tag:theconversation.com,2011:/id/topics/social-development-2948/articlesSocial development – The Conversation2023-05-19T12:40:40Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2048732023-05-19T12:40:40Z2023-05-19T12:40:40ZTalking puppy or finger puppet? 5 tips for buying baby toys that support healthy development<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525990/original/file-20230512-25-2f6227.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Tech toys may claim to be educational – but those claims often aren't backed by science. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/cute-little-boy-playing-with-a-railroad-train-toy-royalty-free-image/1281267794">boonchai wedmakawand/Moment Collection/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Picking out a baby toy – whether it’s for your own child or a friend’s kid or the child of a family member – can be overwhelming. Although Americans spend <a href="https://www.statista.com/outlook/dmo/ecommerce/toys-hobby-diy/toys-baby/united-states">US$20 billion</a> a year on baby toys, it’s difficult to know which toy will be fun, educational and developmentally appropriate. The options seem endless, with search results at common retail sites in the hundreds, if not thousands. Is price a reliable indicator of quality? Are technological enhancements useful? </p>
<p>Our <a href="https://www.museumofplay.org/app/uploads/2023/04/15-1-Article-2-Transforming-Toybox.pdf">peer-reviewed study</a> – published in the American Journal of Play in April 2023 – surveyed the toy market for babies and toddlers age 0-2 at two major U.S. national retailers, with an eye toward differences between battery-powered toys, like the <a href="https://store.leapfrog.com/en-us/store/p/speak-learn-puppy/_/A-prod80-610100">LeapFrog Speak and Learn Puppy</a>, and traditional toys, such as the <a href="https://www.homefurniturelife.com/shop/magic-years-jungle-animals-finger-puppets-4-pc-set/">Magic Years Jungle Finger Puppet</a>. </p>
<p>We found significant differences between these two toy types in terms of how they’re marketed – with more traditional toys marketed as supporting physical development and more technological toys aimed at cognitive development. However, these companies do not always have researchers investigating whether the toys actually help children learn.</p>
<p>As <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=KhghzJQAAAAJ&view_op=list_works&sortby=pubdate">researchers who study toys</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=5KTeq2UAAAAJ&hl=en">how children learn and play</a>, we offer five tips before you buy your next baby toy.</p>
<h2>1. Consider your goal</h2>
<p>When purchasing a toy, consider whether you have any particular developmental goal in mind. For instance, do you want your baby to develop fine motor skills by playing with a <a href="https://reachformontessori.com/busy-boards/">busy board</a>, or to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/mono.12280">practice spatial skills</a> by building a block tower? </p>
<h2>2. Look for open-ended toys</h2>
<p>Many parents and caregivers know that children often <a href="https://theconversation.com/when-kids-like-the-box-more-than-the-toy-the-benefits-of-playing-with-everyday-objects-202301">love playing with the box</a> more than the toy inside it. One reason is that boxes are open-ended toys – they can become anything a young child dreams up. Conversely, a toy cellphone directs the type of play much more rigidly. </p>
<p>A good rule of thumb is to choose toys that require <a href="https://www.brookings.edu/blog/education-plus-development/2018/12/10/the-science-of-toys-a-guide-for-the-perplexed-shopper/">90% activity from the child and only about 10% input from the toy</a>. For example, infants can explore a set of realistic miniature animals sensorially – usually by putting them in their mouths – and then later use them for pretend play, or even to create animal footprints in play dough. Contrast this experience with a large plastic elephant that needs to sit on the floor and lights up and makes elephant sounds. Here, a child is limited in play, with the goal being to make the object light up or play a sound. </p>
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<img alt="Father and young son play together with toy cars" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526565/original/file-20230516-27-epnrbq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526565/original/file-20230516-27-epnrbq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526565/original/file-20230516-27-epnrbq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526565/original/file-20230516-27-epnrbq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526565/original/file-20230516-27-epnrbq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526565/original/file-20230516-27-epnrbq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526565/original/file-20230516-27-epnrbq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Parents tend to talk to kids more when they play together with traditional toys versus tech toys.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/cute-little-african-kid-son-playing-toy-cars-with-royalty-free-image/1158481693">iStock / Getty Images Plus</a></span>
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<h2>3. Recognize gender biases</h2>
<p>Several major retailers have <a href="https://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-target-gender-labeling-20150810-story.html">removed gender-based toy sections</a> over the past decade, opting for “kids” instead of “boys” and “girls.” </p>
<p>However, if you enter the store of one of those major toy retailers today, you will still find some aisles filled with pink toys and dolls, while other aisles feature monster trucks and primary-colored blocks. A toy sword might not be labeled as “for boys,” yet shoppers often perceive it that way based on <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-017-0858-4">their own gender socialization and beliefs</a>. If you look only in certain aisles or at stereotypical toys, you might miss out on toys that your child would enjoy regardless of gender. </p>
<h2>4. Be wary of marketing claims</h2>
<p>The makers of tech toys often make claims about their educational potential that are not backed by science. For example, an electronic shape sorter might claim to help children develop emotional skills because the toy says “I love you!” </p>
<p>Be skeptical of such claims, and use your own experience and insights to evaluate the educational potential of a toy. You might read the retailer and manufacturer descriptions, but also see what the toy actually does. If it fosters caregiver-child interactions or helps to develop a specific skill – like how building blocks support spatial skills, and finger puppets build fine motor skills – then it is likely a toy worth considering. </p>
<h2>5. Prioritize human interactions</h2>
<p>Keep in mind that toys are not chiefly designed to create baby geniuses – they are meant to be fun! So think broadly about whether you want a new toy to support physical, social, emotional, cognitive or creative development while keeping it fun. And remember that no toy can replace <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/infa.12378">joyful, high-quality interactions</a> between caregivers and children.</p>
<p>Research suggests that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2018-3348">caregivers are less responsive and communicative</a> when playing with tech toys versus traditional toys with their children. So choosing traditional toys, such as nonelectronic shape sorters and building blocks, may be one way to foster the types of interactions that support healthy development.</p>
<p>Overall, research suggests that, in most cases, traditional toys provide <a href="https://www.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2018-3348">better interactions and experiences</a> than technological toys. When purchasing a toy, think through the experiences you want the baby in your life to have, think broadly about the goals of a particular toy, try to provide opportunities for <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01124">high-quality interactions</a> and remember to have fun.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/204873/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jennifer M. Zosh has consulted for the Lego Group. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brenna Hassinger-Das does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Two experts on children’s play explain why you should be skeptical of toys that are advertised as being educational, and what to look for instead.Brenna Hassinger-Das, Assistant Professor of Psychology, Pace University Jennifer M. Zosh, Professor of Human Development and Family Studies, Penn StateLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2023012023-04-18T20:02:44Z2023-04-18T20:02:44ZWhen kids like the box more than the toy: The benefits of playing with everyday objects<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521611/original/file-20230418-1223-8sess3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=658%2C77%2C3604%2C3037&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">If children love boxes and other upcycled items, do parents really need to invest in 'eco toys'? </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Many have observed that sometimes when given a toy as a present, <a href="https://theconversation.com/heres-why-young-children-often-prefer-wrapping-paper-and-boxes-to-actual-presents-70671">children play with the box the toy came in, or even the gift wrapping</a>.</p>
<p>In earlier generations, children’s play materials were often homemade or relatively simple. Commercial or hand-made toys were made from durable and long-lasting materials. </p>
<p>Today, mass-produced plastic toys with <a href="https://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&lr=&id=ueQUEAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA25&dq=Sluss,+2021+play+materials&ots=uHtTVA0FaS&sig=3Tyyl726iZarZtpM0QqOe13hgjc#v=onepage&q=Sluss%2C%202021%20play%20materials&f=false">limited purpose have permanently entered children’s learning environments</a>. These toys are often designed to be used in specific ways, with limited imaginative play opportunities. </p>
<p>A trend in <a href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1120194.pdf">the marketing of</a> sustainable toys coincides both with addressing ecological concerns, and with educational interest in play materials that <a href="https://fairydustteaching.com/2016/10/loose-parts">allow children to play</a> in many ways.</p>
<p>A type of play known by researchers and educators as “loose parts play” <a href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1225658.pdf">involves children</a> playing with and re-purposing materials that <a href="https://www.inspiringscotland.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/Loose-Parts-Play-Toolkit-2019-web.pdf">can be used in multiple ways</a>. This can include playing with everyday, natural or manufactured parts (like cardboard, sticks, pots and pans, sand or beads not originally intended for play) or with commercial toys like blocks or stackable cups.</p>
<p>The language of <a href="https://ojs.lboro.ac.uk/SDEC/article/view/1204/1171">loose parts</a> to talk about the use of unrestricted items in children’s play was first used by architect Simon Nicholson in the 70s, who discussed a “theory of loose parts” when writing about playground and educational design.</p>
<p>My research with colleagues is examining which materials — including store-bought and natural or upcycled items — are most conducive to specific types of quality play in young children’s environments. </p>
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<img alt="A toddler seen playing with blocks." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521368/original/file-20230417-24-awxrlw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521368/original/file-20230417-24-awxrlw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521368/original/file-20230417-24-awxrlw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521368/original/file-20230417-24-awxrlw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521368/original/file-20230417-24-awxrlw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521368/original/file-20230417-24-awxrlw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521368/original/file-20230417-24-awxrlw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Through play, children make connections and integrate their experiences.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
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<h2>What is play?</h2>
<p>Play is often defined as an activity pursued <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2004-21781-011">for its own sake and characterized largely by its processes rather than end goals</a>. Although the exact definition of play is debated, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9680672/">researchers agree it is exceptionally complex</a>.</p>
<p>Play has also been described as an integrating process, <a href="https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/school-readiness/according-experts/role-schools-and-communities-childrens-school-transition">providing an ecosystem where children can make connections between previous experiences</a>, represent their ideas in different ways, imagine possibilities, explore and create new meanings. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/mathematical-thinking-begins-in-the-early-years-with-dialogue-and-real-world-exploration-128282">Mathematical thinking begins in the early years with dialogue and real-world exploration</a>
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<p>Such complexity can be seen in children’s play themes, materials, content, social interactions, and the understandings children demonstrate in their play. </p>
<p>The more complex the play, the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1097/IYC.0b013e31821e995c">more it impacts development</a>. Even a small dose of quality <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195395761.013.0011">play improves children’s performance on subsequent cognitive development tasks</a>. </p>
<h2>Complex play, skills and benefits</h2>
<p>The skills acquired in play — including overcoming impulses, behaviour control, exploration and discovery, problem-solving, social interaction, and attention to process and outcomes — are foundational <a href="http://www.tojet.net/articles/v18i4/1841.pdf">cognitive structures that also drive learning</a>.</p>
<p>Children’s play themes generally follow the <a href="https://www.exchangepress.com/catalog/product/bridging-research-and-practice-seven-loose-parts-myths-busted/5025634/">ideas inherent in the materials and toys available</a>. </p>
<p>However, as noted, materials and toys used for children’s play <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190319182447id_/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/82151298.pdf">have changed significantly over the years</a>, reflecting societal changes, technological advancements and shifts in understanding child development. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/acAv1C4LYVQ?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">How to use stacking cups for speech and language development.</span></figcaption>
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<p>Early learning and child-care communities today widely incorporate loose parts for their perceived potential to offer high-quality play opportunities. Such opportunities allow children to use their <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2012-13642-018">imaginations and explore their surroundings</a> and support children’s cognitive development. </p>
<h2>Education in Canada</h2>
<p>In Canada, Alberta, Manitoba and Nova Scotia’s education guidelines for early childhood explicitly discuss the importance of loose parts play. The Nova Scotia Curriculum, for instance, acknowledges that the use of loose parts encourages “<a href="https://www.ednet.ns.ca/docs/nselcurriculumframework.pdf">creativity and open-ended learning</a>.” </p>
<p>Six other provincial frameworks don’t use the words “loose parts,” but equally stress the importance of this kind of play. While many parents, educators and policy-makers recognize the benefits of involving children in play with loose parts, the basic evidence regarding children’s indoor play with loose materials is unknown. </p>
<p>There are only a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-017-9220-9">handful of empirical studies on indoor loose parts play with limited focus on its developmental benefits</a> beyond children’s physical and social development. Research has narrowly focused on children’s outdoor play with loose parts and mostly on <a href="https://doi.org/10.18357/jcs.v42i4.18103">physical</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12025">social development</a>. </p>
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<img alt="Children seen with sand and toys." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521367/original/file-20230417-26-drtsuh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521367/original/file-20230417-26-drtsuh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521367/original/file-20230417-26-drtsuh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521367/original/file-20230417-26-drtsuh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521367/original/file-20230417-26-drtsuh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521367/original/file-20230417-26-drtsuh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521367/original/file-20230417-26-drtsuh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">What is the relationship between children’s indoor play with loose parts and children’s cognitive skills?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
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<p>Current research has not examined children’s indoor play with loose parts and its relationship to children’s cognitive skills. As a result, educators and policy-makers have little empirical evidence on which to base important decisions about what materials to invest in and integrate into children’s learning environments.</p>
<h2>Equitable play opportunities</h2>
<p>Children from socio-economically disadvantaged backgrounds start kindergarten disproportionately behind their more affluent and privileged peers in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.91.1.116">knowledge and educational performance</a>. </p>
<p>Low-income families <a href="https://www.museumofplay.org/app/uploads/2022/01/5-2-article-the-use-of-play-materials-in-early-intervention_0.pdf">often cannot afford toys</a> for children. Could household objects (like plastic tubs or egg cartons) offer equitable play opportunities for all children, if early childhood programs and professionals supported parents with up-cycling items into play things? </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/coronavirus-spotlights-equity-and-access-issues-with-childrens-right-to-play-137187">Coronavirus spotlights equity and access issues with children's right to play</a>
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<p>My colleagues and I are conducting research to address gaps in our understanding of children’s loose parts play. Specifically, we examine the play types and play engagement levels of children between the ages of four and five who participate in our study. </p>
<p>We also take into account the effects of children’s cognitive development, parental income and education on how young children play with everyday objects, both when they play by themselves and with their parents. </p>
<p>We just finished collecting data in the first phase of our studies focused on children’s solitary play. Children were given opportunities to play with either a box of carefully curated loose parts like blocks, felt balls, yarn, pinecones or a toy that had only a limited function: percussion instruments.</p>
<h2>Cognitive and language development</h2>
<p>We collected data using video recordings of children’s play in two sessions (one with loose parts and the other session with the limited-purpose toy as a control), parent questionnaires and a cognitive measurement tool for benchmarking children’s cognitive and language development. </p>
<p>We are now analyzing crucial relationships between children’s play with different loose objects and children’s cognitive development, and considering key social determinants such as gender, socioeconomic status and maternal education. </p>
<p>Such knowledge will support educators and parents with an understanding of which materials are most conducive to specific types of quality play in young children’s environments.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/202301/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ozlem Cankaya is affiliated with Terra Centre and Edmonton Council for Early Learning and Child Care. MacEwan University funds Dr. Cankaya's loose parts play research. </span></em></p>How should we understand what toys or ‘loose part’ materials support children’s play, and what’s the relationship of parents’ education and income to this? A study aims to find out.Ozlem Cankaya, Assistant Professor, Early Childhood Curriculum Studies, MacEwan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1847272022-06-24T11:54:10Z2022-06-24T11:54:10Z5 tips for parents of new kindergartners who are younger than their classmates<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/469557/original/file-20220617-11-2gkr6s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=8%2C26%2C5982%2C3961&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">In kindergarten, it can be apparent to teachers and parents alike that some students are younger than others.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/VirusOutbreakMasksinSchools/8b95eff745a24d0293f0a88edb4120f1/photo">AP Photo/Marcio Jose Sanchez</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A good kindergarten experience sets kids up for success in school and into adulthood. Students in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjr041">smaller kindergarten classes</a> are more likely to go to college than students from larger classes. And by age 27, students who had more experienced kindergarten teachers were <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjr041">earning more money than their peers</a> who had less-experienced teachers in kindergarten.</p>
<p>One factor many parents consider is their child’s age when starting kindergarten, based on how close their age is to the cutoff date for enrollment. The ages at which kids are eligible to start kindergarten differ <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/programs/statereform/tab5_3.asp">across the United States</a> and <a href="https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/se.prm.ages?view=map">in other countries</a>. Most commonly in the U.S., a child who <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/programs/statereform/tab5_3.asp">turns 5 on or before Sept. 1</a> of a given year can start kindergarten that year. But most states don’t actually require a child to start school until later, <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/programs/statereform/tab5_3.asp">even age 7 or 8</a>.</p>
<p>Evidence shows that children who are relatively young for their kindergarten class – those who are only a few weeks or months older than the cutoff rules require – are at increased risk for <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18178966">doing worse in school</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.22135">being held back a grade</a>, and having <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/2372966X.2020.1717368">lower social-emotional skills</a>. </p>
<p>Students who start kindergarten younger are also more likely to be rated by teachers as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhealeco.2010.06.003">exhibiting symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder</a> in kindergarten and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-018-1229-6">to be treated with medication for ADHD</a>. </p>
<p>When younger kids fare worse than older kids in the same, single-grade classroom, and older kids are viewed as more advanced, it’s often because adults tend to compare children to one another. The relatively older children may appear to behave better than the relatively younger children, especially as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/2332858415616358">kindergarten classrooms focus more on academics</a> and offer less time to play. Together these differences are called the “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1006/drev.2000.0516">relative age effect</a>.”</p>
<p>As a result, some families choose to <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/on-parenting/redshirting-your-kindergartner-is-it-the-right-choice-in-the-long-run/2019/10/07/f335fff0-d976-11e9-ac63-3016711543fe_story.html">delay their child’s entry into kindergarten</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.3102%2F0162373713482764">particularly those who can afford to do so</a>.</p>
<p>I am a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=BRXERkMAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">clinical psychologist</a> who studies how to best support children in school settings, particularly those at risk for behavioral challenges like ADHD. Here are five ways families can help support their kindergartners, especially those who are relatively younger than their classmates.</p>
<h2>1. Learning opportunities</h2>
<p>Relatively older students have had more time to <a href="https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.44.3.641">learn academic skills</a>. To help younger kindergartners catch up with their older classroom peers, families can offer additional learning experiences. This includes <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0956797615581493">engaging the children in more conversations</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-021-09598-1">shared book reading</a>. This can be started during the preschool years and throughout kindergarten. </p>
<h2>2. Be positive</h2>
<p>Parents and educators can direct focus as much as possible on <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2018.12.007">encouraging and praising the positive performance</a> of relatively younger children in the classroom. If the feedback is mostly negative – in which the relatively younger child is always told to “hurry up,” “pay attention,” “do it the right way,” and all other variations of directives that include words like “no,” “don’t” or “stop” – they may <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199324552.013.2">eventually shut down and stop trying</a> to follow instructions. To combat this, educators and parents can focus on emphasizing all the things the child is doing right, rather than wrong. A good goal is to be mindful of directing at least <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2013.10.001">three positive statements to the child for every correction or redirection</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/469559/original/file-20220617-23-86f16f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A child in a yellow shirt places a small turtle in the mud next to some water" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/469559/original/file-20220617-23-86f16f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/469559/original/file-20220617-23-86f16f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/469559/original/file-20220617-23-86f16f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/469559/original/file-20220617-23-86f16f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/469559/original/file-20220617-23-86f16f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/469559/original/file-20220617-23-86f16f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/469559/original/file-20220617-23-86f16f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A New Jersey kindergartner releases a turtle into the wild after it was raised from an egg when its mother was struck and killed by a car.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/RescuedBabyTurtles/6d184514f9314378af6e4dc582371948/photo">AP Photo/Wayne Parry</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>3. Set tailored goals</h2>
<p>Parents of relatively younger children can meet with their child’s teacher early in the school year to discuss individual goals for the child. That meeting can discuss the child’s current strengths and skills, as well as areas in need of growth. The adults can establish reasonable, achievable goals for the child each week or month. That can help offset possible relative comparisons that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-018-1229-6">may mask individual progress</a>. </p>
<h2>4. Track progress</h2>
<p>To follow up with the goals set at the beginning of the year, a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1098300712440451">daily or weekly check-in</a> on behavioral or academic progress can help parents and teachers work best together. Waiting until the end of the school year is too long and leaves no time to change course if goals need to be modified. Frequent check-ins also provide opportunities to reward and praise the child for success.</p>
<h2>5. Keep perspective</h2>
<p>Educators and parents may find it useful to remember that kindergarten is only one year of what is almost two decades of education for children on a college track – and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.22135">age differences matter less and less in academic performance</a> as children get older.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/184727/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gregory Fabiano works on research studies that have received funding from the National Institutes of Health, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and the Institute for Education Sciences. He receives royalties from Guilford Publications and consultant payments from FastBridge Learning. </span></em></p>Kindergartners who are relatively younger than their classroom peers are at risk for doing less well in school. A clinical psychologist explains how to reduce those problems.Gregory Fabiano, Professor of Psychology, Florida International UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1372482020-10-09T04:52:50Z2020-10-09T04:52:50ZWill COVID lockdowns hurt your child’s social development? 3 different theories suggest they’ll probably be OK<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/362347/original/file-20201008-22-1m573jh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=7%2C0%2C4985%2C3328&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Social distancing <a href="https://www.health.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/2020/03/coronavirus-covid-19-information-on-social-distancing.pdf">during COVID-19</a> has seen a radical upheaval to the way we work and socialise.</p>
<p>But what are the implications for young children? Many children have been uprooted from their places of education and care, and may struggle to understand why their routine has been disrupted.</p>
<p>If you’re a parent, particularly in Victoria, you may be wondering whether this period — a significant amount of time relative to the life of a young child — might affect your child’s social development. </p>
<p>The good news is, with less of the day-to-day rush, many young children have probably benefited from extra socialisation at home with their families.</p>
<h2>Looking through a theoretical lens</h2>
<p>We can explore the ways COVID-19 might affect children’s social development by considering three theories in psychology.</p>
<p><strong>1. Supporting the individual child (attachment theory)</strong></p>
<p>It’s important for young children to develop strong and secure “<a href="https://www.psychologistworld.com/developmental/attachment-theory">attachments</a>” with parents and caregivers. These emotional and physical bonds support children’s social development. </p>
<p>Psychologists have shown very young children who develop strong and secure attachments become more independent, have more successful social relationships, perform better at school, and experience <a href="https://osse.dc.gov/sites/default/files/dc/sites/osse/publication/attachments/DEL_Mental%20Health_Social%20Emotional%20Development_Understanding%20Separation%20Anxiety.pdf">less anxiety</a> compared with children who didn’t have strong and secure attachments.</p>
<p>Where the extra time children have spent with parents and caregivers during COVID-19 has been in a supportive environment, this may help the development of these attachments.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/dont-worry-your-childs-early-learning-doesnt-stop-just-because-theyre-not-in-childcare-134668">Don’t worry, your child’s early learning doesn’t stop just because they’re not in childcare</a>
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<p><strong>2. Supporting the child in the family (family systems theory)</strong></p>
<p>Beyond parents and caregivers, it’s important for children to develop secure attachments <a href="https://www.topcounselingschools.org/lists/5-concepts-family-systems-theory/">within the whole family</a>.</p>
<p>For young children, research shows these connections with family members can lead to improved social development, while fostering the child’s ability <a href="https://www.acecqa.gov.au/sites/default/files/2020-01/QA5_Supporting_children_to_regulate_their_own_behaviour.pdf">to develop their own identity</a> as part of a family unit.</p>
<p>Young children might have spent more time with siblings and other family members during lockdown, possibly developing deeper connections with them.</p>
<p><strong>3. Supporting the child in the community (sociocultural theory)</strong></p>
<p>Sociocultural theory considers <a href="https://people.ucsc.edu/%7Ebrogoff/William%20James%20Award.pdf">social interaction</a> to underpin the ways children learn, allowing them to make meaning from the world around them. </p>
<p>While learning can and does take place between children and adults, there’s lots of research showing all children benefit from <a href="http://www.child-encyclopedia.com/peer-relations/synthesis">socialising with peers</a> of the same age.</p>
<p>Evidence also indicates children learn to respond to social situations in <a href="https://researchprofiles.canberra.edu.au/en/publications/moving-from-a-constructivist-developmental-framework-for-planning">social environments</a>. This could be in early learning settings, on the playground, or with their families.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two young children jumping on a trampoline." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/362349/original/file-20201008-24-15szxbu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/362349/original/file-20201008-24-15szxbu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362349/original/file-20201008-24-15szxbu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362349/original/file-20201008-24-15szxbu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362349/original/file-20201008-24-15szxbu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362349/original/file-20201008-24-15szxbu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362349/original/file-20201008-24-15szxbu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Young children may have developed stronger connections with siblings and other family members during lockdown.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>COVID-19 has curtailed many interactions children would regularly have in early learning and social contexts. But at the same time, it’s created opportunities for other <a href="https://46y5eh11fhgw3ve3ytpwxt9r-wpengine.netdna-ssl.com/wp-content/uploads/2004/04/Childrens-Emotional-Development-Is-Built-into-the-Architecture-of-Their-Brains.pdf">meaningful interactions</a> such as at home with family. </p>
<p>Day-to-day life with family, or socially distanced interactions within the community, still provide great opportunities for social development.</p>
<p>We can’t know for sure what toll this pandemic will take on children’s social development.</p>
<p>But it’s important to remember children are always learning wherever they may be, and whoever they may be with. So try to focus on the benefits you’ve gained spending time with your child at home.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-parents-can-help-their-young-children-develop-healthy-social-skills-107431">How parents can help their young children develop healthy social skills</a>
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<h2>It won’t be the same for everyone</h2>
<p>COVID-19 has brought tough times for many Australian families. We know <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15325024.2020.1780748">added financial pressures</a> can adversely affect family life, and may be compounded during lockdown by a lack of external support.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.aedc.gov.au/">Australian Early Development Census</a> consistently identifies lower socioeconomic status as <a href="https://www.aedc.gov.au/resources/detail/2018-aedc-national-report">one of the risk factors</a> for poorer “social competence” — a child’s ability to get along with and relate to others.</p>
<p>This doesn’t mean all children in families experiencing socioeconomic hardship during COVID-19 will necessarily face challenges in their social development. It’s more complex that that. However, some might.</p>
<p>Other <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15325024.2020.1780748">risk factors</a> for social competence may have also been heightened during the pandemic. These include family conflict, anxiety or illness (of the child or the parent), and trauma, such as exposure to stressful events, grief, or loss.</p>
<p>Children who already live in vulnerable situations may have become even more vulnerable during this time.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A mother tries to work on her laptop while her young child is bothering her." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/362351/original/file-20201008-24-kwljed.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/362351/original/file-20201008-24-kwljed.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362351/original/file-20201008-24-kwljed.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362351/original/file-20201008-24-kwljed.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362351/original/file-20201008-24-kwljed.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362351/original/file-20201008-24-kwljed.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362351/original/file-20201008-24-kwljed.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">More time with family won’t always be a positive.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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</figure>
<h2>Getting back to ‘normal’</h2>
<p>Alongside risk factors, a range of <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1440-1754.2010.01817.x">protective factors</a> may reduce the impacts of adversity on a child.</p>
<p>We should think about providing young children with extra support, helping them <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-help-young-children-regulate-their-emotions-and-behaviours-during-the-pandemic-137245">regulate their emotions</a>, fostering warm relationships, promoting resilience and encouraging problem solving, and facilitating social contact within the COVID-19 social distancing norms, such as video chats.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/are-the-kids-alright-social-isolation-can-take-a-toll-but-play-can-help-146023">Are the kids alright? Social isolation can take a toll, but play can help</a>
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<p>As children begin the transition back to early childhood education and care, some “clinginess” is natural. </p>
<p>Having a distressed child at drop-off time can be confronting. But trust in their capacity to regulate their emotions when you leave, and their ability to rediscover relationships with their educators, carers and friends. They should soon readjust.</p>
<p>To support smooth transitions back into early childhood education and care, talk positively with your child about the people they’re going to see, such as teachers and their friends, and encourage them to ask any questions they may have.</p>
<p>If you’re worried about how the lockdown has affected <a href="https://www.aracy.org.au/publications-resources/command/download_file/id/309/filename/ARACY-Report-Review-of-key-risk-protective-factors-for-child-development-and-wellbeing-17-April-2014.pdf">your child</a>, you can always speak to your child’s educator, the centre director, or your GP about connecting with services designed to support you and your child.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/137248/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>All is not lost if your child has missed out on some of their usual social interaction during COVID-19. They might have actually gained something in spending more time with family.Laurien Beane, Course Coordinator, Queensland Undergraduate Early Childhood, Australian Catholic UniversityAnthony Shearer, Academic, Australian Catholic UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1443482020-09-08T20:07:44Z2020-09-08T20:07:44ZRelationships and sex education is now mandatory in English schools – Australia should do the same<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/355968/original/file-20200902-16-1coe5fz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/couple-runningon-meadow-sunset-boyfriend-girlfriend-263655056">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Relationships and sex education <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/relationships-education-relationships-and-sex-education-rse-and-health-education">became compulsory</a> throughout schools in England at the beginning of September 2020. In primary schools the course will focus on relationships, while secondary schools will include topics such as managing intimate relationships, consent and online behaviour.</p>
<p>Schools — including government, independent and faith-based — must also develop a specific relationships and sex education policy that reflects their community and involves engagement with families.</p>
<p>England is now in line with countries such as <a href="https://www.churchilltrust.com.au/project/the-peter-mitchell-churchill-fellowship-to-research-new-practical-and-effective-methods-to-prevent-sexual-violence-through-youth-education---germany-netherlands-uk-ireland-canada-usa/">Germany, the Netherlands, and certain regions of Canada</a> where government commitment ensures widespread, evidence-based relationships and sex education. </p>
<p>In contrast, Australia’s relationships and sex education response is not clearly directed or regulated. Its delivery varies widely and often fails to support the personal and social development of young people.</p>
<h2>Why do children need relationship and sex education?</h2>
<p>There is a wealth of evidence relationships and sex education in Australia is not meeting the needs of young people.</p>
<p>Young people need skills and information to navigate puberty, engage in respectful relationships (romantic or otherwise), practise safer sex, and control when and if they become pregnant.</p>
<p>Young people’s engagement with media and technology also means they need education on how to be critical consumers and how to interact safely online. </p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australian-sex-education-isnt-diverse-enough-heres-why-we-should-follow-englands-lead-100596">Australian sex education isn't diverse enough. Here's why we should follow England's lead</a>
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<p>They need to understand how sexual behaviour can affect their mental health, and to know about the support services available to them to manage their sexual health.</p>
<p>There are many other reasons why Australia’s young people need better education in this area, including:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>many Australians <a href="http://teenhealth.org.au/resources/Reports/SSASH%202018%20National%20Report%20-%20V10%20-%20web.pdf">don’t identify as cisgender or heterosexual</a>. Sex education must recognise and celebrate identities related to gender diversity and same-sex attraction (or asexuality), not pathologise them (<a href="https://ihra.org.au/">intersex variations</a> are also relatively common and poorly discussed)</p></li>
<li><p>young people are exposed to many <a href="https://www.esafety.gov.au/about-us/research/youth-digital-dangers">negative online experiences</a> such as cyberbullying from peers or being contacted by strangers</p></li>
<li><p>Australia experiences high <a href="https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports-data/behaviours-risk-factors/domestic-violence/overview">levels</a> of dating violence, intimate partner violence and family violence</p></li>
<li><p>young people experience disproportionately <a href="https://www1.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/ohp-bbvs-1/%24File/STI-Fourth-Nat-Strategy-2018-22.pdf">high rates of STIs</a> and many pregnancies in Australia are <a href="https://www.mja.com.au/journal/2018/209/9/unintended-and-unwanted-pregnancy-australia-cross-sectional-national-random">unintended</a></p></li>
<li><p>more than 30,000 of Australian children <a href="https://www.napcan.org.au/the-issue/">experience abuse or neglect every year</a> </p></li>
<li><p>various <a href="https://www.gain.org.au/">gynaecological health issues</a> (such as endometriosis) are poorly understood and take years for formal diagnosis.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Students in a <a href="https://www.shinesa.org.au/media/2016/05/%E2%80%98It-is-not-all-about-sex%E2%80%99-EYPSE-Research-Report.pdf">2016 online survey</a> of more than 2,000 students across 31 secondary schools in South Australia and Victoria said learning at school focused too much on biological aspects like bodies, bugs and babies. Many asked for more information on diversity, relationships, intimacy, sexual pleasure and love. </p>
<p>Evidence shows many schools <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/14681811.2019.1566896">don’t affirm all genders and sexualities</a> and provide limited support for marginalised groups such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/13676261.2017.1317088">Indigenous young people</a> or those with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11195-016-9460-x">special educational needs</a>.</p>
<h2>What will the course look like in England?</h2>
<p>Under <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/908013/Relationships_Education__Relationships_and_Sex_Education__RSE__and_Health_Education.pdf">England’s new policy</a>, primary schools focus on relationships. Students should develop an understanding of families, friendships, respectful relationships and how to stay safe (offline and online). This complements the science curriculum which requires instruction about body parts, human development (including puberty) and reproduction. </p>
<p>Primary schools can then opt to provide additional sex education tailored to the age and maturity of their students, which may help with the transition to secondary school.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1300887968949952519"}"></div></p>
<p>In secondary schools, lessons build on these topics in an age-appropriate way, with further instruction on general sexual health and the management of intimate relationships. Topics here can include consent, considering the influence of alcohol or other drugs, sexting and other online activities, and skills to reduce the risk of sexually transmissible infections or pregnancy. </p>
<p><a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/908013/Relationships_Education__Relationships_and_Sex_Education__RSE__and_Health_Education.pdf">All schools must also ensure</a>:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>relationships and sexuality lessons are appropriately resourced, staffed and timetabled</p></li>
<li><p>content is accessible for students with special educational needs. This is critically important as these students are most vulnerable to exploitation</p></li>
<li><p>discussions about diversity of gender and/or sexuality are fully integrated into lessons</p></li>
<li><p>the curriculum is complemented and supported by the broader school culture and engagement with community</p></li>
<li><p>families are informed about lesson content and encouraged to discuss topics with their children.</p></li>
</ul>
<h2>What is Australia doing?</h2>
<p>The national Australian curriculum, which provides guidelines for states and territories to adapt, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/14681811.2018.1553709">isn’t clear on</a> what the subject needs to teach. For instance, curricula in <a href="https://victoriancurriculum.vcaa.vic.edu.au/health-and-physical-education/introduction/scope-and-sequence">Victoria</a> and <a href="https://k10outline.scsa.wa.edu.au/home/teaching/curriculum-browser/health-and-physical-education">Western Australia</a> make no reference to terms such as “contraception” or “sexually transmissible infection” despite these terms existing in the <a href="https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/f-10-curriculum/health-and-physical-education/">national curriculum</a>. </p>
<p>Clearer articulation of the relationships and sexuality curriculum would ensure consistent delivery across all schools.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/355974/original/file-20200902-20-1b2xbzc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/355974/original/file-20200902-20-1b2xbzc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/355974/original/file-20200902-20-1b2xbzc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/355974/original/file-20200902-20-1b2xbzc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/355974/original/file-20200902-20-1b2xbzc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/355974/original/file-20200902-20-1b2xbzc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/355974/original/file-20200902-20-1b2xbzc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/355974/original/file-20200902-20-1b2xbzc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Without a comprehensive policy of delivering specific relationships and sexuality education, we are failing young people.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/boys-together-beach-looking-sea-334779821">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>An <a href="https://doi.org/10.4225/50%2F557E5B38F3323">Australian survey</a> reported most relationships and sex education teachers felt confident to teach general knowledge. But they were less confident in teaching about feelings, values and attitudes related to relationships or sex, or promoting risk-reducing behaviour. They were also unhappy with the level of training, resources, and external support networks provided to them. </p>
<p>There are currently <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14681811.2020.1792874">no minimum standards</a> to ensure a teacher is appropriately qualified before delivering relationships and sex education. But many <a href="https://www.shinesa.org.au/support-for-schools/">non-government groups</a>, and <a href="https://rseproject.org.au/">some universities</a>, work to support trainee and practising teachers in this area. Others <a href="https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2018-026657">support schools</a> to ensure delivery of <a href="http://dro.deakin.edu.au/eserv/DU:30046609/ollis-buildingcapacity-2012.pdf">relationships and sex education</a> that is comprehensive and aligns with the specific needs of each school community.</p>
<p>There is some level of government regulation in certain jurisdictions. Lessons focused on respectful relationships have justifiably attracted greater support in recent years, resulting in some states either <a href="https://www.education.vic.gov.au/about/programs/pages/respectfulrelationships.aspx">mandating</a> (Victoria), <a href="https://plan4womenssafety.dss.gov.au/initiative/respectful-relationships-education/">rolling out</a> (Queensland) or <a href="https://www.communities.wa.gov.au/projects/wa-respectful-relationships-teaching-support-program/">trialling</a> (WA) various programs. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/lets-make-it-mandatory-to-teach-respectful-relationships-in-every-australian-school-117659">Let's make it mandatory to teach respectful relationships in every Australian school</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Victorian government schools are also required to provide <a href="https://www.education.vic.gov.au/about/programs/Pages/free-sanitary-pads.aspx">free menstrual products</a> to students.</p>
<h2>What Australia needs to do</h2>
<p>There is an <a href="https://gdhr.wa.gov.au/home">abundance of support materials</a> schools can use to deliver content about relationships and sex. But we need further materials that best support marginalised groups. Those working with students from diverse cultural backgrounds or special educational needs are often left to adapt mainstream lessons with limited support.</p>
<p>We must not forget the importance of retaining lessons about biological concepts — such as growth and development, puberty, the menstrual cycle, reproduction, and sexually transmissible infections. But students also need to develop skills to critically evaluate media and seek help from professionals. All these topics, collectively, meet <a href="https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000260770">international guidelines</a> for effective delivery.</p>
<p>The lack of well-defined and tightly regulated legislation, at both a state and federal level, impacts our ability to effectively meet the needs of young people. Our governments need to closely observe the regulations in England (and elsewhere) and implement similar measures in Australia.</p>
<p><em>If you or someone you know needs more information</em></p>
<p><em>- <a href="https://kidshelpline.com.au/">Kids Helpline</a> has many great resources for young children and teenagers, with respect to sex and relationships</em></p>
<p><em>- The <a href="https://www.esafety.gov.au/">eSafety website</a> is a resource to help Australians stay safe online</em></p>
<p><em>- <a href="https://healthywa.wa.gov.au/Articles/S_T/Talk-soon-Talk-often">Talk Soon. Talk Often</a> is a resource to help families have discussions about relationships and sex with their children.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/144348/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jacqueline Hendriks works for Curtin University, is Project Manager of the RSE Project and is part of the Management Team for SiREN. She receives some funding from the WA Department of Health (Sexual Health and Blood-borne Virus Program) and is a Director of the Australian Association for Adolescent Health. </span></em></p>Australia’s relationships and sex education often fails to support the personal and social development of young people.Jacqueline Hendriks, Research Fellow and Lecturer, Curtin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1065302019-03-12T19:07:50Z2019-03-12T19:07:50ZIndia’s grand experiment in corporate social responsibility is heading for trouble<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/262594/original/file-20190307-100784-1xaukqa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Heading for failure: shifting the burden of social development programs to business enterprises may prove to be a huge mistake by India's national government.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Rubina Akbar has given birth to 17 children. That’s high even in her village, where mothers average eight children. But here, in a rural district less than 100 kilometres from India’s national capital of Delhi, the likelihood of dying early remains stubbornly high. </p>
<p>The infant mortality rate in Mewat district is <a href="http://rchiips.org/nfhs/NFHS-4Reports/Haryana.pdf">117 per 1,000</a> births, compared to <a href="http://niti.gov.in/content/infant-mortality-rate-imr-1000-live-births">18 for Delhi</a> and an OECD average of 6.9.</p>
<p>At the time we met Rubina and her husband Maqsood in 2016, they were still mourning the death of their baby son, who had died from diarrhoea, the third-most common cause of death in India of children under five (killing an estimated <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4367049/">300,000 children</a> a year). </p>
<p>Another of their children had died five years before. </p>
<p>India’s economy is the fastest growing in the world, but the gap between haves and have-nots is also growing. Stark inequalities exist in every indicator of development: family size, life expectancy, education, health, access to safe drinking water, basic sanitation and income. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263310/original/file-20190312-86717-m5irpo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263310/original/file-20190312-86717-m5irpo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263310/original/file-20190312-86717-m5irpo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263310/original/file-20190312-86717-m5irpo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263310/original/file-20190312-86717-m5irpo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263310/original/file-20190312-86717-m5irpo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263310/original/file-20190312-86717-m5irpo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A public toilet in Kolkata. There has been a number of national programs to build infrastructure to reduce open defecation, which is linked to spreading disease.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Matyas Rehak/Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Five years ago the national government decided to try something new to address these development disparities. It mandated that all enterprises above a certain size, both public or private, must spend 2% of their profits on corporate social responsibility projects.</p>
<p>This was more than just a tax. The idea was that enterprises choosing how the money was spent would promote “out of the box” thinking to address “<a href="https://www.wickedproblems.com/1_wicked_problems.php">wicked</a>” social problems.</p>
<p>But the emerging evidence is that this idea is unlikely to be any more successful than many tried in the past. Those charged with implementing the policy resent it. They see it as a way to shift blame for the limited success of government programs designed to reduce inequality. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/no-india-isnt-outpacing-china-and-other-modi-myths-42115">No, India isn't outpacing China, and other Modi myths</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<h2>Limits of corporate responsibility</h2>
<p>To find this out, we interviewed managers in charge of corporate social responsibility in 30 of India’s state-owned enterprises, known as Central Public Sector Enterprises (CPSEs).</p>
<p>CPSEs are similar to what Australia calls <a href="https://www.finance.gov.au/property/gbe/">government business enterprises</a> (such as Australia Post and NBN Co Ltd). Australia has less than a dozen government-owned businesses, whereas India has <a href="http://www.bsepsu.com/list-cpse.asp">more than 300</a>. </p>
<p>They account for a <a href="https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/policy/how-some-of-indias-psus-are-set-for-a-logical-evolution-through-disinvestment/articleshow/60039546.cms">fifth of India’s GDP</a>, and are prevalent in economic sectors considered strategically important, such as mineral and energy resources, and transport infrastructure. Five of India’s <a href="https://www.tharawat-magazine.com/facts/top-10-largest-companies-india/#gs.c4stO2T6">ten biggest corporations</a> – Indian Oil, Bharat Petroleum, Hindustan Petroleum, Oil and Natural Gas, and Coal India – are CPSEs. </p>
<p>They were created with the idea of advancing economic development for the social good. Controlling enormous resources, they can be highly profitable. They can also be bureaucratic, inefficient and self-serving compared with private-sector companies operating in more competitive environments. </p>
<p>They are accountable to many masters, including the Parliament of India, Ministry of Corporate Affairs, Department of Public Enterprises, Comptroller and Auditor General of India and the Securities and Exchange Board of India. This means they are susceptible to being run in the interests of internal management rather the major shareholder (the Indian government).</p>
<p>The corporate social responsibility managers we spoke to generally said they welcomed the CSR regulation but would prefer to simply give the money to the government to spend. “All CPSEs are happy to give the money to the government,” said one manager. “Why put it on us?”</p>
<p>They feared they were being set up to be scapegoats for the failure of programs to reduce inequality in India. Their common view was that government development work had often failed due to rampant inefficiency, instability, corruption and interference.</p>
<h2>Government interference</h2>
<p>While one of the stated rationales for the CSR law is to drive innovation, managers expressed to us their frustration that government rules and regulations increasingly dictated how they spent their corporate social responsibility budgets. </p>
<p>An example is the government telling CPSEs to <a href="https://zeenews.india.com/news/india/govt-to-cpses-construct-2500-toilet-blocks-under-swachh-bharat-abhiyan-by-march_1501946.html">build 2,500 toilet blocks</a> as part of a national program to improve basic sanitation throughout India (known as <em>Swacch Bharat Abhiyan</em>, or “Clean India Mission”) The managers were concerned political interference would force them to fund substandard and less-than-optimum projects. </p>
<p>Even less useful is the money CPSEs allocated from their CSR budgets to help pay for India’s Statue of Unity, the world’s tallest statue. </p>
<p>Five corporations (Oil and Natural Gas, Hindustan Petroleum, Bharat Petroleum, Indian Oil, and Oil India) contributed 1.46 billion rupees (about US$21 million) to the statue, a pet project of the ruling BJP party that cost the nation about US$430 million. </p>
<p>An auditor-general’s report to the national parliament said the project failed to meet the CSR law’s definition of <a href="https://www.businesstoday.in/current/economy-politics/sardar-patel-statue-oil-psus-ongc-ioc-cag-3000-crore-csr/story/281162.html">an approved activity</a> for protecting national heritage, art and culture.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/india-unveils-the-worlds-tallest-statue-celebrating-development-at-the-cost-of-the-environment-105731">India unveils the world's tallest statue, celebrating development at the cost of the environment</a>
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<p>Another instance where CPSEs have been accused of using corporate social responsibility expenditure to further the political goals of the government is in funding <em>gaushalas</em> – shelters for cows.</p>
<p>“It seems surprising that companies should see promotion of gaushalas as a concern which would lead to economic and social transformation of society,” <a href="https://thewire.in/business/modi-government-csr-political-gain">says Pushpa Sundar</a>, a development specialist and director of the Sampradaan Indian Centre for Philanthropy in Delhi. </p>
<p>“This, at a time when reducing child mortality received no funding and eradicating extreme hunger and poverty received only 6% of the total CSR expenditure.” </p>
<h2>Utopian ideals</h2>
<p>These issues raise serious questions about how much the CPSEs can deliver. </p>
<p>At this point the CSR law seems to be another utopian ideal hijacked by political interference. </p>
<p>In even the best of circumstances, forcing business enterprises to take on quasi-government roles and contribute to national development may be the wrong approach. </p>
<p>But in circumstances where the spirit and letter of the law is subverted by political interference, it’s even less likely the CSR law will make a meaningful contribution to national development.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/106530/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>India requires large enterprises to spend 2% of their profits on corporate social responsibility projects. It’s a bold idea, but looks doomed to fail.Monika Kansal, Senior Lecturer, Accounting, CQUniversity AustraliaAmeeta Jain, Senior Lecturer in Finance, Deakin UniversityMahesh Joshi, Senior Lecturer in Accounting, RMIT UniversityPawan Kumar Taneja, Sr. Faculty, Indian Institute of Public Administration, Associate Professor, IIHMR & Visting Faculty (2012), FORE School of ManagementLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1074312018-12-24T18:42:54Z2018-12-24T18:42:54ZHow parents can help their young children develop healthy social skills<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251416/original/file-20181219-27773-b9je6e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">At two to three years, children should be able to play alongside other children with the same toys.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>As the new year dawns, parents likely turn their thoughts to their child and new beginnings they may experience as they enter an early childhood education and care centre or preschool. Naturally, it’s a time of reflection on the previous year, and excitement about the possibilities for the new year to come. </p>
<p>Parents might reflect on friendships their child makes in the coming year. Making friends is not always instinctive for a young child. Learning to make friends is part of the <a href="https://www.acecqa.gov.au/sites/default/files/2018-02/belonging_being_and_becoming_the_early_years_learning_framework_for_australia.pdf">social development curriculum</a> in early childhood. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-physical-activity-in-early-childhood-and-is-it-really-that-important-63403">What is physical activity in early childhood, and is it really that important?</a>
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<p>Social development skills are just as important as cognitive skills when learning. In <a href="https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/10.2105/AJPH.2015.302630">recent studies</a>, positive social skills are highlighted as key predictors for better outcomes in adulthood. It’s important for parents to be aware of ways to ensure positive social development skills in their young child. </p>
<p>Parents can begin by looking for interpersonal people skills, such as empathy, listening and communication skills. This will help your child transition into the next stage of their educational journey. </p>
<h2>Is your child’s social development on track, at risk or vulnerable?</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www.aedc.gov.au/">Australian Early Development Census</a> (AEDC) researches longitudinal data about the <a href="https://www.aedc.gov.au/resources/resources-accessible/about-the-aedc-domains">five important learning domains</a> for a young child. The domains are: </p>
<ol>
<li>social development</li>
<li>physical health and well-being</li>
<li>emotional maturity</li>
<li>language and cognitive skills </li>
<li>communication skills and general knowledge. </li>
</ol>
<p>Each domain is essential for learning how to build friendships, though social development is the central one. The following table outlines what is considered developmentally on track, at risk or vulnerable in the social competence domain. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251405/original/file-20181218-27770-ea8c7f.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251405/original/file-20181218-27770-ea8c7f.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251405/original/file-20181218-27770-ea8c7f.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=195&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251405/original/file-20181218-27770-ea8c7f.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=195&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251405/original/file-20181218-27770-ea8c7f.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=195&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251405/original/file-20181218-27770-ea8c7f.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=245&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251405/original/file-20181218-27770-ea8c7f.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=245&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251405/original/file-20181218-27770-ea8c7f.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=245&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.aedc.gov.au/resources/resources-accessible/about-the-aedc-domains">Australian Early Development Census</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>After reading this table, if you feel your child is developmentally at risk or vulnerable, there may be several reasons for this. Be guided by the educator at your preschool or early childhood education and care centre centre when deciding which service might best support your child to develop healthy social skills.</p>
<p>To help you, there are a broad range of services available. These include art and music therapists, dietitians, occupational therapists, speech therapists, physiotherapists, audiologists, and child counsellors. </p>
<h2>Making friends through the stages of play</h2>
<p>There is a range of research about stages of play a young child engages in when they’re learning to make friends. According to brain development <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4586412/">research</a>, a young child begins to develop pathways in their brain for social skills from birth. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-do-kids-lie-and-is-it-normal-98948">Why do kids lie, and is it normal?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>According to <a href="https://www.encourageplay.com/blog/social-stages-of-play">research</a>, there are six stages of play with associated social skills. These are assessed in the early childhood curriculum. The following stages and social skills are approximate and to be used as a guide only:</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251461/original/file-20181219-27773-1x68chy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251461/original/file-20181219-27773-1x68chy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1119&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251461/original/file-20181219-27773-1x68chy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1119&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251461/original/file-20181219-27773-1x68chy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1119&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251461/original/file-20181219-27773-1x68chy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1407&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251461/original/file-20181219-27773-1x68chy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1407&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251461/original/file-20181219-27773-1x68chy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1407&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="attribution"><span class="source">The Conversation</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Understanding some of these key indicators of social skills required to for play will help you consider their ability. Take time to observe your young child’s social interactions in a range of settings. Watch them at home, with family and friends, as well as in their preschool or early childhood education and care centre. This may help you determine if your child is engaging socially during play to make friends.</p>
<h2>What’s next?</h2>
<p>When a child moves from one educational setting to another, we call this movement a <a href="https://www.ecrh.edu.au/docs/default-source/resources/ipsp/plan-effective-transitions-for-children-in-education-and-care-services.pdf?sfvrsn=10">transition</a>. Positive social development skills are an asset for your child during this time. Educators at both educational settings will work in partnership with you, and each other, to make sure the transition is as smooth as possible. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-new-project-shows-combining-childcare-and-aged-care-has-social-and-economic-benefits-99837">A new project shows combining childcare and aged care has social and economic benefits</a>
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<p>Essentially there are some <a href="https://www.kidsmatter.edu.au/early-childhood/resources/starting-school">key indicators</a> which will help children during transitions: self-care, separating from parents, growing independence, and readiness to learn. As parents you can: </p>
<ul>
<li>familiarise your child with the new environment</li>
<li>engage in active listening as your child expresses their thoughts and feelings about starting in a new learning environment</li>
<li>ensure children start the new year with all required equipment recommended by the centre or school</li>
<li>arrange to meet other people starting in the new year and practice turn taking, listening, asking questions and asking for help before the new year begins. </li>
</ul>
<p>This will support development of social skills for your young child and help them make new friends more readily.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/107431/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Laurien Beane does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Encouraging good social skill development benefits your young child throughout their life.Laurien Beane, Course Coordinator, Queensland Undergraduate Early Childhood, Australian Catholic UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/842272017-09-25T16:58:33Z2017-09-25T16:58:33ZWhat’s driving multiple outbreaks of cholera in Nigeria<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/187354/original/file-20170925-17375-owq8gy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A woman takes an oral cholera vaccine in a hospital. But cholera vaccines are not always effective and never long lasting. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">REUTERS/Andres Martinez Casares</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>This year, 16 of Nigeria’s 36 states have experienced <a href="http://www.ncdc.gov.ng/reports/weekly">cholera outbreaks</a>. This has <a href="http://www.ncdc.gov.ng/reports/weekly">resulted in</a> 1,622 suspected cases of the disease and 33 deaths. This is a steady increase in cholera cases after a remarkable sharp decline, from a total of 5,301 cases (186 deaths) in 2015 to 768 cases and <a href="http://www.ncdc.gov.ng/reports/weekly">32 deaths in 2016</a></p>
<p>Lagos witnessed the last outbreak in <a href="http://www.ncdc.gov.ng/reports/15/2016-november-week-45">October 2016</a> but in the last couple of weeks there have been outbreaks in Nigeria’s Lagos, Kwara and Borno states.</p>
<p>Regional disparities in the death rates from cholera expose the different levels of emergency preparedness and health resources available. Understanding why this threat persists can help health authorities to reduce it, in Nigeria and elsewhere.</p>
<p>Cholera is an intestinal infection characterised by <a href="http://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/cholera-faq#1">watery stool and diarrhoea</a>. It is caused by the Vibrio cholerae, a bacterium, which releases toxins in the human intestine. This toxin activates excess secretion of water from the intestinal lumen that often lead to severe dehydration and sometimes death. Conditions that can lead to outbreaks include a disruption in water supply, poor basic sanitation and poor hygiene. Infected people show symptoms within two to five days. They can spread the disease <a href="http://science.jrank.org/pages/1450/Cholera-Transmission-cholera.html">even when they are not ill themselves</a> by shedding the bacteria in their faeces. </p>
<p>As in other developing countries, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3428179/">cholera outbreaks occur mainly during the rainy season in Nigeria</a> although they also sometimes occur in dry season. Flooding can cause septic tanks to contaminate surface water, especially open wells used for <a href="http://www.water-research.net/index.php/bacteria">drinking and food preparation</a>. Contaminated flood water from the rains can also flow to vegetables and fruits which, if not properly washed, can cause an outbreak. </p>
<p>Cholera outbreaks happen when groups of people share infected water or food. When this happens, many people will require help at the same time. Health facilities and resources are often inadequate and ill-prepared to deal with such pressure. </p>
<p>The outbreaks in different parts of Nigeria are often driven by different factors. What they all point to, however, is that the country has not yet taken sufficient steps to address the “epidemiological triangle” that drives cholera outbreaks – host, agent and environmental factors. This includes early detection, better and stronger sanitation infrastructure that can withstand heavy rains as well as basic health infrastructure.</p>
<h2>The outbreaks and what caused them</h2>
<p>Lagos is the commercial centre of the country, with a densely settled population of <a href="http://worldpopulationreview.com/world-cities/lagos-population/">over 20 million people</a>. It lies along the coast and is prone to <a href="http://www.ncfnigeria.org/about-ncf/item/81-lagos-ncf-call-for-actions-to-save-coastal-areas">flooding</a>. Despite the enormous efforts put into strengthening its primary health care system, it <a href="https://www.vanguardngr.com/2017/07/diarrhoea-outbreak-lagos-2-dead-25-quarantined/">recorded 27</a> suspected cases of cholera and two deaths in July 2017. The outbreak has been attributed to heavy rainfall which eroded water sources, and <a href="http://www.informationng.com/2017/07/cholera-outbreak-lagos-2-persons-killed-25-others-hospitalised.html">to people getting help too late</a>. </p>
<p>To reduce the number of outbreaks in the future, Lagos must tackle the factors that cause flooding. It must also take decisive steps to relocate residents from the most flood prone areas and improve on environmental sanitation and public health campaigns.</p>
<p>Kwara State recorded 17 deaths from over 1,000 suspected cases. Health authorities there attributed the outbreak to <a href="http://thenewsnigeria.com.ng/2017/06/kwara-confirms-cholera-outbreak/">contaminated fruit consumed to break the Ramadan fast</a>. In 2011, 12 deaths were recorded from cholera outbreak and although the health authorities were silent on the cause, the residents blamed it on <a href="https://www.dailytrust.com.ng/news/health/cholera-outbreak-claims-over-12-in-kwara/200744.html">heaps of refuse that had not been removed</a>. The state’s growing population seems to have surpassed its <a href="https://www.thecable.ng/cholera-kwara-environmentalist-perspective">waste disposal infrastructure</a> </p>
<p>Borno State recorded the most serious outbreak of the three states. This northeastern state is the epicentre of the battle against the Islamic militant group Boko Haram. The outbreak affected the camp set up to accommodate people who had been displaced by the conflict. About 20,000 people are sheltered in this camp on the outskirts of Maiduguri, the Borno capital. The camp is overcrowded and <a href="https://www.vanguardngr.com/2017/09/14-people-die-cholera-borno/">lacks good amenities</a>. People there are poorly nourished and don’t have clean drinking water and sanitation.</p>
<p>Conflicts usually result in the destruction of infrastructure and disruption of services. This has worsened the situation in Borno, which already lagged behind other parts of Nigeria in <a href="http://www.unocha.org/nigeria/about-ocha-nigeria/about-crisis">social development</a>. Health facilities are poorly equipped and staffed, and women in particular have low levels of education which usually means lower earnings, poor choices, slow reaction to illnesses and <a href="https://www.ahrq.gov/professionals/education/curriculum-tools/population-health/zimmerman.html">low problem solving abilities</a>. These factors add to the risk of disease outbreaks and deaths. </p>
<h2>Why cholera endures</h2>
<p>It has been difficult to eradicate cholera because of the “epidemiological triangle” of host, agent and environmental factors. </p>
<p>Humans are the hosts. They carry and spread the disease. A person who has received treatment and is healthy again is still capable of spreading the infection to others. Vaccines are <a href="http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs107/en/">not very effective or long-lasting</a>. </p>
<p>Vibrio cholerae is the agent. It is ingested from contaminated food or water. The organisms that survive the stomach’s acidity travel to the small intestine of the human host, where they multiply. The bacteria <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8407/">attach to the mucous membrane of the intestines and can stay</a> there for years.</p>
<p>The environmental factors include poor access to clean, safe water and the lack of basic sanitation facilities. </p>
<p>To prevent and wipe out cholera, it’s necessary to interrupt the host-agent-environment relationship. This can be achieved through more effective vaccines, improved host immunity, water chlorination and better ways of disposing of sanitary waste. </p>
<p>In poor countries, the lack of standard infection prevention and control in health facilities adds to the risk of <a href="http://www.who.int/csr/resources/publications/4EPR_AM2.pdf">diseases spreading</a>. Health workers need to be continuously trained to detect, correctly diagnose and manage cases of cholera in a safe and effective manner. </p>
<p>Eradicating cholera and other diarrhoeal diseases in Nigeria will require a multi-sectoral approach. The ministries of water resources, rural development, urban planning and health must contribute, and government must show the political will to invest in infrastructure as well as health sector development.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/84227/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Doyin Ogunyemi does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Many states in Nigeria are reeling from cholera outbreaks. They need better health and sanitation infrastructure to disrupt transmission of the bacteria which cause the disease.Doyin Ogunyemi, Public Health Physician and Lecturer, College of Medicine, University of LagosLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/732242017-02-20T20:25:09Z2017-02-20T20:25:09ZThe real risks behind South Africa’s social grant payment crisis<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/157480/original/image-20170220-15879-mmoju8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Social grant recipients waiting in Gugulethu, Cape Town. A battle over social grant payment tender threatens the system.
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source"> EPA/NIC BOTHMA</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The <a href="http://www.iol.co.za/news/south-africa/gauteng/its-gordhan-vs-dlamini-over-r120bn-grant-contract-7765965">dispute</a> hovering over South Africa’s social grant system and threatening millions of vulnerable beneficiaries with nonpayment creates risks that go far beyond interrupting poor people’s access to desperately needed grants. </p>
<p>The failure of the South African Social Security Agency (<a href="http://www.sassa.gov.za/">Sassa</a>), which is responsible for the payment and administration of social grants, to act timeously has created a crisis that threatens to deliver grant recipients on a silver platter into the hands of unscrupulous financial services companies.</p>
<p>The latest instalment in the bizarre saga came last week. Sassa officials announced that they would <a href="http://www.enca.com/south-africa/sassa-to-file-court-papers-on-grant-payment-crisis-on-thursday">file papers</a> with the Constitutional Court proposing that their invalid contract with <a href="http://www.net1.com/business-structure/transactional-solutions-cluster/cash-paymaster-services-(cps)/">Cash Paymaster Services (CPS)</a>, which holds the contract for grant distribution, should be extended for another year. </p>
<p>This contract was awarded to CPS in a controversial tender in 2012. It was <a href="http://www.news24.com/Archives/City-Press/AllPay-wins-against-Net1-20150429">declared invalid</a> two years ago by the constitutional court, which instructed Sassa to reissue the tender. As the deadline came closer civil rights groups such as <a href="http://probonomatters.co.za/who-is-responsible-for-the-sassas-epic-social-grant-distribution-disaster/">Black Sash</a> started sounding warning bells that Sassa was not implementing the court’s orders. </p>
<p>Deadline after deadline passed, and by end the end of 2016 it was clear that Sassa had utterly failed to act on the court’s instructions. Late last week it appeared that Sassa had missed another one. It <a href="http://amabhungane.co.za/article/2017-02-18-grants-belamant-holds-a-gun-to-sas-head-as-dlamini-dawdles">didn’t</a> make its planned eleventh-hour submission.</p>
<p>This means that there is no credible arrangement in place to ensure that social grants will be paid when the court’s deadline expires on 31 March. The social grant system supports about 17 million individuals. Disrupting the payments will cause huge suffering to the country’s poorest and most vulnerable people and is likely to lead to social unrest. </p>
<p>With last week’s announcement, it seems that Sassa officials intended simply to present the constitutional court and the <a href="http://www.iol.co.za/news/south-africa/gauteng/its-gordhan-vs-dlamini-over-r120bn-grant-contract-7765965">National Treasury</a> with an impossible situation: condone an illegal contract, or face the possibility of social and political chaos. </p>
<p>But there’s even more at stake. If the court allows a further extension of the invalid contract (or approves a new contract with CPS), Sassa will have perpetuated a situation in which the accounts of grant recipients have in effect become mere conduits between the South African fiscus and the private financial empire that has taken shape around grant disbursement.</p>
<h2>More than just a contract is at stake</h2>
<p>At the centre of the storm is CPS, a subsidiary of <a href="http://www.net1.com/">Net1 UEPS Technologies</a> which is a listed global financial services and logistics group with operations in a number of countries including South Africa, India and Tanzania. </p>
<p>Net1 owns the fingerprint-based biometric identification and payment system that is central to CPS’s operations. Their proprietary <a href="http://www.net1.com/key-products/the-ueps-technology/">Universal Electronic Payments System</a> technology forms the “back end” of the Sassa smart card CPS uses in the electronic payment of grants. It is access to this system that has enabled CPS to roll out payments to the whole country. </p>
<p>While convenient for CPS, scholar Keith Breckenridge has <a href="https://books.google.co.za/books/about/Biometric_State.html?id=4YNxBAAAQBAJ&redir_esc=y">pointed out</a> that this creates an unprecedented situation – grant beneficiaries are captured within a private technological and financial network owned and controlled, not by Sassa, but by its service provider. </p>
<p>Here it should be noted that the work of CPS is only part of a bigger corporate strategy. Also part of Net1’s <a href="http://www.net1.com/business-structure/group-structure/">global empire</a> are financial services companies like MoneyLine, EasyPay, Manje Mobile Solutions, Smart Life and others. These companies act in concert to make use of the opportunities afforded by CPS’s control of the payment network. </p>
<p>Millions of grants beneficiaries, for example, have not only been provided with a Sassa account; their accounts have also been linked to EasyPay Everywhere, a bank account operated by MoneyLine and CPS’s banking partner, Grindrod Bank. All this is part of an <a href="http://ir.net1.com/phoenix.zhtml?c=73876&p=irol-SECText&TEXT=aHR0cDovL2FwaS50ZW5rd2l6YXJkLmNvbS9maWxpbmcueG1sP2lwYWdlPTg0Mzc0ODgmRFNFUT0xJlNFUT0xMCZTUURFU0M9U0VDVElPTl9QQUdFJmV4cD0mc3Vic2lkPTU3">explicit two-stage strategy </a>on the part of Net1: a first wave in which it rolls out its technological infrastructure, and a second wave in which it uses this infrastructure to market a wide array of products and services to an essentially captive customer base.</p>
<p>The net effect is that social grant recipients are now tied up in a web of dependency on financial services companies controlled by Net1. </p>
<h2>What this means for financial inclusion</h2>
<p>This creates two problems. Firstly, this arrangement may be in violation of competition law. It looks as if Net1 is making use of CPS’s privileged position as social grant paymaster to give its sister companies first bite and privileged access to a vast potential client base. </p>
<p>Secondly, it raises an issue that’s often forgotten in sweeping generalisations about the need to cover the “unbanked” with financial services. Yes, poor people need access to banking services, and may benefit from smart cards and electronic banking. But these services should be designed with their interests in mind. </p>
<p>Deborah James and Dinah Rajak have <a href="http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/59434/1/James_Rajak_Credit-apartheid-migrants-mines-money.pdf">shown</a> how in South Africa the history of “credit apartheid” and paternalistic control over poor people’s finance has created a situation where creditors wield disproportionate power. Unbridled financial inclusion of the poor may amount to adverse incorporation into a financial sector geared towards preying on them. Already, the Black Sash has collected evidence of troubling instances of <a href="http://ewn.co.za/2016/10/12/Social-grant-beneficiaries-call-for-an-end-to-illegal-grant-deductions">unauthorised and unlawful deductions</a> from accounts set up for grant recipients, often with very little recourse. </p>
<p>This is why the social grants crisis has implications beyond the distribution of payments. Sassa has missed a major opportunity to ensure that financial inclusion happens in a beneficial, “pro-poor” way. It failed to follow the Constitutional Court’s order that the payment of social grants should be done in a way that protects the rights, interests, and confidential data of grant beneficiaries. Instead, it has created a situation in which CPS and Net1 hold all the cards. At present, the Constitutional Court and Treasury have almost no leverage to prevent their service provider from simply walking away on 1 April 2017. </p>
<p>Already, Net1 CEO Serge Belamant has <a href="https://www.pressreader.com/south-africa/business-day/20170209/281479276157572">made it clear</a> that he is not interested in extending the contract on its present terms. He is in a position to ask for <a href="http://amabhungane.co.za/article/2017-02-18-grants-belamant-holds-a-gun-to-sas-head-as-dlamini-dawdles">whatever he wants</a> – including provisions that lock claimants even more tightly into his empire. </p>
<p>Sassa’s inactivity has created the worst possible outcome, not only in the short but also in the long term. A crisis over grant distribution looms, and the opportunity to provide meaningful financial inclusion has been missed.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/73224/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andries du Toit is the Director of the Institute for Poverty, Land and Agrarian Studies at UWC, a donor-funded research institute that relies on funding from a range of development and policy research organisations including the Department for International Development, the Economic and Social Research Council (ESCRC), the Department of Science and Technology (DST) and the National Research Foundation (NRF).</span></em></p>The South African Social Security Agency has created a crisis that threatens to deliver social grant recipients on a silver platter into the hands of unscrupulous financial services companies.Andries du Toit, Director: Institute for Poverty, Land and Agrarian Studies, University of the Western CapeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/551922016-03-02T16:11:53Z2016-03-02T16:11:53ZHow do children learn to form social bonds?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/112374/original/image-20160222-25888-1u8mq7u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Me, me, me.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Alexey Losevich </span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Toddlers may be ever so adorable but they can also be frustratingly poor at listening and respecting other people’s feelings. So how are they able to grow into social butterflies a decade or two later, often capable of extraordinary friendship, loyalty and perceptiveness?</p>
<p>While social development is a long process that lasts into our teens, our earliest experiences of forming social bonds are a lot more important than it may seem. In fact, studies have suggested that they have repercussions for how we relate to others throughout our lives and how good we are at forming relationships as adults.</p>
<h2>The earliest bonds</h2>
<p>Human infants are highly vulnerable and dependent on adults to meet their needs. A lot of a baby’s behaviour, such as clinging and crying, is designed to attract the attention of their caregivers. Initially, the baby wants the attention of anyone who can provide that care. However from about three months of age their behaviours become directed towards specific caregivers, leading to a meaningful attachment with at least one caregiver (usually a parent) by between seven and nine months.</p>
<p>Research indicates that this first bond can lead to a number of different patterns of attachment. The experience of <a href="https://theconversation.com/bonding-with-your-child-matters-for-their-life-chances-24554">consistent care promotes a secure attachment</a>, while experiences of inconsistent or unavailable care lead to insecure attachment patterns. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/112380/original/image-20160222-25898-1xihdl3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/112380/original/image-20160222-25898-1xihdl3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112380/original/image-20160222-25898-1xihdl3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112380/original/image-20160222-25898-1xihdl3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112380/original/image-20160222-25898-1xihdl3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112380/original/image-20160222-25898-1xihdl3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112380/original/image-20160222-25898-1xihdl3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A baby’s first bond is perhaps the most powerful.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Blend Images</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Securely and insecurely attached children can behave very differently. For example, a securely attached child may be distressed when a caregiver leaves and happy when they return, whereas an insecurely attached child may act more ambivalently. Secure attachment is <a href="http://www.bathspa.ac.uk/Media/Education/attachment-and-the-implications-for-learning-and-behaviour.pdf">associated with higher childhood performance</a> in several areas, including problem solving and social competence. </p>
<p>Attachment theorists suggest that from our first attachment, we establish an internal working model of social relationships and our value and role within them. This is why this first bond <a href="https://internal.psychology.illinois.edu/%7Ercfraley/attachment.htm">can influence the way we approach relationships</a> throughout our lives – with peers, romantic partners and our own children. </p>
<h2>Peer play and first friends</h2>
<p>Children start becoming interested in their peers during infancy – looking at other infants, showing them a toy or making noises. By preschool, toddlers shift between solitary activity, parallel play – playing side by side but not together – and real group activity. </p>
<p>Toddlerhood is likely the most physically aggressive time in our lives, as we learn strategies for getting what we want from others. Yet there is overwhelming evidence that we have an innate instinct to help others. One study found that human toddlers will <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/311/5765/1301.full">help unfamiliar adults</a> in many situations, such as grabbing an out-of-reach object, whereas chimp infants do not.</p>
<p>Children start to play in larger groups from around the age of five. This is when their peer relationships start to resemble what we think of as friendships, and they start to have best friends. In early and middle childhood they tend to spend time with same-sex peers, with girls forming pairs or small, intimate groups and boys often playing in larger, competitive groups. This may lead girls to prioritise social connectedness, and boys to prioritise status within their social group. </p>
<p>While both sexes can experience positive outcomes related to these differences, <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3160171/">girls could also be at greater risk</a> of developing emotional disorders and boys at greater risk of aggression-related problems. </p>
<p>How successful children are in getting along with their peers is linked to their <a href="http://psych.cf.ac.uk/home2/hay/hay2004.pdf">behavioural, cognitive, and social skills</a>. Children need to be able to recognise and interpret others’ behaviour correctly, perceive and handle their own and others’ emotions, and select appropriate responses. <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=buy.optionToBuy&id=1993-17175-001">Research</a> has looked at differences between children who receive different degrees of peer acceptance. Popular children tend to consider the whole group in what they say and do, whereas children who are left out of the peer group may not initiate group interactions. Children who violate group norms, for example by being disruptive or aggressive, are more likely to be rejected. </p>
<p>Childhood friendships allow us to practice important social skills. Friends share more intense social interaction, engage in more complex and cooperative play, share and discuss differing opinions and develop successful ways of resolving conflicts. <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1998.tb06139.x/abstract">Research</a> shows that having friends has important consequences for later life. Having a stable, close friend contributes to increased self esteem and often to better family relationships. Conversely, a lack of friends in childhood is associated with a range of poorer outcomes, including academic underachievement, unemployment and lower mental well-being. However other factors such as socioeconomic status also play a role.</p>
<h2>Teenage cliques and crowds</h2>
<p>From around the age of 11, children typically form larger, same-sex “cliques” which continue into adolescence. By the late teenage years, interactions with the opposite sex increases, leading to mixed-sex “crowds” and more frequent and longer-term romantic relationships. Early adolescents often pick boyfriends or girlfriends based on superficial characteristics or social status. Older teenagers are more likely to choose partners based on traits like personality or values, and to learn more positive ways of resolving conflicts with them. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/112733/original/image-20160224-18284-n2e41r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/112733/original/image-20160224-18284-n2e41r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112733/original/image-20160224-18284-n2e41r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112733/original/image-20160224-18284-n2e41r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112733/original/image-20160224-18284-n2e41r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112733/original/image-20160224-18284-n2e41r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112733/original/image-20160224-18284-n2e41r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">It’s often not until our teens that we start making friends with the opposite sex.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">SpeedKingz</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273229704000395">Social roles may solidify during adolescence</a>, with some children in steady trajectories as popular, rejected or neglected. This means that for some people, bullying others or being victimised could continue into early adulthood, and possibly beyond. Having at least one reciprocal friendship can however buffer children from the effects of rejection and other adverse life events. </p>
<p>Peer relationships in adolescence are usually more reciprocal than parent-child relationships, and provide opportunities to explore identity and emotional support. Parent attachment remains important with securely attached teenagers experiencing continued support while they explore their independence. However, this often stems from secure early attachment. Indeed the effects of that first bond continue to be seen in early adulthood and beyond; people who have experienced secure attachments are more likely to <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/s15324834basp1901_1">have higher self-esteem</a>, <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3557453/">be well-adjusted, enjoy better social relationships</a>, and <a href="http://nobaproject.com/modules/attachment-through-the-life-course">experience satisfying, long-term romantic relationships</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/55192/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alana James does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Learning how to be friendly is a longer and harder process for children than you may think.Alana James, Lecturer of Psychology, Royal Holloway University of LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/439782015-06-30T04:25:03Z2015-06-30T04:25:03ZForget the G7, the world needs a new alliance to lead it in the 21st century<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/86620/original/image-20150627-1405-1cdok3k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Leaders from the Group of Seven (G7) industrial nations in the Bavarian Alps for a summit in June. Time is ripe for a courageous shift in global leadership.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Reuters/Siphiwe Sibeko</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>After the Group of 7’s (G7) annual <a href="http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/06/08/us-g7-summit-idUSKBN0OM0I320150608">meeting</a> in Germany – and with the world ready to adopt a new development agenda – it is crucial to ask whether the type of global leadership that has dominated the 20th century is fit for the challenges of the 21st.</p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.cfr.org/international-organizations-and-alliances/group-seven-g7/p32957">G7</a> is a very outdated club of countries. Established in the mid-1970s as an informal grouping of the largest economies in terms of gross domestic product (GDP), it has since become a “government” for the world. In this capacity it dictates the global agenda in areas as diverse as economic policy, development co-operation, security, climate change and good governance. </p>
<p>By and large the international community has accepted this de facto leadership, at least for as long as the conventional approach to progress was intimately connected with a certain type of industrialisation and economic growth.</p>
<p>Traditionally, the G7 countries enjoyed more than economic power. They were perceived as the most successful societies in the world – this gave them considerable soft power too. But this perception has shifted a great deal in the past decade.</p>
<p>China and other emerging economies have outpaced the G7 in terms of economic scale. China became the world’s largest economy in 2014 when its GDP in purchasing power parity overtook that of the US. In addition, the international community has come to recognise that genuine progress and success are very different from a country’s economic size. </p>
<p>In particular, the <a href="https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/topics/sustainabledevelopmentgoals">Sustainable Development Goals</a> (SDGs), which will be approved by the United Nations in September, present a totally different agenda for the world’s future economic governance. </p>
<p>Unlike previous initiatives, these goals put emphasis on well-being – both human and ecosystemic – as the precondition to achieve durable and just prosperity. Despite their limitations, the goals will become the benchmarks against which all countries will have to gauge their progress over the next few decades. </p>
<p>As <a href="http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=41685#.VT5VjIU5vP8">admitted</a> by the UN Secretary General Ban Ki-Moon:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>We need a new economic paradigm that recognises the parity between the three pillars of sustainable development. Social, economic and environmental well-being are indivisible.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The adoption of the SDGs calls into question the type of informal global leadership that has dominated the 20th century as well as the one that has been emerging in the past few years with the rise of new powers such as China and India.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/86690/original/image-20150629-9081-83duwd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/86690/original/image-20150629-9081-83duwd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=312&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/86690/original/image-20150629-9081-83duwd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=312&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/86690/original/image-20150629-9081-83duwd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=312&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/86690/original/image-20150629-9081-83duwd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/86690/original/image-20150629-9081-83duwd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/86690/original/image-20150629-9081-83duwd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The US sits at the bottom of sustainable development due to its big ecological footprint.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Reuters/Erik De Castro</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Measuring well-being paints a different picture</h2>
<p>When we measure the performance in terms of well-being both in the West and in the East, the results are sobering at best. </p>
<p>The US, for example, fares very poorly. It is only 36th according to the <a href="http://www.socialprogressimperative.org/data/spi/countries/USA">Social Progress Index</a> and at the very bottom in sustainable development due to its massive <a href="http://www.footprintnetwork.org/en/index.php/GFN/page/ecological_footprint_atlas_2010">ecological footprint</a>. </p>
<p>Other G7 members are also seriously underperforming. This is mostly due to their levels of greenhouse gases emissions and timid policies in environmental governance. The only current G7 members to maintain a generally acceptable level of performance are Germany and Canada. Germany performs relatively high in its capacity to address basic needs and promote welfare. </p>
<p>Canada does well mostly thanks to its education and social capital as factors of <a href="http://www.prosperity.com/#!/ranking">prosperity</a>. But its recent moves in climate change <a href="http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/canada-japan-blocking-consensus-at-g7-on-greenhouse-gas-reductions/article24840166/">negotiations</a> seriously undermine its capacity to exert any credible leadership in the SDG-inspired global agenda. </p>
<p>New powers fare even worse in most dimensions of well-being. China is 92nd due to a shaky recognition of personal rights and 51st in terms of <a href="http://www.prosperity.com/#!/ranking">overall prosperity</a> mainly due to limited individual freedom and security. It sits at the very bottom in <a href="http://epi.yale.edu/epi/country-rankings">environmental performance</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/86686/original/image-20150629-9081-t96biy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/86686/original/image-20150629-9081-t96biy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/86686/original/image-20150629-9081-t96biy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/86686/original/image-20150629-9081-t96biy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/86686/original/image-20150629-9081-t96biy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/86686/original/image-20150629-9081-t96biy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/86686/original/image-20150629-9081-t96biy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/86686/original/image-20150629-9081-t96biy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">China fares worse on dimensions of well-being, sitting at the bottom in terms of environmental performance.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Reuters/Jason Lee</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>India is the world’s laggard in environmental performance. Brazil and South Africa lead in inequality, while Russia experiences a collapse in good governance, social cohesion and management of natural resources.</p>
<p>There is little hope for change if leadership in global well-being is to be expected by any of these countries.</p>
<h2>There is good news</h2>
<p>There are several nations that have been able marry high levels of economic progress with human and ecological well-being. They include dynamic economies with a high quality of life such as New Zealand and South Korea, which have outpaced their neighbours in terms of sustainable development, welfare, innovation and good governance.</p>
<p>There is also Costa Rica. According to the Social Progress Index, it is the biggest aggregate <a href="http://ideas.ted.com/why-we-shouldn%E2%80%99t-judge-a-country-by-its-gdp/">over-performer</a>, showing strength across all the dimensions and strong education, health and welfare systems. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/86688/original/image-20150629-9093-1hlr7hv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/86688/original/image-20150629-9093-1hlr7hv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/86688/original/image-20150629-9093-1hlr7hv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/86688/original/image-20150629-9093-1hlr7hv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/86688/original/image-20150629-9093-1hlr7hv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/86688/original/image-20150629-9093-1hlr7hv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/86688/original/image-20150629-9093-1hlr7hv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/86688/original/image-20150629-9093-1hlr7hv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Costa Rica shows how people can live long, happy and sustainable lives.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Reuters/Juan Carlos</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For the <a href="http://www.happyplanetindex.org/">Happy Planet Index</a>, which gauges how countries can achieve long, happy and sustainable lives, Costa Rica is an undisputed leader. It produces 99% of its energy from renewable sources, has reversed deforestation trends and has committed to becoming carbon neutral by 2021. Costa Rica has a per capita ecological footprint one third of America’s while enjoying a much higher life expectancy.</p>
<p>Leading the rankings of well-being are also established social democracies such as Sweden and Denmark, on par with Norway and Switzerland, but undoubtedly more credible as leaders of sustainable change. </p>
<p>In other continents we also find good performers, such as Botswana in Africa and Uruguay in South America. These countries have achieved comparatively higher standards of living in regions marked by deprivation, corruption and exploitation.</p>
<h2>Time for a courageous shift</h2>
<p>If the international community is serious about the SDG agenda, then leadership must change accordingly. We cannot expect the worst polluting countries to tackle climate change successfully. </p>
<p>Not only do they lack the political will, they also lack the capacity to innovate, imagine and build a better world. The same can be said about inequality, good governance and democratic accountability. With the convergence of economic, social and environmental crises, business-as-usual approaches are endangering the survival of our civilisation. The time is ripe for a courageous shift.</p>
<p>It hard to imagine that the G7 countries would voluntarily relinquish their influence. It is therefore the responsibility of the most progressive countries in each continent to emerge out of their current irrelevance and take the lead. </p>
<p>These nations have an unprecedented window of opportunity to present themselves as beacons of sustainable development as the world gears up for a new round of negotiations on a global agreement on climate change. </p>
<p>We need an alliance of the world’s leading well-being economies, a WE7, to lead us successfully and prosperously in the 21st century. This would be a first step towards the establishment of a global network of countries, companies and civil society movements seriously committed to building a better world.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/43978/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lorenzo Fioramonti does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The world needs an alliance of leading well-being economies, a WE7, to lead it in the 21st century. It would be the first step towards a global network committed to a sustainable future for the planet.Lorenzo Fioramonti, Full Professor of Political Economy, University of PretoriaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/191672013-10-15T19:38:38Z2013-10-15T19:38:38ZFor primates, having a mother helps them learn social skills<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/33050/original/gsqvrcxy-1381810320.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Orphan bonobos at a Congo sanctuary don't understand how to comfort others or themselves as well as those reared by their mums.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Flickr/Princess Stand in the Rain</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Wild bonobos, like all Great Apes, spend long childhoods with their mothers, learning the skills they need to function as socially and emotionally stable members of their community. </p>
<p>But orphaned bonobos at sanctuaries don’t have that kind of upbringing. Can they still learn the skills they need to get by in bonobo society?</p>
<p>Zanna Clay and Frans de Waal have been investigating the social development of bonobos: their results were published this week <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2013/10/09/1316449110">in PNAS</a>. They found that the mother-infant bond is vital in developing healthy social and emotional skills.</p>
<p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frans_de_Waal">Frans de Waal</a> is well known for his popular science books about chimpanzee and bonobo behaviour. He has conducted almost 40 years of ground-breaking research into primate cognition, recognising and demonstrating the existence of emotion, cooperation, altruism, Machiavellian Intelligence, conflict resolution and more in our closest living relatives - chimpanzees and bonobos. </p>
<h2>A big step forward for understanding maternal care</h2>
<p>Clay and de Waal did their work at <a href="http://www.friendsofbonobos.org/sanctuary.htm">Lola ya Bonobo</a> in the Republic of Congo, which cares for bonobos orphaned by the illegal bushmeat trade. </p>
<p>There are mother-reared apes here, but also orphans who would have experienced the trauma of being torn (literally) from their dead mothers’ bodies, and seeing other members of their group slaughtered. And while they are raised by human surrogates, they lose that bond with their mother.</p>
<p>This forested sanctuary environment is a stark contrast to the laboratory where Harry Harlow and his team conducted <a href="http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Harlow/love.htm">early studies</a> of maternal deprivation or “the nature of love” in Rhesus macaques (monkeys) in the 1950s. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/33059/original/dmmf5shm-1381813368.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/33059/original/dmmf5shm-1381813368.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/33059/original/dmmf5shm-1381813368.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=841&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/33059/original/dmmf5shm-1381813368.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=841&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/33059/original/dmmf5shm-1381813368.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=841&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/33059/original/dmmf5shm-1381813368.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1057&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/33059/original/dmmf5shm-1381813368.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1057&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/33059/original/dmmf5shm-1381813368.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1057&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">One juvenile bonobo embraces another after the other lost a fight.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Zanna Clay at Òlola ya Bonoboó</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In a horrific set of experiments, the tiny monkeys were removed from their mothers only hours after birth, and given access to artificial inanimate substitute mothers made of hard “wire” or softer terry towelling and foam. If frightened, the tiny monkeys would run to the cloth mother, but not the wire mother. </p>
<p>Not surprisingly, the monkeys in later years were psychologically damaged. </p>
<p>These studies reflect the poor understanding of maternal care and mental health even in <a href="http://whqlibdoc.who.int/monograph/WHO_MONO_2_(part1).pdf">humans</a> in the 1940s and 1950s. Human orphanages or “foundling homes” at the time often provided little care, with no consistent caregiver or affection or attachment possible. Western child-rearing practices were often cold, detached and “hands-off” compared to today, where crying children are held and comforted.</p>
<h2>How can we understand primates’ social development?</h2>
<p>Three sets of behavioural data were analysed to investigate areas of social competence considered important in development of healthy humans or bonobos. </p>
<p>Thirty-six bonobo bystanders were included in the analysis: thirteen adults, eleven adolescents, six mother-reared juveniles and six orphan juveniles.</p>
<p><em>Responses to others’ distress</em> were measured by recording instances when a bonobo bystander offered “affiliative consolation” (such as sitting close to, touching, grooming, playing, holding, patting) to a bonobo “victim” in distress (shown by screaming, whimpering, self-embracing). This distress usually happened after conflict or a tantrum. </p>
<p>Juvenile bystanders offered consolation more than either adults or adolescents, but the mother-reared youngsters were almost three times as likely to embrace or comfort a distressed friend or companion.</p>
<p>If a juvenile was within 3 metres of a “victim” needing comfort, the mother-reared juveniles tended to immediately approach and comfort, whereas the orphans’ immediate response was more avoidant - fleeing, moving away or screaming.</p>
<p><em>Overcoming self-distress</em> was measured by seeing how long it took for “victim” bonobos to stop screaming and anxiously “self-scratching” after conflict. Although the orphans tended to scream for about 10 seconds (on average), the difference was not significantly different from mother-reared bonobos. </p>
<p>However, the orphans were about four times as likely to start screaming again (after stopping for 30 seconds or longer), and on average took more than 2 minutes to recover compared to about 30 seconds for the mother-reared juveniles. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/33052/original/nsjgtjf5-1381811899.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/33052/original/nsjgtjf5-1381811899.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/33052/original/nsjgtjf5-1381811899.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/33052/original/nsjgtjf5-1381811899.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/33052/original/nsjgtjf5-1381811899.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/33052/original/nsjgtjf5-1381811899.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/33052/original/nsjgtjf5-1381811899.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Flickr/Sebastian Niedlich</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>To measure <em>sustained play and friendships</em>, researchers recorded the length of social bouts of play. Mother-reared juveniles spent twice as long playing with others as orphans did. </p>
<p>Mother-reared bonobos also initiated play with others twice as often as orphans, and had three times as many friends. This suggests that the mother-reared youngsters were more sociable and playful than orphaned bonobos.</p>
<h2>Having a mother helps</h2>
<p>In short, the mother-reared bonobos were more socially and emotionally “competent” than orphan bonobos. </p>
<p>The results were used to construct a “composite sociality index” to see if general social competence was related to how the bonobos dealt with their own distress or that of others. The index or “best-fitting model” to account for the results was that juveniles who were high on sociality were more likely to console others, especially if the “victim” was a friend.</p>
<p>After reviewing this article, I am rushing home to give my daughter a big hug and to send an email of support to friends and colleagues who work with orphaned Great Apes in sanctuaries such as the one described here, <a href="http://www.grida.no/publications/rr/apes/">tirelessly campaigning</a> to stop the organised illegal trafficking and trade of Great Apes.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/19167/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Carla Litchfield does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Wild bonobos, like all Great Apes, spend long childhoods with their mothers, learning the skills they need to function as socially and emotionally stable members of their community. But orphaned bonobos…Carla Litchfield, Lecturer, School of Psychology, Social Work and Social Policy, University of South AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.