>.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/qpoRO378qRY?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">AI pioneer Geoffrey Hinton is interviewed by CBS about the dangers of the technology.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Public safety risks</h2>
<p>Public safety and emergency management experts use risk matrices to assess and compare risks. Using this method, hazards are qualitatively or quantitatively assessed based on their frequency and consequence, and their impacts are classified as low, medium or high. </p>
<p>Hazards that have low frequency and low consequence or impact are considered low risk and no additional actions are required to manage them. Hazards that have medium consequence and medium frequency are considered medium risk. These risks need to be closely monitored. </p>
<p>Hazards with high frequency or high consequence or high in both consequence and frequency are classified as high risks. These risks need to be reduced by taking additional risk reduction and mitigation measures. Failure to take immediate and proper action may result in sever human and property losses. </p>
<p>Up until now, AI hazards and risks have not been added into the risk assessment matrices much beyond organizational use of AI applications. The time has come when we should quickly start bringing the potential AI risks into local, national and global risk and emergency management. </p>
<h2>AI risk assessment</h2>
<p>AI technologies are becoming more widely used by institutions, organizations and companies in different sectors, and hazards associated with the AI are starting to emerge.</p>
<p>In 2018, the accounting firm KPMG developed an “<a href="https://assets.kpmg.com/content/dam/kpmg/uk/pdf/2018/09/ai-risk-and-controls-matrix.pdf">AI Risk and Controls Matrix</a>.” It highlights the risks of using AI by businesses and urges them to recognize these new emerging risks. The report warned that AI technology is advancing very quickly and that risk control measures must be in place before they overwhelm the systems.</p>
<p>Governments have also started <a href="https://cltc.berkeley.edu/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/AI_Risk_Impact_Assessments.pdf">developing some risk assessment guidelines</a> for the use of AI-based technologies and solutions. However, these guidelines are limited to risks such as algorithmic bias and violation of individual rights.</p>
<p>At the government level, the Canadian government issued the “<a href="https://www.tbs-sct.canada.ca/pol/doc-eng.aspx?id=32592">Directive on Automated Decision-Making</a>” to ensure that federal institutions minimize the risks associated with the AI systems and create appropriate governance mechanisms.</p>
<p>The main objective of the directive is to ensure that when AI systems are deployed, risks to clients, federal institutions and Canadian society are reduced. According to this directive, risk assessments must be conducted by each department to make sure that appropriate safeguards are in place in accordance with the <a href="https://www.tbs-sct.gc.ca/pol/doc-eng.aspx?id=16578">Policy on Government Security</a>.</p>
<p>In 2021, the U.S. Congress tasked the National Institute of Standards and Technology with developing an AI risk management framework for the Department of Defense. The proposed voluntary AI risk assessment framework recommends banning <a href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/6395">the use of AI systems that present unacceptable risks</a>.</p>
<h2>Threats and competition</h2>
<p>Much of the national level policy focus on AI has been from national security and global competition perspectives — the national security and economic risks of falling behind in the AI technology. </p>
<p>The U.S. National Security Commission on Artificial Intelligence highlighted <a href="https://www.nscai.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Full-Report-Digital-1.pdf">national security risks associated with AI</a>. These were not from the public threats of the technology itself, but from losing out in the global competition for AI development in other countries, including China.</p>
<p>In its 2017 <a href="https://www3.weforum.org/docs/GRR17_Report_web.pdf"><em>Global Risk Report</em></a>, the World Economic Forum highlighted that AI is only one of emerging technologies that can exacerbate global risk. While assessing the risks posed by the AI, the report concluded that, at that time, super-intelligent AI systems remain a theoretical threat.</p>
<p>However, the latest <a href="https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Global_Risks_Report_2023.pdf"><em>Global Risk Report 2023</em></a> does not even mention the AI and AI associated risks which means that the leaders of the global companies that provide inputs to the global risk report had not viewed the AI as an immediate risk.</p>
<h2>Faster than policy</h2>
<p>AI development is progressing much faster than government and corporate policies in understanding, foreseeing and managing the risks. The current global conditions, combined with market competition for AI technologies, make it difficult to think of an opportunity for governments to pause and develop risk governance mechanisms. </p>
<p>While we should collectively and proactively try for such governance mechanisms, we all need to brace for major catastrophic AI’s impacts on our systems and societies.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/199846/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ali Asgary does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Emergency management plans need to address the growing risks emerging from increasing applications of artificial intelligence.Ali Asgary, Professor, Disaster & Emergency Management, Faculty of Liberal Arts & Professional Studies & Director, CIFAL York, York University, CanadaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2006452023-03-03T00:47:20Z2023-03-03T00:47:20ZDangerous selfies aren’t just foolish. We need to treat them like the public health hazard they really are<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512828/original/file-20230301-17-w9p7rl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=1%2C11%2C997%2C735&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/tourist-man-on-waterfall-background-holds-679811122">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Selfies have been called everything from an <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2013/11/selfies-are-art/281772/">artform</a> to <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-46188454">narcissistic</a> and a sign of a <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/06/21/dark-side-selfies-modern-obsession-damaging-mental-health-young/">dysfunctional society</a>.</p>
<p>They can <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6131996/">also kill</a>.</p>
<p>When people go to extreme lengths to take an image to share on social media – perhaps in remote or picturesque locations – they can risk their lives.</p>
<p>So we need to move beyond describing selfies as a social phenomenon, fuelled by the rise of smartphones and social media.</p>
<p>We need to treat dangerous selfies as the public health hazard they really are.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/Bkrpg2pH4dv","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<h2>More deaths, year after year</h2>
<p>Certain picturesque locations have been linked to selfie deaths. This includes <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/nov/02/yosemite-couple-death-selfie-photography-travel-blog-taft-point">Yosemite National Park</a> in California. In Australia, we’ve seen people die at places including <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2019/aug/17/sydney-cliff-fatality-woman-falls-to-death-at-popular-selfie-spot">cliffs</a>, <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-02-28/call-to-close-access-to-social-media-favourite-figure-8-pools/10853854">natural pools</a> and <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-11770353/Gibraltar-Falls-tragedy-Patrick-Prevett-second-days-die-popular-waterfall-near-Canberra.html">waterfalls</a>.</p>
<p>These are not isolated incidents.</p>
<p><a href="https://academic.oup.com/jtm/article-abstract/29/5/taab170/6404466?redirectedFrom=fulltext&login=false">One study</a> found 379 people worldwide were killed due to selfies between 2008 and 2021, with even more injured. Incidents are more likely in young adults, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6131996/">particularly males</a>.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1038169540809641986"}"></div></p>
<p>Many are <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26858274/">travellers or tourists</a> (particularly in Australia and the United States). In Australia and the US, selfie takers tend to be injured or killed while solo, and commonly in locations very difficult for emergency services to access. In countries such as India and Pakistan, selfie takers are more likely to die, tragically, as a group, especially near bodies of water, such as lakes. </p>
<p>Researchers have called for the introduction of “<a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17457300.2016.1278240">no selfie zones</a>” around hotspots, such as tall buildings. <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jul/07/a-selfie-with-a-weapon-kills-russia-launches-safe-selfie-campaign">Russian</a> and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jun/26/goa-india-no-selfie-zones-coast-deaths">Indian</a> authorities have introduced these. Russia has launched a “<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jul/07/a-selfie-with-a-weapon-kills-russia-launches-safe-selfie-campaign">safe selfie</a>” guide.</p>
<p>But it’s not clear how effective these strategies have been. If anything, selfie incidents seem to be <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31895098/">increasing globally.</a> </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/is-that-selfie-really-worth-it-why-face-time-with-wild-animals-is-a-bad-idea-96272">Is that selfie really worth it? Why face time with wild animals is a bad idea</a>
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<h2>Media calls these foolish, selfish</h2>
<p>The media often portrays people involved in selfie incidents as <a href="https://www.outsideonline.com/adventure-travel/news-analysis/selfie-deaths/">foolish</a> or <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/aug/10/selfish-selfie-takers-spark-trevi-fountain-fisticuffs">selfish</a>.</p>
<p>This seems to confirm <a href="https://newsroom.unsw.edu.au/news/health/selfies-your-life-worth-few-likes">our research</a> showing media reports often blame the victim. Reports almost never provide safety information.</p>
<p>But taking selfies is a normal part of everyday life for millions of people. We need to stop judging people who are taking risky selfies, and instead see risky selfies as a public health issue.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512830/original/file-20230301-29-tustlj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Figure Eight Pools, Royal National Park, NSW" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512830/original/file-20230301-29-tustlj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512830/original/file-20230301-29-tustlj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512830/original/file-20230301-29-tustlj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512830/original/file-20230301-29-tustlj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512830/original/file-20230301-29-tustlj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512830/original/file-20230301-29-tustlj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512830/original/file-20230301-29-tustlj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">People have died taking selfies at Figure Eight Pools, Royal National Park, NSW.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/figure-eight-pool-royal-national-park-2192898545">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<h2>Why is this a public health issue?</h2>
<p>We’ve had similar problems with other activities we now see as
public health hazards. These include <a href="https://www.nsw.gov.au/media-releases/50-years-of-mandatory-seatbelts-saving-lives-nsw">driving without a seatbelt</a>, riding a <a href="https://theconversation.com/dont-be-fooled-keeping-bike-helmets-is-best-for-health-661">bicycle without a helmet</a>, smoking cigarettes or excessive alcohol consumption. These are all examples people once considered “normal”, which we now see as risky. Taking dangerous selfies needs to be added to that <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6131996/">list</a>.</p>
<p>By thinking of these selfies as a public health issue, we move away from victim blaming and instead need to effectively communicate risk to selfie-takers.</p>
<p>One example relates to the popular selfie hotspot, Figure Eight Pools in the Royal National Park, New South Wales, where people can be overwhelmed by big, “<a href="https://www.theillawarraflame.com.au/science--nature/dr-rips-science-of-the-surf">freak</a>” waves. Authorities have produced a <a href="https://www.nationalparks.nsw.gov.au/things-to-do/lookouts/figure-eight-pools">colour-coded risk rating</a> that takes into account ocean and weather conditions. People can go online to see if the risk of going to the pools is “very low” to “extreme”.</p>
<p>If we think of these risky selfies as a public health issue we also move towards education and prevention.</p>
<p>Signs at selfie hotspots are one thing. But we know signs are often ignored, or simply not seen.</p>
<p>So we need to better communicate safety messages to selfie takers when and how they will actually take notice.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.unsw.edu.au/news/2021/12/selfies--is-your-life-worth-a-few--likes--">Our research with Instagram</a> aims to do this by communicating directly to selfie takers through the Instagram app. The aim is to tailor safety messaging to Instagram users by geolocating them with known risky selfie spots – sending users a safety alert in real time. </p>
<p>With the right communication strategy, we know we can reduce the number of these entirely avoidable tragedies.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/travelgram-live-tourist-snaps-have-turned-solo-adventures-into-social-occasions-124583">#travelgram: live tourist snaps have turned solo adventures into social occasions</a>
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<h2>5 tips to stay safe when taking selfies in nature</h2>
<p><strong>1. Think about weather and water conditions</strong></p>
<p>Weather and coastal conditions can change rapidly. Just because the weather and waves don’t appear dangerous when you start your selfie journey, they might be when you get there. <a href="https://www.nationalparks.nsw.gov.au/things-to-do/lookouts/figure-eight-pools">Check before you go</a>, avoid bad weather, and keep a close eye on tidal and wave conditions.</p>
<p><strong>2. Don’t walk past safety signs and physical barriers</strong></p>
<p>Warning signs are there to provide life-saving information. Pay attention to signs and heed their advice. Don’t jump or go around any physical barriers blocking access. They are likely there for a good reason.</p>
<p><strong>3. Stay on the designated path</strong></p>
<p>Staying on paths and trails is safest and also does fragile ecosystems a big favour.</p>
<p><strong>4. Don’t get too close to the edge. Be aware of crumbling edges</strong></p>
<p>Don’t trust cliff edges and be aware of unstable ground. Cliff edges are naturally eroding and your extra weight doesn’t help. <a href="https://www.9news.com.au/national/bells-beach-four-people-injured-after-beach-cliff-collapses-near-melbourne/7cba3fa1-6a68-4b33-b6db-1acd1a94b68c">People have died</a> from cliff edges crumbling away while standing on them.</p>
<p><strong>5. No amount of ‘likes’ is worth your life</strong></p>
<p>Consider your motivations for taking selfies and using social media. Studies show spending time in nature is <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-44097-3">good for our health</a>. But the world looks better when not viewed through a screen.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/200645/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Samuel Cornell receives funding from Meta Platforms, Inc. His research is also supported by a UNSW University Postgraduate Award, as well as project funding from the Royal Life Saving Society - Australia. He is affiliated with Surf Life Saving Australia and Surf Life Saving NSW.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amy Peden receives funding from the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) and project funding from Meta Platforms Inc, Royal Life Saving Society - Australia and Surf Life Saving Australia. She is affiliated with the Royal Life Saving Society - Australia. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rob Brander receives funding from Meta Platforms Inc, Surf Life Saving Australia, Surfing NSW, Randwick City Council and Waverley Council. </span></em></p>People have died taking selfies at cliffs, waterfalls and natural pools. We need to try a different approach to reducing the risk.Samuel Cornell, PhD Candidate, UNSW Beach Safety Research Group, School of Population Health, UNSW SydneyAmy Peden, NHMRC Research Fellow, School of Population Health & co-founder UNSW Beach Safety Research Group, UNSW SydneyRob Brander, Professor, UNSW Beach Safety Research Group, School of Biological, Earth & Environmental Sciences, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2001612023-02-21T13:24:49Z2023-02-21T13:24:49ZTrain derailments get more headlines, but truck crashes involving hazardous chemicals are more frequent and deadly in US<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511236/original/file-20230220-28-clm4kl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C19%2C4256%2C2803&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A trooper checks the tire of a truck carrying flammable contents during a random hazmat checkpoint in Colorado.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/colorado-state-patrolman-trooper-john-huck-checks-a-tire-on-news-photo/161075839">Andy Cross/The Denver Post via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Less than two weeks after train cars filled with hazardous chemicals <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-dangerous-was-the-ohio-chemical-train-derailment-an-environmental-engineer-assesses-the-long-term-risks-199993">derailed in Ohio</a> and caught fire, a truck carrying nitric acid crashed on a major highway outside Tucson, Arizona, killing the driver and releasing toxic chemicals into the air. </p>
<p>The Arizona hazmat disaster <a href="https://www.azdps.gov/news/ims/92">shut down Interstate 10</a>, a major cross-country highway, and forced evacuations in surrounding neighborhoods.</p>
<p>But the highway crash didn’t draw national attention the way the train derailment did, or trigger a flood of calls for more trucking regulation <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/transportation/2023/02/21/buttigieg-ohio-rail-safety-derailment/">like the U.S. is seeing</a> for <a href="https://thehill.com/policy/energy-environment/3863723-environmental-groups-call-on-buttigieg-to-restore-obama-era-train-brake-rule/">train regulation</a>. Truck crashes tend to be local and less dramatic than a pile of derailed train cars on fire, even if they’re deadlier.</p>
<p>In fact, federal data shows that rail has had <a href="https://railroads.dot.gov/program-areas/hazmat-transportation/hazardous-materials-transportation">far fewer incidents, deaths and damage</a> when moving hazardous materials in the U.S. than trucks.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511001/original/file-20230220-4346-zjhxz7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Cranes work to move burned train cars off the rails." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511001/original/file-20230220-4346-zjhxz7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511001/original/file-20230220-4346-zjhxz7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511001/original/file-20230220-4346-zjhxz7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511001/original/file-20230220-4346-zjhxz7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511001/original/file-20230220-4346-zjhxz7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511001/original/file-20230220-4346-zjhxz7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511001/original/file-20230220-4346-zjhxz7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">After the train derailment and fire in East Palestine, Ohio, on Feb. 3, 2023, the U.S. EPA tested over 500 homes. It reported none exceeded air quality standards for chemicals tested.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://response.epa.gov/site/site_profile.aspx?site_id=15933">U.S. Environmental Protection Agency</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Trucks carry more hazmat and more risk</h2>
<p>At one time, rail and water were the only options for transporting chemicals and other potentially dangerous materials. The emergence of the automobile and subsequent construction of the interstate highway system changed that, and hazardous materials shipments by road steadily increased.</p>
<p>Today, trucks carry the largest percentage of hazardous materials shipped in the U.S. – about <a href="https://www.bts.gov/content/us-hazardous-materials-shipments-transportation-mode-2007">twice as much</a> as trains when measured in ton-miles, according to the Department of Transportation’s Bureau of Transportation Statistics’ latest data, for 2017. A ton-mile is one ton shipped for one mile.</p>
<p>While truck incidents involving hazardous materials don’t look as dramatic as train derailments and are not as widely covered by news media, federal data shows they represent more fatalities and property damage, and there are <a href="https://www.bts.gov/content/hazardous-materials-fatalities-injuries-accidents-and-property-damage-data">thousands more of them</a> every year.</p>
<p><iframe id="bbKJQ" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/bbKJQ/6/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>Truck-related hazardous materials incidents <a href="https://www.bts.gov/content/hazardous-materials-fatalities-injuries-accidents-and-property-damage-data">caused over 16 times more fatalities</a> from 1975 to 2021 – 380 for truck, compared with 23 for rail, according to the Bureau of Transportation Statistics. The difference is more pronounced in the last decade, when U.S. rail transportation of hazardous materials caused zero fatalities and truck incidents were responsible for 83.</p>
<p>Trucks have also caused <a href="https://www.bts.gov/content/hazardous-materials-fatalities-injuries-accidents-and-property-damage-data">nearly three times as much property damage</a> as rail incidents since 2000. That might seem surprising since derailments can involve several cars with hazardous materials. But most rail events take place in remote areas, limiting their human impact, while trucks travel on highways with other drivers around and often <a href="https://www.freightwaves.com/news/state-lawmakers-seek-to-tighten-hazmat-trucker-standards">in busy urban areas</a>.</p>
<p><iframe id="1hSG7" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/1hSG7/6/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>Where do we go from here?</h2>
<p>Shipping hazardous materials in the U.S. has been regulated for over 150 years. A <a href="http://cprr.org/Museum/Newspapers/Nitroglycerine.html#Newspaper">deadly explosion</a> in San Francisco in 1866 involving a just-arrived cargo of nitroglycerin, used for blasting rock, led to the first <a href="https://www.princeton.edu/%7Eota/disk2/1986/8636/863606.PDF">federal laws regulating shipping explosives</a> and flammable materials. </p>
<p>The Sept. 11, 2001, terrorist attacks spurred a <a href="https://anthc.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/IEH_HowToUse_Hazardous_Materials_Regulations.pdf">vast expansion of regulation</a> over movement of hazardous materials. Many cities now have hazardous materials routes for trucks that circumvent city centers to reduce the potential risk to high-population areas.</p>
<p>With the Ohio train derailment now making national news, lawmakers are focusing on regulations specifically for rail.</p>
<p>Ohio’s governor wants rail companies to be required to notify states of <a href="https://www.wcpo.com/news/local-news/hamilton-county/cincinnati/lawmakers-want-to-see-more-reporting-requirements-for-trains-carrying-hazardous-materials">all hazardous shipments</a>. This knee-jerk reaction to a major event would appear to be a responsible demand with relatively low costs, but it would have no impact whatsoever on prevention of hazmat events.</p>
<p>Activists are calling for more expensive investments, including <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/miles-before-ohio-derailment-train-axle-was-on-fire-video-shows-7e221f0e">requirements for heat sensors</a> on train bearings, which appeared to have been involved in the Ohio derailment, and the <a href="https://thehill.com/policy/energy-environment/3863723-environmental-groups-call-on-buttigieg-to-restore-obama-era-train-brake-rule/">restoration of a rule</a> requiring advanced braking systems for trains carrying hazardous materials. Both would raise the cost of rail shipping and could wind up putting more hazardous materials shipments on U.S. roads. The Trump administration repealed the braking system requirement in 2017, arguing that the <a href="https://www.phmsa.dot.gov/news/usdot-announces-intent-repeal-electronically-controlled-pneumatic-brake-mandate">costs outweighed the benefits</a>. </p>
<p>U.S. Transportation Secretary <a href="https://www.npr.org/2023/02/21/1158453029/buttigieg-railroad-safety-east-palestine-derailment-hazardous-chemicals">Pete Buttigieg, speaking with reporters, also discussed</a> looking into new rules for advanced braking systems, as well as higher fines and encouraging rail companies to speed up their phase-in of <a href="https://www.bts.gov/newsroom/more-rail-tank-cars-meet-dot-117-safety-standards-2020">more puncture-resistant tank cars</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Firefighters stand on a highway as a orange smoke rises in the distance." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511011/original/file-20230220-2192-5smbjs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C248%2C1730%2C1248&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511011/original/file-20230220-2192-5smbjs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511011/original/file-20230220-2192-5smbjs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511011/original/file-20230220-2192-5smbjs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511011/original/file-20230220-2192-5smbjs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511011/original/file-20230220-2192-5smbjs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511011/original/file-20230220-2192-5smbjs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">On Feb. 14, 2023, a truck carrying hazardous materials crashed on busy Interstate 10 outside Tucson, Ariz., killing the driver and forcing an interstate shutdown and evacuations.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/HazardousMaterialSpillArizona/61ced1f7e384497f999aa0b546e2a675/photo">Arizona Department of Public Safety via AP</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>I <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=JkrkNVQAAAAJ&view_op=list_works&sortby=pubdate">study rail systems and regulation</a>, and I have followed the increasing costs to the industry to comply with tightening regulatory rules.</p>
<p>Rail is still more <a href="https://www.aar.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/AAR-Sustainability-Fact-Sheet.pdf">economical and better for the environment</a> than trucks for longer distances, but with ever-increasing regulations, rail transport can be economically and logistically discouraged – chasing more traffic to far more dangerous roadways.</p>
<p>If the concern is the public’s exposure to hazardous materials, <a href="https://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/regulations/hazardous-materials/how-comply-federal-hazardous-materials-regulations">regulation on road-based</a> hazardous materials transportation should expand as well.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/200161/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>As an expert in rail policy, Michael Gorman has consulted with railroad companies over the past 20 years. He worked for BNSF in the 1990s.</span></em></p>Transportation Secretary Pete Buttigieg is looking into new rules for trains. Trucks, however, are involved in thousands more hazmat incidents every year in the US.Michael F. Gorman, Professor of Business Analytics and Operations Management, University of DaytonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1915812022-11-09T14:13:07Z2022-11-09T14:13:07ZCrime is lower when cities are greener: evidence from South Africa supports the link<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491269/original/file-20221024-19-ig161m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5084%2C3389&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Investment in public parks can help reduce crime. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/western-cape-south-africa-man-wearing-protective-clothing-news-photo/1219978375?phrase=gardens%20and%20public%20parks%20in%20south%20africa&adppopup=true">Peter Titmuss/Education Images/Universal Images Group via Getty Images.</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>South Africa’s population is urbanising at a rapid pace. The sheer rate of change poses challenges to planning for sustainable and liveable cities.</p>
<p>Part of what make cities work is having green spaces, such as parks, sports fields, nature trails and street trees. These provide many social, ecological and economic <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160412018331751?via%3Dihub">benefits</a>. Research from multiple countries such as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1618866713001350?casa_token=pwYnNL6ExSoAAAAA:Y-VhMZ6qhTz7pHzmIUCZAKX2dYtbrH_fm8SipbLilGnxEKmulM6hDHG2vVnnR7aMMf1M6VTVdQ">Australia</a>, China, Finland, India, the <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/16/24/5119">US</a> and South Africa has shown this.</p>
<p>Aside from looking good and providing recreation, urban green spaces improve air quality, physical and mental health, and regulate storm water flows. They counteract urban heat islands, store carbon and create jobs.</p>
<p>Some communities nevertheless oppose urban greening efforts because they fear that green spaces and street trees provide places for <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1618866713001350">criminals to hide</a>. Such fears are not unique to South Africa and have been reported from cities in both developed and developing countries.</p>
<p>A great deal of research has been done on urban greening and its association with crime levels. But most of these studies have been conducted in Europe and North America, which are very different socially and economically to developing countries and have markedly lower rates of crime. </p>
<p>We <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S004896972201097X">conducted research</a> to complement the evidence from the global north. Our study is the first ever national level analysis of the relationship between various measures of urban greenness and three different classes of crime: property, violent and sexual crimes. </p>
<p>Our findings, based on research in South Africa, lend further credence to calls for urban greening to be adopted as a major strategy in cities – for both environmental sustainability, as well as social sustainability.</p>
<h2>Drilling down</h2>
<p>We used 10 years of precinct-level crime statistics in South Africa to test the hypothesis that green space is associated with reduced crime rates. South Africa has one of the highest crime rates in the <a href="https://www.gallup.com/analytics/322247/gallup-global-law-and-order-report-2020.aspx">world</a>, making it an important test of the relationship between urban greening and crime. </p>
<p>Using the broadest greenness measure – total green space – the results of this national-scale study corroborate many <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/16/24/5119">previous studies</a> from the global north indicating that greener neighbourhoods have significantly lower rates of violent and property crimes. Thus, the relationship reported in other countries and contexts appears to be robust in even a relatively high crime context like South Africa. </p>
<p>To gauge the relationship <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S004896972201097X">in South Africa</a> we used several measures of urban greenness, several different crime categories, and a national analysis.</p>
<p>We obtained crime statistics per police precinct (there are 1,152 police precints) between 2010 and 2019 from the South African Police Service and aggregated them into property, violent and sexual crimes (expressed as per 100,000 citizens for each police precinct). </p>
<p>We then used remote sensing to calculate the total area of green space per precinct, the proportional (percentage) cover of trees, and the average distance to the closest formal or informal park.</p>
<p>We found that greener areas had lower rates of both violent and property crimes. But there was no relationship with the rate of sexual crimes. A more mixed picture was revealed when considering tree cover specifically, where property crime was higher with more tree cover, but violent crimes were fewer. </p>
<p>However, property crimes were higher in locations close to public parks and sites with more trees. </p>
<p>Proximity to parks showed no relationship with the rates of violent or sexual crimes. </p>
<p>The concentration of property crimes in neighbourhoods with more trees and parks can be explained by such areas typically being where more affluent households are found.</p>
<p>But well-maintained public parks, and those with fencing, lighting, playing fields and some sort of security show lower crime levels in adjacent areas than poorly maintained parks or those <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0022427816666309?casa_token=bVeZkvibpZcAAAAA%3ADXzO3-2POkIM96kbujiRf3DE_KmvWZGjR0owrGsu2ClZQiJr3bdV6RYsdhs-R8d_SiWkpaMvYrMx">lacking basic facilities</a>.</p>
<h2>What needs to be done</h2>
<p>These findings add further impetus to arguments for urban planners and decision-makers in South Africa (and similar contexts) to be more proactive and ambitious in including and integrating urban green spaces and trees into urban developments. </p>
<p>Planners and authorities often downplay such calls because they are viewed as coming from an environmental lobby, and because – they say – there are more pressing economic and social development <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0264837714001501?casa_token=_ZixOjEqP4sAAAAA:0LkAd_dHkAXGoUMgJmX_nkxHtxO8Na0i5J1O23SvXIauJ3vap3uiAEtfYFB0Kn3JPcXTRmk48Q">needs</a>. </p>
<p>But this research shows that benefits of urban greening extend well beyond an environmental agenda. They embrace social inclusivity and sustainability too, alongside the well-established public health benefits. </p>
<p>Urban greening, therefore, needs to be one of the foremost considerations in urban planning and development in the country. It also requires budgets, expertise and strategies beyond the planning phase to allow for regular tree and green space maintenance that keeps them functional and attractive to local citizens. </p>
<p>The research also supports calls for urban greening to be <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/21665095.2021.1950019">integrated</a> into any holistic crime prevention strategy. </p>
<p><em>Lizzette Lancaster, Manager: Crime and Justice Information Hub, Institute of Security Studies, Pretoria, South Africa, contributed to this article.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/191581/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Charlie Shackleton receives funding from the national Research Foundation (South Africa). </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew Faull is affiliated with the Institute for Security Studies (ISS) and receives funding from the Hanns Seidel Foundation.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gregory Breetzke, Ian Edelstein, and Zander Venter do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>People may think that green spaces often hide criminals. On the contrary, there is evidence they contribute to reducing crime.Charlie Shackleton, Professor & Research Chair in Interdisciplinary Science in Land and Natural Resource Use for Sustainable Livelihoods, Rhodes UniversityAndrew Faull, Research Associate at UCT's Centre of Criminology, Consultant at the Institute for Security Studies (ISS), University of Cape TownGregory Breetzke, Associate Professor, Department of Geography, Geoinformatics and Meteorology, University of PretoriaIan Edelstein, Researcher, University of Cape TownZander Venter, Spatial ecologist, The Norwegian Institute for Nature ResearchLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1927702022-10-26T15:08:22Z2022-10-26T15:08:22ZIn France, the tough debate about hunting and alcohol<p>Over the last <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/nov/28/france-three-people-injured-over-weekend-in-latest-hunting-incidents">weekend of November alone</a>, a 26-year-old hiker was shot in the arm while walking in the Alpilles mountains in Provence and a 64-year-old man, in the stomach, in Dordogne. Lead pellets also hit a 58-year old man in Brittany.</p>
<p>The link between these gruesome incidents? They were all caused by careless hunters.</p>
<p>All the more timely, then, is the French Senate’s report released in September, which called for a <a href="http://www.senat.fr/notice-rapport/2021/r21-882-notice.html">ban on alcohol and narcotics while hunting</a> alongside for a spate of <a href="https://www.lefigaro.fr/actualite-france/le-senat-propose-un-taux-maximal-d-alcoolemie-pour-la-chasse-20220916">measures</a> similar to those applied to drink-driving. On 25 October, the government released a <a href="https://www.lemonde.fr/planete/article/2022/10/25/delit-d-alcoolemie-demi-journees-sans-chasse-les-pistes-envisagees-par-le-gouvernement-pour-ameliorer-et-garantir-la-securite-a-la-chasse_6147294_3244.html">policy roadmap</a> comprising some of these suggestions, including restrictions on drinking. “Hunting involves an arm. Like driving, it is not compatible with a high blood-alcohol concentration,” the secretary of state for ecology, Bérangère Couillard, said. The Elysee is now awaiting to hear feedback from hunting federations with the view to formulating decrees by early 2023 at the latest.</p>
<p>The president of France’s National Hunters’ Federation (FNC), Willy Schraen, has retorted that <a href="https://www.marianne.net/societe/agriculture-et-ruralite/le-velo-bourre-cest-dangereux-aussi-nouvel-argument-du-patron-des-chasseurs-pour-esquiver-le-debat">“a drunk guy on a bike is dangerous, too”</a>, apparently forgetting French drink-driving laws <a href="https://www.securite-routiere.gouv.fr/chacun-son-mode-de-deplacement/dangers-de-la-route-velo/bien-circuler-velo">also apply to cyclists</a>.</p>
<p>The French hunting chief’s remark would not hold water in other countries, where representative organisations advise hunters to abstain from alcohol. Absent an EU-wide legislation on the matter, national legislation in states such as <a href="https://gestiberian.com/2017/01/27/sanciones-por-cazar-con-copas/">Spain</a>, <a href="https://www.rtbf.be/article/ouverture-de-la-chasse-quels-sont-les-droits-et-obligations-des-chasseurs-et-des-promeneurs-11076343">Belgium</a> and <a href="https://www.jagdverband.de/vor-und-waehrend-der-jagd-ist-alkohol-tabu">Germany</a> restrict drinking while in possession of a firearm. Or take, for example, the official website of <a href="https://www.hunter-ed.com/newyork/studyGuide/Alcohol-and-Drugs/20103502_138053/">a US agency for hunting education</a>, which states that</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“consuming alcohol before or during the hunt increases the risk of incidents because it impairs coordination, hearing, vision, communication, and judgement”.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>This may seem like common-sense advice, but alcohol is still integral to the world of hunting, both in France and farther afield.</p>
<h2>Hunting while drunk</h2>
<p>In the United States, where the general population consumes <a href="https://donnees.banquemondiale.org/indicateur/SH.ALC.PCAP.LI?locations=US">20% less</a> alcohol than in France, a <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01639625.2019.1631069">recent survey</a> carried out on a representative sample of 2,349 young adults found that 23% of male hunters had at some point hunted while inebriated.</p>
<p>And in France? Although there is an absence of hard data, the Senate report tentatively ventures that a “small minority” of people have hunted while under the influence of alcohol. However, the senators offer more precise statistics regarding deaths and serious accidents in hunting, 9% of which are attributable to a hunter’s state of inebriation.</p>
<p>Unfortunately, the report ignores most international data available on the topic, failing to mention that in the US, <a href="https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/abs/10.2105/AJPH.78.12.158">drunkenness is involved in 15% of hunting accidents</a>. Also overlooked is an extensive Danish study of 1,800 hunters, which revealed the risk of firearm-related accidents <a href="https://journals.lww.com/jtrauma/Abstract/2009/12000/Firearm_Related_Hunting_Accidents_in_Denmark.21.aspx">was directly proportional to the hunters’ alcohol intake</a>.</p>
<p>Moreover, the recent Senate report does not clarify how alcohol significantly raises the risk of accidents. But we have managed to pinpoint three contributing effects of inebriation.</p>
<h2>Locomotion and motor coordination</h2>
<p>A study conducted at a Swiss A&E service showed a third of the hunting-related injuries there resulted from falls – for example, <a href="https://www.hindawi.com/journals/emi/2015/284908/">when shooters tumbled from tree-stands</a>. Alcohol is conducive to this type of incident, particularly by interfering with the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.alcohol.2008.04.004">inner ear and cerebellum</a>, which regulate balance. This has a negative impact on the hunter’s anticipation and motor coordination skills.</p>
<p>Other <a href="https://bmcresnotes.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1756-0500-3-243">research</a> demonstrated that when individuals were instructed to avoid obstacles while walking on a treadmill, their reaction times were significantly longer, even at low levels of alcohol intake.</p>
<h2>Visual and hearing impairment</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.thieme-connect.de/products/ejournals/abstract/10.1055/s-2008-1050922">Alcohol also impairs peripheral vision</a>, thus affecting judgement and accuracy in angles of fire. This is what causes double vision and <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/BF03207543">blurred vision</a>, by disturbing the action of muscles that control visual focus. It enhances <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/415330/">glaring</a>, by slowing down the muscles responsible for opening and closing the pupil in response to surrounding light levels.</p>
<p>Over the long term, <a href="https://theconversation.com/alcool-et-autres-substances-pourquoi-leur-dangerosite-est-elle-sous-estimee-par-les-usagers-159369">high alcohol intake</a> alters <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26465148/">colour perception</a> and promotes the emergence of <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34055263/">chronic diseases</a>, such as <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20443769/">cataracts</a>. It can lead to <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02713683.2021.1942070">age-related macular degeneration</a> (AMD), a condition characterised by <a href="https://theconversation.com/la-degenerescence-maculaire-est-la-premiere-cause-de-cecite-au-pays-comment-la-prevenir-154683">damage to the central region of the retina</a>.</p>
<p>Alcohol even <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33341812/">deteriorates our hearing</a>. In one study, subjects who had consumed alcohol were found to have significantly poorer hearing abilities compared to those who had not.</p>
<h2>Errors of judgement</h2>
<p>Once the extent of alcohol’s effects on sight and hearing are better understood, the range of stories that pop up in local newspapers – such as the man who ended up <a href="https://www.lyonmag.com/article/90723/beaujolais-le-chasseur-ivre-vise-un-lievre-et-tire-sur-son-ami">riddled with buckshot</a> when his hunting companion mistook him for a hare – become less of a surprise.</p>
<p>According to France’s <a href="https://www.ofb.gouv.fr/la-securite-la-chasse">Biodiversity Agency</a> (OFB), hunting accidents are often the result of carelessness and bad judgement. The OFB reminds hunters that, once fired, the projectiles can reach a distance of up to five kilometres (three miles). When a target is far away or moving, how can a hunter guarantee – drunk or sober – that their bullet doesn’t <a href="https://france3-regions.francetvinfo.fr/auvergne-rhone-alpes/haute-savoie/ouverture-du-proces-du-chasseur-accuse-avoir-tue-vetetiste-haute-savoie-1900586.html">hit a mountain biker</a>, a <a href="https://www.20minutes.fr/faits_divers/2338343-20180918-limoges-fillette-grievement-blessee-chasseur-tirait-faisan">ten-year-old girl playing by the river</a> or a <a href="https://www.lavoixdunord.fr/1143614/article/2022-02-22/femme-de-25-ans-tuee-lors-d-un-accident-de-chasse-ce-qu-sait-sur-ce-drame">young hiker</a> ?</p>
<h2>Drinking makes for riskier decision-making</h2>
<p>The choice of whether to pull the trigger or hold fire is dependent on another dimension. According to the Senate report:</p>
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<p>“More than two thirds of accidents result from gross misconduct that contravenes basic safety rules. Moreover, some one hundred incidents per year lead to devastating consequences, whereby shots are fired at vehicles or homes.”</p>
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<p>Assessing risks and perceiving the consequences of our actions are two processes that are <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33065446/">notoriously affected by inebriation</a>.</p>
<p>A 2015 study demonstrated this effect using a straightforward method, which involved presenting two jars filled with cards to bar patrons, aged 18 to 43. The subjects were told that they could earn a prize if they found a winning card. In the jar on the right, 50% of the cards were winners, whereas the probability of winning was not given for the jar on the left. The results showed that the drunk men (but not the women) <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25642202/">more often chose the riskier option</a>. Could this be likened to the scenario of taking a shot in the dark in the hopes of hitting a target?</p>
<h2>A major factor in human aggression</h2>
<p>By directly affecting the prefrontal cortex, alcohol disturbs <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/hup.1194">executive cognitive functions</a>, which are involved in our ability to consider or maintain multiple options simultaneously in order to solve problems, as well as our attention skills, our action inhibition skills, and <a href="https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00051.x">our ability to control aggression</a>. In fact, alcohol is the psychoactive substance most often linked to <a href="https://www.dunod.com/sciences-humaines-et-sociales/drogues-alcool-et-agression-equation-chimique-et-sociale-violence">human aggression on a global scale</a>.</p>
<p>Of course, it’s not alcohol but hunters who have <a href="https://www.ledauphine.com/france-monde/2019/11/17/en-20-ans-les-chasseurs-ont-tue-plus-de-400-personn">shot 400 people dead</a> in the past two decades in France and injured thousands more. (And it should be noted that alcohol is responsible for <a href="https://www.inserm.fr/wp-content/uploads/2021-05/inserm-expertisecollective-alcool2021-synthese.pdf">almost a million deaths</a> in instances not related to hunting).</p>
<p>Given that alcohol has clearly been identified as an avoidable risk factor, however, it seems wise to ban its consumption for those using rifles and shotguns in woodland areas frequented by the public. When consuming alcohol, hunters threaten the lives of others, and their own as well.</p>
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<p><em>Translated from the French by Enda Boorman for <a href="http://www.fastforword.fr/en">Fast ForWord</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/192770/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Laurent Bègue-Shankland has received funding from the Inter-ministerial Mission for the Fight against Drugs and Addictive Behaviour (MILDECA).</span></em></p>A recent French Senate report calling on a ban on alcohol use while hunting has prompted the wrath of the country’s hunting lobby. Do its arguments hold water?Laurent Bègue-Shankland, Addictologue, Professeur de psychologie sociale, membre de l’Institut universitaire de France (IUF), directeur de la MSH Alpes (CNRS/UGA), Université Grenoble Alpes (UGA)Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1925052022-10-26T05:10:40Z2022-10-26T05:10:40ZCrime, COVID and climate change - South African tourism faces many threats, but it’s resilient<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490109/original/file-20221017-18-m33f7e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A family of African elephants walk through the Addo Elephant National Park in South Africa's Eastern Cape Province. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">EPA-EFE/Jon Hrusa</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>South Africa’s tourism industry has been rocked by <a href="https://www.businessinsider.co.za/numbi-gate-kruger-national-park-closure-after-german-tourist-murder-2022-10">the murder of a German visitor</a> during an attempted robbery. The development resulted in negative media publicity, with a potentially adverse impact on the country’s image as a safe tourist destination. This comes at a time when the sector is recovering from the devastating effects of the COVID pandemic. The Conversation Africa’s political editor Thabo Leshilo asked Kaitano Dube, an expert in ecotourism, about tourism’s place in South Africa’s economy</em>.</p>
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<h2>How important is tourism to South Africa’s economy?</h2>
<p>Tourism is critical to South Africa’s socioeconomic development. It provides numerous benefits, including employment and entrepreneurship opportunities and much-needed foreign currency earnings. It also provides funding for conserving the country’s natural heritage in several protected areas. </p>
<p>In 2018, the <a href="https://www.tourism.gov.za/AboutNDT/Documents/Tourism%20Sector%20Recovery%20Plan.pdf">tourism sector directly contributed</a> 2.9% of South Africa’s gross domestic product (GDP) and 725,000 jobs. Its indirect contribution brought the share to 8.6% of GDP and 1.49 million jobs. Foreign visitors directly spent R82.5 billion, equal to 9.2% of national exports – the second most important export sector. Local tourists spent another R9.49 billion. </p>
<h2>How has the sector grown – before and after COVID?</h2>
<p>South Africa’s tourism industry had been growing <a href="https://www.statssa.gov.za/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/Arrivalsdeparturestravellerstravel2006%E2%80%932020.jpg">steadily</a> over the years before the outbreak of COVID in 2019. But the sector is vulnerable to disease outbreaks, economic downturns and other shocks such as climate threats. This was evident during the devastating <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jort.2020.100319">2018 “Day Zero” drought</a> in Cape Town.</p>
<p>There was a dip <a href="https://www.statssa.gov.za/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/Arrivalsdeparturestravellerstravel2006%E2%80%932020.jpg">in 2009</a> due to the <a href="https://www.worldbank.org/en/research/publication/decade-after-global-recession">2008 global financial crisis</a>. Before the COVID pandemic, the tourist arrivals stood at about 5.1 million. They plunged to about 2.4 million in 2020 before sliding further to about 930,000 <a href="https://www.tourism.gov.za/AboutNDT/Documents/NDT%20insights%20report%20September%202022_v1.pdf">in 2021</a>.</p>
<p>Disease outbreaks on the continent also adversely affected the tourism sector around <a href="https://doi.org/10.1108/IHR-05-2020-0015">2015 and in other periods</a> due to the <a href="https://wttc.org/Portals/0/Documents/Reports/2018/Impact%20of%20the%20Ebola%20epidemic%20on%20Travel%20and%20Tourism%202018.pdf?ver=2021-02-25-182521-103#:%7E:text=The%20impact%20of%20Ebola%20on%20Travel%20%26%20Tourism%20was%20immediate%20for,50%25%20from%202013%20to%202014">adverse impacts of Ebola</a> in Guinea, Sierra Leone and Liberia.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jort.2020.100319">2015-2018 drought in Cape Town</a> also slowed tourism growth in the country, because the city is in one of the biggest tourism nodes. </p>
<p>As of the <a href="https://live.southafrica.net/media/298469/sat-performance-report-q2-2022-final-1.pdf?downloadId=412579">second quarter of 2022</a>, the domestic tourism market had recovered by 139% as compared to 2019 base year which translates into 9 million domestic trips. </p>
<h2>What are the main drivers of tourism in South Africa?</h2>
<p>A rich cultural and natural heritage makes the country a must-visit tourist destination. The wildlife in <a href="https://www.sanparks.org/">20 national parks</a> and 10 UNESCO World Heritage <a href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/za">sites</a> ensures that tourists are spoiled for choice. </p>
<p>The coastline is another draw card. And South Africa is a gateway to other African tourist destinations. </p>
<p>Most tourists who come to the country travel for holidays (40%). Others visit friends and relatives (36.9%). Business meetings, incentives, conferences and exhibitions account for about 8% of visitors. </p>
<p>Prior to the COVID pandemic, most African tourists came from Zimbabwe (1,1 million), Lesotho (827 000) and Mozambique (681,530). The <a href="https://www.tourism.gov.za/AboutNDT/Documents/NDT%20insights%20report%20September%202022_v1.pdf">most important international markets</a> outside africa were the US (183,134), Germany (149,531) and the UK (220,830). By the 2nd quarter of 2022 the domestic tourism market revenue grew to R24.4 billion representing a growth of 294.4% compared to 2019, while international market tourism spending went down to R11.1 billion marking a 36.4% decline.</p>
<h2>What are the main threats to tourism and how are these being addressed?</h2>
<p>The tourism sector in South Africa faces multiple threats, but nothing the country cannot handle. As noted earlier, <a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-change-has-already-hit-southern-africa-heres-how-we-know-169062">climate change</a> is an existential threat. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.worldweatherattribution.org/wp-content/uploads/WWA-KZN-floods-scientific-report.pdf">deadly floods in KwaZulu-Natal</a> province in 2022 also damaged the international airport and holiday homes and prolonged beach closures, with far-reaching implications for tourism recovery in the province and the country.</p>
<p>Diseases and pandemics remain a threat. The aftershocks of COVID can be seen in rising inflation, <a href="https://www.imf.org/en/Blogs/Articles/2022/10/11/interest-rate-increases-volatile-markets-signal-rising-financial-stability-risks">high interest rates</a> and the fear of <a href="https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2022/09/15/risk-of-global-recession-in-2023-rises-amid-simultaneous-rate-hikes">global recession</a>. These threaten the sustainability of tourism in South Africa.</p>
<p>The political and social instability in the country, as seen in frequent mass protests and xenophobia, threaten the flow of African tourists. There is a <a href="https://www.tourism.gov.za/AboutNDT/Documents/NDT%20insights%20report%20September%202022_v1.pdf">clear decline in arrivals</a> from countries such as Zimbabwe and Lesotho, which have been the targets of anti-immigrant rhetoric by some politicians.</p>
<p>Such hate campaigns against African countries threaten South Africa’s attraction as a destination for tourists from such places. Other negatives include the instability caused by infighting within the governing African National Congress – which resulted in the deadly <a href="https://www.businesslive.co.za/bd/national/2022-02-07-anc-infighting-a-threat-to-sa-security-panel-finds/">July 2021 riots</a>. This taints the country’s image and brand.</p>
<p>Other critical challengers include the knock-on effects of the Ukraine-Russia war. It has created uncertainties that have harmed the global tourism market, with implications for South African tourism. These can be worsened and compounded by internal challenges such as energy security.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/south-africas-economy-has-taken-some-heavy-body-blows-can-it-recover-183165">South Africa's economy has taken some heavy body blows: can it recover?</a>
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<p>The South African tourism market is quite resilient, but the issue of tourists’ security warrants attention. The country is generally perceived as a risky destination due to <a href="https://www.gov.za/speeches/minister-bheki-cele-quarter-one-crime-statistics-20222023-19-aug-2022-0000#:%7E:text=From%20April%20to%20June%202022,and%20children%20who%20escaped%20death.">high crime levels</a>. </p>
<p>Other concerns pertain to air connectivity after several airlines went under due to <a href="https://doi.org/10.46222/ajhtl.19770720-99">mismanagement and the COVID pandemic</a>. Some local airlines were placed under administration or went insolvent – including <a href="https://businesstech.co.za/news/business/625510/goodbye-sa-express-final-liquidation-order-granted/">SA Express</a> and <a href="https://www.businesslive.co.za/bd/national/2022-06-14-comair-flies-into-liquidation-with-assets-of-r35bn/">Comair</a>. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/airline-tie-up-for-kenya-and-south-africa-possible-rewards-and-risks-174628">Airline tie-up for Kenya and South Africa: possible rewards, and risks</a>
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<p>Mango, a subsidiary of South African Airways, is still battling to return to the skies <a href="https://businesstech.co.za/news/business/625562/as-sa-express-is-grounded-for-good-eyes-turn-to-another-troubled-airline/">after a severe cash burn</a>. </p>
<p>It is not clear what impact new airlines such as <a href="https://www.lift.co.za/?gclid=CjwKCAjw-rOaBhA9EiwAUkLV4oaSNilMKYnxLLSK0IX4N2Ldx5gUDM_i3qiwlrdLTmKiHZIy9MppXhoCFDsQAvD_BwE">Lift</a>, and the expansion of airlines such as <a href="https://www.flyairlink.com/en/za/?gclid=CjwKCAjw-rOaBhA9EiwAUkLV4qhSZ9YbFR671kUiWTj4iNJMU8Y0MNKhighjsEKYPiU9ap9h6h0WyRoCFCAQAvD_BwE">Airlink</a>, <a href="https://www.flysafair.co.za/">FlySAfair</a> and <a href="https://www.flycemair.co.za/?gclid=CjwKCAjw-rOaBhA9EiwAUkLV4tT7e8IMcrBBtwqJIbxCCjgajAYfvLKr3cv5nn5ivoe548MU2eY6xBoCOFUQAvD_BwE">Cemair</a> will have on tourist movements across the country.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/192505/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kaitano Dube receives funding from the Vaal University of Technology and the National Research Foundation (NRF). </span></em></p>Political and social instability in the country, as seen in frequent mass protests and xenophobia, threaten the flow of African tourists.Kaitano Dube, Ecotourism Management Lecturer, Vaal University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1888622022-08-17T13:54:17Z2022-08-17T13:54:17ZWhy it’s not safe to shower during a thunderstorm<p>The Met Office has issued several “yellow thunderstorm warnings” for the UK, highlighting the <a href="https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/about-us/press-office/news/weather-and-climate/2022/days-of-thunder-ahead-for-some">potential for frequent lightning</a>. While your chance of getting struck by lightning is low, it’s important to know how to stay safe during a thunderstorm. Globally, about 24,000 people each year are <a href="https://www.vaisala.com/sites/default/files/documents/Annual_rates_of_lightning_fatalities_by_country.pdf">killed by lightning</a> and another 240,000 are injured.</p>
<p>Most people are familiar with basic thunderstorm safety, such as avoiding standing under trees or near a window, and not speaking on a corded phone (mobile phones are safe). But did you know you should avoid taking a shower, a bath or washing the dishes during a thunderstorm?</p>
<p>To understand why, you first need to know a bit about how thunderstorms and lightning work.</p>
<p>Two basic elements cause a thunderstorm to thrive: moisture and rising warm air, which of course go hand in hand with summertime. The high temperatures and humidity create large amounts of moist air that rises into the atmosphere, where it can form into a thunderstorm.</p>
<p>Clouds contain millions of water and ice droplets and the interaction of these is what leads to <a href="https://www.weather.gov/safety/lightning-science-electrification">lightning generation</a>. The rising water drops collide with the falling ice drops, passing them a negative charge and leaving themselves with a positive charge. In a thunderstorm, clouds act as enormous Van de Graaff generators, separating the positive and negative charges to create massive charge separations inside the clouds.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/laDmuQFmK3Y?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">How a Van de Graaff generator works.</span></figcaption>
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<p>As thunderclouds move over the Earth, they generate an opposite charge in the ground, and this is what attracts a lighting strike towards the ground. The thunderstorm wants to balance its charges, and it does this by discharging between positive and negative regions. The path of this discharge is usually the one of least resistance, so things that are more conductive (like metal) are more likely to be struck during a storm. </p>
<p>The most useful advice for a thunderstorm is: when thunder roars, go indoors. However, this does not mean you are completely safe from the storm. There are some activities inside that can be almost as risky as staying outside in the storm. </p>
<h2>Path of least resistance</h2>
<p>Unless you’re sitting in a bath outside or showering in the rain, you’re incredibly unlikely to be struck by lightning. But if lightning strikes your house, the electricity would follow the path of least resistance to the ground. Things such as metal wires or water in your pipes provide a convenient conductive path for the electricity to follow to the ground. </p>
<p>The shower provides both of those things (water and metal), making it an ideal path for the electricity to take. It could turn that nice relaxing shower into something much less relaxing. The US <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/disasters/lightning/safetytips.html#:%7E:text=Stay%20away%20from%20open%20spaces,strike%20the%20tallest%20object%20around.">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a> strongly encourage people to avoid all water-based activities during a thunderstorm – even the washing up – to reduce your risk of a strike. </p>
<p>There are other risks to look out for during a thunderstorm. One that may not seem obvious is leaning on a concrete wall. While concrete itself isn’t that conductive, if it has been reinforced with metal beams (called “rebar”), these can provide a conductive path for the lightning. Also avoid using anything plugged into an electrical outlet (computers, TVs, washing machines, dishwashers) as all of these can provide pathways for the lightning strike to take. </p>
<p>As a rule of thumb, if you can hear thunder in the distance, then you’re close enough to the storm to have lightning reach you, even if there is no rain. Lightning strikes can happen as far as ten miles away from the parent storm. Typically, half an hour after hearing that final thunderclap is a safe time to venture back into the shower. Thunderstorms usually like to save a big one for the end, and you don’t want to end up part of the fireworks!</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/188862/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>James Rawlings does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Lightning kills 24,000 people each year. Here’s how to stay safe during an electrical storm.James Rawlings, Physics Lecturer, Nottingham Trent UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1881622022-08-17T01:48:55Z2022-08-17T01:48:55ZWomen running in cities made for men: ending abuse and violence is a marathon effort<p>For events like the upcoming <a href="https://melbournemarathon.com.au">Nike Melbourne Marathon Festival</a>, thousands of people need to put in many weeks of training to prepare themselves. Yet for many female runners, the feeling of liberation that running can bring is marred by the ever-present threat of street harassment and violence.</p>
<p>As sociologist Fiona Vera Grey has <a href="https://policypress.wordpress.com/2018/01/15/why-does-public-sexual-harassment-matter/">observed</a>:</p>
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<p>“Women and girls are routinely having to evaluate what the right amount of panic is, to direct their movements and actions in public spaces.” </p>
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<p>The threat of harm deters some women from running in public. They know they are <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/crime-and-justice/personal-safety-australia/latest-release">likely to be harassed</a> if they do.</p>
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<p><a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/15248380211021608">Research</a> shows sexual abuse is the most common form of street harassment. It includes a long <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/15248380211021608">list of offensive behaviours</a>: “catcalling, kissing noises, horn honking, staring or leering, following someone, unwanted conversation (for example, repeated requests for a date or phone number), sexualised gestures, frottage [rubbing against another person in a crowd for sexual gratification], unwanted touching, indecent exposure, and public masturbation”.</p>
<p>These harms are overwhelmingly perpetrated by men against women. In Australia, the <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/crime-and-justice/personal-safety-australia/latest-release">Personal Safety Survey</a> found one in two women (53%) had experienced sexual harassment during their lifetime. That’s more than twice the rate for men (25%). </p>
<p>Women also face real threats to their safety in public spaces from current or former partners. One in six women (17%) – compared to one in 15 men (7%) – have been stalked since the age of 15. And 75% of them were stalked by someone they knew.</p>
<p>The harms can be physical, but they also have emotional, psychological and financial consequences – including the costs of missing work to support health and wellbeing. Globally, the public, private and social cost of violence against women has been <a href="https://www.care-international.org/files/files/Counting_the_costofViolence.pdf">estimated at US$1.5 trillion</a>.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-does-the-new-normal-look-like-for-womens-safety-in-cities-140169">What does the 'new normal’ look like for women’s safety in cities?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Why aren’t public spaces safe for women?</h2>
<p>Women are participating in running in <a href="https://www.athletics.com.au/news/running-event-participation-in-australia-leading-the-pack/">record numbers</a> in Australia. As with many sport and recreational activities, they commonly use public spaces for running. However, several barriers hinder women’s ability to run safely, including:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>traditional gendered stereotypes that characterise women’s activities as within the household, including expectations that they are nurturing, child-rearing and “weaker” than men, implying physical inferiority</p></li>
<li><p>men <a href="https://thebigsmoke.com.au/2020/06/01/in-cities-designed-by-men-public-spaces-are-anything-but/">designed</a> and <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/07352166.2016.1255526">built</a> many public spaces, which has implications for how women use public spaces</p></li>
<li><p>a lack of investment in science supporting female athletes has limited understandings of women’s physiology and performance</p></li>
<li><p>sports marketing strategies have historically prioritised men over women, meaning social constructions and understandings of running tend to centre on male athletes</p></li>
<li><p>there has been a lack of <a href="https://www.womenssportsfoundation.org/advocacy_category/title-ix/">funding and educational opportunities</a> supporting women in sport.</p></li>
</ul>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two women on a training run through a park" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477929/original/file-20220806-47808-rohu21.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477929/original/file-20220806-47808-rohu21.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=899&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477929/original/file-20220806-47808-rohu21.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=899&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477929/original/file-20220806-47808-rohu21.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=899&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477929/original/file-20220806-47808-rohu21.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477929/original/file-20220806-47808-rohu21.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477929/original/file-20220806-47808-rohu21.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Many factors make running in public spaces less safe for women than it should be.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Photo by Rene Mitchell-Pitman</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/more-lighting-alone-does-not-create-safer-cities-look-at-what-research-with-young-women-tells-us-113359">More lighting alone does not create safer cities. Look at what research with young women tells us</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>In 1967, <a href="https://www.runnersworld.com/uk/training/motivation/a773110/qa-kathrine-switzer/">Katherine Switzer</a> laced up as the first woman to run the Boston Marathon at a time when women were not allowed to compete. Even her coach had resisted the idea, claiming “<a href="https://kathrineswitzer.com/1967-boston-marathon-the-real-story/">the distance was too long for fragile women to run</a>”. </p>
<p>Since then, the rise of women’s movements has advanced their participation in the public realm generally, but women are still not truly empowered to occupy and run in public spaces.</p>
<h2>We are all responsible for making public places safe</h2>
<p>Many suggest “strategies” that put the onus of responsibility for women’s safety entirely on them.</p>
<p>Too often, women are encouraged to protect themselves by:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>not wearing headphones</p></li>
<li><p>not running in the dark, in unfamiliar places or unaccompanied</p></li>
<li><p>taking their phone or having location services turned on.</p></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/mobile-apps-might-make-you-feel-better-about-travelling-alone-but-they-wont-necessarily-make-you-safer-104013">Mobile apps might make you feel better about travelling alone, but they won't necessarily make you safer</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The same precautions are not required of men. In this sense, <a href="https://www.open.edu/openlearn/history-the-arts/simone-de-beauvoir-and-the-feminist-revolution/content-section-2.1">Simone’s de Beauvoir’s 1949 saying</a> holds true: “Humanity is male and man defines woman not in herself, but as relative to him; she is not regarded as an autonomous being.”</p>
<p>Everyone has a role to play in calling out and putting an end to sinister or suspicious behaviours when a woman’s safety is, or may be, compromised. More specifically, it is important that men feel a responsibility to call out harassment and use their platform as beneficiaries of male privilege to make women feel safe and included. For example, they could ask a woman to join a group run if they know she may be running alone.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478868/original/file-20220812-23468-d6w1rl.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478868/original/file-20220812-23468-d6w1rl.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478868/original/file-20220812-23468-d6w1rl.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478868/original/file-20220812-23468-d6w1rl.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478868/original/file-20220812-23468-d6w1rl.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478868/original/file-20220812-23468-d6w1rl.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478868/original/file-20220812-23468-d6w1rl.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478868/original/file-20220812-23468-d6w1rl.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An inclusive running community helps make running in public places safer. The Hunter Athletics and Recreation community is an example of this.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Photo: Mary Iliadis</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Local running communities can likewise encourage women’s participation and enhance feelings of safety. In Melbourne, for instance, the <a href="https://www.femmi.co">FEMMI</a> community brings together recreational female runners on a weekly basis to foster an inclusive and safe environment. Other Melbourne running groups such as <a href="https://www.hunterathletics.com">Hunter Athletics and Recreation</a>, <a href="https://runningcrews.com/crews/ampmrc/">AM:PM.RC</a> and <a href="https://upthereathletics.com/blogs/news/the-shop-run">UpThere Athletics</a>] also offer weekly group runs.</p>
<p>State and local governments also have a responsibility to better integrate women’s voices in the design and planning of public spaces to ensure they are safe and functional for everyone. More targeted community engagement will help achieve this. </p>
<p>Ultimately, a collective onus of responsibility is needed to encourage women’s safe participation in running.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/sexism-and-the-city-how-urban-planning-has-failed-women-93854">Sexism and the city: how urban planning has failed women</a>
</strong>
</em>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/188162/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The author acknowledges the contributions of Bianca Elencevski and Jacinta Cox.</span></em></p>For many female runners, the feeling of liberation that running can bring is marred by the ever-present threat of street harassment and violence. It’s a major obstacle to running participation.Mary Iliadis, Senior Lecturer in Criminology, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1871822022-07-18T13:49:33Z2022-07-18T13:49:33ZMass shootings in South Africa are often over group turf: how to stop the cycle of reprisals<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474584/original/file-20220718-72671-c54j9t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">South African police minister, Bheki Cele, centre, at the scene of the tavern shooting that claimed 16 lives in Soweto. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">EFE-EPA/Kim Ludbrook</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>In just two days in early July 2022, 25 people were shot dead in four separate incidents at taverns across South Africa. In one of these shootings, in <a href="https://www.sowetanlive.co.za/news/south-africa/2022-07-13-police-have-footage-of-soweto-tavern-shooting-mazibuko-says/">Soweto</a>, 16 people lost their lives. </p>
<p>The killings made <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2022/07/10/africa/soweto-south-africa-shooting-intl/index.html">international headlines</a> and were shocking even in South Africa, a society with one of the highest <a href="https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/VC.IHR.PSRC.P5?locations=ZA">murder rates</a> in the world.</p>
<p>There has been intense speculation about the motives behind the killings in the absence of reliable evidence that explains why the multiple murders took place. </p>
<p>To provide some insights into the possible reasons, I reflect on some of the research about mass shootings in South Africa with a view to recommending violence prevention interventions. </p>
<p>South African police <a href="https://ewn.co.za/2022/05/16/wc-has-seen-more-than-400-mass-shootings-between-june-2019-and-december-2021">classify</a> a mass shooting as an incident in which three or more people are shot with a firearm. Available evidence indicates that mass shootings in South Africa are mostly perpetrated by organised criminal groups, such as gangs, with motives often linked to competition over territory and resources. And that shooting incidents have a tendency to result in reprisal attacks.</p>
<p>Based on my insights gained over decades of <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Guy-Lamb-3">researching violence in South Africa</a>, my view is that the police will need to prioritise the confiscation of illegal firearms and improve the functioning of crime intelligence to reduce the occurrence of mass shootings.</p>
<h2>Patterns of crime</h2>
<p>Mass shootings have been taking place in South Africa for decades. Incidents were prominent during the 1990s, especially in the province of <a href="https://www.accord.org.za/ajcr-issues/voting-and-violence-in-kwazulu-natals-no-go-areas/">KwaZulu-Natal</a> as a result of tensions between supporters of the African National Congress and the Inkatha Freedom Party. Over the past three decades conflicts between <a href="http://www.csvr.org.za/docs/taxiviolence/fromlowintensity.pdf">minibus taxi associations</a> and between <a href="https://issafrica.org/research/books/organised-crime-a-study-from-the-cape-flats">criminal gangs</a> (especially in the Western Cape province) have frequently been characterised by mass shootings.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.saps.gov.za/services/crimestats.php">Quarterly crime data</a> indicate that incidents involving multiple murder victims have increased substantially over the past year. </p>
<p>Most murder cases involve the use of a firearm in which a single perpetrator murders a single victim. Nonetheless, multiple murders are perpetrated on a regular basis. For example, the <a href="https://www.saps.gov.za/services/april_to_march_2019_20_presentation.pdf">2019/20 crime data</a> indicated that there were 508 murder cases where two or more people were slain simultaneously. A total of 1,133 people died in the incidents. This represented 5% of murders for 2019/20. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/plasma-gangs-how-south-africans-fears-about-crime-created-an-urban-legend-185544">Plasma gangs: how South Africans' fears about crime created an urban legend</a>
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</p>
<hr>
<p>No data for multiple murder cases was provided for 2020/21. But <a href="https://www.saps.gov.za/services/crimestats.php">quarterly crime data</a> for 2021/22 showed a significant increase in such murders. For the six-month period between 1 October 2021 and 31 March 2022, there were 416 multiple murder cases involving 953 victims. This equated to 9% of murders for this period.</p>
<p>Historically, most mass shootings in South Africa have been associated with three main things: gang conflicts, rivalries in the minibus taxi sector and factional or inter-group feuds (mainly in KwaZulu-Natal). These forms of collective violence have ultimately emerged from efforts to control certain spaces and resources.</p>
<p>Criminal gangs operate in most major cities in South Africa, especially in Cape Town and Gqeberha, in the Eastern Cape, where much of the <a href="https://www.sacities.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Web_SACN-State-of-Urban-Safety-2018-19-1204-1.pdf">violent crime</a> has been attributed to gang activity. <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/13/world/africa/cape-town-crime-military.html">Gang conflicts</a> have traditionally revolved around gangs seeking to dominate poorer urban neighbourhoods to facilitate and benefit from the trade in illegal goods, especially drugs. </p>
<p>Violence in the <a href="http://www.csvr.org.za/docs/taxiviolence/fromlowintensity.pdf">minibus taxi industry</a> has often arisen from conflicts between taxi organisations over access to transport routes and taxi ranks. Another driver has been the perceived competition from other public transport service providers, such as <a href="https://www.news24.com/fin24/companies/amabhungane-taxi-mafia-blamed-for-deadly-attacks-on-long-distance-buses-20220608-2">bus companies</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.newframe.com/going-back-to-the-future-of-kwazulu-natal-politics/">Factional disputes</a>, which have frequently been linked to party politics, have often been related to access to and control over territory.</p>
<p>Mass shootings have at times been the outcome of conflicts between vigilantes and gangsters (or those regarded as criminals by vigilante groups) over control over specific communities. This has been an ongoing problem in Philippi East in the Western Cape. For example in September 2017, <a href="https://mg.co.za/article/2017-10-03-patrollers-in-marikana-philippi-east-live-in-fear-after-mass-shooting/">11 people</a> were fatally shot in one evening at the <a href="https://www.groundup.org.za/article/marikana-informal-settlement-erupts-protests/">Marikana informal settlement</a> in fighting between gangsters and other residents. </p>
<p>Vigilantes in <a href="https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-07-28-phoenix-massacre-what-really-happened-in-the-deadly-collision-of-brutalised-communities/">Phoenix</a> were also responsible for mass shootings during the July 2021 unrest in KwaZulu-Natal.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/crime-statistics-show-south-africas-lockdown-crime-holiday-is-over-166785">Crime statistics show South Africa's lockdown 'crime holiday' is over</a>
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</em>
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<hr>
<p>Mass shootings have also been associated with the illegal gold mining sector, due to conflicts between <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2018/5/1/illicit-gold-trade-fuels-conflict-in-south-african-mining-town">competing groups of miners</a> (or “zama zamas”) and between zama zamas and law enforcement or private security personnel. For instance, eight illegal miners died in a shootout with police at a mine in Orkney in <a href="https://www.news24.com/citypress/news/six-killed-as-police-exchange-fire-with-zama-zamas-in-north-west-20211007">October 2021</a>. And in <a href="https://ewn.co.za/2018/01/15/police-suspect-gang-rivalry-after-7-men-found-dead-at-benoni-mine-shaft">January 2018</a>, seven died in a shootout between different groups of miners.</p>
<p>Since 2017, mass shootings, particularly in <a href="https://globalinitiative.net/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/Lifting-the-veil-on-extortion-in-Cape-Town-GITOC.pdf">Khayelitsha</a> in the Western Cape, have increasingly been attributed to extortion efforts by gangs. Acts of mass firearm violence have been used to terrorise township businesses and residents into paying “protection” fees. </p>
<p>Such violent organised criminality appears to have become more prevalent. <a href="https://www.news24.com/news24/southafrica/news/tavern-shootings-extortion-among-possible-motives-say-experts-20220711">Extortion</a> efforts might be the cause of the recent tavern shootings in Soweto and Pietermaritzburg. </p>
<p>Turf battles between extortion gangs have also tended to result in mass shootings between these groups.</p>
<p>All these forms of collective violence appear to have become self-perpetuating. Mass shootings have tended to ignite <a href="https://www.iol.co.za/news/bodies-pile-up-as-cape-towns-hard-livings-gang-goes-to-war-in-durban-a97c039f-f0a8-4e60-8364-f266baa0c74e">retaliatory attacks</a>, which in turn have led to further violent reprisals. This has contributed to norms and beliefs that prioritise the use of violence to manage inter-group conflicts becoming more entrenched in crime-affected communities. </p>
<p>On top of this, COVID and the war in Ukraine have had serious implications for the <a href="https://theconversation.com/south-africas-economy-has-taken-some-heavy-body-blows-can-it-recover-183165">legal economy</a> as well as the illegal economy. Organised criminal groups have been feeling the <a href="https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-11-03-gugulethu-massacre-gang-sends-out-grim-video-message-warning-of-more-carnage/">economic pinch</a>. Hence <a href="https://www.news24.com/news24/southafrica/news/extortion-rackets-likely-behind-spate-of-mass-shootings-in-cape-town-20220513">competition</a> between groups, especially between street gangs and groups specialising in extortion, appears to have become more acute and more violent.</p>
<h2>Way forward</h2>
<p>The South African government has two options to reduce mass shootings. Both will require monumental policing efforts. </p>
<p>The first entails the establishment of <a href="https://hub.jhu.edu/2018/01/11/how-to-reduce-gun-violence-in-baltimore-city/">targeted police operations</a> that focus on the confiscation of illegal firearms and ammunition where the risk of mass shootings is the highest, such as Khayelitsha and Delft in the Western Cape and Soweto in Gauteng. This is critically important as the upturn in violent crime appears to be linked to the widespread availability of illegal firearms. These are the <a href="http://www.policesecretariat.gov.za/downloads/reports/CSPS-WSG_Firearms_Report.pdf">most common weapon</a> used to commit murder, attempted murder and robberies with aggravating circumstances in the country.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-turn-the-tide-against-south-africas-crime-wave-131839">How to turn the tide against South Africa's crime wave</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>This would need to be linked to a process of tightening the <a href="https://www.saferspaces.org.za/understand/entry/gun-violence">firearm law</a> to reduce the diversion of firearms into criminal hands. More than 5,000 licensed firearms are lost or stolen each year.</p>
<p>The second option necessitates considerable <a href="https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/role-intelligence-combating-organised-crime">intelligence gathering</a>. The police service’s crime intelligence arm needs to be able to identify and monitor the activities of groups responsible for mass shootings to secure arrests and convictions in court.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/187182/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Guy Lamb receives funding from the Peace Research Institute, Oslo. He also serves as a Commissioner on South Africa's National Planning Commission where he chairs the Commission's Justice, Crime Prevention and Security Task Team.</span></em></p>Historically, most mass shootings in South Africa have been associated with three main things: gang conflicts, rivalries in the minibus taxi sector and factional or inter-group feuds.Guy Lamb, Criminologist / Lecturer, Stellenbosch UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1851262022-06-15T07:07:57Z2022-06-15T07:07:57ZBunnings, Kmart and The Good Guys say they use facial recognition for ‘loss prevention’. An expert explains what it might mean for you<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/468915/original/file-20220615-14-ex57sp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=348%2C128%2C4215%2C2524&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption"></span> <span class="attribution"><a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Once the purview of law enforcement and intelligence agencies, facial recognition is now being used to identify consumers in Australian stores. </p>
<p>If you’ve seen the movie Minority Report, you’ll remember how Tom Cruise’s character John Anderton is identified through iris recognition to perform his duties, and later tracked with it when he’s a wanted man. When he replaces his eyes to evade identification, Anderton is bombarded with advertisements targeting his new assumed identity.</p>
<p>This once-futuristic idea from a movie could soon be a reality in our lives. An investigative report published by consumer magazine <a href="https://www.choice.com.au/consumers-and-data/data-collection-and-use/how-your-data-is-used/articles/kmart-bunnings-and-the-good-guys-using-facial-recognition-technology-in-store">Choice</a> reveals three major retailers (out of 25 queried), Kmart, Bunnings and The Good Guys, have admitted using facial recognition technology on customers for “loss prevention”. </p>
<p>The companies say they advise consumers of the use of the technology as a condition of entry. But do consumers really know what this entails, and how or where their images could be used or stored?</p>
<h2>What is facial recognition and why do we care?</h2>
<p>We’ve grown accustomed to our phones and cameras using facial detection software to put our faces into focus. But facial <em>recognition</em> technology takes this a step further by matching our unique identifying information to a stored digital image.</p>
<p>Facial recognition has come a long way. It was initially used in 2001 to identify relationships between gamblers and employees in Las Vegas casinos, where there was suspected collusion. </p>
<p>The United States government would eventually use <a href="https://www.infoworld.com/article/2628017/innovation-that-matters--jeff-jonas-connects-the-invisible-dots.html">the same</a> technology to <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/140505-jeff-jonas-big-data-gambling-computers-technology-ibm">identify the 9/11 hijackers</a>. It’s now widely adopted by law enforcement and intelligence communities.</p>
<p>Currently, software such as Clearview AI and PimEyes are being used in highly sophisticated ways, including by Ukrainian and Russian forces to <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2022/04/15/ukraine-facial-recognition-warfare/">identify combatants in Ukraine</a>. </p>
<h2>But what is this technology doing in Bunnings?</h2>
<p>As with its early use in casinos, Kmart, Bunnings and The Good Guys told Choice their facial recognition software is used for “loss prevention”.</p>
<p>Images captured on store surveillance devices and body cameras could be used to identify in-store individuals engaged in theft, or other criminal activities. Real-time identification could allow law enforcement to quickly identify shoppers with unpaid tickets, outstanding warrants, or existing criminal complaints.</p>
<p>Bunnings chief operating officer Simon McDowell told SBS News the technology was used “solely to keep team and customers safe and prevent unlawful activity in our stores”. Both The Good Guys and Kmart told <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2022/jun/15/bunnings-kmart-and-the-good-guys-using-facial-recognition-technology-to-crack-down-on-theft-choice-says">news outlets</a> they were using it for the same reasons, in a select number of stores – and that customers were notified through signage. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/468933/original/file-20220615-25-71yxl3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/468933/original/file-20220615-25-71yxl3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/468933/original/file-20220615-25-71yxl3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=354&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468933/original/file-20220615-25-71yxl3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=354&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468933/original/file-20220615-25-71yxl3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=354&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468933/original/file-20220615-25-71yxl3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=445&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468933/original/file-20220615-25-71yxl3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=445&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468933/original/file-20220615-25-71yxl3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=445&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Choice supplied this photo of a sign, which it said was taken at a Kmart in Marrickville, NSW.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">CHOICE</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Choice confirmed there were some signs disclosing use of the technology – but reported these signs were small and would be missed by most shoppers. </p>
<p>The news has stoked shoppers’ fears of how their image data may be used. As in Minority Report, images captured in a store could theoretically be used for targeted advertising and to “enhance” <a href="https://www.wired.com/2011/11/malls-track-phone-signals/">the shopping experience</a>.</p>
<p>It’s likely images and video collected through standard in-store surveillance are either matched immediately against a remote database using specialised facial recognition software, or analysed against a database of tagged and catalogued images later on. Ideally, the images would be encoded and stored in a file that’s readable only by the algorithm specific to the device or software processor.</p>
<h2>Potential for misuse</h2>
<p>We have already seen online retailers use this tactic through <a href="https://theconversation.com/googles-scrapping-third-party-cookies-but-invasive-targeted-advertising-will-live-on-156530">cookies</a> and linking our purchase history on <a href="https://theconversation.com/smartphone-data-tracking-is-more-than-creepy-heres-why-you-should-be-worried-91110">electronic devices</a>. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/is-your-phone-really-listening-to-your-conversations-well-turns-out-it-doesnt-have-to-162172">Is your phone really listening to your conversations? Well, turns out it doesn't have to</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>We have also seen companies correlate our social media profiles and our other online experiences across various websites. Australian stores employing facial recognition could use collected information internally to track:</p>
<ul>
<li>the number of visits by a person</li>
<li>the times of those visits</li>
<li>pattern or behavioural analysis (such as a consumer’s reaction to pricing or signage) and</li>
<li>associations with other shoppers (such as friends, family and anyone else with them). </li>
</ul>
<p>Retailers could also use this identity data to extract information from social media, where most people have images of themselves uploaded. They could then perform risk analysis based on the credit and financial reporting access of that specific shopper. </p>
<p>Externally, the images and associated consumer information could be merged with financial, economic, social and political data already collected by commercial data aggregators – adding to the already massive data aggregation market.</p>
<p>Current Australian privacy laws require retailers to disclose what data are being collected, retained and protected, as well as how it might be used outside of a loss prevention model.</p>
<p>A Bunnings spokesperson told The Guardian the technology was being used in line with the Australian Privacy Act. Choice has reached out to the Office of the Australian Information Commissioner to determine whether the use of the technology is indeed consistent with the Privacy Act.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/shadow-profiles-facebook-knows-about-you-even-if-youre-not-on-facebook-94804">Shadow profiles - Facebook knows about you, even if you're not on Facebook</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What to do?</h2>
<p>While the retailers highlighted in Choice’s investigation state consumers must agree to the collection of their images as a condition of entry, the reality is the collection, retention, and use of their images are not usually disclosed in any explicit way. </p>
<p>As far as data collection in retail settings goes, there should be a precondition for all stores to make sure consumers are made aware of:</p>
<ul>
<li>the specific information that is collected while they are visiting</li>
<li>how it might be aggregated and combined with other relevant information from third parties</li>
<li>how long the images or data will be retained, retrieved, or accessed and by whom, and </li>
<li>what security precautions are being used to secure the data.</li>
</ul>
<p>Furthermore, as with their online shopping experience, consumers should be given the option to opt-out of such data collection. </p>
<p>Until then, consumers may try to avoid collection by donning hats, sunglasses and face masks. But considering the rate at which facial recognition technology is advancing – and how large the personal data market has already grown – retail cameras may soon be able to see through these disguises, too.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/185126/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dennis B Desmond previously received funding from the United States Department of Defense.</span></em></p>Australia’s consumer advocacy group Choice identified three Australian retailers who use facial recognition to identify consumers. What are the privacy concerns?Dennis B. Desmond, Lecturer, Cyberintelligence and Cybercrime Investigations, University of the Sunshine CoastLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1764422022-03-24T12:16:02Z2022-03-24T12:16:02ZVaccine hesitancy is complicating physicians’ obligation to respect patient autonomy during the COVID-19 pandemic<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/453633/original/file-20220322-14897-1yu4lto.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C91%2C5112%2C3311&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Over the past couple of decades there has been a shift away from upholding patient autonomy to prioritizing public health.
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/chinese-doctor-talking-to-woman-royalty-free-image/98818405?adppopup=true">Terry Vine/DigitalVision via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Sitting barely 6 feet away from me, my patient yelled angrily, his face mask slipping to his upper lip: “No, I will not get vaccinated. And nothing you do or say will change that fact.” He provided no reason for why he was so opposed to the COVID-19 vaccine.</p>
<p>As a primary care resident physician working in an underserved area of Reading, Pennsylvania, I have seen patients of all age groups refusing to follow COVID-19 guidelines such as wearing a mask, social distancing or getting the vaccine.</p>
<p>Exposure in health care settings has accounted for a large number of infections. Early on in the pandemic, health care workers and their household members accounted for <a href="https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.m3582">1 in 6 patients ages 18 to 65 admitted to the hospital with COVID-19</a>. Vaccines reduced that risk considerably, and by August 2021, <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.15585%2Fmmwr.mm7034e4">the risk of infection to health care workers had been cut by two-thirds</a>. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, <a href="https://covid.cdc.gov/covid-data-tracker/">less than 70% of the vaccine-eligible U.S. population is fully vaccinated, not accounting for the booster</a>, although these numbers are changing.</p>
<p>When a patient refuses to get the vaccine, a health care worker usually gets involved to counsel that patient. This may take a considerable amount of time, and unfortunately, the results may not always be favorable. Many in the medical community believe that the onus is on the patient to get vaccinated, and if they do not do so, they should be seen as culpable for contracting COVID-19. One such example is the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/bioe.13020">case being made to give lower priority for organ transplants to those willfully unvaccinated</a>.</p>
<p>As new variants of COVID-19 emerge and pose threats to everyone’s health, doctors are struggling with their obligation to “do no harm” and their obligation to respect patient autonomy. Some wonder whether the two might even conflict with each other. </p>
<h2>‘Do no harm’</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A young woman getting a vaccine shot on her upper arm." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/453652/original/file-20220322-15-g9l43f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/453652/original/file-20220322-15-g9l43f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453652/original/file-20220322-15-g9l43f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453652/original/file-20220322-15-g9l43f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453652/original/file-20220322-15-g9l43f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453652/original/file-20220322-15-g9l43f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453652/original/file-20220322-15-g9l43f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Doctors are concerned that unvaccinated people might pose a risk to others.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/young-woman-getting-vaccinated-royalty-free-image/1310458105?adppopup=true">Andriy Onufriyenko/Moment via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>People who refuse to get vaccinated put the lives of doctors and nurses at risk. <a href="https://www.chop.edu/news/feature-article-if-vaccines-work-why-do-unvaccinated-people-pose-risk">They also negatively affect the outcomes of other patients</a>. Whether or not this is done with malicious intent, this refusal is a disregard for human lives. As much as physicians are directed to “do no harm” to the patient, they must also “do no harm” to everyone else.</p>
<p>Physicians respect the patient’s right to refuse treatment for their own illness, but may find it difficult to respect the patient’s right to refuse treatment for a contagious disease that can affect everyone else.</p>
<p>Ethical theories may help provide an understanding of the physician’s duties.</p>
<p>German philosopher Immanuel Kant developed the concept of <a href="https://doi.org/10.3399%2Fbjgp13X665422">an absolute, universal reason to act from duty</a>. In this theory, it would appear that educating patients to get vaccinated is not just something physicians have the option to do, but something they have a moral duty to do.</p>
<p>While doctors cannot force the patient to get vaccinated out of respect for the patient’s ability to make informed decisions, doctors have a duty to educate their patients on COVID-19, the vaccine and the importance of protecting other patients and the general public.</p>
<h2>Autonomy of patients</h2>
<p>This also raises an important issue of patient autonomy. Autonomy is one of the pillars of bioethics, and it is the notion that the patient has the ultimate decision-making power. There is no denying that a patient’s decision-making responsibility is important. After all, patients want the best for themselves, and respecting their decisions is respecting their well-being. </p>
<p>[<em>3 media outlets, 1 religion newsletter.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/this-week-in-religion-76/?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=religion-3-in-1">Get stories from The Conversation, AP and RNS.</a>]</p>
<p>However, some scholars are also discussing the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/23294515.2018.1462273">idea that the doctor knows best</a>. This concept, known as “paternalism,” is the idea that physicians ought to be the ones to ultimately make the decision for what is ethically right for the patient, as physicians know better. One example would be using soft materials to restrain the hands of an intubated COVID-19 patient <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0969733019858711">if they become agitated and try to remove their breathing tube</a>. </p>
<p>Just last year, some doctors <a href="https://doi.org/10.7326/M21-2366">made the case to mandate COVID-19 vaccinations for health care workers</a>. This argument from doctors inevitably gets pushback from those who are anti-mandate, and the discord further divides the patient from the physician.</p>
<h2>Scarce resources</h2>
<p>Then there is the issue of who should get scarce lifesaving treatments: one who has been vaccinated or one who has refused the vaccine?</p>
<p>One example of this issue is the use of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-021-03379-5">Paxlovid</a>, a relatively new medication that can be prescribed in the outpatient setting for the treatment of COVID-19. <a href="https://www.covid19treatmentguidelines.nih.gov/therapies/statement-on-therapies-for-high-risk-nonhospitalized-patients/">The clinical trials initially treated those who were unvaccinated</a>. Based on those studies, the pharmaceutical company Pfizer claims that Paxlovid is 89% effective in reducing the risk of hospitalization or death among <a href="https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n2713">study participants receiving treatment within three days of symptom onset</a>. If there is one lifesaving medicine and two patients – one with breakthrough COVID-19 and one refusing to be vaccinated – which one should doctors prioritize? </p>
<p>There are other ethical implications from an insurance standpoint, in terms of who should bear the cost and whether the unvaccinated should pay a higher premium.</p>
<p>In my personal practice, I have been successful in changing people’s minds about the vaccine through education and counseling. But what patient autonomy should look like as we learn to live with COVID-19 and how the doctor-patient relationship might change are questions left unanswered. The conversations on these bigger issues are just getting started.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/176442/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ryan Liu does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>New ethical issues are emerging during COVID-19 as doctors struggle with their obligations to ‘do no harm’ and respect patient autonomy.Ryan Liu, Family Medicine Resident Physician, Penn StateLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1676982021-09-10T05:54:20Z2021-09-10T05:54:20ZHow the terrifying evacuations from the twin towers on 9/11 helped make today’s skyscrapers safer<p>The 2001 World Trade Center disaster was the most significant high-rise evacuation in modern times, and the harrowing experiences of the thousands of survivors who successfully escaped the twin towers have had a significant influence on building codes and standards. One legacy of the 9/11 tragedy is that today’s skyscrapers can be emptied much more safely and easily in an emergency.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420419/original/file-20210910-28-1qqreiu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Graphic showing layout of elevators in the World Trade Center towers" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420419/original/file-20210910-28-1qqreiu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420419/original/file-20210910-28-1qqreiu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1034&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420419/original/file-20210910-28-1qqreiu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1034&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420419/original/file-20210910-28-1qqreiu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1034&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420419/original/file-20210910-28-1qqreiu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1299&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420419/original/file-20210910-28-1qqreiu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1299&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420419/original/file-20210910-28-1qqreiu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1299&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The twin towers’ elevator layouts meant getting to ground level was more complicated on some floors than on others.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">US NIST</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The 110-storey twin towers, constructed from 1966 to 1973, both had open-plan floor designs, with stairs and elevators located in the buildings’ core. Each tower had three staircases which, barring a few twists and turns, ran all the way from the top of the building down to the mezzanine level just above the ground floor. One of the stairways had steps 142 centimetres wide, but the other two measured just 112cm, which would not be permitted by today’s skyscraper building codes.</p>
<p>As a result of the twin towers’ system of “<a href="https://skyrisecities.com/news/2016/03/explainer-sky-lobby">sky lobbies</a>”, which was innovative for its time, the number of available elevators varied depending on the floor. The system was not designed to be used in an emergency, and today, many towers above a certain height are required to be fitted with dedicated emergency elevators or an additional staircase. </p>
<p>When the planes hit on the morning of September 11 2001, the twin towers were at less than half their full occupancy, with <a href="https://www.nist.gov/publications/occupant-behavior-egress-and-emergency-communication-federal-building-and-fire-safety-0">about 9,000 people in each tower</a>. Many people who worked there had not yet arrived, partly because of a New York mayoral election scheduled for that day.</p>
<p>At 8:46am, American Airlines flight 11 slammed into the north face of the north tower, rendering all three staircases impassable for anyone above the 91st floor. Sixteen minutes later, and after one-third of its occupants had already evacuated, the south tower was hit by United Airlines flight 175, leaving only one staircase available for evacuees above the 78th floor.</p>
<p>Besides the problems posed by fires and damage on floors, and debris inside the stairways, people in both towers also faced issues with communication. The north tower’s public address system, which would have been used to make emergency announcements to the building’s occupants, was disabled by the crash. </p>
<p>In the south tower, three minutes before the impact, occupants were told via the public address system to stay in place and wait for further information. Two minutes later they were told they could evacuate if they wanted. This may have meant more people from higher floors were waiting at the sky lobby on floor 78 when the plane crashed into that floor.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/9-11-conspiracy-theories-debunked-20-years-later-engineering-experts-explain-how-the-twin-towers-collapsed-167353">9/11 conspiracy theories debunked: 20 years later, engineering experts explain how the twin towers collapsed</a>
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</p>
<hr>
<p>In both towers, people had only limited information on which to base their decisions. For those closest to the impacts, the seriousness of the situation and the need to evacuate was clear. But for those further away, who may have witnessed only the lights flicker, the uncertainty was palpable. Many people delayed their evacuation to seek out extra information, whether by speaking with colleagues, making phone calls, sending emails or searching online for news updates. </p>
<p>Many lives were saved by the brave leadership of people who took control of the situation, urging others to evacuate and helping those who needed assistance. My <a href="https://scholar.colorado.edu/concern/graduate_thesis_or_dissertations/6t053g11g">PhD research</a> revealed these were typically people who were used to taking charge: high-level managers, fire wardens and people with military experience.</p>
<h2>Hazardous exit</h2>
<p>Evacuees faced a dangerous and claustrophobic journey down to ground level. A <a href="https://www.nist.gov/el/final-reports-nist-world-trade-center-disaster-investigation">subsequent US government investigation</a> found 70% of evacuees encountered crowding on the stairs. Some people recalled having to leave the stairwell either because of overcrowding, being told to do so by fire or building officials, or because they needed a rest. Other problems included poor lighting, not knowing which direction to go, and finding the route unavoidably blocked by people with permanent or temporary disabilities.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420423/original/file-20210910-17-5o1ihp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="World Trade Center stairwell" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420423/original/file-20210910-17-5o1ihp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420423/original/file-20210910-17-5o1ihp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420423/original/file-20210910-17-5o1ihp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420423/original/file-20210910-17-5o1ihp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420423/original/file-20210910-17-5o1ihp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420423/original/file-20210910-17-5o1ihp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420423/original/file-20210910-17-5o1ihp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">One of the narrow staircases in the north tower, taken during the evacuation on September 11 2001.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">NIST</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While people are typically told not to use elevators in an emergency, 16% of those who escaped the south tower used the elevators to evacuate during the 16 minutes between the two impacts. <a href="https://link-springer-com.ezproxy.lib.rmit.edu.au/article/10.1007/s10694-011-0240-y">Simulations</a> of a hypothetical 9/11 in which elevators were unavailable showed that occupants’ use of elevators saved 3,000 lives in the south tower.</p>
<p>Not everyone was so lucky. The <a href="https://www.nist.gov/publications/occupant-behavior-egress-and-emergency-communication-federal-building-and-fire-safety-0">US National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) investigation</a> (on which I was an author) estimated that between 2,146 and 2,163 people were killed in the towers, and that more people died in the north tower, which was struck first. Most of those who died on 9/11 were on or above the floors hit by the planes. </p>
<p>Roughly 99% of people on floors below the impacts managed to evacuate successfully. For those who didn’t, the factors linked to their deaths included delaying their evacuation, performing emergency response duties, or being unable to leave their particular floor because of damage or debris. Had the buildings been fully occupied, the consequences would undoubtedly have been even worse.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/20-years-on-9-11-responders-are-still-sick-and-dying-166033">20 years on, 9/11 responders are still sick and dying</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Building better</h2>
<p>The stories of those who experienced the terrifying evacuations have helped to shape important and life-saving changes in high-rise buildings. The <a href="https://www.nist.gov/publications/occupant-behavior-egress-and-emergency-communication-federal-building-and-fire-safety-0">NIST report</a> made several recommendations that were eventually implemented in a range of building codes and standards around the world, notably the <a href="https://www.iccsafe.org/products-and-services/i-codes/2018-i-codes/ibc/">International Building Code</a>.</p>
<p>Emergency stairs in skyscrapers must now be at least 137cm wide, and feature glow-in-the-dark markings on the stair treads that are visible even if the power fails. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Stairwell in building in Taiwan" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420416/original/file-20210910-8898-4a51dt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420416/original/file-20210910-8898-4a51dt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420416/original/file-20210910-8898-4a51dt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420416/original/file-20210910-8898-4a51dt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420416/original/file-20210910-8898-4a51dt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420416/original/file-20210910-8898-4a51dt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420416/original/file-20210910-8898-4a51dt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Stairwells in large buildings are now wider and have better signage.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Rico Shen/Wikimedia Commons</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>What’s more, while elevator use is not typically encouraged during building fires, the International Building Code now requires a new “occupant-safe” elevator system or an additional staircase in buildings over 128 metres tall. These new elevator systems are designed to be safely used during fires, offering a vital escape route for people unable to use stairs.</p>
<p>The tragic events of 9/11 changed the world in all sorts of ways. But hopefully, when it comes to the design of today’s skyscrapers, it has changed things for the better.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/167698/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Erica Kuligowski currently receives funding from the National Institute of Standards and Technology's (NIST) Measurement Science and Engineering Grants Program (as a subcontractor). She is affiliated with the Society of Fire Protection Engineers (SFPE) as a Section Editor for their Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering (Human Behaviour Section) and as a member of the Board of Governors for the SFPE Foundation. Also, from 2002 to 2020, Erica worked as a research engineer and social scientist in the Engineering Laboratory of the National Institute of Standards and Technology. While at NIST, Erica worked on NIST's Technical Investigation of the 2001 WTC Disaster as a team member of Project 7: Occupant Behavior, Egress, and Emergency Communications. Finally, Erica gratefully acknowledges the UK WTC project HEED, funded by the UK EPSRC (grant EP/D507790/1) for providing access to the HEED database, which was used in her PhD thesis.</span></em></p>99% of people below the floors where the planes struck the twin towers evacuated successfully, although their journey was fraught with danger. Their stories have influenced today’s skyscraper designs.Erica Kuligowski, Vice-Chancellor's Senior Research Fellow, RMIT UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1627542021-06-15T04:16:53Z2021-06-15T04:16:53ZAn act of God, or just bad management? Why trees fall and how to prevent it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/406346/original/file-20210615-19-jqodso.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3577%2C2048&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">AP</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The savage <a href="https://thenewdaily.com.au/news/2020/08/28/victoria-wild-weather-2/%20https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/wild-winds-fallen-trees-thousands-without-power-across-victoria-20210610-p57zpl.html">storms</a> that swept Victoria last week sent trees <a href="https://www.9news.com.au/national/weather-news-victoria-thousands-without-power-as-destructive-storms-lash-state/c36b2a57-3eb9-4178-90f4-f9eb9a455e9c">crashing down</a>, destroying homes and blocking roads. Under climate change, stronger winds and extreme storms will be more frequent. This will cause more trees to fall and, sadly, people may die.</p>
<p>These incidents are sometimes described as an <a href="https://www.warhurstlaw.com/blog/is-a-fallen-tree-an-act-of-god/">act of God</a> or <a href="https://www.couriermail.com.au/news/queensland/sunshine-coast/severe-storm-cells-moving-towards-coast-warning-issued/news-story/5b5e244b20ba6860ffbd1d5e5a55a7b9">Mother Nature’s fury</a>. Such descriptions obscure the role of good management in minimising the chance a tree will fall. The fact is, much can be done to prevent these events.</p>
<p>Trees must be better managed for several reasons. The first, of course, is to prevent damage to life and property. The second is to avoid unnecessary tree removals. Following storms, councils typically see a <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/storm-damage-fears-may-hide-the-true-nature-of-our-fellings-20020827-gdfkv1.html">spike in requests</a> for tree removals – sometimes for perfectly healthy trees.</p>
<p>A better understanding of the science behind falling trees – followed by informed action – will help keep us safe and ensure trees continue to provide their many benefits.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="tree lying on home" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/406349/original/file-20210615-19-1bz06v9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/406349/original/file-20210615-19-1bz06v9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406349/original/file-20210615-19-1bz06v9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406349/original/file-20210615-19-1bz06v9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406349/original/file-20210615-19-1bz06v9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406349/original/file-20210615-19-1bz06v9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406349/original/file-20210615-19-1bz06v9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">We must try to stop trees falling over to prevent damage to life and property.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">James Ross/AAP</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why trees fall over</h2>
<p>First, it’s important to note that fallen trees are the exception at any time, including storms. Most trees won’t topple over or shed major limbs. <a href="https://treenet.org/resources/defending-and-expanding-the-urban-forest-opposing-unnecessary-tree-removal-requests">I estimate</a> fewer than three trees in 100,000 fall during a storm.</p>
<p>Often, fallen trees near homes, suburbs and towns were mistreated or poorly managed in preceding years. In the rare event a tree does fall over, it’s usually due to one or more of these factors:</p>
<p><strong>1. Soggy soil</strong></p>
<p>In strong winds, tree roots are more likely to break free from wet soil than drier soil. In arboriculture, such events are called <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/windthrow">windthrow</a>. </p>
<p>A root system may become waterlogged when landscaping alters drainage around trees, or when house foundations disrupt underground water movement. This can be overcome by improving soil drainage with pipes or surface contouring that redirects water away from trees.</p>
<p>You can also encourage a tree’s root growth by mulching around the tree under the “dripline” – the outer edge of the canopy from which water drips to the ground. Applying a mixed-particle-size organic mulch to a depth of 75-100 millimetres will help keep the soil friable, aerated and moist. But bear in mind, mulch can be a fire risk in some conditions.</p>
<p>Root systems can also become waterlogged after heavy rain. So when both heavy rain and strong winds are predicted, be alert to the possibility of falling trees.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-theres-a-lot-more-to-love-about-jacarandas-than-just-their-purple-flowers-150851">Why there's a lot more to love about jacarandas than just their purple flowers</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="People inspect trees fallen on cars" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/406350/original/file-20210615-19-x4corc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/406350/original/file-20210615-19-x4corc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406350/original/file-20210615-19-x4corc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406350/original/file-20210615-19-x4corc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406350/original/file-20210615-19-x4corc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406350/original/file-20210615-19-x4corc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406350/original/file-20210615-19-x4corc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A combination of heavy rain and strong winds can cause trees to fall.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong>2. Direct root damage</strong></p>
<p>Human-caused damage to root systems is a common cause of tree failure. Such damage can include roots being:</p>
<ul>
<li>cut when utility services are installed</li>
<li>restricted by a new road, footpath or driveway</li>
<li>compacted over time, such as when they extend under driveways.</li>
</ul>
<p>Trees can take a long time to respond to disturbances. When a tree falls in a storm, it may be the result of damage inflicted 10-15 years ago.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="tree uprroted" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/406336/original/file-20210615-15-kv4wni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/406336/original/file-20210615-15-kv4wni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406336/original/file-20210615-15-kv4wni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406336/original/file-20210615-15-kv4wni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406336/original/file-20210615-15-kv4wni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406336/original/file-20210615-15-kv4wni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406336/original/file-20210615-15-kv4wni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This elm, growing very close to a footpath, fell in Melbourne during a 2005 storm.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong>3. Wind direction</strong></p>
<p>Trees anchor themselves against prevailing winds by growing roots in a particular pattern. Most of the supporting root structure of large trees grows on the windward side of the trunk.</p>
<p>If winds come from an uncommon direction, and with a greater-than-usual speed, trees may be <a href="http://isa-2015.m.isa-arbor.currinda.com/schedule/session/32/abstract/63">vulnerable</a> to falling. Even if the winds come from the usual direction, if the roots on the windward side are damaged, the tree may topple over. </p>
<p>The risk of this happening is likely to worsen under climate change, when winds are more likely to come from <a href="https://news.climate.columbia.edu/2021/01/06/westerly-winds-climate-change/">new directions</a>.</p>
<p><strong>4. Dead limbs</strong></p>
<p>Dead or dying tree limbs with little foliage are most at risk of falling during storms. The risk can be reduced by removing dead wood in the canopy.</p>
<p>Trees can also fall during strong winds when they have so-called “co-dominant” stems. These V-shaped stems are about the same diameter and emerge from the same place on the trunk. </p>
<p>If you think you might have such trees on your property, it’s well worth having them inspected. Arborists are trained to recognise these trees and assess their danger.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-years-condemn-australia-is-forgetting-the-sacred-trees-planted-to-remember-our-war-dead-159426">The years condemn: Australia is forgetting the sacred trees planted to remember our war dead</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="car bumper stopped at fallen tree trunk" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/406348/original/file-20210615-17-15o46rw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/406348/original/file-20210615-17-15o46rw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406348/original/file-20210615-17-15o46rw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406348/original/file-20210615-17-15o46rw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406348/original/file-20210615-17-15o46rw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406348/original/file-20210615-17-15o46rw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406348/original/file-20210615-17-15o46rw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Storms can trigger falling trees which block roads.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Trees are worth the trouble</h2>
<p>Even with the best tree management regime, there is no guarantee every tree will stay upright during a storm. Even a healthy, well managed tree can fall over in extremely high winds. </p>
<p>While falling trees are rare, there are steps we can take to minimise the damage they cause. For example, in densely populated areas, we should consider moving power and communications infrastructure <a href="https://www.treenet.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/2009_SymposiumProceedings_FINAL.pdf">underground</a>.</p>
<p>By now, you may be thinking large trees are just too unsafe to grow in urban areas, and should be removed. But we need trees to help us cope with storms and other extreme weather. </p>
<p>Removing all trees around a building can cause <a href="https://treenet.org/resources/it-isnt-rocket-science-street-trees-can-make-a-difference-in-climate-change/">wind speeds to double</a>, which puts roofs, buildings and lives at greater risk. Removing trees from steep slopes can cause the land to become unstable and more prone to landslides. And of course, trees keep us cooler during summer heatwaves. </p>
<p>Victoria’s spate of fallen trees is a concern, but removing them is not the answer. Instead, we must learn how to better manage and live with them.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/here-are-5-practical-ways-trees-can-help-us-survive-climate-change-129753">Here are 5 practical ways trees can help us survive climate change</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/162754/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gregory Moore does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A better understanding of the science behind falling trees – followed by informed action – will help keep us safe and ensure trees continue to provide their many benefits.Gregory Moore, Doctor of Botany, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1580262021-03-31T15:01:05Z2021-03-31T15:01:05ZCanadian women who joined ISIS should be repatriated, investigated and rehabilitated<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/392026/original/file-20210326-15-1sgysox.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=11%2C272%2C3936%2C2359&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Kimberly Gwen Polman, a Canadian national, reads a letter at camp Roj in Syria. Polman came to the Islamic State's caliphate to join her new husband, a man she knew only from online.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Maya Alleruzzo)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>On June 3, 2017, Rehab Dhugmosh, a Syrian-born Canadian, <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/rehab-dughmosh-canadian-tire-sentencing-1.5018987">attacked employees with a golf club at a Canadian Tire store</a> in Toronto. But her story did not begin there.</p>
<p>A year prior, she left Toronto for Syria with the intent to join ISIS. Her brother <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/canadian-tire-rehab-dughmosh-isis-admits-1.4980849">contacted the RCMP and she was turned back at the Istanbul airport</a>. Upon her return to Canada she was questioned by police, but claimed she was travelling to Syria to visit family; <a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/4960048/rehab-dughmosh-court-sentencing/">police decided not to lay charges and closed the file</a>.</p>
<p>Dhugmosh is one of the few Canadian women who’ve been <a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/7299184/woman-arrested-toronto-trying-to-join-isis/">militarized and recruited by ISIS in the past few years</a>. While Dhugmosh was sent back to Canada, others managed to join ISIS by marrying ISIS soldiers. Despite there being no evidence that suggests these women took part in combat-related terrorist activity, they are seen as a security threat and have been abandoned by their governments.</p>
<h2>Canadian extremists</h2>
<p>While the exact number of Canadians who’ve left the country to join ISIS remains unknown, Public Safety Minister Ralph Goodale estimated in January 2019 that about <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/public-safety-canada/news/2019/01/speech-on-canadas-evolving-national-security-architecture-in-a-constantly-changing-and-very-difficult-world.html">250 high-risk extremist travellers with connections to Canada have travelled overseas</a>. He said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“Some of them have become battlefield combatants. Others did fundraising, operational planning, online propaganda, recruitment, training and other complicit activity. Some were just camp followers.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>In March 2019, <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-47678157">U.S.-backed fighters rounded up thousands</a> of people who had been living under ISIS control in Baghouz, Syria. According to Human Rights Watch, <a href="https://www.hrw.org/report/2020/06/29/bring-me-back-canada/plight-canadians-held-northeast-syria-alleged-isis-links">47 of these detainees were Canadian</a>. These detainees ended up in refugee camps in northeast Syria. While they have not yet been charged with a crime, they were <a href="https://www.hrw.org/report/2020/06/29/bring-me-back-canada/plight-canadians-held-northeast-syria-alleged-isis-links">arbitrarily detained in inhumane conditions</a> by authorities in overcrowded refugee camps.</p>
<p>Without any process in place to review the legality and necessity of their detention, these <a href="https://www.hrw.org/report/2020/06/29/bring-me-back-canada/plight-canadians-held-northeast-syria-alleged-isis-links">Canadians find themselves pleading with the government to be allowed to return home</a>. Repatriation of these people remains far from resolved or desired by their governments, and Canada has largely taken a “<a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/human-rights-watch-canadians-syria-report-1.5630631">it’s complicated</a>” approach and abandoned its citizens.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Women wearing niqabs sit huddled together on a bench" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/392027/original/file-20210326-17-1ly8kgu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/392027/original/file-20210326-17-1ly8kgu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/392027/original/file-20210326-17-1ly8kgu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/392027/original/file-20210326-17-1ly8kgu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/392027/original/file-20210326-17-1ly8kgu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/392027/original/file-20210326-17-1ly8kgu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/392027/original/file-20210326-17-1ly8kgu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Women related to fighters of the Islamic State group sit next to Syrian Democratic Forces guards as they wait to board buses and trucks in June 2019.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Baderkhan Ahmed)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Harder on women</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www.npr.org/2019/11/15/779788549/judge-rules-that-u-s-born-woman-who-joined-isis-is-not-a-u-s-citizen">United States</a>, <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/explainers-53428191">United Kingdom</a> and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2021/mar/11/how-australia-stripped-alleged-isis-fighter-of-citizenship-without-evaluating-her-case">Australia</a> have proactively revoked the citizenship of former ISIS terrorists — both <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/aug/18/jack-letts-stripped-british-citizenship-isis-canada">men</a> and women.</p>
<p>The issue of losing citizenship, however, uniquely targets women. The <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/19/us/islamic-state-american-women.html"><em>New York Times</em> reports</a> that of the 59 Americans who had travelled to Syria to join ISIS, nearly all the American men captured in battle have been repatriated, but a number of American women and their children — at least 13 known to the <em>Times</em> — have not. Many find themselves pitted against their governments in a legal battle, suspected of engaging in terrorist activity, despite no evidence they participated in combat.</p>
<p>These women were only allowed entry into ISIS through marriage to a soldier; they were camp followers. The term <a href="https://journals.sfu.ca/jd/index.php/jd/article/view/331">camp followers</a> is used to refer to the wives of soldiers, women of “good character” who follow their husbands into the battlefield to provide domestic services for the army.</p>
<h2>Women’s experience</h2>
<p>Hoda Muthana, an American-born woman, left Alabama in 2014 to join ISIS. Shortly after arriving in Syria, <a href="https://www.npr.org/2019/11/15/779788549/judge-rules-that-u-s-born-woman-who-joined-isis-is-not-a-u-s-citizen">she married an ISIS fighter</a>. In 2018, as ISIS was rapidly losing territory, Muthana fled and has been <a href="https://www.npr.org/2019/11/15/779788549/judge-rules-that-u-s-born-woman-who-joined-isis-is-not-a-u-s-citizen">living in a detention camp in Syria ever since</a>. Her U.S. citizenship was revoked by the Donald Trump administration and on Jan. 19, 2021, the U.S. Court of Appeals District of Columbia Circuit upheld the ruling: <a href="https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/cadc/19-5362/19-5362-2021-01-19.html">Muthana is no longer a U.S. citizen</a>.</p>
<p>Shamima Begum, a British citizen, left home to join ISIS in 2015. In Syria, she married a Dutch recruit and had three children — <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-47500387">all of whom died</a>. She was later found in a Syrian refugee camp in 2019, and <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/explainers-53428191">her British citizenship was revoked. Her repeated efforts to return home have failed</a>.</p>
<p>Begum shares a tent with Kimberly Gwen Polman. Polman is an American-Canadian who joined ISIS in 2015 after corresponding with a man in Syria; <a href="https://www.thespec.com/news/hamilton-region/2019/02/21/hamilton-born-isil-bride-wants-to-come-home.html">she used her American passport to fly from Vancouver to Istanbul to get married</a>. She insists that she did not participate in the atrocities committed by ISIS and told <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/19/us/islamic-state-american-women.html">the <em>New York Times</em></a> that when she tried to escape, she was thrown into a cell and raped. She surrendered to U.S.-backed security forces in Syria in 2019.</p>
<p>All three women are trying to return home.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Man stands on cellphone" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/392028/original/file-20210326-17-1bpjtns.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/392028/original/file-20210326-17-1bpjtns.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=373&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/392028/original/file-20210326-17-1bpjtns.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=373&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/392028/original/file-20210326-17-1bpjtns.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=373&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/392028/original/file-20210326-17-1bpjtns.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=468&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/392028/original/file-20210326-17-1bpjtns.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=468&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/392028/original/file-20210326-17-1bpjtns.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=468&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hassan Shibly, attorney for Hoda Muthana, speaks on a phone before a news conference in Florida in February 2019.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Chris O'Meara, file)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Demilitarize and rehabilitate</h2>
<p>These women’s participation in ISIS, albeit in a non-combatant role, makes them vulnerable to the revocation of their citizenship. But should legal procedures change following their detainment because of their non-combatant roles? What are the legal procedures to follow? And if women can be militarized by a foreign nation, can we demilitarize and rehabilitate them?</p>
<p>Canada needs a better framework to understand and analyze the participation of these camp followers and hold them accountable. Abandoning them in refugee camps or revoking their citizenship is simply offloading responsibilities.</p>
<p>These women need to be repatriated, investigated and rehabilitated.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/158026/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Azra Rashid receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council. </span></em></p>Canada needs a better framework to understand and analyze the participation of women who marry ISIS soldiers — and find ways to hold them accountableAzra Rashid, Visiting Research Fellow, Gender and Cultural Studies, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1364182020-11-16T18:00:08Z2020-11-16T18:00:08ZDigital privacy and Covid-19: between a paradox and a hard place<p>The situation in which the world is currently living is extraordinary in every sense of the word: since the outbreak of the Covid-19 pandemic, there have been over <a href="https://covid19.who.int/">53 million confirmed cases and more than 1.3 million people have died</a>. After a round of lockdowns in the spring and deconfinements in the summer, the much-feared “second wave” has emerged in many countries, plunging us again into the unknown.</p>
<p>From a legal perspective, it is understandable and justifiable that in such times, civil liberties might be temporarily restricted through legal instruments that embody the legality and proportionality of the measure (legal authorization, proper authority in charge and duration in time or scope of the decision, reasonability of means), the respect of constitutional rights (privacy of users) together with mechanisms to provide public safeguards (data controllers, independent authorities or watchdogs).</p>
<p>This article reflects on the measures that countries have taken to monitor their residents so as to effectively trace Covid-19 cases. The search for a balance between the expression of public policy and the respect of basic civil liberties is, traditionally, an essential question behind a complex legal situation.</p>
<h2>The temptation to mishandle the restriction of rights</h2>
<p>Certain nations have been sufficiently focused on contact tracing that methods have been used that would be highly criticised in Western countries. For example, in South Korea, authorities used location data from cell phones, credit-card transactions, and CCTV footage to identify potentially infected persons. As noted <a href="https://time.com/5872184/south-korea-contact-tracers-coronavirus/">Jung Ki-suck</a>, the former director of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), “people [in South Korea] are OK with their privacy being infringed for the wider public interest.”</p>
<p>China is another much-cited example: the country’s applications, which are mandatory, use <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/01/chinas-coronavirus-health-code-apps-raise-concerns-over-privacy">facial recognition, biometric data, location tracking</a> and other data to generate health-status colour codes. An analysis by <em>The New York Times</em> of one of the apps indicated that it appeared to <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/01/business/china-coronavirus-surveillance.html">share information with police authorities</a>. Even the basis on which the colour codes are assigned is unclear, and while the lack of transparency has been criticised, Chinese authorities are not known for their openness.</p>
<p>On May 4 the Hungarian government adopted a decree, <a href="https://edpb.europa.eu/news/news/2020/thirtieth-plenary-session-edpb-response-ngos-hungarian-decrees-and-statement-article_en">179/2020</a>, in which data protection and access to information rights were restricted during the “state of danger.” Exercise of essential rights under articles 15 to 22 of the European Union’s General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) – right of access, rectification, erasure, restriction of processing, etc. – were suspended. The decree also authorised the prime minister to rule on legislative matters without defining an end date. After pressure, the authorities finally <a href="https://fnf-europe.org/2020/06/29/is-the-state-of-emergency-in-hungary-really-over/">lifted the restrictions</a> on June 16, the same day a complementary law gave the executive the power to restrict freedom of movement or assembly for six months.</p>
<p>However, restrictions on data-protection rights should only be of legislative nature (issued by the parliaments), and not decided unilaterally by the executive branch (a decree). This legal nature of the restriction is protected by Article 52(1) of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, article 8(2) of the European Convention of Human Rights, and, more recently, article 23 of the GDPR.</p>
<p>Restrictions of certain rights, from a legal perspective need to be:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>of an exceptional nature.</p></li>
<li><p>imposed for a limited duration in time (temporary)</p></li>
<li><p>not to be applied retroactively</p></li>
<li><p>subject to clear and defined conditions (criteria of “foreseeability”).</p></li>
</ul>
<p>France developed an application, StopCovid, based on Bluetooth technology – and voluntary adoption – that aimed to be less intrusive. It was <a href="https://www.economie.gouv.fr/tousanticovid">first released on June 2</a> but was downloaded by less than 5% of the French population. By comparison, the equivalent UK application was downloaded by 20% of the population and the Irish application by 35%. The low adoption rate of StopCovid meant that not only that the application was inefficient, but it also revealed a certain apprehension from French users. Indeed, even before the application’s launch, the then–Minister of Interior, Christophe Castaner, <a href="https://www.lefigaro.fr/flash-eco/coronavirus-le-tracage-numerique-n-est-pas-dans-la-culture-francaise-assure-christophe-castaner-20200326">stated</a> that digital tracing was “not in French culture”.</p>
<p>On October 22, an updated version of the application was rolled out, now called <a href="https://www.healthcareitnews.com/news/emea/france-launches-new-contact-tracing-app-tousanticovid">TousAntiCovid</a> (United Against Covid). It was downloaded more than <a href="https://www.sortiraparis.com/actualites/coronavirus/articles/231388-tousanticovid-l-application-depasse-les-4-millions-de-telechargements">4,5 million times over last week of October</a>, a better adoption rate than the first version. Part of the reason could be that it can be switched off, facilitates the creation of documents allowing travel and provides information on and access to medical and testing facilities. It is still too early to determine its efficiency.</p>
<h2>Earlier epidemics</h2>
<p>How much has humanity learned from past events? A few somewhat recent examples can be revisited: the Influenza H1N1 pandemic in 2009 and the Ebola outbreak in 2014.</p>
<p>During the Ebola outbreak, <a href="https://time.com/3892513/did-authorities-use-the-wrong-approach-to-stop-ebola/">similar questions and issues were discussed</a>, including contact tracing and community monitoring. (One of the lessons learned was that the measures had taken too long, something that’s familiar to us all now.) A <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1505.07020">2015 study</a> by Yaneer Bar-Yam, Vincent Wong, and Daniel Cooney) showed that community monitoring – tracking a larger group of people and treating all of them as if they had been in contact with someone infected – was more effective than contact tracing.</p>
<p>In the first stages of the Covid-19 pandemic, testing was not easily available, hence the nationwide lockdowns; subsequently, testing capacities have been developed and contact tracing and isolation emphasised.</p>
<p>Authors such as María Lucrecia Rovaletti have also analysed contact tracing on <a href="https://scielo.conicyt.cl/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1726-569X2010000200010">HIV cases</a> and use and dissemination of information on patients on databases. The discussion revolved around the importance of determining the personal and sensitive character of information and to restrict access to statistics and medical research only.</p>
<p>Contact tracing apps are not a magical solution to the spread of Covid-19. Multiple <a href="https://time.com/5898559/covid-19-contact-tracing-apps-privacy/">issues</a> are at stake, from privacy to technology options and politics and public health. Systems are divided between centralised and decentralised, and based on voluntary or mandatory use. As seen, countries like South Korea deployed both an active <a href="https://hbr.org/2020/04/how-digital-contact-tracing-slowed-covid-19-in-east-asia">behavior</a> of the state intervening in the supply chain for medical supplies, but also a technological strategy that actually invaded users’ privacy.</p>
<p>European models, where citizen are more conscious of their privacy rights, have been based on the voluntary downloading of the apps and legal constraints from GDPR. On the technological side, <a href="https://www.wired.com/story/google-apple-change-tactics-contact-tracing-tech/">Google and Apple developed a decentralized system</a> that used servers to collect information on exposure alerts. But this system comes with a cost for privacy of users, as these companies hold the key to the data obtained. It is true that it is encrypted, anonymised, and limited by Bluetooth, but with current technology, reverse engineering the source data would not be a particularly difficult task.</p>
<p>Centralized systems such as France’s TousAntiCovid keeps the information on users’ phone. It uses temporary pseudo-identifiers (anonymous string of letters and numbers) to collect information, using a protocol called <a href="https://github.com/ROBERT-proximity-tracing/documents">ROBERT</a> (ROBust and privacy-presERving proximity Tracing protocol), developed by the technology research hubs Inria (France) and Fraunhofer AISEC (Germany). Data will only be analysed by the government in case of a Covid-19 diagnosis, and only when analysed the user has given her or his explicit consent. A positive diagnosis of a possible contact will be shared with users without including any personal data. Data stored in the phone and server will be deleted after 14 days.</p>
<h2>How long is “temporary”?</h2>
<p>When tackling urgent public situations, states can sometimes decide to (temporarily) empower the executive branch to fast-track regulation. It involves placing the parliament (national congress) in a second frame, generally by delegating those powers to, again, the president or prime minister.</p>
<p>How long is “temporary” is the key question. The risk today is that urgency has become normality, in the same way that working from home, wearing face masks, and keeping physical distances have become the rule. They’re the new normal. The reason for a state to start rolling back those temporary powers is both clear and vague. Clear because those restrictive measures will stop once the virus is no longer a menace for public health. And in this lies the vagueness of the concept. The virus could linger for years and thus “temporary” measures could remain in force for a long time.</p>
<p>Once we as a society have accepted such infringements in our privacy and civil liberties, <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-04-06/coronavirus-surveillance-helps-but-the-programs-are-hard-to-stop">when will they be lifted?</a> Emergency measures, once considered temporary, can easily become the norm, part of the usual legal scenery in a country. Under certain regimes or countries, the temptation of utilizing these methods for reasons other than Covid-19 are enormous.</p>
<h2>What can states do with the data collected?</h2>
<p>The first (and the main) goal of collecting data from users is to track social contacts and stop contagion. This would allow states to enforce measures such as lockdowns and quarantines at the same time that the populations are being (for public health reasons) monitored. But by accessing these data, we can also extract information on people on different grounds – revenues, political opinions, even sexual orientations.</p>
<p>From a human-rights perspective, if a country decides to restrict citizens’ rights during an emergency situation, the measures must be lawful, necessary and proportionate. A state of emergency based on public health must be limited in time, and no measure can have an indirect collateral effect on specific populations (minorities or marginalised groups, for example). The Americans Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2020/04/civil-libertarians-coronavirus/610624/">has stated</a> that “if measures are time-limited and have a rational basis in science,” they can be acceptable.</p>
<p>In countries such as Israel, Armenia, Russia and Ecuador, governments have <a href="https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2020/04/covid-19-surveillance-threat-to-your-rights/">access</a> to the telecommunication companies or satellite information that allows them to identify infected people and monitor self-isolation or quarantines.</p>
<h2>Digital contact tracing, privacy and civil liberties</h2>
<p>The use of algorithms and artificial intelligence can enable the processing of enough data from users to predict the spread of the pandemic. This is in principle useful, as societies can monitor the situation almost in real time and take quick measures (health policies) to adapt and adjust.</p>
<p>A global pandemic could, in principle, convince people to accept a certain level of restriction in their civil liberties that could imply a <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-04-06/coronavirus-surveillance-helps-but-the-programs-are-hard-to-stop">surveillance regime</a>. A logical trade-off must take place, between civil liberties, security, public health, and risk avoidance, and these restrictions can take the shape of smartphone applications</p>
<p>Central to this discussion is the <a href="https://doi-org.ezp.em-lyon.com/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2020.102178">trade-off</a> between individual privacy and the need to protect public health. Short-term restrictions of individual liberty are enacted to protect the long-term interests of communities. These restrictive measures include, in our opinion, the seed of a potential abuse.</p>
<p>A noteworthy example of <a href="https://doi-org.ezp.em-lyon.com/10.1016/j.ijlcj.2011.08.002">mass-surveillance measures</a> has been the EU directive <a href="http://data.europa.eu/eli/dir/2006/24/oj">2006/24/EC</a> (March 15, 2006) on the retention of data by electronic communications services and networks. Enacted after the Madrid (2004) and London (2005) bombings, it required member states to adopt measures to ensure potentially relevant data is retained. However, in 2014 the measure was <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/FR/TXT/?uri=CELEX:62012CJ0293">annulled</a> by the Court of Justice of European Union (CJEU). It stated that the directive entailed</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“a wide-ranging and particularly serious interference with the fundamental rights to the respect for private life and to the protection of personal data, without that interference being limited to what is strictly necessary”.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The example of South Korea, which gathered – and presumably continues to gather – a nearly unlimited amount of data on its citizens, demands an enormous responsibility on the way it is processed and released – policies must guarantee privacy, regulate the way data is analysed, reduce risks of leaks and guarantee its destruction after the pandemic ends. China has gathered even more data, but given the nature of the country’s government, its destruction seems unlikely.</p>
<h2>Data access, processing power and a guardian</h2>
<p>In this sense, a one-side solution cannot be imagined; it must be done in coordination of multiple players. As stated by <a href="https://www.bruegel.org/2020/03/artificial-intelligence-in-the-fight-against-covid-19/">Georgios Petropoulos</a>, a research fellow at MIT on Digital Economy, the telecommunication companies have access to individuals’ data and the high-tech industry have the tools to process it, and the state must oversee how it is processed and respected.</p>
<p>As a <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2020/04/civil-libertarians-coronavirus/610624/">safeguard</a>, contract-tracing phone apps should be voluntary, guaranteeing users anonymity, data collected should only be needed for the tracing, data retention should be limited to the actual measures, and access to the privileged data should only be given to specific people. Strictness that we usually find in the respect of health data privacy of individual users.</p>
<p>As the crisis continues to unfold, topics such as civil liberties and privacy have been placed in the centre of the scene. In an <a href="https://www.newyorker.com/news/q-and-a/the-coronavirus-and-the-future-of-big-tech">April 2020 interview</a> for <em>The New Yorker</em>, European commissioner Margrethe Vestager asserted that we’ve reached a point where we might be able to trust our privacy to the technology that we use in our daily lives. How society as a whole reacts to this question might take longer, however.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/136418/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Florencio Travieso ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>In the current pandemic, finding the right balance between the protection of public health and respecting civil liberties has proven to be supremely difficult.Florencio Travieso, Professeur de Droit. co-Director of the MSc in Health Management & Data Intelligence. Droit international des affaires, Business and Compliance. Health management, EM Lyon Business SchoolLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1468292020-10-27T12:13:06Z2020-10-27T12:13:06ZUndocumented immigrants may actually make American communities safer – not more dangerous – new study finds<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/365595/original/file-20201026-19-1ox2u0x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=65%2C0%2C6195%2C4158&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">President Donald Trump has repeatedly claimed that undocumented immigrants cause more crime, but new research suggests the opposite might be true.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/street-vendor-sells-a-snow-cone-to-customers-in-macarthur-news-photo/1214486023?adppopup=true">Apu Gomes/AFP via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take about interesting academic work.</em></p>
<h2>The big idea</h2>
<p>Undocumented immigration does not increase the violent crime rate in U.S. metropolitan areas. In fact, it may reduce property crime rates. These are the key findings from our recently published article in the <a href="https://www.doi.org/10.1080/0735648X.2020.1819375">Journal of Crime and Justice</a>, co-authored by Yulin Yang, James Bachmeier and Mike Maciag. </p>
<p>Research shows that the American communities where immigrants make their homes are more often improved by their presence than harmed by it. Immigrants bring social, cultural and economic activity to the <a href="https://prospect.org/labor/immigration-america-s-urban-revival/">places they live</a>. That makes these places more vital and safer, not more dangerous. </p>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>People from all social groups and backgrounds commit <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/03/06/us/politics/undocumented-illegal-immigrants.html">crimes</a>. But undocumented immigrants, and immigrants more generally, are often baselessly blamed for increasing crime rates – including, repeatedly, by <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/donald-trump-illegal-immigrants-animals-slice-dice-young-beautiful-girls-us-president-a7861596.html">President Donald Trump</a>. In the second and final presidential debate, Trump again claimed <a href="https://www.chicagotribune.com/columns/steve-chapman/ct-column-trump-immigrants-catch-release-chapman-20201023-4kokf77g4rhijog7aol5pn65z4-story.html">undocumented immigrants are rapists and murderers</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/03/30/upshot/crime-immigration-myth.html">This notion</a> has existed and been studied since the early <a href="https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/44540NCJRS.pdf">20th century</a>, including in a 2005 <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0049089X05000104">analysis</a> we conducted with a number of colleagues that concluded immigration did not increase crime rates in U.S. metropolitan areas. </p>
<p>But this research is <a href="https://thehill.com/blogs/pundits-blog/immigration/327229-crimes-by-illegal-aliens-not-legal-immigrants-are-the-real">often dismissed</a> because most <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-criminol-032317-092026">empirical studies</a> cannot separate undocumented immigrants from the total immigrant population. That level of analysis is necessary to draw conclusions about the relationship between undocumented immigration and crime. </p>
<p>For example, <a href="https://www.doi.org/10.1080/15377938.2016.1261057">we found in a 2017</a> study with colleagues that from 1970 to 2010 metropolitan areas with greater concentrations of immigrants, legal and undocumented combined, have <a href="https://theconversation.com/immigration-and-crime-what-does-the-research-say-72176">less property crime</a> than areas with fewer immigrants, on average. <a href="https://cis.org/Arthur/Who-FactChecks-FactCheckers">Critics suggested</a> that our findings would not hold if we looked at only the subset of undocumented individuals.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/365264/original/file-20201023-23-10catex.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C8%2C3000%2C1989&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Immigrant man wearing a Guatemalan flag shirtholds an American flag." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/365264/original/file-20201023-23-10catex.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C8%2C3000%2C1989&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/365264/original/file-20201023-23-10catex.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365264/original/file-20201023-23-10catex.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365264/original/file-20201023-23-10catex.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365264/original/file-20201023-23-10catex.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365264/original/file-20201023-23-10catex.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365264/original/file-20201023-23-10catex.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Immigrants, including those who are undocumented, often make the American communities they settle in safer.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/marcos-latin-of-dc-carries-the-guatemalan-flag-together-news-photo/642237746?adppopup=true">Sarah L. Voisin/The Washington Post via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>So we decided to find out if they were right. Our new study is the result of that effort, and it confirms our original findings: Undocumented immigration, on average, has no effect on violent crime across U.S. metropolitan areas. </p>
<p>In statistical models that did identify a significant relationship between undocumented immigration and crime, we found undocumented immigration reduces property crimes, such as burglary. </p>
<h2>How we do our work</h2>
<p>Using two different estimates of the undocumented immigrant populations for 154 metropolitan areas in our most recent study – one from the <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/">Pew Research Center</a> and one from the <a href="https://www.migrationpolicy.org/">Migration Population Institute</a> – we examined the effect of undocumented immigration on homicide, aggravated assault, robbery, burglary and larceny crime rates. </p>
<p>Crime rate data came from the <a href="https://www.fbi.gov/services/cjis/ucr">FBI’s Uniform Crime Report program</a>. Other data were from the <a href="https://www.census.gov/">U.S. Census Bureau</a>. </p>
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<p>Using a statistical method called regression analysis to examine the data, we found that as the size of the undocumented population increases, the property crime rate decreases, on average. And the size of the undocumented population in a metropolitan area tends to have no impact on the violent crime rate. </p>
<p>These findings build on the conclusions of a <a href="https://www.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-criminol-032317-092026">large 2018 study</a> in which researchers Graham Ousey and Charis Kubrin examined 51 studies on immigration and crime published from 1994 to 2014.</p>
<h2>What still isn’t known</h2>
<p>Our analyses looked at broad metropolitan patterns, not the relationship of undocumented immigration and crime rates in distinct, specific places such as New York City and Los Angeles. Nor does our study address the reasons that immigration reduces crime, although there is plenty of <a href="https://prospect.org/labor/immigration-america-s-urban-revival/">other scholarship</a> on that issue.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/146829/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Robert M. Adelman has received funding in the past from the National Science Foundation and the National Institute on Aging.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lesley Reid receives funding from the Alabama Department of Corrections and has received funding in the past from the National Science Foundation.</span></em></p>Statistical models debunk claims by Trump and others that undocumented immigration into the U.S. increases crime, building on a litany of past research.Robert M. Adelman, Associate Professor and Department Chair of Sociology, University at BuffaloLesley Reid, Professor of Criminology and Criminal Justice and Interim Dean of the School of Social Work, University of AlabamaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.