tag:theconversation.com,2011:/id/topics/short-reads-45182/articles
Short reads – The Conversation
2022-10-18T18:42:30Z
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/191992
2022-10-18T18:42:30Z
2022-10-18T18:42:30Z
Diwali: A celebration of the goddess Lakshmi, and her promise of prosperity and good fortune
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490398/original/file-20221018-7213-c797sk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C5%2C4000%2C2988&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The worship of the goddess Lakshmi on Diwali is said to bring prosperity.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/hand-of-a-woman-purchasing-goddess-lakshmi-small-royalty-free-image/1350553084?phrase=HIndu%2Blakshmi%2Bgoddess%2B">Aman Verma/ iStock / Getty Images Plus </a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Diwali, a popular festival for Hindus, Jains, Buddhists and Sikhs, is celebrated on the Amavasya, or new moon day, of the month of Kartik in the traditional Indian lunar calendar, which typically occurs in late October or early November. </p>
<p>Devotees across around the world will bring festivities into their homes by lighting earthen lamps called diyas, setting off fireworks, displaying colored electric lights and exchanging gifts. In northern India, this date also marks the beginning of the new year. </p>
<p>The day is specially dedicated to the worship of Lakshmi, the Hindu goddess of prosperity and good fortune. </p>
<h2>Who is Lakshmi?</h2>
<p>In modern images, Lakshmi is typically depicted wearing either a red or a green sari. The upper two of her four hands are holding lotus flowers, while her lower right hand is upraised in the “do not be afraid” gesture, or abhaya mudra.</p>
<p>Her lower left hand is pointed downward with her palm facing out and golden coins are falling from it. She sits or stands upon a large red lotus flower. Often, there are two elephants behind her with their trunks upraised. As poet <a href="https://www.patricia-monaghan.com/">Patricia Monaghan</a> writes, sometimes these elephants “shower her with water from belly-round urns.” </p>
<p>Lakshmi is believed to be the consort of <a href="http://rajhisco.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/Raj-HISCO-Vol-35.pdf#page=152">Vishnu</a>, who is the preserver of the cosmic order, or dharma. As Vishnu’s shakti, or power, Lakshmi is his equal and an integral part of his being. </p>
<p>In the Srivaishnava tradition of Hinduism, Lakshmi and Vishnu make up a single deity, <a href="https://books.google.com/books/about/Devi.html?id=EyAoAQAAIAAJ">known as Lakshmi Narayana</a>. Also known as Shri, Lakshmi is believed to <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307/2058203">mediate between her human devotees and Vishnu</a>. </p>
<h2>Origins of Lakshmi</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An idol of the Hindu goddess Lakshmi that shows her with four hands." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490395/original/file-20221018-16-vwt47t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=6%2C85%2C4385%2C2732&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490395/original/file-20221018-16-vwt47t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=417&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490395/original/file-20221018-16-vwt47t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=417&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490395/original/file-20221018-16-vwt47t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=417&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490395/original/file-20221018-16-vwt47t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=524&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490395/original/file-20221018-16-vwt47t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=524&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490395/original/file-20221018-16-vwt47t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=524&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Devotees all over the world pray to the goddess Lakshmi on Diwali.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00086495.1976.11829270">RapidEye/Collection E+ via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>According to the sources I have studied as a <a href="https://www.etown.edu/depts/religious-studies/faculty.aspx">scholar of Hindu, Jain and Buddhist traditions</a>, Shri in fact seems to be the earliest name given to this goddess in Hindu texts. This word originally means splendor and it refers to all that is auspicious: all the good and beautiful things in life. The name Lakshmi, on the other hand, refers to a sign, imprint or manifestation of Shri. These two words seem to refer to two distinct goddesses in the earliest Hindu literature, the Vedas.</p>
<p>By the first century, however, which is the period of the writing of the “Puranas,” or the ancient lore of the Hindu deities, these two deities appear to have merged into a single goddess, <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/history-of-ancient-and-early-medieval-india-from-the-stone-age-to-the-12th-century/oclc/1077247251">known as Shri, Lakshmi or Shri Lakshmi</a>. </p>
<p>There are many stories of Lakshmi’s origins. In the most popular of these, from the fifth century Vishnu Purana, she emerges from the ocean when the Devas and Asuras, the gods and the anti-gods, <a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Classical_Hindu_Mythology/re7CR2jKn3QC?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=Laksmi">churn it to acquire amrita</a>, the elixir of immortality. In another source – the Garuda Purana, a ninth-century text – <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00086495.1976.11829270">she is said to be the daughter</a> of the Vedic sage Bhrigu and his wife, Khyati. </p>
<p>Those who wish for prosperity in the new year say special prayers to Lakshmi and light diyas in their homes so the goddess will visit and bless them.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/191992/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jeffery D. Long does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Shri is the earliest name given to the goddess Lakshmi in Hindu texts. The word originally meant splendor and refers to all that is auspicious.
Jeffery D. Long, Professor of Religion and Asian Studies, Elizabethtown College
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/177812
2022-02-25T16:02:58Z
2022-02-25T16:02:58Z
Transgender youth on puberty blockers and gender-affirming hormones have lower rates of depression and suicidal thoughts, a new study finds
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/448469/original/file-20220225-27-1fsqygc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2091%2C1433&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Gender-affirming care and social support can help trans youth thrive.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/transgender-teenager-portrait-royalty-free-image/679618077">Jonathan Kirn/The Image Bank via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Recent studies estimate that <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6803a3">1.8%</a> to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2017.04.014">2.7%</a> – or approximately 750,000 to 1.1 million – adolescents in the U.S. identify as transgender or nonbinary. Many of these trans youth experience high levels of negative mental health symptoms due to anti-transgender stigma, discrimination and lack of family or peer support. A <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2021.10.036">2021 study</a> found that as much as 72% of trans youth were depressed, and half had seriously considered suicide.</p>
<p>We are an <a href="http://www.dianatordoff.com">epidemiologist</a> and fourth-year medical student who study ways to make clinical care more inclusive for trans and nonbinary people. We conducted a <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2789423">study</a> in collaboration with the <a href="https://www.seattlechildrens.org/clinics/gender-clinic/">Seattle Children’s Hospital Gender Clinic</a> that found that transgender youth on puberty blockers and gender-affirming hormone therapy are less likely to report depression and suicidal thoughts.</p>
<h2>Safe and proven treatments</h2>
<p><a href="https://health.clevelandclinic.org/what-are-puberty-blockers/">Puberty blockers</a> are medications that delay puberty. By temporarily stopping the body from making the hormones that lead to puberty-related changes, young people and their families are given time to pause and make health decisions. These medications have been used for <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3345/kjp.2015.58.1.1">over 30 years</a> to treat young people with puberty that starts too early, also called <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/precocious-puberty/symptoms-causes/syc-20351811">precocious puberty</a>. </p>
<p>Gender-affirming hormone therapy, like <a href="https://transcare.ucsf.edu/article/information-testosterone-hormone-therapy">testosterone</a> or <a href="https://transcare.ucsf.edu/article/information-estrogen-hormone-therapy">estrogen</a>, are medications that allow trans youth to experience a puberty appropriately aligned with their gender.</p>
<p>There is no shortage of scientific and clinical societies that have found these medications to be both safe and effective for transgender people. <a href="https://www.aap.org/en/news-room/news-releases/aap/2021/frontline-physicians-oppose-legislation-that-interferes-in-or-penalizes-patient-care/">Numerous medical and professional societies</a>, including the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2018-2162">American Academy of Pediatrics</a>, the <a href="https://www.aacap.org/AACAP/Latest_News/AACAP_Statement_Responding_to_Efforts-to_ban_Evidence-Based_Care_for_Transgender_and_Gender_Diverse.aspx">American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry</a> and the <a href="https://www.ama-assn.org/press-center/press-releases/ama-states-stop-interfering-health-care-transgender-children">American Medical Association</a>, endorse access to gender-affirming care specifically for trans youth.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2015-3223">Social support</a>, as well as access to <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/political-minds/202201/the-evidence-trans-youth-gender-affirming-medical-care">gender-affirming care</a>, is known to significantly reduce poor mental health in trans youth. In addition, several recent studies have suggested that early access to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2019-1725">puberty blockers</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0261039">hormones</a> during adolescence can have long-term positive effects that last into adulthood. Despite these benefits, many young people face significant barriers in accessing gender-affirming care. Only <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2021.10.036">1 in 5 youth</a> who need hormones have been able to access them.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/448434/original/file-20220224-23-uagw5m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Parents and children wearing masks and holding signs protesting anti-transgender legislation" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/448434/original/file-20220224-23-uagw5m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/448434/original/file-20220224-23-uagw5m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=357&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/448434/original/file-20220224-23-uagw5m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=357&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/448434/original/file-20220224-23-uagw5m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=357&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/448434/original/file-20220224-23-uagw5m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/448434/original/file-20220224-23-uagw5m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/448434/original/file-20220224-23-uagw5m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Parents and trans youth protest Texas Governor Greg Abbott’s recent attempt to outlaw gender-affirming care for trans youth.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/TransgenderLegislationTexas/81151a206a9a48e79275cff2cd7a1746">AP Photo/Eric Gay</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>To further examine the mental health effects of puberty blockers and hormone therapy, we followed 104 trans and nonbinary youth ages 13 to 20 during their first year of gender-affirming care. After one year, we found that young people who began puberty blockers or gender-affirming hormones were 60% less likely to be depressed and 73% less likely to have thoughts about self-harm or suicide compared to youth who hadn’t started these medications. </p>
<p>In addition, young people who were unable to start these medications within three to six months of their first appointment with a medical provider had a two- to threefold increase in depression and suicidal thoughts. Our findings suggest that delays in prescribing hormones and puberty blockers may worsen mental health symptoms for trans youth.</p>
<h2>What this means for anti-transgender legislation</h2>
<p>2021 and 2022 have been record-breaking years for <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2021.7764">anti-transgender legislation</a>, including attempts to <a href="https://twitter.com/ErinInTheMorn/status/1496511215719399431">criminalize gender-affirming care</a> for trans youth.</p>
<p>[<em>Over 140,000 readers rely on The Conversation’s newsletters to understand the world.</em> <a href="https://memberservices.theconversation.com/newsletters/?source=inline-140ksignup">Sign up today</a>.]</p>
<p>Banning gender-affirming care will have immediate and long-term negative effects on the well-being of trans youth and their families, both by increasing the stigma and discrimination these young people face and by denying them access to critical life-saving and evidence-based health care. Our study builds on existing scientific evidence and underscores that timely access to gender-affirming care saves trans youth lives.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/177812/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Diana Tordoff receives funding from the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases of the National Institutes of Health, the American Sexually Transmitted Diseases Association (ASTDA), and the Northwest Center for Public Health Practice at the University of Washington’s School of Public Health.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Arin Collin does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
A wealth of evidence supports the protective mental health effects of gender-affirming care, despite ongoing legislation that asserts otherwise.
Diana Tordoff, PhD Candidate in Epidemiology, University of Washington
Arin Collin, Medical Student, University of Washington
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/162889
2021-06-29T12:04:49Z
2021-06-29T12:04:49Z
How did the superstition that broken mirrors cause bad luck start and why does it still exist?
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408719/original/file-20210628-15-wxbbbl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=99%2C0%2C4028%2C2357&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Damaging a mirror was believed to invite the wrath of the gods in ancient cultures.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/man-adjusts-his-tie-in-a-broken-mirror-6-january-2003-afr-news-photo/540163605?adppopup=true">Fairfax Media via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Every human culture has <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-science-of-superstition-and-why-people-believe-in-the-unbelievable-97043">superstitions</a>. In some Asian societies people believe that sweeping a floor after sunset brings bad luck, and that it’s a curse to leave chopsticks standing in a bowl of rice. <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/297156/united-states-common-superstitions-believe/">In the U.S.</a>, some people panic if they accidentally walk under a ladder or see a black cat cross their path. Also, many tall buildings <a href="https://skepticalinquirer.org/2020/09/are-you-afraid-of-the-thirteenth-floor-superstition-and-real-estate-part-2/">don’t label their 13th floors as such</a> because of that number’s association with bad luck.</p>
<p>The origins of many superstitions are unknown. Others can be traced to <a href="https://books.google.com/books/about/Encyclopaedia_of_Superstitions.html?id=r7AZ4U2HA3UC">specific times in history</a>. Included in this second category is a superstition that is between 2,000 and 2,700 years old: Breaking a mirror brings seven years of bad luck. It so happened that in both <a href="https://people.howstuffworks.com/why-is-it-bad-luck-to-break-mirror.htm">ancient Greece</a> and <a href="https://www.scribd.com/book/358393132/Superstitions-And-why-we-have-them">the Roman Empire</a>, reflected images were thought to have mysterious powers. It is likely in one of these times and places that the broken mirror superstition began its rise in popularity. </p>
<p>As a social psychologist <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/sop.2001.44.1.21">who studies various ways that people influence one another</a>, I am fascinated when groups generate beliefs that are pure “social constructions” without necessarily having any basis in reality. I argue that the superstition about broken mirrors may be rooted in these ancient beliefs. </p>
<h2>Historical origins</h2>
<p>The Greeks believed that one’s reflection on the surface of a pool of water revealed one’s soul. But it was Roman artisans who actually learned to manufacture mirrors from polished metal surfaces, and believed their gods observed souls through these devices. To <a href="https://books.google.com/books/about/Superstitions.html?id=yUKYCwAAQBAJ">damage a mirror was considered so disrespectful</a> that people thought it compelled the gods to rain bad luck on anyone so careless. </p>
<p>Around the third century mirrors were being made from glass, and breakage became a lot more commonplace. But the Romans did not believe that the ensuing bad luck would last forever. They believed that the <a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/PerLtdiAKx0C?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA281&dq=romans+life+renews+itself+every+seven+years">body renewed itself every seven years</a>. </p>
<p>The belief that good luck would eventually return was surely comforting, and people have always tended to <a href="https://www.apa.org/monitor/2017/05/alternative-facts">believe things that make them feel good</a>, even when untrue. </p>
<h2>Psychological and social origins</h2>
<p>The human mind continuously and unconsciously <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/patternicity-finding-meaningful-patterns/">searches for useful patterns</a>. For example, we survive by recognizing feeding patterns and put ourselves in the right places at the right times for meals. We also avoid injury or death when crossing a busy street by recognizing traffic patterns. Getting fed and avoiding being squashed in traffic both involve learning real cause-and-effect patterns.</p>
<p>Sometimes, however, our brains infer cause-and-effect patterns that aren’t real. Suppose that a friend gives you a “lucky penny.” You’re skeptical, but a few days pass and nothing bad happens. Though it’s only a coincidence, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470939376.ch25">your brain may still infer a pattern</a>, and you may begin to believe the penny caused the run of good luck. A superstition is born. </p>
<p>We also acquire superstitious beliefs during socialization, <a href="https://sociologydictionary.org/socialization/">learning about them from parents and other trusted authorities</a> while still young and open to a world full of magical possibilities. Then our superstitions circulate indefinitely among families and friends, reinforced by word of mouth, social media and mass media. <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/04/190418131334.htm">The more people there are supporting the superstition</a>, the more believable it will seem and the longer it will persist. </p>
<h2>Helpful or harmful?</h2>
<p>If a superstition happens to make us more cautious around mirrors, there’s no harm in that. More generally, superstitions can <a href="https://www.livescience.com/8392-superstitions-bring-real-luck-study-reveals.html">lower stress and improve performance</a> when we find ourselves in difficult situations. They also can be fun and interesting to talk about, and promote <a href="https://insights.osu.edu/life/sports-superstitions">group solidarity</a>.</p>
<p>On the other hand, one does need to proceed with caution. Superstitions are false beliefs that can often produce anxiety and guilt. They can make us feel responsible for bad outcomes we didn’t cause, or waste our energy seeking untenable shortcuts to desired outcomes. </p>
<p>Common sense alone ought to be reason enough to deter us from smashing mirrors.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/162889/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Barry Markovsky does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
In both ancient Greece and the Roman Empire, reflected images were thought to hold mysterious powers. Damaging a mirror was believed to invite the wrath of the gods.
Barry Markovsky, Distinguished Professor Emeritus of Sociology, University of South Carolina
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/155622
2021-02-22T13:26:54Z
2021-02-22T13:26:54Z
What are the origins of Lent?
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/385319/original/file-20210219-19-18p9o9g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5100%2C3305&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Lent is a period of fasting and reflection for many Chistians.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/rosary-glass-of-water-and-holy-bible-during-lent-a-solemn-news-photo/1265207199?adppopup=true">Pascal Deloche/Godong/Universal Images Group via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In late winter, many Christian denominations observe a 40-day period of fasting and prayer called Lent. This is in preparation for the spring celebration of Easter, a religious holiday commemorating the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead. </p>
<p>The word “Lent” has Germanic roots <a href="https://aleteia.org/2018/02/05/the-surprisingly-secular-meaning-of-the-word-lent/">referring to the “lengthening” of days, or springtime</a>. But facts about the early origin of the religious observance are not as well known. </p>
<p>As a scholar who <a href="https://oxfordre.com/religion/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-84?mediaType=Article">studies Christian liturgy</a>, I know that by the fourth century, a regular practice of 40-day fasting became common in Christian churches.</p>
<h2>Early Christianity</h2>
<p>The practice of fasting from food for spiritual reasons is found in the three largest <a href="https://www.bl.uk/sacred-texts/articles/the-abrahamic-religions">Abrahamic faiths</a>: Judaism, Christianity and Islam. In all three, refraining from eating is intimately connected with an additional focus on prayer, and the practice of assisting the poor by giving alms or donating food.</p>
<p>In the Gospels, Jesus spends <a href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke+4&version=NRSV">40 days in the wilderness</a> to fast and pray. This event was one of the factors that inspired the final length of Lent. </p>
<p>Early Christian practices in the Roman Empire varied from area to area. A common practice was weekly fasting on Wednesday and Friday until mid-afternoon. In addition, candidates for baptism, as well as the clergy, would fast before the rite, which often took place at Easter. </p>
<p>During the fourth century, various Christian communities <a href="https://www.baylor.edu/content/services/document.php/193181.pdf">observed a longer fast</a> of 40 days before the beginning of the three holiest days of the liturgical year: Holy Thursday, Good Friday and Easter. </p>
<h2>Spiritual renewal</h2>
<p>As Christianity spread through Western Europe from the fifth through 12th centuries, the observance of Lent did as well. A few Lenten days were “black,” or total, fast days. But daily fasting came gradually to be moderated during most of Lent. By the end of the Middle Ages a meal was often permitted at noon. </p>
<p>Also, bishops and theologians specializing in church law <a href="https://sspx.org/en/news-events/news/think-lent-tough-take-look-medieval-lenten-practices">specified restrictions</a> on the kinds of acceptable food: no meat or meat products, dairy or eggs could be consumed at all during Lent, even on Sundays. </p>
<p>The idea was to avoid self-indulgence at this time of repentance for one’s sins. Marriage, a joyous ritual, was also <a href="https://www.medievaltimes.com/teachers-students/materials/medieval-era/marriage.html#:%7E:text=There%20were%20several%20reasons%20for%20prohibiting%20a%20marriage.&text=A%20couple%20could%20also%20not,entering%20for%20a%20nuptial%20mass">prohibited during the Lenten season</a>.</p>
<p>Today, Catholics and some other Christians still abstain from eating meat on the Fridays of Lent, and eat only one meal, with two smaller snacks permitted, on two days of complete fasting. In addition, they also engage in the practice of “giving up something” during Lent. Often this is a favorite food or drink, or another pleasurable activity, like smoking or watching television. </p>
<p>Other activities are also suggested, in keeping with the idea of Lent as a time for <a href="https://cruxnow.com/commentary/2021/02/during-lent-start-fresh-with-the-churchs-penitential-practices/">spiritual renewal as well as self-discipline</a>. These include making amends with estranged family and friends, reading of the Bible or other spiritual writers, and community service.</p>
<p>Though some practices may have changed, Lent in the 21st century remains essentially the same as in centuries past: a time of quiet reflection and spiritual discipline. </p>
<p>[<em>You’re smart and curious about the world. So are The Conversation’s authors and editors.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/weekly-highlights-61?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=weeklysmart">You can get our highlights each weekend</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/155622/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joanne M. Pierce does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
The 40-day Lenten season, when many Christians observe fasting, began in mid-February. A scholar explains how the practice may have emerged around the fifth century.
Joanne M. Pierce, Professor of Religious Studies, College of the Holy Cross
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/155101
2021-02-17T13:20:33Z
2021-02-17T13:20:33Z
Why Indian farmers’ protests are being called a ‘satyagraha’ – which means ‘embracing the truth’
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/384576/original/file-20210216-23-9cmxyy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=138%2C53%2C6934%2C4690&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Indian farmers hold a protest on the outskirts of Amritsar in the northern state of Punjab.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/farmers-shout-slogans-as-they-block-a-highway-during-their-news-photo/1230997831?adppopup=true">Narinder Nanu/AFP via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>For the past few months, farmers protesting in India’s capital, New Delhi, have been <a href="https://theconversation.com/indian-farmers-are-a-powerful-force-in-indian-politics-and-heres-why-their-protests-matter-154537">demanding the repeal of three farm laws</a> that were passed last year. These largely peaceful protests have been referred to as a “satyagraha” by many in the <a href="https://countercurrents.org/2020/12/farmers-protest-a-national-satyagraha/">Indian media</a>, <a href="https://www.nationalheraldindia.com/national/peaceful-satyagraha-of-farmers-in-national-interest-rahul-gandhi">politicians</a> and <a href="https://indianexpress.com/article/india/adopting-satyagraha-farmers-protest-should-go-on-patkar-7168259/">activists</a>. </p>
<p>As a <a href="https://polisci.indiana.edu/about/faculty/ganguly-sumit.html">political scientist</a> who writes on Indian politics and society, I argue that the choice of this word, which means “embracing the truth,” is important to note.</p>
<p>It evokes a long political history that goes back to the Indian nationalist movement against British rule. </p>
<h2>The first satyagraha</h2>
<p>In 1917, Mahatma Gandhi, one of the leading icons of the Indian nationalist movement, <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-royal-asiatic-society/article/abs/champaran-and-gandhi-planters-peasants-and-gandhian-politics-by-jacques-pouchepadass-pp-xxii-277-oxford-new-delhi-oxford-university-press-1999/1601CFED25679B1F58B19368A1FDA030#">started a political protest</a> in the village of Champaran in what is today the eastern state of Bihar. </p>
<p>The movement was on behalf of poor farmers who had been forced to grow indigo used in the making of dyes. The British colonial authorities who saw this as a lucrative trade coerced the farmers into growing the crop even as they were poorly paid. If the farmers refused, they were heavily taxed. </p>
<p>Gandhi <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-royal-asiatic-society/article/abs/champaran-and-gandhi-planters-peasants-and-gandhian-politics-by-jacques-pouchepadass-pp-xxii-277-oxford-new-delhi-oxford-university-press-1999/1601CFED25679B1F58B19368A1FDA030#">organized a nonviolent protest</a> on behalf of the farmers. That was when the word satyagraha was used for the first time in the context of a political protest. </p>
<p>The use of this form of protest was both ethical and instrumental. The moral dimension sprang from Gandhi’s convictions. The practical element had to do with the realization that violence against the might of the British colonial empire was counterproductive. </p>
<p>Gandhi had first arrived at the idea of using nonviolent protest as a tactic in his <a href="https://www.sup.org/books/title/?id=26014">early years as a lawyer</a> in South Africa, where he was concerned with the maltreatment of the Indian community under British rule. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://baraza.cdrs.columbia.edu/satyagrah/">concept of satyagraha</a> was in turn <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23607222?seq=1">drawn from his extensive reading</a> of the works of the British poet and social critic John Ruskin, the Russian novelist Leo Tolstoy and the American philosopher Henry David Thoreau. </p>
<p>Gandhi melded their ideas into what he had learned from the ancient <a href="https://theconversation.com/aid-to-dying-what-jainism-one-of-indias-oldest-religions-teaches-us-60828">Jain faith</a> about the concept of “ahimsa,” which involves minimizing harm to all living beings. </p>
<h2>Dandi march</h2>
<p>In Gandhi’s view, and that of his followers, satyagraha involved a passionate commitment to nonviolent civil disobedience. To that end, he and his followers not only shunned all violence but steadfastly fought against social injustices. </p>
<p>Gandhi used the concept effectively in a protest against the colonial salt tax laws. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/384578/original/file-20210216-23-1hjvdp2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Mahatma Gandhi, salt march, April 6, 1930, Dandi, India" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/384578/original/file-20210216-23-1hjvdp2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/384578/original/file-20210216-23-1hjvdp2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/384578/original/file-20210216-23-1hjvdp2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/384578/original/file-20210216-23-1hjvdp2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/384578/original/file-20210216-23-1hjvdp2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/384578/original/file-20210216-23-1hjvdp2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/384578/original/file-20210216-23-1hjvdp2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Mahatma Gandhi on the beach near Dandi, India, during the salt march on April 6, 1930.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/GandhiSaltSatyagraha/52761c42bc874cd0a1c843e40722995e/photo?Query=dandi%20AND%20march&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=15&currentItemNo=10">AP Photo/Deutscher Photo Dienst/W. Bossard</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Salt Law under colonial rule had prohibited the private production of salt, forcing Indians to buy this vital dietary staple at high market prices set by the British. </p>
<p>In 1931, Gandhi <a href="https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195672039.001.0001/acprof-9780195672039-chapter-9">organized a march that went across much of the country</a> to the seaside town of Dandi, in the western state of Gujarat. In a gesture of defiance to the Salt Law, Gandhi and his followers picked up natural salt from the beach as a way to demonstrate that they had a right to produce their own salt. </p>
<p>The British colonial authorities met this resistance with <a href="https://books.google.com/books/about/On_the_Salt_March.html?id=5BtuAAAAMAAJ">considerable violence</a> and imprisoned Gandhi along many of the protesters. However, Gandhi and his supporters refused to back down. They conceded that they had broken the law by collecting salt from the seashore and were prepared to suffer the legal consequences. </p>
<p>[<em>Deep knowledge, daily.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=deepknowledge">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter</a>.]</p>
<p>The memories of this episode have become part and parcel of the history and folklore of the Indian nationalist movement. Accordingly, it is hardly surprising that the protesting farmers embraced the concept of satyagraha as part of their protests. </p>
<p>For over six months they have led protests as a tactic and have steadfastly refused to budge from their principal demands, which involve repealing the three new farm laws that the Indian Parliament passed in September 2020 which, if implemented, would dramatically <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/27/world/asia/india-farmer-protest.html#:%7E:text=The%20demonstrators%20are%20demanding%20that,and%20private%20investment%2C%20bringing%20growth.">cut back on government support</a> for agriculture and move farmers toward an open national market. </p>
<p>Farmers fear these drastic changes and, despite <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/india-farms-protests/indian-farmers-agree-to-meet-government-over-contentious-farm-laws-idUSKBN2900EM">government entreaties</a> as well as <a href="https://www.vox.com/22279960/modi-india-rihanna-farmer-protests">crackdowns</a>, they have refused to budge.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/155101/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sumit Ganguly receives funding from the U.S. Army War College. </span></em></p>
The term was first used in 1917 for a political agitation that Mahatma Gandhi launched against the British, on behalf of farmers.
Sumit Ganguly, Distinguished Professor of Political Science and the Tagore Chair in Indian Cultures and Civilizations, Indiana University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/94386
2018-04-10T10:38:01Z
2018-04-10T10:38:01Z
Why the label ‘cult’ gets in the way of understanding new religions
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/213939/original/file-20180409-114098-ep4agc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A 1979 image that shows disciples of Rajneesh lying on the ground, in meditation at the mystic's headquarters in Poona, India.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">AP Photo/Eddie Adams</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>“Cults” are back in the news. </p>
<p>The Netflix documentary <a href="https://www.netflix.com/title/80145240">“Wild Wild Country”</a> has revived interest in the “<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2018/apr/07/cult-oregon-1980s-terror-netflix-documentary-wild-country">free-love</a> <a href="https://www.thedailybeast.com/wild-wild-country-the-most-shocking-reveals-from-the-sex-cults-fbi-informant">cult</a>” founded by Indian guru Rajneesh, or “<a href="http://www.osho.com/osho-search">Osho</a>,” that in 1984 launched a “<a href="http://www.slate.com/blogs/atlas_obscura/2014/01/09/the_largest_bioterror_attack_in_us_history_began_at_taco_time_in_the_dalles.html">bioterror attack</a>,” spreading <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/salmonella/index.html">salmonella</a> in restaurants near the group’s Oregon headquarters.</p>
<p>Then there’s NXIVM, a “<a href="https://www.thedailybeast.com/the-hollywood-followers-of-nxivm-a-women-branding-sex-cult">sex cult</a>” based in Albany, New York. Media reports state that NXIVM’s female members recruited “slaves,” who were <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/17/nyregion/nxivm-women-branded-albany.html">branded</a> with the initials of the group’s leader, <a href="http://www.news.com.au/world/north-america/the-dark-cult-with-billionaires-stars-and-sex-slavery-allegations/news-story/0c72130a835a6d708b7f0b98cf1f310e">Keith Raniere</a>. Raniere, also called the “Vanguard,” has been arrested for sex trafficking. </p>
<p><a href="https://academic.oup.com/socrel/article-abstract/39/3/228/1618594?redirectedFrom=fulltext">Scholars</a> sometimes use the term “cult” to describe groups that have distinctive beliefs and strong levels of commitment. The problem comes with the popular use of the word “cult,” often used to describe authoritarian groups that induce beliefs or actions through “mind control” or “brainwashing.” </p>
<p><a href="https://www.holycross.edu/academics/programs/religious-studies/faculty/mathew-schmalz">As an academic</a>, who teaches and writes about religion, I believe that the label “cult” gets in the way of understanding new or alternative religions.</p>
<h2>Here’s why</h2>
<p>First, “cult” is a vague category. </p>
<p>Authoritarian leaders and structures can easily be found in groups that have clear missions. From the Catholic Church to the U.S. Marine Corps, many organizations rely on strict discipline and obedience. Using the word “cult” is an easy way to criticize a group, but a poor way to describe one.</p>
<p>Second, “mind control” or “brainwashing” theories have problems. </p>
<p>In popular understanding, the leaders of cults use mind control or brainwashing to permanently remake the personalities of recruits by forcing them to do and believe things that they normally wouldn’t accept. If that’s true, as some scholars have pointed out, there would be measurable impacts at “<a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.1525/nr.1998.1.2.216.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3A3a430daf80f56b10ac3136a57e6b32e9">the biochemical level of the brain</a>.” For now, there’s no <a href="http://nr.ucpress.edu/content/3/2/241">proof</a> that brain cells can be automatically changed by religious means.</p>
<p>“Brainwashing” was associated with the <a href="https://familyfed.org/">Unification Church,</a> or “<a href="http://www.signaturebooks.com/product/unification-church/">The Moonies</a>,” founded by South Korean <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2012/09/03/world/asia/rev-sun-myung-moon-founder-of-unification-church-dies-at-92.html">Rev. Sun Myung Moon</a>. The Moonies would isolate new recruits and shower them with attention, a process called “<a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1978/02/20/moon-church-love-bomb-fall-out/7c3b0eba-5e59-45e6-a5f8-812a2a5d1894/?utm_term=.850248272e01">love bombing</a>.” </p>
<p>But, as sociologist <a href="http://www.lse.ac.uk/sociology/people/eileen-barker">Eileen Barker</a> showed in <a href="http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/50886/">her research</a> on <a href="https://familyfed.org/">the Unification Church</a>, recruitment rates were still very low. Whether it’s “love bombing,” “mind control” or “brainwashing,” the results aren’t very impressive.</p>
<p>Third, the label “cult” is negative. </p>
<p>As British sociologist <a href="https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/ces/research/wreru/aboutus/staff/jb/">James Beckford</a> has observed, “cults” are usually associated with <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jcs/article-abstract/29/3/576/884746?redirectedFrom=PDF">beliefs and practices considered to be “unhealthy.”</a> But what is seen as healthy in one culture may be seen as unhealthy in another. </p>
<p>In fact, early Christianity could be called a “cult” because Christian beliefs and practices – such as not publicly worshipping the emperor – were considered strange and dangerous in ancient Rome.</p>
<p>Fourth, the term “cult” does not engage with key parts of a group’s belief system. </p>
<p>For example, religion scholars <a href="https://jamestabor.com/">James Tabor</a> and <a href="https://www.conncoll.edu/directories/emeritus-faculty/eugene-gallagher/">Eugene Gallagher</a> <a href="https://www.ucpress.edu/book.php?isbn=9780520208995">argue</a> that the 1993 “<a href="https://www.history.com/topics/waco-siege">Waco siege</a>” ended in tragedy, in part, because the FBI ignored the <a href="https://www.npr.org/2013/04/20/178063471/two-decades-later-some-branch-davidians-still-believe">Bible-based beliefs of the Branch Davidians</a>, a <a href="http://www.sociologyguide.com/anthropology/millenarian-movements.php">millenarian</a> Christian sect. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.atf.gov/our-history/fallen-agents">Four agents</a> of the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms were killed trying to arrest “cult leader” <a href="http://abcnews.go.com/US/david-koresh-followers-describe-life-inside-apocalyptic-religious/story?id=52033937">David Koresh</a>. After a 51-day standoff, the FBI injected tear gas into the group’s compound. Seventy-five people, including children, lost their lives when the compound burned to the ground. If the FBI had dialogued with Branch Davidians by taking their beliefs seriously – instead of seeing members as brainwashed followers of a mad cult leader – deaths could perhaps have been avoided.</p>
<p>Freedom of religion is guaranteed by the <a href="https://www.senate.gov/civics/constitution_item/constitution.htm#amdt_1_(1791)">First Amendment of the Constitution of the United States</a>. It takes careful study to understand whether a religious group is simply “strange” or dangerous. </p>
<p>But the term “cult” lumps together all new or alternative religions. And when people hear the word “cult,” discussions end before any study has even begun.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/94386/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mathew Schmalz does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
A scholar explains the popular use of the label ‘cult,’ and what makes it problematic.
Mathew Schmalz, Associate Professor of Religion, College of the Holy Cross
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/84042
2017-12-01T00:41:25Z
2017-12-01T00:41:25Z
Who are the Baha'is and why are they so persecuted?
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/197179/original/file-20171130-30931-mb6d9m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Entrance to the Shrine of Bahá’u’lláh, burial place of the founder of the Bahá’í faith, near Acre, Israel.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://news.bahai.org/legal">Bahá’í World News Service © Bahá'í International Community</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The Baha'is are among the most persecuted religious minorities in the world.</p>
<p>In Iran, where the religion was founded, universities <a href="https://www.iranhumanrights.org/2017/09/iranian-bahai-students-offered-university-enrollment-in-exchange-for-renouncing-their-faith">refuse to admit Baha'i students</a>, <a href="https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/05/14/bahai-cemetery-iran-destroyed_n_5323286.html">Baha'i cemeteries have been destroyed</a> and the country’s Supreme Leader Ayatollah Khamenei <a href="http://www.reuters.com/investigates/iran/#article/part1">has confiscated properties from Baha'i families</a>. Baha'is have also been discriminated against in <a href="https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2017/04/yemen-bahai-community-faces-persecution-at-hands-of-huthi-saleh-authorities/">Yemen</a> and in <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-egypt-bahai/bahais-in-egypt-fight-for-recognition-as-people-idUSL2757830620070221">Egypt</a>.</p>
<p>At the same time, the Baha'i faith has spread around the globe. There are more than 100,000 local <a href="http://www.bahai.org/national-communities">Baha'i communities</a> in places as diverse as <a href="http://www.cnn.com/style/article/bahai-temple-chile/index.html">Chile</a>, <a href="http://www.news.bahai.org/story/1190">Cambodia</a> and the <a href="https://www.bahai.us/">United States</a>.</p>
<p>On the 200th anniversary of the birth of Baha'u'llah, the founder of the Baha'i faith, the question remains: What is the reason for their persecution?</p>
<h2>Baha'u'llah and the Babi movement</h2>
<p><a href="https://oneworld-publications.com/baha-u-llah-pb.html">Baha'u'llah</a>, whose name means “Glory of God” in Arabic, was born in Tehran in 1817. Baha'u'llah’s father was a minister in Iran’s government, which supported Shi'i Islam as the state religion. As a member of Iran’s nobility, Baha'u'llah was offered a government position. Instead, he <a href="http://www.kalimat.com/resurrection.html">joined a new religious movement</a>, started by a young Iranian, known as the Bab.</p>
<p>The Babi movement called for revolutionary social changes and <a href="http://www.sup.org/books/title/?id=25087">championed women’s rights</a>. Quite controversially, the Bab claimed that his teachings were a revelation from God and <a href="http://www.bahaibookstore.com/Selections-from-the-Writings-of-the-Bab-P7293.aspx">predicted</a> that a new prophetic figure, or manifestation of God, would soon appear.</p>
<p>In 1850, the Bab was charged by Shi'i religious officials with heresy and was put to death by firing squad. Subsequent public protests and mob violence <a href="https://www.routledge.com/The-Bahais-of-Iran-Socio-Historical-Studies/Brookshaw-Fazel/p/book/9780415356732">claimed the lives of thousands of his followers.</a> </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/197176/original/file-20171130-30937-1alqghf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/197176/original/file-20171130-30937-1alqghf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=466&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197176/original/file-20171130-30937-1alqghf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=466&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197176/original/file-20171130-30937-1alqghf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=466&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197176/original/file-20171130-30937-1alqghf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=586&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197176/original/file-20171130-30937-1alqghf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=586&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197176/original/file-20171130-30937-1alqghf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=586&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In Acre in northern Israel, a former prison city of the Ottoman Empire, the barracks where Bahá’u’lláh was imprisoned starting in 1868.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://news.bahai.org/legal">Bahá’í World News Service © Bahá'í International Community</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As part of its crackdown on the followers of the Bab, the Iranian government incarcerated Baha'u'llah. He was kept in an underground prison in Tehran, which Baha'u'llah describes in his writings as filthy, dark and “<a href="http://www.bahaibookstore.com/Epistle-to-the-Son-of-the-Wolf-P8480.aspx">foul beyond comparison</a>.” </p>
<p>The government released Baha'u'llah in 1853, and <a href="http://theisispress.org/book-b220.htm">exiled him to Baghdad</a>, then part of the Ottoman Empire. It was during this exile that he publicly announced the establishment of the Baha'i faith. Indeed Baha'u'llah claimed to be the manifestation of God that the Bab had foretold and gained a large following. </p>
<p>Ottoman officials later moved Baha'u'llah to the prison city of Akka in Palestine. He remained there until his passing in 1892. Today, Baha'u'llah’s shrine, now in Israel, is an important pilgrimage site.</p>
<h2>Baha'u'llah’s teachings</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/197189/original/file-20171130-30931-1l7yxo5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/197189/original/file-20171130-30931-1l7yxo5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197189/original/file-20171130-30931-1l7yxo5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197189/original/file-20171130-30931-1l7yxo5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197189/original/file-20171130-30931-1l7yxo5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197189/original/file-20171130-30931-1l7yxo5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197189/original/file-20171130-30931-1l7yxo5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Metal pen nib belonging to Bahá’u’lláh.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://news.bahai.org/legal">Bahá’í World News Service © Bahá'í International Community</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Baha'u'llah’s <a href="http://www.bahai.org/library/authoritative-texts/bahaullah">writings</a> form the foundation of the Baha'i faith. Throughout his life, Bah'u'llah penned over 100 volumes in Arabic and Persian. About a dozen of these have been translated into English and other languages. </p>
<p>His most well-known book is <a href="https://oneworld-publications.com/the-hidden-words-of-baha-u-llah-pb.html">“The Hidden Words,”</a> which is composed of short poetic statements that get to the heart of his spiritual and ethical teachings. </p>
<p>A primary theme of Baha'u'llah’s teachings is achieving world peace through the establishment of unity, justice and equality. Therefore, <a href="https://oneworld-publications.com/the-baha-i-faith-pb-1056.html">Baha'u'llah’s teachings</a> specifically advocate for racial unity, gender equality, universal education, and harmony of science and religion. </p>
<p>Baha'is, for example, embrace interracial marriage and education for girls. In fact, the first school for girls in Iran was established by the Baha'is. </p>
<p>Baha'is were nonetheless subjected to persecution, as some Muslim clerics perceived their faith to be a heresy. For most Muslims, the prophet Muhammad was the last and final prophet.</p>
<h2>Establishment of the Baha'i faith</h2>
<p>Despite the persecution, the Baha'i faith has attracted millions of adherents around the globe for its ability to transcend nationalism, racism and the like.</p>
<p>Baha'u'llah’s followers disseminated his teachings in the Middle East and beyond. His son and successor, Abdu'l-Baha, traveled to Europe and the United States to <a href="http://www.palgrave.com/us/book/9781137032003">spread the faith</a>. </p>
<p>Baha'u'llah <a href="http://www.grbooks.com/george-ronald-publisher-books/academic-books/bahai-ethics-vol-1-1308657144">encouraged Baha'is</a> to cooperate with their governments and engage with the followers of all religions in a spirit of fellowship. Yet Baha'is in Iran, who are the largest non-Muslim religious community, continue to face persecution. The majority of Baha'is, however, <a href="http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/religion/religion-general-interest/introduction-bahai-faith?format=PB#ZrOxiHuKuyDYLyjE.97">live in the global south</a>.</p>
<p>For many, the Baha'i faith is one of the most <a href="http://connect.customer.mheducation.com/products/connect-for-molloy-experiencing-the-worlds-religions-6e/">universal religions</a>. Summed up in Baha'u'llah’s words:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“<a href="http://www.bahaibookstore.com/Tablets-of-Bahaullah-Revealed-After-the-Kitab-i-Aqdas-P6196.aspx">The Earth is but one country, and mankind its citizens</a>.”</p>
</blockquote><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/84042/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Zackery M. Heern does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
The Baha'i faith originated in Iran and today has 100,000 communities across the globe, including the United States. Here is their history.
Zackery M. Heern, Assistant Professor of History and Middle East Studies, Idaho State University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.