tag:theconversation.com,2011:/id/topics/same-sex-parents-25559/articlesSame-sex parents – The Conversation2023-06-28T14:57:12Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2082412023-06-28T14:57:12Z2023-06-28T14:57:12ZLGBTQ+ parents are being removed from their children’s birth certificates in Italy – here’s what’s behind this disturbing trend<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534033/original/file-20230626-15-gxzlyi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=11%2C7%2C2485%2C1654&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Demonstration in Piazza Della Scala, in Milan (Italy) for the rights of children of same-sex parent couples.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/es/image-photo/milano-lombardy-italy-march-18-2023-2276836109">Shutterstock/Federico Fermeglia</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A public prosecutor in the Italian city of Padova is attempting to <a href="https://espresso.repubblica.it/politica/2023/06/20/news/famiglie_arcobaleno_guerra_diritti-405159363/">challenge</a> the legitimacy of 33 birth certificates of children born to same-sex couples <a href="https://www.ilpost.it/2023/06/20/padova-impugnati-atti-nascita-coppie-omogenitoriali/">via insemination</a> by a donor. The prosecutor, Valeria Sanzani, also seeks to remove the names of the mothers considered “non-genetic” from the birth certificates.</p>
<p>This motion is one of the broadest within more widespread, though still patchwork, efforts in Italy that have emerged in the past six months to annul the birth certificates of children conceived through the use of reproductive technologies abroad, particularly in cases concerning “rainbow families” – families with same-sex parents. </p>
<p>This includes another <a href="https://milano.corriere.it/notizie/cronaca/23_giugno_23/tribunale-di-milano-trascrizioni-padri-mamme-f9b18bcb-c9a4-4679-8617-e93bd8983xlk.shtml">case</a> in Milan, in which the birth certificate of a child born abroad via surrogacy to two men was annulled. </p>
<p>Such action should be seen in light of the Meloni government’s policy aims, which are being interpreted and enacted in a way that particularly targets rainbow families. </p>
<h2>Going back a few months</h2>
<p>In January, Meloni’s Minister of the Interior issued a <a href="https://associazionelucacoscioni.it/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/circ-dait-003-servdemo-19-01-2023.pdf">circular</a> ordering all Italian Mayors to stop automatically registering the births of children born or conceived abroad via assisted reproductive technologies. </p>
<p>The circular cited a case from Italy’s Court of Cassation, which ruled on December 30 2022, that the birth certificate of a child of a gay couple who used a surrogate abroad to conceive should not be automatically recognised and transcribed in Italy.</p>
<p>Although the court case and circular related to surrogacy, a practice which is illegal in Italy for both heterosexual and same-sex couples as well as single people, in its interpretation and enactment by Prefectures and Municipalities, it has specifically targeted rainbow families, including those who don’t use surrogacy.</p>
<p>In April, the Milan prefecture <a href="https://www.ilpost.it/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/30/905x2560/1680186579-prefetto-milano.jpg?x57999&x82864&x82864">extended the logic</a> of the circular to same-sex couples who conceived abroad via insemination by a donor. This cited Italian law, which states that insemination by a donor is only legal for heterosexual couples, and specifically argued that birth certificates of children born to same-sex parents should be targeted. </p>
<p>At the time, the Mayor of Milan agreed that he would not automatically transcribe birth certificates moving forward, but <a href="https://www.ilpost.it/2023/04/12/famiglie-omogenitoriali-annullamento-tribunale/">declined</a> to retroactively revise the ones he had already signed. Also in April, the birth certificate of one child born to two mothers was annulled in the city of Bergamo. </p>
<p>The events in Padova are noteworthy as they suggest a growing, and worrisome trend. The prosecutor has challenged the legitimacy of many more birth certificates, and going as far back as 2017 (the year after civil unions for same-sex couples were legalised in Italy). </p>
<p>Such a move would have consequences for both children and parents. The children, some as old as six, would have their names and parental status <a href="https://www.radioradicale.it/scheda/701563/la-procura-di-padova-dice-stop-ai-figli-con-due-mamme-intervista-a-nicola-fratoianni">forcibly changed</a> by an act of the state. The non-genetic parent would <a href="https://www.repubblica.it/cronaca/2023/06/19/news/coppie_gay_due_mamme_padova_atti_di_nascita_cancellazione-405074842/">lose parental rights</a>. They wouldn’t be able to pick up their children from school, take them to the doctor or leave the country without an official note from the legally-recognised parent.</p>
<p>Within Italy, motions like the ones enacted in Padova, Milan, and Bergamo are being seen as acts that <a href="https://www.repubblica.it/cronaca/2023/06/19/news/coppie_gay_due_mamme_padova_atti_di_nascita_cancellazione-405074842/">punish</a> LGBTQ+ individuals and their children. </p>
<p>In an <a href="https://www.lastampa.it/editoriali/lettere-e-idee/2023/06/17/news/gestazione_per_altri-12862736/">opinion piece</a> for La Stampa, lawyer Filomena Gallo writes, “Children will be estranged (<em>allontanati</em>) from their legitimate families just to satisfy the ideological whims of the proponents (of these efforts).”</p>
<h2>Moves from the Meloni government</h2>
<p>While campaigning, Meloni made clear the stance that her government could be expected to have regarding LGBTQ+ rights. In a 2022 rally in Spain, Meloni <a href="https://video.corriere.it/politica/meloni-andalusia-sostenere-vox-palco-arringa-folla-spagnolo/8ce5509e-eb15-11ec-b89b-6b199698064a">exclaimed</a>: “Yes to the natural family! No to the LGBT lobby!”</p>
<p>The January circular marked the beginnings of the Meloni government’s actions to make good on such positions. Currently, her party, the Brothers of Italy, is pursuing legislation that could result in an almost total ban on state recognition of rainbow families. These actions focus on surrogacy – making surrogacy abroad illegal, which would affect heterosexual couples and singles as well. However, the behaviour of public officials, together with the rights of same-sex couples under current Italian law, mean that the consequences for LGBTQ+ individuals hoping to start families would be drastic. </p>
<p>While a total ban on surrogacy would affect heterosexual couples seeking to conceive as well, these couples have a right to adopt or to use artificial insemination through a donor that same-sex couples do not have in Italy. </p>
<h2>Problems with citizenship</h2>
<p>A serious concern is the impact that such policies could have on the citizenship status of the concerned children. Should Sanzari’s challenge be successful in court, the question will become: what to make of the children whose Italian citizenship derives from the non-genetic/gestational parent? </p>
<p>Though same-sex unions have been <a href="https://www.gazzettaufficiale.it/eli/id/2016/05/21/16G00082/sg">legal</a> through civil partnership since 2016, these unions don’t provide the same rights as official marriage in Italy, notably the right to adopt as a couple. In current cases, adoption rights for the non-genetic parent are not guaranteed, only result from a long and arduous process, and are only considered when circumstances have been deemed exceptional.</p>
<p>As such, for bi-national, same-sex couples in Italy, recognised partnership in Italy does not necessarily mean that their children will have Italian citizenship. With the removal of non-genetic same-sex partners on birth certificates, there is a potential loss of citizenship for the children. Some are already into their primary school education and have not necessarily known any other country as home.</p>
<h2>‘Protecting the children’</h2>
<p>In mobilizing public sentiment against LGBTQ+ people, opponents often invoke the need to protect “the child”. From <a href="https://www.dragstoryhour.org/">drag queen story hour</a> to gay marriage, many elements of LGBTQ+ inclusion have been framed as a threat to children. </p>
<p>Meloni’s government ran on a platform of protecting the family, attempting to connect conservative policies on LGBTQ+ inclusion and migration through the frame of defending a homeland and family. One of her campaign slogans was “God, homeland, family.” An unfortunate irony, then, that this policy is proving so destructive to families.</p>
<p>With these moves, the Meloni government further establishes itself as a new force for anti-LGBTQ+ politics in Europe, <a href="https://www.rferl.org/a/lgbt-rights-eastern-europe-backsliding/31622890.html">alongside the governments of Poland and Hungary</a>. </p>
<p>The Hungarian government has passed a <a href="https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/02/15/lgbt-rights-under-renewed-pressure-hungary">series of anti-LGBTQ+ legislation</a> over the past few years, banning LGBTQ+ content in schools as well as in books and television programmes geared toward young people, ending gender recognition by the state and embedding a ban on gay marriage and adoption in the constitution. </p>
<p>Poland has also recently passed a <a href="https://www.thepinknews.com/2022/02/10/poland-lgbt-propaganda-bill-andrzej-duda/">ban</a> on LGBTQ+ content in schools and denied <a href="https://www.ilga-europe.org/news/rainbow-families-have-the-right-to-move-and-reside-freely-eu-court-reiterates/">recognition</a> to rainbow families. Since 2020, the government has supported local initiatives to establish <a href="https://gcn.ie/eu-legal-case-poland-anti-lgbtq-zones/">“LGBT-free zones”</a> in municipalities throughout the country. </p>
<p>Concerned by this alliance, the European parliament passed an <a href="https://www.unionesarda.it/en/world/lgbt-the-european-parliament-condemns-italy-with-poland-and-hungary-quot-too-much-anti-rights-rhetoricquot-qnai6hcq?amp=1">amendment</a>, strongly condemning “the spread of anti-rights, anti-gender and anti-LGBTQ+ rhetoric by some influential political leaders and governments in the EU, as in the case of Hungary, Poland and Italy.”</p>
<p>If successful in Italy, then it is possible that we could see these efforts adopted elsewhere in Europe. As we’ve seen, anti-rights legislation is proliferating in certain parts of Europe. Should other governments follow in the footsteps of what they perceive as a successful effort in Italy, then even more children in Europe will be at risk of denaturalisation just for having same-sex parents.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/208241/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Las personas firmantes no son asalariadas, ni consultoras, ni poseen acciones, ni reciben financiación de ninguna compañía u organización que pueda obtener beneficio de este artículo, y han declarado carecer de vínculos relevantes más allá del cargo académico citado anteriormente.</span></em></p>The Prosecutor’s Office of Padova (Italy) has asked a local court to remove any same-sex non-biological parent on birth certificates, denying same-sex families the right to State recognition.Samuel Ritholtz, Max Weber Fellow in the Department of Political and Social Sciences, European University InstituteMargaret Neil, PhD candidate in International Development, University of OxfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1987782023-02-16T03:58:05Z2023-02-16T03:58:05ZBlessed Union puts queer families centre stage, with hilarity and heartbreak<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510482/original/file-20230216-19-f11qnb.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C2%2C1917%2C1276&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Belvoir/Brett Boardman</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>This review contains spoilers.</em></p>
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<p><em>Review: Blessed Union, directed by Hannah Goodwin, Belvoir.</em></p>
<p>Billed as “the lesbian break-up comedy you didn’t know you needed”, Blessed Union is a chaotic joyride, a rapid-fire feast of words, ideas and emotions laying bare what happens when love and family are politicised.</p>
<p>The play is based partly on playwright Maeve Marsden’s experiences growing up with two lesbian mothers who eventually separated. </p>
<p>Plays about families have existed since the advent of theatre itself, but queer stories – especially queer family stories – are rarely centre stage.</p>
<p>Marsden and the Belvoir team make two important inroads. They not only show us a new kind of family, but they do this shrewdly via a traditional two-act play on a realistic stage set, with a kitchen at its crux, to reinhabit and reconsider the nuclear family. </p>
<p>Crucially, this piece does not shy away from the messier side of the rainbow family, highlighting all the ambiguities and inconsistencies of humans in relationships. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/mum-dad-and-two-kids-no-longer-the-norm-in-the-changing-australian-family-88014">Mum, dad and two kids no longer the norm in the changing Australian family</a>
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<h2>Hilarity and heartbreak</h2>
<p>The play spans a period of nine months, from Easter to Christmas. </p>
<p>The family have their own rituals which overlay these more overtly institutional ones. Many centre around food: the family always make an egg and mock lamb pie at Easter; they have a pasta-making routine. </p>
<p>Food, an important symbol of ritual and nourishment, is “performed” in this family. Tofu is the substitute for lamb in the Easter pie because the family is vegetarian but when family relations degenerate, bacon makes an appearance, cooking stops and ice-cream is eaten for dinner. </p>
<p>When things go awry, so does the food, with hilarity and heartbreak.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510485/original/file-20230216-24-m18zah.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A family in a kitchen" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510485/original/file-20230216-24-m18zah.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510485/original/file-20230216-24-m18zah.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510485/original/file-20230216-24-m18zah.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510485/original/file-20230216-24-m18zah.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510485/original/file-20230216-24-m18zah.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510485/original/file-20230216-24-m18zah.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510485/original/file-20230216-24-m18zah.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">When things go awry, so does the food.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Belvoir/Brett Boardman</span></span>
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<p>Living in Sydney’s inner west, in a home perfectly rendered by designer Isabel Hudson with mid-century furniture, Parker chairs, standard lamps and a “Yes” poster from the marriage equality plebiscite on the kitchen wall, union organiser Ruth (Danielle Cormack) and primary school teacher Judith (Maude Davey) have been together for more than 30 years, having children before the advent of marriage equality. </p>
<p>Ruth and Judith announce their breakup with the return home of their teenage daughter Delilah (Emma Diaz) from her legal studies at a university outside Sydney. </p>
<p>Her brother Asher (Jasper Lee-Lindsay) still lives with his mothers and is attending a Catholic school. </p>
<p>We don’t find out why Judith and Ruth are breaking up at first, but we see they are determined to control their breakup: to do it as well as they have tried to do everything in their lives. </p>
<p>They have invested much in being the textbook couple; the stakes of their separation are also high. </p>
<p>They had to fight hard not only for their rights, but to inhabit the institutions and organisations their straight counterparts took for granted. They want to find the perfect way to disentangle themselves from what they once fought hard to occupy. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510487/original/file-20230216-24-swb18x.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An upset woman." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510487/original/file-20230216-24-swb18x.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510487/original/file-20230216-24-swb18x.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510487/original/file-20230216-24-swb18x.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510487/original/file-20230216-24-swb18x.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510487/original/file-20230216-24-swb18x.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510487/original/file-20230216-24-swb18x.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510487/original/file-20230216-24-swb18x.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">They have invested much in being the textbook couple, the stakes of their separation are also high.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Belvoir/Brett Boardman</span></span>
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<p>We watch the hilarious unveiling of a poster – a withdrawal map of sorts – made by Judith’s primary school students, which the couple use to structure their breakup, their “untangling”, in a logical way. Although Delilah and Asher are shocked by the breakup announcement, they are massaged into accepting the move. Delilah even adds some sections to the poster (legal and financial). </p>
<p>The poster eventually goes the way of a BBQ burn-up, the closing symbol of act one for the eventual direction of their uncoupling: shambolic and full of feelings that logic cannot keep at bay.</p>
<h2>A long union</h2>
<p>Ruth is, in some ways, a difficult character to like. Her career and her needs appear to be more important to her than her family. Cormack plays this difficult character with extreme sensitivity, presenting the complexities and contradictions of a lesbian woman working in a male-dominated union where, as one of the two family breadwinners, she has had to make many ethical compromises. </p>
<p>Davey’s Judith is a wonderfully wrought characterisation of a woman undone by losing her partner. She easily physicalises Judith’s torments: there are some uproarious moments with a blender and the preparation of a plate of food for her son. </p>
<p>Lee-Lindsay is paradoxically the voice of normalcy in this family exactly because of his lack of care about how things appear. </p>
<p>Diaz’s Delilah, whose smartness and care for Judith threaten to undo her, has a crispness of body and attitude.</p>
<p>Both children are highly articulate, brought up with the onus of having to justify their identities and lives to the straight world.</p>
<p>The issue of their mixed Asian heritage is thrown in as part of the recriminations the children feel towards their mothers. One of the strands of Blessed Union that could have been developed more, it nonetheless points to just another political decision made by this lesbian couple.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510491/original/file-20230216-22-givp1s.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two teenagers" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510491/original/file-20230216-22-givp1s.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510491/original/file-20230216-22-givp1s.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510491/original/file-20230216-22-givp1s.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510491/original/file-20230216-22-givp1s.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510491/original/file-20230216-22-givp1s.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510491/original/file-20230216-22-givp1s.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510491/original/file-20230216-22-givp1s.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">There is a strong sense this family has been together for many years.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Belvoir/Brett Boardman</span></span>
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<p>Hannah Goodwin’s strengths as a director manifest most in the clear sense of the family having been together for many years. Goodwin has guided her actors towards finding the joy and the heartbreak of this family’s untangling.</p>
<p>This is an important play. The words left ringing in my ears were Delilah’s to Ruth: words to the effect of “stop performing”. </p>
<p>Ironic in a play, but crucial to creating meaningful lives. How do you move to the sound of a different drum when those drums are encased in heteronormative forms? Food for thought.</p>
<p><em>Blessed Union is at Belvoir, Sydney, until March 11.</em></p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/children-with-same-sex-parents-do-better-at-school-than-their-peers-155205">Children with same-sex parents do better at school than their peers</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/198778/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Janet Gibson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Maeve Marsden’s play lays bare what happens when love and family are politicised.Janet Gibson, Tutor in Creative Arts, Macquarie UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1552052021-02-15T22:04:04Z2021-02-15T22:04:04ZChildren with same-sex parents do better at school than their peers<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/383942/original/file-20210212-15-vj7ye1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/lesbians-mothers-adopted-child-happy-homosexual-568376338">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Children with same-sex parents get higher scores on standardised tests than children with different-sex parents. This is the key finding from our study published today in the journal <a href="https://read.dukeupress.edu/demography/article/doi/10.1215/00703370-8994569/168481/Academic-Achievement-of-Children-in-Same-and">Demography</a>.</p>
<p>We also found children with same-sex parents to be slightly more likely to graduate from high school, and much more likely to enrol in university than children with different-sex parents.</p>
<p>Our results challenge common arguments against same-sex parenting, and lend support to other scholarly perspectives that emphasise the benefits of being raised by a same-sex couple.</p>
<h2>Same-sex parenting remains controversial</h2>
<p>Over the last 50 years, there have been <a href="https://academic.oup.com/sp/article-abstract/20/2/165/1666960?redirectedFrom=fulltext">dramatic changes</a> in social attitudes and legislation toward same-sex relations. Within this relatively short time frame, many countries have moved from criminalising same-sex relations to enabling same-sex couples to be formally recognised, marry and adopt children.</p>
<p>Despite these developments, same-sex parenting remains a highly controversial and politicised issue. And many <a href="http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/WVSContents.jsp">people around the world</a> still believe same-sex couples are incapable of being as good parents as different-sex couples.</p>
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<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/384205/original/file-20210215-17-10m5ynf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/384205/original/file-20210215-17-10m5ynf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/384205/original/file-20210215-17-10m5ynf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/384205/original/file-20210215-17-10m5ynf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/384205/original/file-20210215-17-10m5ynf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/384205/original/file-20210215-17-10m5ynf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/384205/original/file-20210215-17-10m5ynf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">World Values Survey, Wave 7 (years 2017-2020)</span></span>
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</figure>
<hr>
<p>These beliefs are often justified by “common wisdom” arguments. For instance, some argue that children need both male and female parental role models, that non-biological parents invest less effort in parenting their children, or that children with same-sex parents are subjected to shame and bullying.</p>
<p>But these arguments are rarely backed by solid empirical evidence.</p>
<h2>Previous research has been problematic</h2>
<p>In 2012, Mark Regnerus, a sociologist based at the University of Texas, Austin published <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0049089X12000610">a study</a> that claimed people raised by same-sex parents had worse health and socioeconomic outcomes as adults than people raised by different-sex parents. </p>
<p>Since these conclusions were at odds with the bulk of previous research findings, other <a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v2-23-478/">researchers</a> attempted to replicate Regnerus’s results using the same data. Their re-analyses demonstrated the Regnerus study was plagued by an array of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0049089X1500085X">analytical problems</a>. </p>
<p>Correcting for these issues, there were in fact <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/volokh-conspiracy/wp/2015/05/10/new-criticism-of-regnerus-study-on-parenting-study/">minimal differences</a> between the children raised by same-sex parents and married opposite-sex parents.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/factcheck-are-children-better-off-with-a-mother-and-father-than-with-same-sex-parents-82313">FactCheck: are children 'better off' with a mother and father than with same-sex parents?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>But still, the damage of the study was done. Its spurious findings received substantial international <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/kids-of-gay-parents-fare-worse-study-finds-but-draws-fire-from-experts/">media coverage</a> and became a go-to resource for <a href="https://www.focusonthefamily.com/faith/key-findings-of-mark-regnerus-new-family-structure-study/">activist groups</a> lobbying against same-sex marriage. </p>
<p>The study’s findings were also <a href="http://nydivorcefirm.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/4.Deboer_Findings_of_Fact_and_Conclusions_of_Law.pdf">presented in US courts</a> in an attempt to prevent the introduction of same-sex marriage legislation.</p>
<p>To be sure, the Regnerus study constitutes an outlier in the broader literature on same-sex parenting. The <a href="https://whatweknow.inequality.cornell.edu/topics/lgbt-equality/what-does-the-scholarly-research-say-about-the-wellbeing-of-children-with-gay-or-lesbian-parents/">majority of studies</a> on the topic have found same-sex parents provide their children with as healthy and nurturing home environments as different-sex parents. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/384192/original/file-20210215-17-16c1m2c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two fathers reading with their son." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/384192/original/file-20210215-17-16c1m2c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/384192/original/file-20210215-17-16c1m2c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/384192/original/file-20210215-17-16c1m2c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/384192/original/file-20210215-17-16c1m2c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/384192/original/file-20210215-17-16c1m2c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/384192/original/file-20210215-17-16c1m2c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/384192/original/file-20210215-17-16c1m2c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Same-sex parenting is still controversial.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/happy-gay-couple-adopted-child-reading-1881483787">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But even these studies are routinely called into question. The most <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01494929.2015.1033317">common criticism</a> is that their analyses tend to rely on “convenience” samples. These are small and selective samples of same-sex-parented families, who may be approached at LGBT events or recruited through mailing campaigns.</p>
<p>Critics (rightfully) argue such families may differ from the broader population of same-sex families, which can distort the reliability of the studies and their conclusions.</p>
<h2>Our new research</h2>
<p>We conducted our study in the Netherlands because it is one of only a few countries in the world that allows researchers to <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ej/advance-article-abstract/doi/10.1093/ej/ueaa140/6055681">link anonymous administrative data</a> from multiple population registers on children and their families.</p>
<p>Thanks to these data, we were able to overcome the limitations of existing research, both in terms of the sample size and the accuracy of the information. </p>
<p>Leveraging the records of 13 consecutive cohorts of primary school students, we compared the academic outcomes of all children raised by different-sex couples (more than 1.4 million children) with those of all children raised by same-sex couples (3,006 children).</p>
<p>We statistically accounted for pre-existing characteristics that may be different between families with same-sex and different-sex parents. These include the higher average education and lower average incomes of same-sex parents.</p>
<p>We found children in same-sex-parented families got higher scores on national standardised tests. Their advantage amounted to 13% of a standard deviation, which is comparable to the advantage of children whose parents are both employed as opposed to being out of work. The advantage manifested across all test modules, including language, mathematics and general learning ability. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/in-families-with-same-sex-parents-the-kids-are-all-right-42605">In families with same-sex parents, the kids are all right</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>We also found children with same-sex parents to be slightly more likely (1.5%) to graduate from high school, and much more likely (11.2%) to enrol in university, than children with different-sex parents.</p>
<p>Our data did not enable us to pinpoint the specific reasons why same-sex-parented children tend to outperform their peers. The literature, however, offers some plausible theoretical mechanisms. </p>
<p>For example, it could be because same-sex couples face more substantive barriers to parenthood (including social scrutiny, greater costs of conceiving a child and legislative hurdles) and overcoming these barriers may strengthen their commitment to parental roles. </p>
<p>Combined with the fact same-sex couples face minimal odds of becoming parents through accidental pregnancies, this can result in more positive parenting practices.</p>
<h2>What does it all mean?</h2>
<p>The Netherlands features high levels of <a href="https://www.norc.org/PDFs/PubAttExecSumm.pdf">public approval</a> of same-sex relations. It also provides robust <a href="https://scholarlypublications.universiteitleiden.nl/handle/1887/3609">legislative support</a> structures for same-sex couples, such as the right to adopt children, equal access to IVF treatments and formal recognition of both parents. </p>
<p>For these reasons, the Dutch institutional context may represent a best-case scenario concerning the achievement of children with same-sex parents.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-education-about-gender-and-sexuality-does-belong-in-the-classroom-102902">Why education about gender and sexuality does belong in the classroom</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Same-sex parents in other countries may be subject to environmental hurdles that remain out of their control and that may negatively affect their children. These include a lack of access to the social institution of marriage and more profound experiences of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0277953618302508">stigma and discrimination</a>.</p>
<p>By undertaking our analyses in the Netherlands, we were able to retrieve findings that are more likely to reflect the influence of same-sex parenting itself, and less likely to reflect external influences that stem from non-inclusive institutional environments.</p>
<p>Therefore, our findings portray a viable scenario of what could happen in countries with more restrictive institutions, should they direct comparable efforts towards the inclusion of sexual minorities. </p>
<p>Altogether, the message stemming from our findings is clear: being raised by same-sex parents bears no independent detrimental effect on children’s outcomes. In social and political environments that provide high levels of legislative and public support, children in same-sex-parented families <em>thrive</em>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/155205/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jan Kabatek receives funding from Australian Research Council. He is affiliated with the ARC Centre of Excellence for Children and Families over the Life Course</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Francisco Perales received funding from the Australian Research Council as part of its Discovery Early Career Researcher Award scheme for a project titled 'Sexual Orientation and Life Chances in Contemporary Australia'.</span></em></p>Our analysis of data on all children in the Netherlands found those who have same-sex parents do better on standardised scores than those with parents of different sexes.Jan Kabatek, Research Fellow, Melbourne Institute of Applied Economic and Social Research, The University of MelbourneFrancisco Perales, Associate Professor, School of Social Science, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1185662019-06-13T17:15:07Z2019-06-13T17:15:07ZWho’s your daddy? Don’t ask a DNA test<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/279196/original/file-20190612-32335-l4jcax.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">What are the rules that make a man a father?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/eFmLuPyzgxI">Slava Potik/Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>“<a href="https://nypost.com/2017/07/23/man-ordered-to-pay-65k-in-child-support-for-kid-who-isnt-his/">Man Ordered to Pay $65K</a> in Child Support for Kid Who Isn’t His.” “<a href="https://www.news4jax.com/news/investigations/father-hopes-to-change-state-paternity-law-after-losing-custody-of-daughter">Father Hopes to Change State Paternity Law</a>” after losing custody of his biological daughter to another man. The headlines are lurid and seemingly nonsensical. How can a man bear financial responsibility for a child that is not “his”? How can he be denied legal paternity of a child whom he conceived?</p>
<p>The gist of these stories is that such outcomes are not only ludicrous but unjust. Such tales not only appear in the mainstream media but provide fodder for <a href="https://mensrights.com/texas-child-support-paternity/">men’s rights websites</a> and <a href="https://www.nj.com/news/2012/03/nj_legislator_proposes_measure.html">have even inspired bills to</a> <a href="http://www2.ljworld.com/news/2011/feb/12/bill-kansas-house-would-require-paternity-testing-/">make DNA testing mandatory at birth</a>, though none has actually become law.</p>
<p>But <a href="http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674980686">history suggests</a> such cases are not so strange. In fact, they follow from a long tradition in which paternity was a social and legal relationship, not a biological one.</p>
<p>After all, it was only in the 1980s that DNA testing emerged, with its <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1989/07/21/us/the-law-dna-test-dooms-paternity-trials-lawyers-say.html">promise to reveal the identity of the biological father</a>. For most of human history, no such technology existed – nor was it missed. Paternity was based on presumption, deduced from social behaviors and legal conventions.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/279198/original/file-20190612-32361-1gtbj17.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/279198/original/file-20190612-32361-1gtbj17.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/279198/original/file-20190612-32361-1gtbj17.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/279198/original/file-20190612-32361-1gtbj17.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/279198/original/file-20190612-32361-1gtbj17.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/279198/original/file-20190612-32361-1gtbj17.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/279198/original/file-20190612-32361-1gtbj17.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/279198/original/file-20190612-32361-1gtbj17.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Is a baby’s father set by social, legal, biogenetic factors… or a combination of all?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/Mx2f4psEnvU">Minnie Zhou/Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Father, by tradition</h2>
<p>Historically, the father was defined by marriage. Pater est quem nuptiae, in the Roman formulation: The father is he whom marriage indicates, even in circumstances when, well, he could not be. The tradition carried forward over the centuries. According to 17th-century English common law, for example, if a husband was located anywhere within the “Four Seas” of the King of England at the time of his wife’s conception, he was legally presumed the father of her child.</p>
<p>As for children born out of wedlock, courts, especially those operating in the civil law tradition, <a href="https://www.dukeupress.edu/children-of-fate">deduced paternity from a man’s actions or public reputation</a>. The father was he who cohabited with the mother or kissed the baby in public, the man whom a neighbor saw paying the wet nurse. Paternity was performative.</p>
<p>Such definitions of fatherhood did not mean it was less certain or less true: It was simply that the truth of paternity was social, not physical.</p>
<p>This situation contrasted with the logic of maternity. Mater certissima est – the mother is always certain, in the Roman formulation. Maternal identity could presumably be known by the physical facts of pregnancy and birth.</p>
<h2>A more muddled modern landscape</h2>
<p>Today, according to some observers, reproductive technologies like <a href="https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/ylr96&div=17&id=&page=">surrogacy and egg donation have disrupted the certainty</a> of the Roman dictum on maternity. After all, maternal identity is not so obvious when the gestational mother who births the child and the genetic one whose egg creates it can be two different people.</p>
<p>By contrast, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1983.03340180090038">DNA was supposed to make biological paternity certain</a>. And yet the older reasoning that long defined paternity as a social relationship endures.</p>
<p>Today, family law in the U.S. and elsewhere continues to <a href="https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cjlpp/vol14/iss1/1/">recognize nonbiological lines of reasoning</a>. A man’s behavior, intent, the nature of his relationship with the mother, stability in a preexisting parent-child relationship – all these criteria, rather than biology, may define the father. If anything, reproductive technologies like sperm donation and new family forms, like those born of the frequency of divorce, have only multiplied the scenarios in which biology may take a backseat to social criteria.</p>
<p>But in some contexts, the biological continues to prevail. This is often the case in immigration and citizenship law. Kin relations play a central role in immigration proceedings in the U.S. and other countries because <a href="https://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/ylj/vol120/iss4/5">citizens can sponsor close relatives to immigrate</a>, and under certain circumstances refugees have a <a href="https://scholarship.law.umassd.edu/umlr/vol8/iss2/4">right to join family members</a> in their adopted country.</p>
<p>Increasingly, countries that are migration destinations use DNA to verify family relationships. In May 2019, for instance, the U.S. Department of Homeland Security began a <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2019/04/30/politics/homeland-security-dna-testing-immigration/index.html">pilot program to test Central American migrant families</a> at the southern border.</p>
<p>As critics have noted, this practice <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2019/05/13/rapid-dna-promises-identify-fake-families-border-it-wont/">imposes a narrow, biological definition of family</a>. Kinship practices like adoption, stepparenthood and relationships based on a social understanding of parentage are considered perfectly legitimate when practiced by natives but are vilified as fraudulent and criminal when practiced by foreigners.</p>
<p>These apparently contradictory definitions of parentage reflect the fact that paternity’s definition varies depending on whose parentage is at stake – and how much power they hold.</p>
<p>Law and custom have always purposefully obfuscated the fatherhood of certain categories of men: the slave owner, the priest, the colonizer, the soldier. <a href="https://www.upress.virginia.edu/title/2650">Thomas Jefferson’s paternity</a> of Sally Hemings’ children was publicly obscured for two centuries. In an entirely different historical context, <a href="https://press.princeton.edu/titles/8048.html">German women after World War II</a> found it impossible to bring paternity suits against American soldiers who had fathered their children.</p>
<p>The fact that some fathers, like Jefferson and the GIs, have remained strategically uncertain suggests the very notion of paternal uncertainty is not a biological axiom but a political idea.</p>
<h2>Life’s too complicated to rely on DNA</h2>
<p>Over the last century, the distinction between legitimate and illegitimate children has <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307/838374">lost much of its social and legal significance</a> in the West. The once markedly different criteria for proving maternity versus paternity have largely, though not entirely, disappeared. Under U.S. law, children born abroad to unmarried citizen fathers <a href="http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/jurisprudence/2010/11/sexing_citizenship.html">still do not enjoy the same rights to citizenship</a> as those born to citizen mothers, for example.</p>
<p>At the same time, stratification has been reinforced in other contexts, as in the contrasting definitions of parentage among citizens and foreigners. New dynamics of discrimination have also arisen as assisted reproductive technologies and same-sex couples produce new permutations of family.</p>
<p>Take the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/21/us/gay-couple-children-citizenship.html">recent conundrum</a> faced by two dads and their young daughter. Both men are U.S. citizens and are legally married; their daughter was born abroad to a surrogate. Drawing on a tortured combination of both biological considerations – the fact that child was not genetically related to both parents – and social ones – nonrecognition of the couple’s marriage – the State Department denied their child U.S. citizenship. What such a case shows is not that old laws have failed to keep pace with new family forms, but how the state can generate new forms of stratification even as older ones fade.</p>
<p>With the dawn of the DNA era, many observers predicted that, by revealing the truth of paternity, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1983.03340180090038">genetic science would one day abolish ambiguity</a> and deliver equality and justice. Today science can indeed find a father, but its impact has been rather more complex than once anticipated. Instead of sweeping away older social and legal definitions with a new biogenetic one, it has actually heightened the tensions between different ways of defining paternity. </p>
<p>Who’s your daddy? Perhaps science isn’t best positioned to answer, because this question arises from society, not nature. It might not be the right question anyway. A better one is, what does society want a father to be?</p>
<p>[<em>You’re smart and curious about the world. So are The Conversation’s authors and editors.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/weekly-highlights-61?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=weeklysmart">You can get our highlights each weekend</a>.]</p>
<p><strong>Editors Note: A picture was been removed from this article after a request from the photographer</strong></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/118566/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nara Milanich has received funding from American Council of Learned Societies (ACLS).</span></em></p>Before the advent of genetic testing, definitions of paternity were primarily social and legal. Science has destabilized these older definitions, but it has not replaced them.Nara Milanich, Professor of History, Barnard CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/880142018-01-07T19:09:52Z2018-01-07T19:09:52ZMum, dad and two kids no longer the norm in the changing Australian family<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/200123/original/file-20171220-4965-1shr6f1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Grandparent-led families are increasingly significant in Australia.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The image of the typical family – mum, dad, and two kids – still permeates how we define and understand the family in contemporary Australia. This ideal saturates our screens and newsfeeds and was at the centre of the marriage equality debate, underscoring the pervasiveness of the nuclear family as the dominant family form in our consciousness.</p>
<p>However, this conceptualisation masks the true nature of Australian families, which has changed significantly in recent decades. As sociologists and demographers have long known, the Australian family is as diverse and different as the country’s terrain. </p>
<p>Drawing on data from the 2016 Census, we know there are more than 6 million families in Australia. This is a significant increase from the 5 million or so families counted at the 2011 Census. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/200110/original/file-20171220-4980-105ngby.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/200110/original/file-20171220-4980-105ngby.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/200110/original/file-20171220-4980-105ngby.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/200110/original/file-20171220-4980-105ngby.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/200110/original/file-20171220-4980-105ngby.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=492&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/200110/original/file-20171220-4980-105ngby.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=492&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/200110/original/file-20171220-4980-105ngby.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=492&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Figure 1 – Family composition.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">2016 Census - Counting Families, Place of Enumeration</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Of these 6 million families, the most-common family form (as illustrated in Figure 1) was the couple family with no children (37.76%). The next-most-common was couple families with dependent children under the age of 15 (30.64%). </p>
<p>These proportions confirm that the nuclear family is no longer the most common family form in Australia. One-parent families with dependent children comprise around 8% of all Australian families. </p>
<p>Reflecting this move away from the traditional, nuclear family and the rise of more couple families without children, is the size of families. In 2016, around 30% of all families were two-person families. A further 27% were four-person families. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/200111/original/file-20171220-4957-1n5wxqv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/200111/original/file-20171220-4957-1n5wxqv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/200111/original/file-20171220-4957-1n5wxqv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/200111/original/file-20171220-4957-1n5wxqv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/200111/original/file-20171220-4957-1n5wxqv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=492&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/200111/original/file-20171220-4957-1n5wxqv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=492&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/200111/original/file-20171220-4957-1n5wxqv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=492&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Figure 2 – Family blending.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">2016 Census – Counting Families, Place of Enumeration</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Most couple families with children in Australia are so-called “intact families” (89.94%), consisting of at least one one child who is the natural or adopted child of both partners in the couple.</p>
<p>However, families are becoming increasingly more “blended”, as couples dissolve (due to separation, divorce or death of a partner) and new families are formed. </p>
<p>Blended families are a small proportion of modern Australian family forms, accounting for just over 3.7% of all families. This includes families with two or more children, at least one of whom is the natural or adopted child of both partners and at least one other child who is the step-child of one of them. </p>
<p>A further 6.3% of families are step-families. Here, there is at least one resident step-child, but no child who is the natural or adopted child of both partners. </p>
<p>Grandparent-led families are also increasingly significant. </p>
<p>Grandparents already play a significant role in Australian family lives through the provision of informal child care, but there are now just over 60,000 grandparent families in Australia (which a significant increase from estimates in 2004, which found around 22,500 grandparent families). Of those, 53% of grandparent families are couple families with grandchildren and 47% are lone grandparent families. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/200112/original/file-20171220-4951-ys0rvb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/200112/original/file-20171220-4951-ys0rvb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/200112/original/file-20171220-4951-ys0rvb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/200112/original/file-20171220-4951-ys0rvb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/200112/original/file-20171220-4951-ys0rvb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=492&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/200112/original/file-20171220-4951-ys0rvb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=492&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/200112/original/file-20171220-4951-ys0rvb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=492&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Figure 3 – Family composition by same-sex.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">2016 Census – Counting Families, Place of Enumeration</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The 2016 Census gathered information on same-sex couples. Compared with opposite-sex couples, these data show that family forms differ across sexual orientation.</p>
<p>Overall, around 15% of same-sex couples had children. Female same-sex couples were more likely to be in couple families with dependent children (20.67%) compared to male same-sex couples (3.10%), or opposite-sex couples (37.8%). </p>
<p>However, same-sex couples were still more likely to be in couple families with no children than were opposite-sex couples, and they were more likely to have smaller families. Of those, around 54% of male same-sex couples with children and 51% of female same-sex couples with children had one-child families. One-third of same-sex couples had two children. </p>
<p>In comparison, 36% of opposite sex-couples had one child, and 42% had two children. </p>
<p>What these data from the 2016 Census show is just some of the diversity within the Australian family. While the idealised nuclear family of the past is no more, this does not mean that the family as a social institution is in decline, or that families in contemporary Australia are at risk.</p>
<p>But it does mean families are changing. Our political leaders should reflect on this diversity to ensure social policies reflect these differences, so that all families are well supported.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/88014/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brendan Churchill is Convenor of the The Australian Sociological Association's (TASA) Families and Relationships Thematic Group. </span></em></p>Families are changing, and our political leaders should reflect on this diversity to ensure social policies reflect these differences, so that all families are well supported.Brendan Churchill, Research Fellow, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/873162017-11-15T19:21:18Z2017-11-15T19:21:18ZSame-sex marriage results crush the idea that Australian voters crave conservatism<p>Australians have overwhelmingly <a href="https://theconversation.com/same-sex-marriage-survey-by-the-stats-a-resounding-yes-but-western-sydney-leads-no-vote-87258">voted “yes”</a> for same-sex marriage. This means politicians will have to give up relying on the myth that a cultural backlash against the progressive agenda is driving voters to minor parties.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/same-sex-marriage-result-delivers-much-needed-good-news-for-embattled-turnbull-87510">Same-sex marriage result delivers much-needed good news for embattled Turnbull</a>
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<p>The minor party vote is on the rise in Australia. In the 2016 federal election, first-preference Senate votes for minor parties (including the Greens) reached over 35% – <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-07-03/election-results-historical-comparison/7560888">the highest level since 1949</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2017/feb/23/tony-abbott-takes-aim-at-turnbull-and-lays-out-conservative-manifesto">Conservative politicians</a> and <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/federal-politics/political-opinion/pynes-samesex-marriage-treachery-consists-of-giving-people-what-they-want-20170626-gwyhky.html">commentators</a> in Australia push the “outsider politics” theory, arguing that the Liberal Party should embrace conservative social values to bring disenchanted voters back into the tent. </p>
<p>These same voters are supposed to have been pivotal players in the shock election of Donald Trump in the US, the Brexit vote in the UK, and the upsurge of populist right-wing parties in Europe. </p>
<p><a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2818659">Some research argues</a> these voters are those who are fearful of losing their established status by the expansion of rights to minority groups. They tend to be <a href="https://www.vox.com/2016/9/19/12933072/far-right-white-riot-trump-brexit">white</a>, <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2818659">older, and less educated</a>.</p>
<p>But the same-sex marriage ballot suggests that appealing to these voters would not be an election-winning strategy here. The clear majority of Australians – including Australians from a broad spread of electorates – have rejected the conservative position on marriage.</p>
<h2>How Australia voted</h2>
<p>More than <a href="https://marriagesurvey.abs.gov.au/results/">61% of voters who participated in the survey</a> were in favour of changing the Marriage Act so same-sex couples can marry. The strongest support came from electorates in the inner-cities of Victoria and Sydney. The outer suburbs of Sydney, and regional Queensland were the least in favour. </p>
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<p>In general, the electorates with the highest levels of support for marriage equality are those with a high percentage of tertiary educated people, and more people working in services rather than agriculture and manufacturing. But there was no discernible difference in the vote by average age of the electorate, and support was not higher in areas with <a href="https://grattan.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/890-Regional-patterns.pdf">a large Australian-born population</a>.</p>
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<p>While most inner-city electorates said yes to same sex marriage, plenty of the regional electorates did too. It is notable that once you get more than 40kms from the CBD, the average “yes” vote doesn’t vary much by location. In other words, Australia’s regions are no more or less conservative than the outer suburbs of our cities on the question of marriage equality.</p>
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<p>But there are important differences between states. Queensland electorates – whether in the city or the regions – were much less likely to support same-sex marriage, as were electorates in western Sydney. Victorian electorates had the highest level of support. </p>
<p>The difference in voting between regional areas in Queensland compared to regional areas in Victoria is particularly striking. Most electorates in regional Victoria delivered a yes vote in excess of 60%. </p>
<p>In contrast, many regional electorates in Queensland were below 50%. These differences can’t be explained by education levels or age profiles, which are not notably different between these parts of the country. </p>
<p>The explanation for this state-based “cultural divide” remains an open question. </p>
<h2>If not “outsider politics” then what?</h2>
<p>The result of the same-sex marriage survey is not surprising to people familiar with the survey data on Australian attitudes: support for marriage equality and for LGBT rights more generally has been <a href="https://theconversation.com/revealed-who-supports-marriage-equality-in-australia-and-who-doesnt-82988">increasing over the past decade</a>. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.australianelectionstudy.org/about.html">Other surveys reveal</a> rising support for a whole range of socially progressive issues, including access to abortion, decriminalisation of marijuana, and support for women in business.</p>
<p>It’s very unlikely that a “yes” vote for marriage equality would have passed in Australia ten years ago. Those arguing for a closer embrace of more socially conservative positions are moving in the <em>opposite</em> direction to the electorate. </p>
<p>Politicians seeking to explain rising voter dissatisfaction will need to look elsewhere. An upcoming Grattan Institute report will show that falling trust in government is the most important explanation for the rising minor party vote. </p>
<p>This means the government’s response to the same-sex marriage ballot will be vital. An overwhelming 79.5 % Australian voters participated in the ballot – higher than for <a href="http://www.bbc.com/news/politics/eu_referendum/results">the Brexit vote in England</a> (72%) and well above the <a href="https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/no-voter-turnout-wasnt-way-down-from-2012/">2016 US election</a> (58%). They did so because they hoped their time and effort would count.</p>
<p>They expect their political representatives to now follow through. If the government descends into ugly political infighting, or if the parliament fails to deliver the legislation as promised before Christmas, that would only compound the corrosive view that <a href="http://www.australianelectionstudy.org/publications.html">our politicians are out-of-touch and can’t be trusted</a>. </p>
<p>If the government wants to win back voter trust, then a good place to start would be to keep faith with the admirably clear wording of the survey and change the law to allow same-sex couples to marry.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/87316/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The ‘yes’ vote disproves that the rise of the minor party vote is the result of a cultural backlash from people who reject the progressive agenda, including the expansion of rights for minorities.Danielle Wood, Program Director, Budget Policy and Institutions, Grattan InstituteCarmela Chivers, Associate, Grattan Institute, Grattan InstituteLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/873572017-11-15T00:15:42Z2017-11-15T00:15:42ZHow to talk to your kids about today’s same-sex marriage postal survey result<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/194690/original/file-20171114-30000-k67r8m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">It's important to speak to your kids about the same-sex marriage debate, but how much and what will depend on their age and level of interest.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>After three months of sometimes acrimonious debate, the results of the same-sex marriage postal survey are in: 61.6% (a majority), voted yes to legalising same-sex marriage. <a href="https://marriagesurvey.abs.gov.au/news-alerts">Nearly 13 million</a> of us (a response rate of 79.5%) returned the survey form. </p>
<p>The postal survey exposed significant differences of opinion, and has left many feeling bruised. So much so that there has been an <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-09-18/same-sex-marriage-survey-lgbtqi-mental-health-support/8955956">increase in numbers accessing mental health services</a>.</p>
<p>Many parents might now be experiencing a dilemma as to whether they need to discuss this result with their children. Although the public vote has ended, the conversation will no doubt continue. Now more than ever, it is important to talk about the issues with your children and provide honest information. In the long term, it will be the youngest members of our society who will be most affected by the outcomes of this voting process.</p>
<p>Children will continue to receive messages from other sources. They may overhear adult conversations, other children may talk about it, and they are unlikely to have missed the topic in the media. While it’s important to be honest with your child, try not to be pessimistic or worry them about the consequences of the result or what happens next.</p>
<p>Here are some things that can help make these conversations easier.</p>
<h2>Language matters</h2>
<p>Start by having open communication and letting your child know that you are willing to answer their questions. <a href="https://www.psychology.org.au/Assets/Files/17APS-PI-ME-LGBTQI-C-IS-P1.pdf">Conversations</a> should be brief and factual, and the level of detail you provide will depend on your child’s age and level of interest in the topic.</p>
<p>Whichever side you’re on, try to use <a href="http://www.amnestyusa.org/pdfs/toolkit_LGBTglossary.pdf">correct and respectful terminology</a> and be nonjudgmental of the opposing view. </p>
<p>Discourage your child from colloquial use of terms such as “gay” or “homo” to represent things that are negative or bad. Although often not purposely used to be hateful, these expressions can be quite commonplace in schools and carry negative connotations for LGBTQI+ people. </p>
<h2>Young children</h2>
<p>Don’t shy away from discussing the same-sex marriage postal vote with young children, especially if they have questions. Keep discussions simple and honest with younger children, and focus conversations around love and caring relationships. </p>
<p>To facilitate conversations, parents can introduce their child to more basic LGBTQI+ terminology such as gay and lesbian. Explain these terms simply. For example, “a lesbian is a woman who loves another woman”. In this way, the same-sex marriage vote can be explained fundamentally as deciding whether someone should be allowed to marry a person of the same sex. </p>
<p>Young children may have limited exposure to same-sex couples and “non-traditional” family structures, so it is important that parents help normalise all family types. Explain that some families have one mummy and one daddy, while other families might have two mummies or two daddies. Emphasise to children that regardless of how many mums and dads a family might have, what is important is that children are loved and cared for. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/194502/original/file-20171114-27612-4c5ftz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/194502/original/file-20171114-27612-4c5ftz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194502/original/file-20171114-27612-4c5ftz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194502/original/file-20171114-27612-4c5ftz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194502/original/file-20171114-27612-4c5ftz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194502/original/file-20171114-27612-4c5ftz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194502/original/file-20171114-27612-4c5ftz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">It’s important to talk to your kids about non-traditional family structures.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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<h2>Older children</h2>
<p>Watching the news with your older child can provide an opportunity to discuss the issues and help you understand what your child already thinks and knows. During conversations, encourage children to try to understand both sides of the debate. Do not lecture them or try to convince them your viewpoint is correct. They will likely form their own views over time. </p>
<p>The language used and the topics discussed with older children are more complex and diverse. For example, you may explore different perceptions of gender and sexuality (like transgender and asexual identities), and discuss issues of discrimination, diversity and inclusion. What you discuss should be framed around what your young person is curious and concerned about - let them set the agenda. </p>
<p>Respectful and accurate use of LGBTQI+ terminology will be particularly important for older children as they are more likely to have been exposed to defamatory LGBTQI+ language in media and at school. If LGBTQI+ terminologies are not familiar to you, this may be a good opportunity to learn and discuss these together with your adolescent. A good place to start, for example, may be understanding what each of the letters in the LGBTQI+ acronym stand for. This <a href="http://www.amnestyusa.org/pdfs/toolkit_LGBTglossary.pdf">glossary</a> of terms can be useful. </p>
<p>Adolescents likely have LGBTQI+ peers and may themselves <a href="https://www.headspace.org.au/friends-and-family/a-parents-guide-to-their-childs-sexuality/">be trying to understand their sexuality</a>. </p>
<p>There are many benefits of having open, clear, factual discussions with children about relationships and sexuality from an early age. When parents talk to their children about sexuality-related issues, children are likely to feel good about themselves, their bodies and their gender. They can appreciate and accept individual differences, and understand what constitutes appropriate and inappropriate behaviour. Importantly, they can make informed and responsible sexual decisions later in life.</p>
<h2>Helping kids respond to homophobic bullying</h2>
<p>Parents who identify as LGBTQI+ may be facing stigma not only directed at themselves, but also at their children. Helping children to navigate stigma and respond effectively to bullying is important. </p>
<p>Parents may need to find ways to manage their own emotions when discussing the topic with their children. Although as a parent you will always want to put your child first, it is important during this time that you consider your own needs and look after yourself as well.</p>
<p>For school-age children and adolescents who identify as LGBTQI+ or whose families are LGBTQI+, the same-sex marriage postal vote can be <a href="https://au.reachout.com/articles/how-to-look-after-yourself-during-the-marriage-equality-debate">a vulnerable time</a>. </p>
<p>Schools can be <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4614-4556-2_18">challenging places</a> for LGBTQI+ young people, and more than half of LGBTQI+ students indicate they <a href="https://www.glsen.org/sites/default/files/2013%20National%20School%20Climate%20Survey%20Full%20Report_0.pdf">felt unsafe at school</a> due to their sexuality.</p>
<p>Parents should be aware that their child may be a target of homophobic bullying, especially as the same-sex marriage debate continues. Ask your child if they are OK and let them know you are always available should they need to talk. Be prepared to <a href="https://www.headspace.org.au/friends-and-family/understanding-bullying-for-family-and-friends/">help your child respond effectively</a> to bullying and to be an advocate for them at school.</p>
<p>While there is <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-should-parents-do-if-their-child-is-bullied-at-school-37152">no one way to respond</a> to bullying, <a href="https://www.headspace.org.au/young-people/understanding-bullying-for-young-people/">headspace</a> and the <a href="http://www.psychology.org.au/publications/tip_sheets/bullying#s9">Australian Psychological Society</a> both offer practical suggestions that parents can discuss with their children if they are being bullied: </p>
<ul>
<li>Remain calm and try not to react</li>
<li>Do not fight back </li>
<li>Stand up for yourself if possible (for example, “stop calling me names”)</li>
<li>Remove yourself from the bullying situation</li>
<li>Seek out friends and peers</li>
<li>Tell a teacher and parent what happened </li>
</ul>
<p>If parents are aware their child is being bullied, it is important that they do not ignore it. Schools will have anti-bullying policies in place and parents and schools should work together to protect children against bullying.</p>
<h2>It’s not over yet</h2>
<p>The debate is not over yet. Legislation will now be introduced in parliament, with Prime Minister Turnbull saying the government will pass legislation by Christmas. This issue will continue to be debated beyond today’s result, and these are not one-off conversations to have with your children. Your child’s needs and ability to understand the issues will change with time, so an ongoing personal conversation is important, especially as the public conversation will no doubt continue. </p>
<h2>Where to get help</h2>
<p>For information or support for both parents and young people, visit <a href="https://au.reachout.com/">ReachOut</a> or <a href="https://www.headspace.org.au/">headspace</a>. Crisis support is available from Kids helpline on 1800 55 1800 or Lifeline on 13 11 14.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/87357/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The Parenting and Family Support Centre is partly funded by royalties stemming from published resources of the Triple P – Positive Parenting Program, which is developed and owned by The University of Queensland (UQ). Royalties are also distributed to the Faculty of Health and Behavioural Sciences at UQ and contributory authors of published Triple P resources. Triple P International (TPI) Pty Ltd is a private company licensed by Uniquest Pty Ltd on behalf of UQ, to publish and disseminate Triple P worldwide. Ms Kirby has no share or ownership of TPI. Ms Kirby receives no royalties or consultancy fees from TPI. Ms Kirby is a student at UQ.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>The Parenting and Family Support Centre is partly funded by royalties stemming from published resources of the Triple P – Positive Parenting Program, which is developed and owned by The University of Queensland (UQ). Royalties are also distributed to the Faculty of Health and Behavioural Sciences at UQ and contributory authors of published Triple P resources. Triple P International (TPI) Pty Ltd is a private company licensed by Uniquest Pty Ltd on behalf of UQ, to publish and disseminate Triple P worldwide. Dr Morawska has no share or ownership of TPI. Dr Morawska receives royalties from TPI. Dr Morawska is an employee at UQ.
Dr Morawska has previously received funding from the Australian Research Council and Family Planning Queensland. </span></em></p>Australia voted Yes to legalising same-sex marriage today, and it’s more important than ever to talk to your children about same-sex marriage and relationships.Grace Kirby, PhD Candidate in Psychology, The University of QueenslandAlina Morawska, Deputy Director (Research), Parenting and Family Support Centre, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/857492017-10-23T19:07:01Z2017-10-23T19:07:01ZConnecting ‘diblings’: how the law is failing to keep up with modern families<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/191296/original/file-20171022-13961-qtca03.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">At the moment, Australia has a patchwork of processes and regulations relating to diblings.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The days of nuclear families consisting of mum, dad and 2.5 children are long gone – if they ever really existed. We now see families coming in many shapes and sizes, including with parents who are lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex and single by choice. Such families are possible due to advances in fertility technology such as IVF and surrogacy.</p>
<p>The law is slowly catching up with these medical and social advances. In some Australian jurisdictions, it is now possible for people conceived using donor sperm and eggs to obtain information about their donor, even if the donor was promised anonymity when they provided the gametes. Such <a href="https://theconversation.com/victorias-world-first-change-to-share-sperm-or-egg-donors-names-with-children-72417">law reform</a> recognises the strong urge in some people to know their genetic origins.</p>
<p>However, for some, this law reform has come too late, and records pertaining to the identity of their donor may no longer exist, or their donor may have passed away or not want any contact with their offspring conceived from their donation. </p>
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<p>But making contact with the sperm or egg donor is not the end of the issue for donor-conceived individuals. Many are just as interested in reaching out to other biological kin, such as other offspring conceived using the same donor’s sperm or eggs. </p>
<p>A quest for knowledge about donor siblings (“diblings” for short) was the catalyst for the development of the <a href="https://www.donorsiblingregistry.com/">Donor Sibling Registry</a> in the US, in 2000. That there are almost 56,000 members from around the world on this registry is testament to the strong demand for such connections.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.wellesley.edu/sites/default/files/assets/making_sense_of_donors_and_donor_siblings.pdf">Research</a> conducted with donor-conceived individuals found that they were more interested in meeting their diblings than their donor, perhaps because it was less likely to negatively impact on their relationship with their parents. </p>
<p>The main reasons given by donor-conceived individuals for wanting to find diblings were curiosity, a better understanding of their genetic identity and to avoid unwittingly forming incestuous relationships with them.</p>
<p>Australia lags behind the US when it comes to connecting diblings. There is no Australian equivalent to the Donor Sibling Registry (although many Australian donor-conceived people have registered on the US site, and some have been matched with their diblings). </p>
<p>Rather, Australia has a patchwork of processes and regulations relating to diblings. Victoria is the most progressive, with a <a href="https://www.varta.org.au/information-support/donor-conception/donor-conception-register-services/donor-conception-registers">Voluntary Register</a> that helps donor-conceived individuals (or their parents if they are under 18), who both enter their details on the Voluntary Register, to connect.</p>
<p>The Victorian Assisted Reproductive Treatment Authority (<a href="https://www.varta.org.au/">VARTA</a>) will contact all parties and invite them to exchange information if they wish. A deficiency of the Voluntary Register is that even if VARTA knows the identity of other offspring of the same donor, they cannot contact them to let them know there are diblings wanting to reach out to them. This is in stark contrast with the way the <a href="https://www.varta.org.au/information-support/donor-conception/donor-conception-register-services/donor-conception-registers-0">Central Register</a> operates; VARTA does advise a donor that a donor-conceived child is seeking to contact them, even if the donor has not placed their details on the Central Register.</p>
<p>This distinction exists because the Central Register is required by legislation, whereas the Voluntary Register is not. Parliament has not yet recognised any right for diblings to connect with each other.</p>
<p>Associate professor Sonia Allan has developed a <a href="http://www.healthlawcentral.com/donorconception/access-information-australia/">useful resource</a> that sets out the divergent state and territory laws (or lack of laws) regulating contact between genetic kin. Queensland, Tasmania, the Northern Territory and the ACT have no legislation regulating contact between donor-conceived individuals and their donors, let alone their diblings. South Australia has legislation, but no register to facilitate connections. </p>
<p>The only national program connecting diblings is <a href="https://www.ivf.com.au/donor-siblinks">SybLink</a>, a service offered by IVF Australia exclusively for people conceived through its clinics.</p>
<p>In the absence of accessible and reliable government-run systems for diblings to find each other, many donor-conceived people are turning to commercial enterprises such as <a href="https://www.ancestry.com.au/dna/">Ancestory.com</a> and <a href="https://www.23andme.com/en-int/">23andme</a>. On these sites, for around A$100, they can order a DNA test that may lead to the identification of genetic relatives, including donors and diblings. </p>
<p>While there are happy outcomes for some people using these services – such as <a href="https://blog.23andme.com/ancestry/lost-girls/">Cynthia Lund</a>, who found a donor sister – these processes also raise serious concerns relating to privacy (a for-profit business has your DNA profile) and potential negative mental health outcomes for people who embark on this journey without the kind of support and counselling that experienced organisations like VARTA offer to all donor-conceived individuals and their parents.</p>
<p>Genealogy is a billion dollar industry, and <a href="http://time.com/133811/how-genealogy-became-almost-as-popular-as-porn/">according to Time magazine</a>, genealogy websites are the second most-visited category of websites after pornography. This is evidence of the urge in many of us to know our biological origins.</p>
<p>For people conceived using donor gametes, this need to understand their genetic identity is not limited to finding out about their donor, but extends to other kin, such as diblings.</p>
<p>International human rights law recognises the right to identity (Article 8 of the <a href="http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/CRC.aspx">Convention on the Rights of the Child</a>), and that families should be assisted and protected (Article 10 of the <a href="http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/CESCR.aspx">International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights)</a>. </p>
<p>Arguably, these human rights treaty provisions require Australia (which is a party to both these international treaties) to provide a safe, secure and regulated service for donor-conceived individuals to find any diblings they may have. </p>
<p>It is time for the states and territories to come to terms with the reality of modern families and develop a uniform legal framework that enables donor-conceived people to realise their right to know their genetic identity and, if they wish, form relationships with their genetic kin.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/85749/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paula Gerber does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>It is time for the states and territories to develop a uniform legal framework that enables donor-conceived people to connect with their genetic kin.Paula Gerber, Professor of Human Rights Law, Monash UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/850892017-10-05T05:26:02Z2017-10-05T05:26:02ZTrust Me, I’m An Expert: a lawyer, a biblical scholar and a fact-checker walk into the same-sex marriage debate…<p>Where should the line fall between protecting people’s right to hold religious beliefs and the right to be free from discrimination? </p>
<p>It’s a question that’s emerged several times as the same-sex marriage debate has unfolded in Australia.</p>
<p>“Freedom of religion is not absolute. And neither is anti-discrimination law. Both are rights, absolutely, but both have limitations - particularly where they impinge upon the rights of others,” University of Western Australia law lecturer Renae Barker says in an interview on The Conversation’s new half-hour podcast, Trust Me I’m An Expert.</p>
<p>On Trust Me, I’m An Expert, we ask academics to share their expertise with us, unpack the issues making headlines and explain the research in a way we can all understand. </p>
<p>In a world of endless opinions and hot takes, we’re aiming to bring you informed analysis and the research evidence from the world of academia. </p>
<p>Our first episode tackles the debate underway as Australia contemplates changing the Marriage Act to allow same-sex couple to marry.</p>
<p>Dr Barker, an expert on the relationship between religion and the state, explains what the law really says on secularism, religion and discrimination in the context of same-sex marriage. And she outlines some of complex legal issues that may emerge if it is legalised in Australia.</p>
<p>Here’s a snippet of the interview:</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Video produced by the University of Western Australia. Listen to the full interview with Renae Barker on episode one of The Conversation’s new podcast, Trust Me, I’m An Expert.</span></figcaption>
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<p>“Should someone be permitted to refuse to provide a service where they don’t agree with the beliefs of the person they are providing the service to? That’s a conversation we have to have as a society. It’s going to need to be carefully discussed and debated and we need to be prepared for whatever the consequences of that may be,” she says in the full interview, featured on episode one of Trust Me, I’m An Expert.</p>
<p>“That’s going to need a mature, reasoned, polite, political debate – and I’m not sure we are having that just yet.”</p>
<p>In this episode of the podcast, we also asked University of Divinity biblical scholar Robyn J. Whitaker to detail what the Bible really says about human sexuality, in a historically grounded analysis informed by disciplines such as archaeology, history and social science. </p>
<p>And Jennifer Power, a La Trobe University researcher who has reviewed the major studies on outcomes for children raised by same-sex parents, fact-checks the oft-repeated claim that kids do best when they are raised by a mother and a father. </p>
<p>Trust Me, I’m An Expert is out at the start of every month. Find us and subscribe in <a href="https://itunes.apple.com/au/podcast/trust-me-im-an-expert/id1290047736?mt=2">iTunes</a> or wherever you get your podcasts.</p>
<p>You can read more about what the podcast is all about, and listen to our teaser episode, <a href="https://theconversation.com/trust-me-im-an-expert-a-new-podcast-from-the-conversation-84703">here</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p><strong>Music:</strong></p>
<p>Kindergarten by Unkle Ho, from <a href="https://www.elefanttraks.com/">Elefant Traks</a></p>
<p><a href="http://freemusicarchive.org/music/Blue_Dot_Sessions/Landsman_Duets/When_in_the_West">Blue Dot Sessions: When in the West</a>, from Free Music Archive.</p>
<p><a href="http://freemusicarchive.org/music/Podington_Bear/Electronic_1224/Bass_Rider">Podington Bear</a>: Bass Rider, from Free Music Archive</p>
<p><a href="http://freemusicarchive.org/music/Scott_Gratton/Intros_and_Outros/Scott_Gratton_-_04_-_Electro_Lab">Scott Gratton: Electro Lab</a> from Free Music Archive.</p>
<p><strong>Additional audio:</strong></p>
<p>Q&A on ABC TV, <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/tv/qanda/txt/s4624231.htm">The Misinformation Ecosystem</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1IDF-8khS3w">CNN</a></p>
<p><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3OG6itojBiI">WH.GOV</a></p>
<p><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GGgiGtJk7MA">SkyNews</a></p>
<p><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wNh6LgfTtcU">BBC Radio 5</a></p>
<p>Additional recording by Rhys Woolf.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/85089/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
In this episode of Trust Me I'm An Expert, we're wading into the same-sex marriage debate with experts on the Bible and the law, and fact-checking claims that kids do best with a mother and a father.Sunanda Creagh, Senior EditorLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/823132017-09-06T20:15:17Z2017-09-06T20:15:17ZFactCheck: are children ‘better off’ with a mother and father than with same-sex parents?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/183709/original/file-20170829-1542-1u356h6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Many of the studies on this question examine the outcomes for children in same-sex parented families where both parents are women.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/success">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/184869/original/file-20170906-9843-13n294b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/184869/original/file-20170906-9843-13n294b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/184869/original/file-20170906-9843-13n294b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=334&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184869/original/file-20170906-9843-13n294b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=334&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184869/original/file-20170906-9843-13n294b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=334&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184869/original/file-20170906-9843-13n294b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184869/original/file-20170906-9843-13n294b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184869/original/file-20170906-9843-13n294b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Liberal MP Kevin Andrews, interviewed on Sky News, August 13, 2017.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gfu18kSIDqI">YouTube</a></span>
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<blockquote>
<p>Optimally, you’ve got the input from both [a mother and a father] and the children brought up in those circumstances are, as a cohort, better off than those who are not.</p>
<p>… whether it’s in terms of health outcomes, mental health, physical health, whether it’s in terms of employment prospects, in terms of how this is generated from one generation to another, the social science evidence is overwhelmingly in one direction in this regard. <strong>– Liberal MP Kevin Andrews, excerpts from an <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gfu18kSIDqI">interview on Sky News</a>, August 13, 2017.</strong> </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Public campaigns for and against same-sex marriage have been heightened by the Turnbull government’s plan to conduct a $122 million <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/d3310114.nsf/home/ABS+Media+Statements+-+Australian+Marriage+Law+Postal+Survey">voluntary postal survey</a> asking the nation whether same-sex couples should be able to marry under Australian law.</p>
<p>Discussing his opposition to same-sex marriage during <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gfu18kSIDqI">an interview</a> on Sky News, Liberal MP Kevin Andrews said children who are brought up with a mother and a father “are, as a cohort, better off than those who are not”.</p>
<p>Andrews also said the “social science evidence is overwhelmingly in one direction in this regard”.</p>
<p>Let’s look at the research.</p>
<h2>Checking the source</h2>
<p>When asked for sources to support his statements, a spokesperson for Kevin Andrews told The Conversation:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Mr Andrews wrote a book called “<a href="http://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/6105053">Maybe I Do</a>”. You might also like to look at the 2011 report, <a href="http://sydney.edu.au/law/news/docs_pdfs_images/2011/Sep/FKS-ResearchReport.pdf">For Kids’ Sake</a>, by Professor Patrick Parkinson of the University of Sydney and studies by Douglas Allen (2015) in Canada and Paul Sullins (2015) in the US.</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Verdict</h2>
<p>Kevin Andrews’ assertion that children who are brought up with a mother and father are, “as a cohort, better off than those who are not” is not supported by research evidence.</p>
<p>The majority of research on this topic shows that children or adolescents raised by same-sex parents fare equally as well as those raised by opposite-sex parents on a wide range of social, emotional, health and academic outcomes. </p>
<h2>Response to Kevin Andrews’ sources</h2>
<p>First of all, let’s look at the sources provided by Andrews’ spokesperson to support his statements. A summary of Kevin Andrews’ book on the National Library of Australia website says it:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>… reviews the evidence on the benefits of marriage for society, children, and adults. It argues that healthy, stable, and happy marriages are the optimal institution for promoting individual well being and healthy societies. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>It’s true that there is a large body of evidence to show that stability in marriage and family life is <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3091824/">beneficial for children</a>, particularly in early childhood. Some research has shown that these benefits are associated with <a href="http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/sites/default/files/files/Cohabitation,%20marriage,%20relationship%20stability%20and%20child%20outcomes%20July%202011.pdf">higher average income and education levels</a> among married couples, rather than marriage itself. </p>
<p>But these studies didn’t involve comparisons between opposite-sex and same-sex married couples, so they do not defend the argument that heterosexual marriage leads to better outcomes for children than same-sex marriage. In fact, some research suggests same-sex marriage would <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/record/2006-11202-004">provide benefits</a> for children being raised in these families.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/184623/original/file-20170905-14281-res10c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/184623/original/file-20170905-14281-res10c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=410&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184623/original/file-20170905-14281-res10c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=410&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184623/original/file-20170905-14281-res10c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=410&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184623/original/file-20170905-14281-res10c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184623/original/file-20170905-14281-res10c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184623/original/file-20170905-14281-res10c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/success?src=Mho5IDhazvxAEhpyDSi-yA-1-14">Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>Patrick Parkinson’s report, <a href="http://sydney.edu.au/law/news/docs_pdfs_images/2011/Sep/FKS-ResearchReport.pdf">For Kid’s Sake</a>, links rising rates of divorce, family conflict and instability in parental relationships with increasing psychological distress among young people in Australia. One of Parkinson’s conclusions was that:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>the most stable, safe and nurturing environment for children is when their parents are, and remain, married to one another.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>There are <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3074431/">studies that support these assertions</a>. This research supports the importance of family stability, quality relationships between parents and children, and the need for access to socioeconomic resources – but not the need for parents to be heterosexual.</p>
<p>Douglas Allen’s <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01494929.2015.1033317">2015 paper</a> is a critical, but not systematic, review of more than 60 studies relating to same-sex parenting and/or child outcomes. This paper does not present findings related to child outcomes.</p>
<p>Rather, Allen says that, due to sampling bias and small sample sizes in the existing body of work, there is currently no conclusive scientific evidence demonstrating that children raised by same-sex couples do better or worse than children raised by heterosexual couples.</p>
<p>Andrews’ spokesperson also pointed to 2015 research from Paul Sullins. Sullins’ <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2500537">2015 analysis</a> of data from the US National Health Interview Survey indicated that children raised by same-sex parents were more than twice as likely to experience emotional problems than those raised by heterosexual, married parents who were biologically related to their children. But this analysis <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2015/02/using-pseudoscience-to-undermine-same-sex-parents/385604/">was</a> <a href="https://familyinequality.wordpress.com/2015/02/27/bogus-versus-extremely-low-quality/">criticised</a> for not taking into account the stability of the family environment.</p>
<p>The author combined all children in same-sex families into one category, while placing children in opposite-sex families into separate categories – including different categories for step-parents and single parents, for example. So the comparison made was between <em>all</em> same-sex parented families, and a <em>selection</em> of <em>stable</em> heterosexual families. </p>
<h2>Research on outcomes for children in same-sex parented families</h2>
<p>Now let’s look at other studies that have been conducted around the world. Many of these studies examine the outcomes for children in same-sex parented families where both parents are women. There has been comparatively little research on families in which both parents are men. It can be difficult to achieve adequate sample sizes of children raised in <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-families-with-2-dads-raise-their-kids-77386">two-father families</a>, given the small number of these families. There is no research showing that children raised by gay fathers fare worse than other children. </p>
<p>A <a href="http://journals.lww.com/jrnldbp/Abstract/2016/04000/Same_Sex_and_Different_Sex_Parent_Households_and.1.aspx">study published in 2016</a> using data from the <a href="http://www.childhealthdata.org/learn/NSCH">US National Survey of Children’s Health</a> for <a href="http://childhealthdata.org/docs/drc/2011-12-fast-facts.pdf">2011-12</a> compared outcomes for children aged six to 17 years in 95 female same-sex parented families and 95 opposite-sex parented families. </p>
<p>The study found no differences in outcomes for children raised by lesbian parents compared to heterosexual parents on a range of outcomes including general health, emotional difficulties, coping behaviour and learning behaviour. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/184621/original/file-20170905-9760-1di0o1v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/184621/original/file-20170905-9760-1di0o1v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/184621/original/file-20170905-9760-1di0o1v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184621/original/file-20170905-9760-1di0o1v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184621/original/file-20170905-9760-1di0o1v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184621/original/file-20170905-9760-1di0o1v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=498&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184621/original/file-20170905-9760-1di0o1v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=498&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184621/original/file-20170905-9760-1di0o1v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=498&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/success?src=Mho5IDhazvxAEhpyDSi-yA-2-87">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A paper published for the American Sociological Association in 2014 <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11113-014-9329-6">reviewed 10 years’ of scientific literature</a> on child well-being in same-sex parented families in the US. The literature review covered 40 original published studies, including numerous credible and methodologically sound social science studies, many of which drew on nationally representative data. </p>
<p>The authors concluded there was clear consensus in scientific literature that children raised by same-sex couples fared as well as children raised by opposite-sex couples. This applied for a range of well-being measures, including: </p>
<ul>
<li>academic performance</li>
<li>cognitive development</li>
<li>social development</li>
<li>psychological health</li>
<li>early sexual activity, and </li>
<li>substance abuse.</li>
</ul>
<p>The authors noted that differences in child well-being were largely due to socioeconomic circumstances and family stability. </p>
<p>A <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2009.00678.x/abstract">meta-analysis published in the Journal of Marriage and Family in 2010</a> combined the results of 33 studies to assess how the gender of parents affected children. The authors found the strengths typically associated with married mother-father families appeared to the same degree in families with two mothers and potentially in those with two fathers. </p>
<p>The meta-analysis found no evidence that children raised by same-sex couples fared worse than children raised by opposite-sex couples on a range of outcomes including:</p>
<ul>
<li>security of attachment to parents</li>
<li>behavioural problems</li>
<li>self perceptions of cognitive and physical competence, and</li>
<li>interest, effort and success in school.</li>
</ul>
<p>This review included studies from Europe, the UK and the US. The authors said that scholars had achieved </p>
<blockquote>
<p>a rare degree of consensus that unmarried lesbian parents are raising children who develop at least as well as their counterparts with married heterosexual parents. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>In Australia, <a href="https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2458-14-635">a large study</a> published in the peer-reviewed BMC Public Health Journal in 2014 (and of which I was one of five co-authors) surveyed 315 parents representing 500 children. 80% of children had a female same-sex attracted parent, while 18% had a male same-sex attracted parent. </p>
<p>The results did support <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fa0012711">previous</a> <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02646830412331298350">research</a> showing that stigma related to a parent’s sexual orientation is negatively associated with mental health and well-being.</p>
<p>But, overall, the study found children and adolescents raised by same-sex parents in Australia fared as well as children of opposite-sex parents, and better on measures of general behaviour, general health and family cohesion.</p>
<p>A <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jpc.13171/abstract">follow up paper published in 2016</a> found there was no difference between children raised in female same-sex parent households and children raised in male same-sex parent households.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/184622/original/file-20170905-26556-1nxdxli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/184622/original/file-20170905-26556-1nxdxli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/184622/original/file-20170905-26556-1nxdxli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184622/original/file-20170905-26556-1nxdxli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184622/original/file-20170905-26556-1nxdxli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184622/original/file-20170905-26556-1nxdxli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184622/original/file-20170905-26556-1nxdxli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184622/original/file-20170905-26556-1nxdxli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/success?src=Mho5IDhazvxAEhpyDSi-yA-1-49">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Further work from the same project reported on surveys and interviews with adolescents raised by same-sex parents. <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cch.12180/full">This study</a> (of which I was one of four co-authors) did find that some adolescents with same-sex parents reported experiencing anxiety relating to fear of discrimination, which was linked to poorer well-being.</p>
<p>A <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1359105311403522">US study published in 2011</a> found adolescents raised by lesbian mothers were more likely to have reported occasional substance use, but not more likely to have reported heavy use, than other adolescents.</p>
<p>A <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1353%2Fdem.0.0112?LI=true">2010 analysis</a> of data from the 2000 US census found that children raised by same-sex couples had no fundamental deficits in making normal progress through school compared to children raised by opposite-sex couples. </p>
<p>When parents’ socio-economic status and the characteristics of the students were accounted for, the educational outcomes for children of same-sex couples couldn’t be distinguished with statistical certainty from children of heterosexual married couples.</p>
<h2>Analysing studies that show different results</h2>
<p>Some studies have indicated that adults raised by same-sex parents fare worse on some educational, social or emotional outcomes. But the <em>majority</em> of research does not support this. There are also studies that have been published and later discredited, but continue to be used as references.</p>
<p>The 2012 US <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0049089X12000610%20on%20the%20psychological%20impact%20of%20same-sex%20parenting">New Family Structures Study</a>, also known as the “Regnerus study”, is <a href="http://family.org.au/the-kids-aren-t-all-right-new-family-structures-and-the-no-differences-claim/">often</a> <a href="http://www.marriagealliance.com.au/mark_regnerus_how_different_are_the_adult_children_of_parents_who_have_same_sex_relationships_findings_from_the_new_family_structures_study_social_science_research_41_2012_752_770">cited</a> by groups opposed to same-sex marriage.</p>
<p>The study looked at outcomes for adults aged 18-39. It compared outcomes for adults with a parent who had had a same-sex relationship, with outcomes for adults raised by still-married, heterosexual couples who were biologically related to their children. It showed the adults with a gay or lesbian parent or parents fared worse on a range of social, educational and health outcomes. But this study has been <a href="http://www.hrc.org/blog/michigan-judge-delivers-devastating-blow-to-junk-scientist-regnerus">very</a> <a href="http://www.hrc.org/blog/ut-austin-denounces-mark-regnerus-anti-gay-study">widely</a> <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/volokh-conspiracy/wp/2015/05/10/new-criticism-of-regnerus-study-on-parenting-study/?utm_term=.25f7a821264a">criticised</a>. </p>
<p>In <a href="http://www.asanet.org/documents/ASA/pdfs/ASA_March_2015_Supreme_Court_Marriage_Equality_Amicus_Brief.pdf">a brief</a> filed in the US Supreme Court in 2015, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Sociological_Association">American Sociological Association</a> said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>The Regnerus study … did not specifically examine children raised by same-sex parents, and provides no support for the conclusions that same-sex parents are inferior parents or that the children of same-sex parents experience worse outcomes. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>As outlined by the American Sociological Association, the study removed all divorced, single, and step-parent families from the heterosexual group, leaving only stable, married, heterosexual families as the comparison. In addition, Regnerus categorised children as having been raised by a parent in a same-sex relationship </p>
<blockquote>
<p>regardless of whether they were in fact raised by the parent … and regardless of the amount of time that they spent under the parent’s care.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>A subsequent <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/volokh-conspiracy/wp/2015/05/10/new-criticism-of-regnerus-study-on-parenting-study/?utm_term=.3bc3e975e063">reanalysis</a> of the data, using different criteria for categorising respondents, found the results <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0049089X1500085X">inconclusive</a>, or suggestive that “adult children raised by same-sex two-parent families show a comparable adult profile to their peers raised by two-biological-parent families”.</p>
<h2>Strengths and weaknesses of evidence on outcomes for children</h2>
<p>The “gold standard” for research on child and family outcomes are studies that involve randomly selected, population-based samples. This has been difficult to achieve in research on same-sex parenting because many population-based studies don’t ask about parents’ sexual orientation. Even where they do ask, not all studies include a sample of children or adults raised by same-sex parents that is large enough to provide for reliable statistical analysis. </p>
<p>This has led to criticism of the quality of evidence on outcomes for children raised by same-sex parents, because most studies have relied on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convenience_sampling">convenience</a> or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampling_(statistics)#Voluntary_Sampling">volunteer</a> samples, which are not randomly selected, and so may include bias.</p>
<p>However, there are methodological limitations in all studies. And, as outlined earlier, recent analyses of population-based data sets have supported the finding that children or adolescents raised by same-sex couples do not experience poorer outcomes than other children. So there is no clear basis to the argument that convenience samples lead to “incorrect” findings due to bias. <strong>– Jennifer Power</strong></p>
<h2>Review</h2>
<p>This FactCheck gives a good broad overview of the research and scientific consensus in regard to child health and well-being in same-sex parent families. The studies included, on balance, represent the current understanding of academics and child health experts on child health and well-being outcomes in same-sex parent families. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.nllfs.org/">National Lesbian Longitudinal Family Study</a> provides additional evidence to support the verdict of this FactCheck. As a well established and methodologically robust longitudinal study, the National Lesbian Longitudinal Family Study provides important additional insights.</p>
<p>In the Australian context, the <a href="https://aifs.gov.au/cfca/publications/same-sex-parented-families-australia">2013 Australian Institute of Family Studies</a> review of same-sex parent families also supports the overall verdict of this FactCheck. </p>
<p>It should be noted that <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13691050701601702">research</a> has indicated that same-sex parent families experience stigma and discrimination, and when they do it can impact on child health and well-being.</p>
<p>Overall, however, the verdict in this FactCheck is appropriate based on current research. <strong>– Simon Crouch</strong> </p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/162128/original/image-20170323-13486-72k52f.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/162128/original/image-20170323-13486-72k52f.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/162128/original/image-20170323-13486-72k52f.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/162128/original/image-20170323-13486-72k52f.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/162128/original/image-20170323-13486-72k52f.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/162128/original/image-20170323-13486-72k52f.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/162128/original/image-20170323-13486-72k52f.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/162128/original/image-20170323-13486-72k52f.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Conversation FactCheck is accredited by the International Fact-Checking Network.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><em>The Conversation’s FactCheck unit is the first fact-checking team in Australia and one of the first worldwide to be accredited by the International Fact-Checking Network, an alliance of fact-checkers hosted at the Poynter Institute in the US. <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-conversations-factcheck-granted-accreditation-by-international-fact-checking-network-at-poynter-74363">Read more here</a>.</em></p>
<p><em>Have you seen a “fact” worth checking? The Conversation’s FactCheck asks academic experts to test claims and see how true they are. We then ask a second academic to review an anonymous copy of the article. You can request a check at <a href="mailto:checkit@theconversation.edu.au">checkit@theconversation.edu.au</a>. Please include the statement you would like us to check, the date it was made, and a link if possible.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/82313/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jennifer Power has previously received funding from the Australian Research Council, ACON and Relationships Australia for research work related to parenting. Jennifer was a co-author on two papers cited in this document, as disclosed in the text. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Simon Crouch has previously received funding from the National Health and Medical Research Council.
Simon Crouch is a co-author on three papers cited in the article.</span></em></p>Discussing his opposition to same-sex marriage, Liberal MP Kevin Andrews said children who are brought up with a mother and father are ‘better off than those who are not’. Let’s look at the research.Jennifer Power, Senior Research Fellow at the Australian Research Centre in Sex, Health and Society, La Trobe UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/773862017-05-31T02:05:31Z2017-05-31T02:05:31ZHow families with 2 dads raise their kids<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/169154/original/file-20170512-3692-iw7smd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The number of men married to each other who have children is rising following legal rulings about marriage equality.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/two-young-fathers-on-sofa-home-279907355">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Some states, including <a href="http://www.legis.state.tx.us/tlodocs/85R/billtext/pdf/HB03859I.pdf">Texas</a>, <a href="http://www.sdlegislature.gov/docs/legsession/2017/Bills/SB149H.pdf">South Dakota</a> and <a href="https://rewire.news/legislative-tracker/law/alabama-child-placing-agency-inclusion-act-hb-24/">Alabama</a>, have tried to defy the <a href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/14pdf/14-556_3204.pdf">2015 Supreme Court ruling</a> that made marriage equality the law of the land. Their “<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2019/apr/05/texas-sb17-lgbt-discrimination-religious-freedom">religious freedom</a>” bills allow taxpayer-funded agencies to deny qualified LGBTQ adults to foster and adopt children.</p>
<p>LGBTQ protection in education appears limited as well. When pressed on the question, Education Secretary <a href="https://thehill.com/blogs/blog-briefing-room/news/435849-lawmaker-presses-devos-for-personal-opinion-on-lgbtq">Betsy DeVos</a> is refusing to tell lawmakers whether she believes the federal government should include “sexual orientation” and “gender identity” in anti-discrimination policies.</p>
<p>That reminds me of how former Kentucky family court judge W. Mitchell Nance refused to hold hearings on <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation-now/2017/04/28/judge-wont-hear-gay-adoptions-because-its-not-childs-best-interest/307679001/">same-sex couples’ adoptions</a> in 2017 “as a matter of conscience.” He resigned after his state’s Judicial Conduct Commission <a href="https://www.kentucky.com/news/state/article181005726.html">found him guilty of misconduct.</a></p>
<p>Maybe any officials, judges and lawmakers who are alarmed by dual-dad or dual-mom households should check out the research on how gay parents differ from straight parents. So far, most of this scholarship has focused on the social, emotional and cognitive outcomes of children they raise. (Spoiler alert: <a href="http://whatweknow.law.columbia.edu/topics/lgbt-equality/what-does-the-scholarly-research-say-about-the-wellbeing-of-children-with-gay-or-lesbian-parents/">These kids turn out fine</a>.)</p>
<p>As a former teacher who now <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=bZkHLZAAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=sra">researches gay dads and their families</a>, I’m studying how the growing number of men married to other men are raising their children. So far, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/09540253.2017.1303824">I’m finding few differences</a> between them and their straight peers of similar socioeconomic status – especially regarding their children’s schooling.</p>
<h2>A growing population</h2>
<p>Since the Census Bureau estimates – but does not count – the number of households headed by two fathers, it’s hard to track them.</p>
<p>Plans are taking shape for the Census Bureau to <a href="https://www.npr.org/2019/03/31/707899218/what-you-need-to-know-about-the-2020-census">begin counting same-sex couples</a> who share a household in 2020, although the agency won’t be counting all LGBTQ individuals.</p>
<p>Nevertheless, <a href="https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time-series/demo/same-sex-couples/ssc-house-characteristics.html">the American Community Survey</a>, the Census Bureau’s ongoing demographic survey of approximately 3 million households, already follows same-sex parenting. It estimates that in 2017, almost 40,000 two-dad households were raising children, up from about 30,000 in 2010.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/171501/original/file-20170530-23707-oveb7k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/171501/original/file-20170530-23707-oveb7k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/171501/original/file-20170530-23707-oveb7k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/171501/original/file-20170530-23707-oveb7k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/171501/original/file-20170530-23707-oveb7k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/171501/original/file-20170530-23707-oveb7k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/171501/original/file-20170530-23707-oveb7k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/171501/original/file-20170530-23707-oveb7k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Actors Neil Patrick Harris and Gideon Scott Burtka-Harris, who are married to each other, brought their twins to the ‘Smurfs 2’ premiere in 2013.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/inVision-John-Shearer-Invision-AP-a-ENT-CA-USA-/928bdee8326d461b9a6197a35c3a8ed9/2/0">John Shearer/Invision/AP</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Parenting roles</h2>
<p>How do parents in these families settle into specific roles? In short, just like heterosexual parents do.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15504281003704942">Research</a> suggests that affluent, white, two-father households adhere to traditional parenting roles. One is the primary breadwinner, while the other earns either less income or none at all and handles most of the caregiving and chores.</p>
<p>However, two-dad households can challenge the 1940s Norman Rockwell image of gendered parenting – just like heterosexual couples can.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25240028">Households with two fathers working full-time</a> rely on day care facilities, babysitters, housekeepers and nearby relatives for support. Some of these men even take on responsibilities based on <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/1550428X.2014.947461">skills and strengths</a>, rather than who fits the socially and culturally constructed mold of being more “motherly” or “fatherly.”</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/171358/original/file-20170529-25198-7f130b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/171358/original/file-20170529-25198-7f130b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/171358/original/file-20170529-25198-7f130b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/171358/original/file-20170529-25198-7f130b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/171358/original/file-20170529-25198-7f130b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/171358/original/file-20170529-25198-7f130b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=540&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/171358/original/file-20170529-25198-7f130b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=540&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/171358/original/file-20170529-25198-7f130b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=540&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Research suggests that two-dad households may not differ that much from the parenting patterns of heterosexual couples.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/different-types-families-158965958?src=o1TFkh4pw8MJT4nX3Cb97Q-1-87">www.shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Community and school engagement</h2>
<p>And that’s where the parenting of gay dads may differ from a traditional heterosexual household, as my research and the work of other scholars suggests.</p>
<p>While interviewing and spending time with 22 gay-fathered families living in the Northeast, I have learned that <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09540253.2017.1303824?journalCode=cgee20">they’re apt to step up</a>. But it depends on where dads live. Many living in more gay-friendly areas become involved as classroom parents, voluntarily assisting teachers, reading books or leading singalongs. Some take leadership roles by becoming active PTA members or organizing events that go beyond their children’s classes. In some cases, gay fathers become PTA presidents or serve on school boards.</p>
<p>Like all civically engaged parents, gay fathers support their local museums and libraries and enroll their kids in camps and extracurricular activities. They sometimes do additional volunteer work for social justice groups.</p>
<p>Dads living in less gay-friendly areas want to have more school-based presence, but concerns about their children’s and family’s safety have made it challenging.</p>
<p>The largest-scale <a href="https://www.glsen.org/learn/research/national/report-iii">survey to date</a> was conducted in 2008 by the Gay Lesbian Straight Education Network, an organization focused on the safety of LGBTQ students in schools. That study, which included 588 LGBTQ parents, suggested that gay fathers could be more likely to be involved in school-based activities than heterosexual dads.</p>
<p>Aside from the simple fact that they love their children just like all parents do, <a href="https://www2.clarku.edu/faculty/facultybio.cfm?id=589">Abbie Goldberg</a>, a Clark University researcher, and her colleagues have shown that increased presence may be due, in part, to fathers’ initiatives to <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02568543.2016.1244136">counter bias and assert more same-sex visibility</a> and inclusion in schools. My current study indicates the same. Many of the men taking part have told me that being actively involved helps them preemptively counteract potential negative encounters with school personnel and other families.</p>
<p>Gay dads prefer schools and communities that are safe and inclusive. As my research suggests, living in a inclusive community makes them more likely to engage. Beyond that, they want lawmakers bent on barring them from fatherhood to see that two-dad families are for the most part just like any other family.</p>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew Leland does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Research reveals few differences between the parenting of gay men and their straight peers. But it looks like gay fathers could be more apt to volunteer at their children’s schools.Andrew Leland, Assistant Professor of Educational Leadership, Southern Illinois University EdwardsvilleLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/555652016-03-08T19:05:23Z2016-03-08T19:05:23ZSame-sex couples and their children: what does the evidence tell us?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/113983/original/image-20160307-30444-1ubo9dt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A 2010 meta-analysis of 33 studies found that children raised by same-sex parents fared just as well as other children.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Few debates have sparked such heated debate as same-sex marriage and the prospect of a <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-02-10/same-sex-marriage-plebiscite-formal-proposal-delays/7154160">national plebiscite</a> on the issue. Much of this argument focuses on child well-being, and whether same-sex relationships are stable and secure enough to provide an appropriate environment for raising children. </p>
<p>Both opponents and proponents of same-sex marriage regularly cite research evidence supporting their side of the argument. But what is the evidence and why does it appear to be so contradictory? </p>
<h2>Do same-sex couples have (un)stable relationships?</h2>
<p>There are a number of studies that show the relationships of same-sex couples, on average, do not last as long as those of heterosexual couples – particularly heterosexual couples who are legally married. </p>
<p>A <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2012.01000.x/abstract">2012 British study</a> showed that married and non-married opposite-sex couples tended to sustain longer relationships than same-sex couples. This study is consistent with the findings of a number of previous studies.</p>
<p>There is less research comparing relationship longevity of couples who have children. Some <a href="http://www.corteidh.or.cr/tablas/Amicus/ANEXOS%20AMICUS%20LAWYERS%20CHRISTIAN/Anexo%206%20-%20Schumm.pdf">small studies</a> have shown lesbian mothers have more instability in their relationships than heterosexual mothers. However, there is <a href="https://www.ssb.no/a/publikasjoner/pdf/DP/dp723.pdf">emerging evidence</a> that the rate of divorce and separation is significantly lower among same-sex couples who have children together than child-free couples.</p>
<h2>Does this evidence support an anti-same-sex marriage argument?</h2>
<p>Paradoxically, the aforementioned data is used to both support and challenge marriage equality. </p>
<p>Supporters of same-sex marriage <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2012-03-06/badgett-good-things-about-gay-marriage/3870750">argue</a> the sense of legitimacy and formality afforded by legal marriage will enhance relationship stability among same-sex couples. </p>
<p>There is evidence that defends this stance, although again it is not consistent. A <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jomf.12141/abstract">2014 US study</a> found no difference in relationship longevity between same-sex and opposite-sex couples who were married. Similarly, a <a href="http://www.google.com.au/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwiUo46mgKbLAhWIlJQKHSHmAX0QFggbMAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ons.gov.uk%2Fons%2Frel%2Fpopulation-trends-rd%2Fpopulation-trends%2Fno--145--autumn-2011%2Fard-pt145-civil-partnerships.pdf&usg=AFQjCNEKPUkpQBi7oulind2ZSKLr0q8mRA&sig2=xD6N9eUzN-NcoGWX2eQC5A">British study</a> found the break up rate of same-sex civil unions was lower than the divorce rate for heterosexual marriages between 2005 and 2010. </p>
<p>However, a comparable <a href="http://www.google.com.au/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwiUo46mgKbLAhWIlJQKHSHmAX0QFggbMAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ons.gov.uk%2Fons%2Frel%2Fpopulation-trends-rd%2Fpopulation-trends%2Fno--145--autumn-2011%2Fard-pt145-civil-partnerships.pdf&usg=AFQjCNEKPUkpQBi7oulind2ZSKLr0q8mRA&sig2=xD6N9eUzN-NcoGWX2eQC5A">Norwegian study</a> found married same-sex couples were more likely to divorce than married opposite-sex couples. </p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/factcheck-qanda-was-katy-faust-correct-on-same-sex-family-studies-and-kids-rights-46257">Opponents of same-sex marriage</a> argue that evidence showing relationship instability demonstrates that same-sex couples are unable to provide an appropriate environment for children. It is also argued that studies which show children of same-sex couples do well are <a href="https://theconversation.com/full-response-from-traditional-marriage-advocate-katy-faust-46397">unreliable due to methodological flaws</a>. </p>
<h2>What is the evidence regarding children with same-sex parents?</h2>
<p>The <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0049089X12000610">study</a> most often cited as evidence that children do not do well when raised by same-sex couples was published in 2012. </p>
<p>This study involved a large, randomly-selected sample of young adults. It found children raised by a parent who had been in a same-sex relationship had poorer outcomes than other children on a range of measures including educational and income attainment, relationship problems and illicit drug use. </p>
<p>This study has been <a href="http://nymag.com/scienceofus/2015/05/">widely critiqued</a> on the grounds that respondents were classified as being a child of same-sex parents if they had not been raised by an intact, heterosexual couple and if one of their parents had ever had a same-sex romantic relationship. This meant the study compared young adults raised in a two-parent, stable family to those who had been raised in a range of circumstances. </p>
<p>A subsequent <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/volokh-conspiracy/wp/2015/05/10/new-criticism-of-regnerus-study-on-parenting-study/">re-analysis of these data</a>, using a different criteria for categorising respondents, showed no differences in well-being between children raised by same-sex couples and those raised by heterosexual couples. </p>
<p>These criticisms are significant. But the strength of this study is that researchers obtained a large, random sample. This is difficult to achieve due to the very high numbers needed to gain an adequate sample size. As such, most studies rely on <a href="http://psc.dss.ucdavis.edu/rainbow/HTML/fact_sample.html">convenience samples</a>, which means people have volunteered to participate in the study rather than being randomly selected. </p>
<p>The study most often cited as evidence that children with same-sex parents fair just as well as children raised by heterosexual parents is a meta-analysis of 33 studies <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2009.00678.x/abstract">published in 2010</a>. This study found children raised by same-sex parents fared equally as well as other children on a range of behavioural, educational, emotional and social outcomes. </p>
<p>Several <a href="http://download.springer.com/static/pdf/172/art%253A10.1007%252Fs11113-014-9329-6.pdf?originUrl=http%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Farticle%2F10.1007%2Fs11113-014-9329-6&token2=exp=1457061530%7Eacl=%2Fstatic%2Fpdf%2F172%2Fart%25253A10.1007%25252Fs11113-014-9329-6.pdf%3ForiginUrl%3Dhttp%253A%252F%252Flink.springer.com%252Farticle%252F10.1007%252Fs11113-014-9329-6*%7Ehmac=11f9c66753986046fc36ff6a40a50be4d6bac087430ec13b1940667eca869182">subsequent studies</a>, including a large <a href="http://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2458-14-635">Australian study</a>, have replicated these findings. </p>
<p>However, some children raised by same-sex couples may experience <a href="http://www.glsen.org/learn/research/national/report-iii">discrimination or isolation</a> from their peers. They may also experience <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cch.12180/pdf">anxiety related to fear</a> of discrimination. </p>
<h2>Making sense of the evidence</h2>
<p>The major strength of the body of evidence showing that children raised by same-sex parents fair equally well to children raised by heterosexual parents lies in the repetition of these findings across multiple, independent studies. </p>
<p>However, given potential bias may be introduced by convenience sampling, some people reject the validity of this research. </p>
<p>But it is important to note that there are methodological limitations of all studies in this area. What does seem clear is that there is no definitive or compelling evidence showing children raised by same-sex couples are not at least doing as well as children raised by heterosexual couples.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/55565/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jennifer Power has previously received funding from the Australian Research Council, VicHealth, Relationships Australia and ACON. She currently works on a project funded by the Australian Department of Health. She is the co-author of a study cited in this article that looked at the wellbeing of children raised by same-sex parents. </span></em></p>There is no convincing evidence that same-sex relationships are less stable than heterosexual relationships, nor that they have a negative impact on the children raised within them.Jennifer Power, Senior Research Fellow at the Australian Research Centre in Sex, Health and Society., La Trobe UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.