tag:theconversation.com,2011:/id/topics/waste-management-29926/articlesWaste management – The Conversation2024-01-18T18:58:37Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2199002024-01-18T18:58:37Z2024-01-18T18:58:37ZTrash TV: streaming giants are failing to educate the young about waste recycling. Here’s why it matters<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569957/original/file-20240117-25-bb72gg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=231%2C0%2C2585%2C1719&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://glenkeaneproductions.com/press">Trash Truck/Glen Keane Productions</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As a new parent, I’ve had the joy of watching animated cartoons with my two-year-old son. His favourite show is <a href="https://www.netflix.com/au/title/80234731">Trash Truck</a>, on Netflix, featuring a tight-knit ensemble of five characters: a trash truck, a young boy, a raccoon, a bear and a mouse. The show offers valuable life lessons, emphasising the importance of friendship, sharing, love for animals and respect for parents. </p>
<p>But there’s a problem. The way it portrays the collection of waste grabbed my attention. It’s simply a matter of gathering mixed waste from bins and depositing it in a landfill. There’s no sign of any process for sorting or recycling waste. </p>
<p>This left me pondering why a charming cartoon series with a global audience, capable of educating the future generation about waste recovery, lacks such relevant educational content. </p>
<p>I’m a researcher who has studied waste management for the past six years. I decided to analyse similar series such as <a href="https://www.primevideo.com/detail/0U44E08N4F3GMFVIDRHREE3UU7/ref=atv_sr_fle_c_Tn74RA_1_1_1">The Stinky and Dirty Show</a> (Amazon Prime), <a href="https://www.youtube.com/@babybus">BabyBus</a> (YouTube) and <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7lQw4F6g3A4">Frank the Garbage Truck</a> (YouTube). A clear pattern emerged – all show waste simply being dumped. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/building-activity-produces-18-of-emissions-and-a-shocking-40-of-our-landfill-waste-we-must-move-to-a-circular-economy-heres-how-206188">Building activity produces 18% of emissions and a shocking 40% of our landfill waste. We must move to a circular economy – here’s how</a>
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<p>To make it clear, in <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Uoe1UwdjCQk">one episode of BabyBus</a>, a song goes: </p>
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<p>[Garbage truck sings] Garbage truck yeah yeah, looking for garbage here and there […] I have a long arm yeah yeah, look what I can do. […] [Two paper coke cups sing] Big tummy, no no no, it is going to eat me, the trash can is shaking shaking, I don’t want to go […] [Garbage truck sings] Now off to the dump […] [Discarded apple sings] No I don’t want to go to the dump […] [Garbage truck sings] Dirty trash bye bye, smelly trash bye bye.</p>
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<p>This episode dropped four years ago on YouTube. It has hit a whopping 109 million views. That shows how powerful these platforms are for reaching people.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/Uoe1UwdjCQk?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">In BabyBus it’s all about “dumping trash” with no mention of sorting or recycling.</span></figcaption>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/households-find-low-waste-living-challenging-heres-what-needs-to-change-197022">Households find low-waste living challenging. Here's what needs to change</a>
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<h2>Why does waste education matter?</h2>
<p>Many nations have hastily adopted various strategies and developed policies to tackle the <a href="https://www.theworldcounts.com/challenges/planet-earth/state-of-the-planet/world-waste-facts">ever-growing issue of waste</a>. In particular, scientific literature informing these strategies and policies highlights education as an effective and sustainable solution. </p>
<p>The findings from our multiple research projects reinforce this fact. For instance, we found “<a href="https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/ECAM-05-2021-0439/full/html">poor culture and education</a>” is one of the top three barriers to sustainably managing construction and demolition waste and treating it as a resource. In a later study, we <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352550922002445">identified education</a> as a priority to enable development of markets for recycled construction waste materials. Most recently, we found “<a href="https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/SASBE-08-2023-0213/full/html?skipTracking=true">education, investigation and demonstration activities</a>” are the main strategy for optimising use of recycled materials in the building and construction sector. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/buildings-used-iron-from-sunken-ships-centuries-ago-the-use-of-recycled-materials-should-be-business-as-usual-by-now-200351">Buildings used iron from sunken ships centuries ago. The use of recycled materials should be business as usual by now</a>
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<h2>Screen time can be learning time</h2>
<p>The United Nations <a href="https://sdgs.un.org/goals">Sustainable Development Goals</a> emphasise the crucial role of children in achieving these global objectives. Its 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development <a href="https://sdgs.un.org/2030agenda#:%7E:text=Children%20and%20young%20women%20and,words%20of%20the%20UN%20Charter.">describes</a> children as:</p>
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<p>critical agents of change […] [who] will find in the new goals a platform to channel their infinite capacities for activism into the creation of a better world.</p>
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<p>We have seen a big increase in waste education for children such as recycling programs at schools in recent years. But according to <a href="https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-0-387-79061-9_940">Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory of human development</a>, the primary environmental influence on children occurs within their homes. A large part of a child’s time is <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7018039/">spent at home</a> where they often have uninterrupted access to multimedia content.</p>
<p><a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/article-abstract/2789091">Recent research</a> indicates screen time for children has surged particularly during and after COVID-19. While this trend may not be ideal, we can harness it for shaping the mindset of the next generation. In particular, it’s an opportunity to promote environmental sustainability. </p>
<p>The United States’ National Association for the Education of Young Children <a href="https://www.naeyc.org/sites/default/files/globally-shared/downloads/PDFs/resources/position-statements/ps_technology.pdf">suggests multimedia learning</a>, when used appropriately, helps children understand complicated topics while also providing positive engagement and enjoyment. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568959/original/file-20240111-29-duc80h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568959/original/file-20240111-29-duc80h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568959/original/file-20240111-29-duc80h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568959/original/file-20240111-29-duc80h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568959/original/file-20240111-29-duc80h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568959/original/file-20240111-29-duc80h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568959/original/file-20240111-29-duc80h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Streaming content is an important influence on children’s understanding of issues and their attitudes to them.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source"> Salman Shooshtarian</span></span>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/forget-old-screen-time-rules-during-coronavirus-heres-what-you-should-focus-on-instead-135053">Forget old screen 'time' rules during coronavirus. Here's what you should focus on instead</a>
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<h2>The power and responsibilities of streaming media</h2>
<p>Online video streaming has transformed the media landscape and viewing habits worldwide. The swift expansion of internet usage, the ubiquity of mobile devices and the surging demand for online video content have driven this change. </p>
<p>The global video streaming market has grown remarkably over the past ten years. By 2022, estimated annual revenue from streaming TV and video hit <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/260179/over-the-top-revenue-worldwide/">US$154 billion</a>.</p>
<p>Waste is everyone’s responsibility, as outlined in many waste management initiatives and activities around the world. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-cant-keep-putting-apartment-residents-waste-in-the-too-hard-basket-200545">We can't keep putting apartment residents' waste in the too hard basket</a>
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<p>With a global total of 1.2 billion viewers, giant streaming media companies such as Netflix (<a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/250934/quarterly-number-of-netflix-streaming-subscribers-worldwide/">247.2 million paid subscribers</a>, Amazon Prime Video (<a href="https://www.searchlogistics.com/learn/statistics/amazon-prime-statistics/">200 million paid subscribers</a>) and Disney+ (<a href="https://variety.com/2023/tv/news/disney-plus-subscribers-150-million-earnings-1235784850/">150 million paid subscribers</a> have a key role to play in educating the next generation. In particular, their animated cartoon series can influence the next generation’s attitude and behaviour. </p>
<p>Given its impact on the young, the global entertainment industry needs to be held accountable to ensure it portrays current knowledge about how we manage pressing issues such as waste.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/219900/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Salman Shooshtarian receives funding from the Australia Sustainable Built Environment National Research Centre.</span></em></p>An essential part of managing a growing global waste problem is sorting, recovering and recycling it. But you won’t see this on children’s shows that feature waste collection.Salman Shooshtarian, Senior Lecturer, School of Property, Construction and Project Management, RMIT UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2135622023-09-25T20:07:23Z2023-09-25T20:07:23ZContainer deposit schemes reduce rubbish on our beaches. Here’s how we proved it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549248/original/file-20230920-21-xmj3uw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C7%2C4896%2C3246&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Our beaches are in trouble. Limited recycling programs and a society that throws away so much have resulted in more than <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-023-01216-0">3 million tonnes of plastic</a> polluting the oceans. An estimated <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-023-01216-0">1.5–1.9% of this rubbish</a> ends up on beaches.</p>
<p>So can waste-management strategies such as container deposit schemes make a difference to this <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-023-01216-0">50,000–60,000 tonnes</a> of beach rubbish?</p>
<p>The Queensland government started a <a href="https://containerexchange.com.au/">container deposit scheme</a> in 2019. We wanted to know if it reduced the rubbish that washed up on beaches in a tourist hotspot, the Whitsundays region. </p>
<p>To find out, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X23009050">our study</a>, the first of its kind, used data from a <a href="https://ecobargecleanseas.org.au/">community volunteer group</a> through the <a href="https://amdi.tangaroablue.org/">Australian Marine Debris Initiative Database</a>.</p>
<p>It turned out that for the types of rubbish included in the scheme – plastic bottles and aluminium cans – the answer was an emphatic yes.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/spotting-plastic-waste-from-space-and-counting-the-fish-in-the-seas-heres-how-ai-can-help-protect-the-oceans-196222">Spotting plastic waste from space and counting the fish in the seas: here's how AI can help protect the oceans</a>
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<h2>Container deposit schemes work</h2>
<p>After the scheme began, there were fewer plastic bottles and aluminium cans on Whitsundays beaches. Volunteer clean-up workers collected an average of about 120 containers per beach visit before the scheme began in 2019. This number fell to 77 in 2020.</p>
<p>Not only that, but those numbers stayed down year after year. This means people continued to take part in the scheme for years. </p>
<p>Rubbish that wasn’t part of the scheme still found its way to the beaches.</p>
<p>However, more types of rubbish such as larger <a href="https://www.qld.gov.au/environment/management/waste/recovery/reduction/container-refund/proposed-expansion">glass bottles are being added</a> to the four-year-old Queensland scheme. Other states and territories have had schemes like this for many years, the oldest in South Australia since 1971. </p>
<p>But we didn’t have access to beach data from before and after those schemes started. So our findings are great news, especially as <a href="https://consult.dwer.wa.gov.au/strategic-policy/container-deposit-scheme-expanding-scope/">some</a> of <a href="https://yoursayconversations.act.gov.au/act-container-deposit-scheme-expansion">these</a> other <a href="https://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/news/media-releases/2022/epamedia221015-cheers-nsw-return-and-earn-set-to-expand">schemes</a> are set to expand too. The evidence also supports the creation of new schemes in Victoria this November and Tasmania next year.</p>
<p>These developments give reason to hope we will see further reductions in beach litter.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/spin-the-bottle-the-fraught-politics-of-container-deposit-schemes-37981">Spin the bottle: the fraught politics of container deposit schemes</a>
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<h2>The data came from the community</h2>
<p>To find out whether the scheme has reduced specific sorts of rubbish on beaches we needed a large amount of data from before and after it began. </p>
<p>The unsung heroes of this study are the diligent volunteers who provided us with these data. They have been recording the types and amounts of rubbish found during their cleanups at Whitsundays beaches for years. </p>
<p>Eco Barge Clean Seas Inc has been doing this work since 2009. In taking that extra step of counting and sorting the rubbish, they may not have known it at the time, but they were creating a data gold mine. We would eventually use their data to prove the container deposit scheme works.</p>
<p>The rubbish clean-ups are continuing. This means we’ll be able to see how <a href="https://containerexchange.com.au/qld-scheme-expansion/">adding more rubbish types</a> to the scheme will further reduce rubbish on beaches. </p>
<p>The long-term perspective we can gain from such data is testament to this sustained community effort.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/local-efforts-have-cut-plastic-waste-on-australias-beaches-by-almost-30-in-6-years-184243">Local efforts have cut plastic waste on Australia's beaches by almost 30% in 6 years</a>
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<h2>There’s still more work to do</h2>
<p>So if we recycle our plastics, why do we still get beaches covered in rubbish? The reality is that <a href="https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/whopping-91-percent-plastic-isnt-recycled/">most plastics aren’t recycled</a>. This is mainly due to two problems:</p>
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<li>technological limitations on the sorting needed to avoid contamination of waste streams</li>
<li>inadequate incentives for people to reduce contamination by properly sorting their waste, and ultimately to use products made from recycled waste.</li>
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<p>Our findings show we can create more sustainable practices and a cleaner environment when individuals are given incentives to recycle. </p>
<p>However, container deposit schemes don’t just provide a financial reward. Getting people directly involved in recycling fosters a sense of responsibility for the environment. This connection between people’s actions and outcomes is a key to such schemes’ success. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-new-100-recyclable-packaging-target-is-no-use-if-our-waste-isnt-actually-recycled-95857">The new 100% recyclable packaging target is no use if our waste isn't actually recycled</a>
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<p>Our study also shows how invaluable community-driven clean-up projects are. Not only do they reduce environmental harm and improve our experiences on beaches, but they can also provide scientists like us with the data we need to show how waste-management policies affect the environment. </p>
<p>Waste management is a concern for communities, policymakers and environmentalists around the world. The lessons from our study apply not only in Australia but anywhere that communities can work with scientists and governments to solve environmental problems.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/213562/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Volunteers have been collecting and sorting washed-up rubbish on the beach for years. Thanks to their efforts, we have data on whether container deposit schemes help the issue.Kay Critchell, Lecturer in Oceanography, Deakin UniversityMichael Traurig, PhD Researcher, School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2089242023-07-24T15:01:14Z2023-07-24T15:01:14ZDecades of public messages about recycling in the US have crowded out more sustainable ways to manage waste<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538790/original/file-20230721-19-ywlafp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=16%2C0%2C3593%2C2397&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A worker sorts cardboard at a recycling center in Newark, N.J.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/newark-recycling-center-worker-sorting-cardboard-news-photo/1177460184">Jeff Greenberg/Universal Images Group via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>You’ve just finished a cup of coffee at your favorite cafe. Now you’re facing a trash bin, a recycling bin and a compost bin. What’s the most planet-friendly thing to do with your cup?</p>
<p>Many of us would opt for the recycling bin – but <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-43739043">that’s often the wrong choice</a>. In order to hold liquids, most paper coffee cups are made with a thin plastic lining, which makes separating these materials and recycling them difficult. </p>
<p>In fact, the most sustainable option isn’t available at the trash bin. It happens earlier, before you’re handed a disposable cup in the first place. </p>
<p>In our research on <a href="https://scholar.google.com.co/citations?user=bW60nUYAAAAJ&hl=en">waste behavior</a>, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=BwxRqBMAAAAJ&hl=en">sustainability</a>, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=z5h3kkoAAAAJ&hl=en">engineering design</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=Mxn0PmkAAAAJ&hl=en">decision making</a>, we examine what U.S. residents understand about the efficacy of different waste management strategies and which of those strategies they prefer. In two nationwide surveys in the U.S. that we conducted in October 2019 and March 2022, we found that people <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-023-01185-7">overlook waste reduction and reuse in favor of recycling</a>. We call this tendency recycling bias and reduction neglect.</p>
<p>Our results show that a decadeslong effort to educate the U.S. public about recycling has succeeded in some ways but failed in others. These efforts have made recycling an option that consumers see as important – but to the detriment of more sustainable options. And it has not made people more effective recyclers. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Recycling rules vary widely across the U.S., leaving consumers to figure out what to do.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>A global waste crisis</h2>
<p>Experts and advocates widely agree that humans are generating waste worldwide at levels that are <a href="https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2018/09/20/global-waste-to-grow-by-70-percent-by-2050-unless-urgent-action-is-taken-world-bank-report">unmanageable and unsustainable</a>. Microplastics are polluting the Earth’s <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-019-0335-5">most remote regions</a> and <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2020.106274">amassing in the bodies of humans</a> <a href="https://theconversation.com/hundreds-of-fish-species-including-many-that-humans-eat-are-consuming-plastic-154634">and animals</a>. </p>
<p>Producing and disposing of goods is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions and a public health threat, especially for vulnerable communities that <a href="https://theconversation.com/as-more-developing-countries-reject-plastic-waste-exports-wealthy-nations-seek-solutions-at-home-117163">receive large quantities of waste</a>. New research suggests that even when plastic does get recycled, it produces <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-solutions/2023/05/22/plastic-recycling-microplastic-pollution/">staggering amounts of microplastic pollution</a>. </p>
<p>Given the scope and urgency of this problem, in June 2023 the United Nations convened talks with government representatives from around the globe to <a href="https://www.reuters.com/business/environment/after-rough-start-un-plastic-treaty-talks-end-with-mandate-first-draft-2023-06-02/">begin drafting a legally binding pact</a> aimed at stemming harmful plastic waste. Meanwhile, many U.S. cities and states are <a href="https://www.seasidesustainability.org/post/the-u-s-progress-with-single-use-plastic-bans#:%7E:text=Currently%2C%20the%20U.S.%20has%20not,placed%20bans%20on%20plastic%20bags.">banning single-use plastic products</a> or <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2022/jun/30/california-single-use-plastic-reduce-law-gavin-newsom">restricting their use</a>. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">On March 30, 2023, the UN declared the first International Day of Zero Waste to raise awareness of the importance of zero waste and responsible consumption and production.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Upstream and downstream solutions</h2>
<p>Experts have long recommended tackling the waste problem by prioritizing source reduction strategies that prevent the creation of waste in the first place, rather than seeking to manage and mitigate its impact later. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and other prominent environmental organizations like the U.N. Environment Programme use a framework called the waste management hierarchy that ranks strategies from most to least environmentally preferred. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538788/original/file-20230721-39966-dkufjj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Graphics showing options for managing waste, moving from upstream (production) to downstream (disposal)." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538788/original/file-20230721-39966-dkufjj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538788/original/file-20230721-39966-dkufjj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538788/original/file-20230721-39966-dkufjj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538788/original/file-20230721-39966-dkufjj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538788/original/file-20230721-39966-dkufjj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=523&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538788/original/file-20230721-39966-dkufjj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=523&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538788/original/file-20230721-39966-dkufjj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=523&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The U.S. EPA’s current waste management hierarchy (left, with parenthetical explanations by Michaela Barnett, et al.), and a visual depiction of the three R’s framework (right).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Michaela Barnett, et al.</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The familiar waste management hierarchy urges people to “Reduce, Reuse, Recycle,” in that order. Creating items that can be recycled is better from a sustainability perspective than burning them in an incinerator or burying them in a landfill, but it still consumes energy and resources. In contrast, reducing waste generation conserves natural resources and avoids other negative environmental impacts throughout a product’s life. </p>
<h2>R’s out of place</h2>
<p>In our surveys, participants completed a series of questions and tasks that elicited their views of different waste strategies. In response to open-ended questions about the most effective way to reduce landfill waste or solve environmental issues associated with waste, participants overwhelmingly cited recycling and other downstream strategies. </p>
<p>We also asked people to rank the four strategies of the Environmental Protection Agency’s <a href="https://www.epa.gov/smm/sustainable-materials-management-non-hazardous-materials-and-waste-management-hierarchy">waste management hierarchy</a> from most to least environmentally preferred. In that order, they include source reduction and reuse; recycling and composting; energy recovery, such as burning trash to generate energy; and treatment and disposal, typically in a landfill. More than three out of four participants (78%) ordered the strategies incorrectly. </p>
<p>When they were asked to rank the reduce/reuse/recycle options in the same way, participants fared somewhat better, but nearly half (46%) still misordered the popular phrase. </p>
<p>Finally, we asked participants to choose between just two options – waste prevention and recycling. This time, over 80% of participants understood that preventing waste was much better than recycling. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1651694063223988224"}"></div></p>
<h2>Recycling badly</h2>
<p>While our participants defaulted to recycling as a waste management strategy, they did not execute it very well. </p>
<p>This isn’t surprising, since the current U.S. recycling system puts the onus on consumers to separate recyclable materials and keep contaminants out of the bin. There is a lot of variation in what can be recycled from community to community, and this standard can change frequently as new products are introduced and markets for recycled materials shift. </p>
<p>Our second study asked participants to sort common consumer goods into virtual recycling, compost and trash bins and then say how confident they were in their choices. Many people placed common recycling contaminants, including plastic bags (58%), disposable coffee cups (46%) and light bulbs (26%), erroneously – and often confidently – in the virtual recycling bins. For a few materials, such as cardboard and aluminum foil, the correct answer can vary depending on the capacities of local waste management systems.</p>
<p><iframe id="U6pVA" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/U6pVA/5/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>This is known as <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-wishcycling-two-waste-experts-explain-173825">wishcycling</a> – placing nonrecyclable items in the recycling stream in the hope or belief that they will be recycled. Wishcycling creates additional costs and problems for recyclers, who have to sort the materials, and sometimes results in otherwise recyclable materials being landfilled or incinerated instead. </p>
<p>Although our participants were strongly biased toward recycling, they weren’t confident that it would work. Participants in our first survey were asked to estimate what fraction of plastic has been recycled since plastic production began. According to a widely cited estimate, the answer is <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1700782">just 9%</a>. Our respondents thought that 25% of plastic had been recycled – more than expert estimates but still a low amount. And they correctly reasoned that a majority of it has ended up in landfills and the environment. </p>
<h2>Empowering consumers to cut waste</h2>
<p>Post-consumer waste is the result of a long supply chain with environmental impacts at every stage. However, U.S. policy and corporate discourse focuses on consumers as the main source of waste, as implied by the term “post-consumer waste.” </p>
<p>Other approaches put more responsibility on producers by requiring them to <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/291822563_Closing_the_loop_Product_take-back_regulations_and_their_strategic_implications">take back their products for disposal</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/packaging-generates-a-lot-of-waste-now-maine-and-oregon-want-manufacturers-to-foot-the-bill-for-getting-rid-of-it-165517">cover recycling costs</a> and design and produce goods that are <a href="https://theconversation.com/designing-batteries-for-easier-recycling-could-avert-a-looming-e-waste-crisis-146065">easy to recycle effectively</a>. These approaches are used in some sectors in the U.S., including lead-acid car batteries and consumer electronics, but they are largely voluntary or mandated at the state and local level.</p>
<p><iframe id="CsH6g" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/CsH6g/2/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>When we asked participants in our second study where change could have the most impact and where they felt they could have the most impact as individuals, they correctly focused on upstream interventions. But they felt they could only affect the system through what they chose to purchase and how they subsequently disposed of it – in other words, acting as consumers, not as citizens.</p>
<p>As waste-related pollution accumulates worldwide, corporations continue to <a href="https://www.npr.org/2020/09/11/897692090/how-big-oil-misled-the-public-into-believing-plastic-would-be-recycled">shame and blame consumers</a> rather than reducing the amount of disposable products they create. In our view, recycling is not a get-out-of-jail-free card for overproducing and consuming goods, and it is time that the U.S. stopped treating it as such.</p>
<p><em>This article has been updated to clarify that decisions about whether to recycle, compost or dispose of certain materials as trash can vary depending on local waste management systems.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/208924/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michaela Barnett is the founder and owner of KnoxFill, a company that sells bulk and refillable household and personal care goods.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Shahzeen Attari receives funding from the National Science Foundation.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Leidy Klotz and Patrick I. Hancock do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>New research shows that Americans may have absorbed public messaging about the importance of recycling too well.Michaela Barnett, Founder, KnoxFill, University of VirginiaLeidy Klotz, Associate Professor of Engineering and Co-Director, Convergent Behavioral Science Initiative, University of VirginiaPatrick I. Hancock, Postdoctoral fellow, University of VirginiaShahzeen Attari, Professor of Public and Environmental Affairs, Indiana UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2068872023-07-02T09:16:35Z2023-07-02T09:16:35ZWaste disposal in Nigeria is a mess: how Lagos can take the lead in sorting and recycling<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533255/original/file-20230621-21-d9bv72.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2000%2C1488&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Proper waste management would address indiscriminate dumping of refuse in public places across Lagos. Photo: Pius Utomi Ekpei/AFP.
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/road-manager-with-the-lagos-state-waste-management-news-photo/2381445?adppopup=true">Getty Images </a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Nigeria, like many other Sub-Saharan Africa countries, has a waste management problem. The <a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=Nigerian+National+Municipal+Waste+Management+Policy+2020+filetype%3APDF&rlz=1C1GCEA_enZA999ZA999&ei=Cod4ZM_uBsTAxc8Pu5ibuAM&ved=0ahUKEwjPm6jUgaL_AhVEYPEDHTvMBjcQ4dUDCA8&uact=5&oq=Nigerian+National+Municipal+Waste+Management+Policy+2020+filetype%3APDF&gs_lcp=Cgxnd3Mtd2l6LXNlcnAQAzoKCAAQRxDWBBCwAzoFCCEQoAE6CAghEKABEMMEOgcIIRCgARAKSgQIQRgAUMFjWN-XA2DipwNoBXABeACAAZEFiAHCIZIBBzMtNi4yLjKYAQCgAQHAAQHIAQg&sclient=gws-wiz-serp">Nigerian National Municipal Waste Management Policy (2020)</a> gives no estimate but states that “Nigeria produces a large volume of solid waste out of which less than 20% is collected through a formal system”.</p>
<p>This is lower than the <a href="https://datatopics.worldbank.org/what-a-waste/trends_in_solid_waste_management.html">World Bank’s estimate</a> of average waste collection for Sub-Saharan countries, which is 44 percent. It also contrasts with the European and North American collection rate – 90 percent of waste generated.</p>
<p>The problem is not only how much waste is collected but the lack of accurate data about how much waste is being generated in the first place. The Lagos State is a good example. Nigeria’s most populous city <a href="https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/510781468291325887/pdf/E1192.pdf#page=6">generated 10,000 tonnes of waste per day</a> in 2005. And the Lagos State said in 2018 that the amount of waste generated then far <a href="https://lagosstate.gov.ng/blog/2018/02/03/lagos-waste-management-and-the-environment/">“outweighs the official figure of 13,000 tons per day”</a>.</p>
<p>Managing this waste, from collection and transportation to disposal, is a major challenge for Lagos, which accounts for a large proportion of Nigeria’s waste. The population of Lagos state, urbanisation, consumption patterns and the scale of economic activity work together to increase waste generation. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=Nigerian+National+Municipal+Waste+Management+Policy+2020+filetype%3APDF&rlz=1C1GCEA_enZA999ZA999&ei=Cod4ZM_uBsTAxc8Pu5ibuAM&ved=0ahUKEwjPm6jUgaL_AhVEYPEDHTvMBjcQ4dUDCA8&uact=5&oq=Nigerian+National+Municipal+Waste+Management+Policy+2020+filetype%3APDF&gs_lcp=Cgxnd3Mtd2l6LXNlcnAQAzoKCAAQRxDWBBCwAzoFCCEQoAE6CAghEKABEMMEOgcIIRCgARAKSgQIQRgAUMFjWN-XA2DipwNoBXABeACAAZEFiAHCIZIBBzMtNi4yLjKYAQCgAQHAAQHIAQg&sclient=gws-wiz-serp">Nigerian National Municipal Waste Management Policy (2020)</a> has the potential to transform waste management around the country.</p>
<p>The policy proposes a system to separate, recycle and treat waste, conserve natural resources and create opportunities to earn a living from waste. </p>
<p>But the policy hasn’t been fully implemented. </p>
<p>In a recent <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/361548692_REVIEWING_THE_CONCEPT_WASTE_HIERARCHY_GUIDELINE_AND_THE_ENVIRONMENTAL_PROBLEM_OF_WASTE_MANAGEMANET_IN_LAGOS_STATE_NIGERIA">article</a>, my colleagues and I wrote about the need for Lagos State to put in place a strong policy framework that incorporates <a href="https://www.europarl.europa.eu/EPRS/EPRS-Briefing-564398-Understanding-waste-streams-FINAL.pdf">waste hierarchy guidelines</a>. The waste hierarchy is the idea that the things we do to waste aren’t equally desirable. First should be prevention; then reuse, recycling, recovery and (least desirable) disposal. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533150/original/file-20230621-17-s1rh34.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533150/original/file-20230621-17-s1rh34.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533150/original/file-20230621-17-s1rh34.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533150/original/file-20230621-17-s1rh34.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533150/original/file-20230621-17-s1rh34.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=620&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533150/original/file-20230621-17-s1rh34.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=620&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533150/original/file-20230621-17-s1rh34.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=620&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Waste Management Hierarchy.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author </span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We found that in Lagos, this hierarchy wasn’t being followed. Residents generate mixed waste without separation or sorting. Households store their waste primarily in plastic bags, sacks and buckets. Contracted waste collectors collect mixed waste and transport it directly to dumpsites. Waste pickers at dumpsites recover valuable materials and waste is burnt at these sites. </p>
<p>In practice, the waste hierarchy has been turned upside down in Lagos State. Waste is not being collected, transported, recovered and disposed of in a <a href="https://www.conserve-energy-future.com/sustainable-practices-waste-management.php">sustainable way</a> – one that does not endanger the environment, human health and future generations.</p>
<h2>How Lagos collects waste</h2>
<p>The Lagos State Waste Management Authority was set up in 1991 to collect, transport and dispose of municipal and industrial waste.</p>
<p>In recent times, the authority has deployed street sweepers and improved open dumpsites. It introduced 102 waste collection trucks and the <a href="https://lawma.gov.ng/tag/adopt-a-bin/">Adopt-A-Bin</a> programme, under which households and businesses can buy their waste bins. It started the Lagos Recycle initiative using a smart waste collection and reporting software application, and has invested in equipment to manage dumpsites. </p>
<p>It launched the <a href="https://lagosstate.gov.ng/blog/2019/10/09/still-on-the-lawma-blue-box-initiative/">Blue Box Initiative</a>, which aims to promote the culture of sorting waste at the point of generation. However, this initiative has crumbled.</p>
<p>Ongoing initiatives to raise social awareness about environmental issues include <a href="https://www.lawmaacademy.com/summer-school">summer school for students</a> and <a href="https://lawma.gov.ng/sanwo-olus-wife-tasks-market-leaders-on-sanitation-security/">sanitation advocacy</a>.</p>
<p>However, Lagos continues to produce a large quantity of waste without adequate mechanisms for managing it. </p>
<h2>Weaknesses in waste management</h2>
<p>The majority of Lagos residents are not aware of the environmental importance of waste separation and sorting. This should be the first step in a sustainable management system. </p>
<p>The prices of the individual waste bins provided by the Lagos waste authority, which is supposed to promote waste separation and sorting, are too high. For this reason, some residents (especially from low-income families) <a href="https://lawma.gov.ng/at-media-parley-lawma-boss-points-way-forward-for-waste-management-in-lagos/">use plastic bags, sacks and buckets instead of bins</a>.</p>
<p>Also contributing to poor waste management in Lagos State are:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>irregular and sporadic collection</p></li>
<li><p>residents’ unwillingness to pay</p></li>
<li><p>the collapse of the materials recovery and recycling facility (Olusosun buy-back facility) </p></li>
<li><p>open burning at dumpsites, which endangers lives</p></li>
<li><p>dangerous conditions for street sweepers on roads and highways</p></li>
<li><p>inadequate funding</p></li>
<li><p>poor technology</p></li>
<li><p>weak policy framework</p></li>
<li><p>inadequate social development</p></li>
<li><p>inconsistencies in enforcement and monitoring.</p></li>
</ul>
<h2>Improving waste management in Lagos</h2>
<p>The Lagos State Waste Management Authority needs to identify the most appropriate waste streams (multiple, single or dirty recycling) according to the income level of residents. The <a href="https://cycled.no/single-vs-multiple-stream-recycling/">multiple recycling stream</a> means that several bins are provided for the collection of different recyclable materials. A <a href="https://cycled.no/single-vs-multiple-stream-recycling/">single recycling stream</a> involves collecting all recyclable materials in a single bin. <a href="https://www.garbagebinrentals.ca/waste-collection-removal-disposal-blog/755-what-is-dirty-recycling.html">Dirty recycling streams</a> put all waste in a single bin without sorting and separation.</p>
<p>The multiple stream is most suited to high-income areas and the dirty stream more practical for low-income areas.</p>
<p>The dirty recycling system is similar to the practices of cart pushers who collect unsorted waste from households in wheelbarrows. The difference is that residents can dispose of their waste in a bin of their choice for a fixed fee (pay-as-you-throw) in waste collection vehicles assigned to their area.</p>
<p>The Lagos State Waste Management Authority, policy makers, waste collectors, community representatives, residents and other relevant stakeholders decides
which waste belongs in the 3-in-1 and 2-in-1 bins and sets the bin prices for the pay-as-you-throw system after proper consultation.</p>
<p>Street sweepers and waste pickers should become city employees. Sweepers should be replaced by sweeping trucks with appropriate training. </p>
<p>Dumpsites should be upgraded to landfills. Appropriate technologies and digital solutions should be adopted. And people should be made aware of waste separation and sorting through the school curriculum, social media, television, radio and billboards.</p>
<p>Equally important are prudent financial management, bin incentives and government financial aid for private individuals who want to get into waste management. The system also needs consistent enforcement and monitoring.
Above all, this is a template that can be replicated in other parts of the Nigerian state.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/206887/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kehinde Allen-Taylor does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Lagos has a waste problem that can be tackled by adopting a sustainable waste management policy that considers income brackets.Kehinde Allen-Taylor, Researcher, Technical University BraunschweigLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2069182023-06-21T20:15:18Z2023-06-21T20:15:18ZHow Indigenous cultural practices can improve waste management in communities<p>Improper <a href="https://iddpnql.ca/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/211129_IDDPNQL_Compte-rendu-colloque_EN.pdf">municipal solid waste (MSW) management</a> ranks high among environmental issues First Nations communities in Canada face. </p>
<p>Many communities face historical, structural and operational challenges, such as inadequate capacity and lack of financial resources. Many also lack waste diversion programs including recycling. All these challenges hinder efforts of communities to improve MSW management practices, attitudes and behaviours.</p>
<p>Nonetheless, some communities <a href="https://www.sac-isc.gc.ca/eng/1642696402052/1642696428568">continue to push for improved MSW management systems by developing plans and pursuing waste diversion programs</a> such as <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0vG6LXGr8PY">composting and recycling</a>. </p>
<p>These approaches, however, have <a href="https://mspace.lib.umanitoba.ca/items/4a1c8c69-ac39-4a23-99f0-908ce32af26c">not incorporated nor considered the culture of First Nations</a> in the process of finding solutions to MSW challenges. First Nations’ way of life is embedded in their culture. This means that any MSW management approaches that seek to improve conditions in communities must incorporate their unique cultures. </p>
<p>These are issues that need attention and that community members are interested in discussing to find community-specific solutions. </p>
<h2>How does culture impact MSW management?</h2>
<p>I am a settler non-Indigenous researcher, who works with Indigenous communities in Canada on MSW management. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/11771801231163635">My latest research</a> conducted in collaboration with 52 community members from Peguis First Nation in Manitoba and Heiltsuk Nation in British Columbia outlines five cultural factors that influence community members’ municipal solid waste management practices:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Avoiding waste: Taking just what one needs and not wasting anything taken from the environment or land. For example, community members use all parts of a hunted animal.</p></li>
<li><p>Taking care of one another: Sharing items, particularly food, with others and not hoarding prevents waste.</p></li>
<li><p>Protecting the land: Eschewing contamination and pollution of the environment or land and keeping it clean.</p></li>
<li><p>Respecting the land: Adhering to protocols about mother earth because it sustains life. </p></li>
<li><p>Connection to the land: Experiencing and having knowledge of the environment and land. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>The overarching goal of these practices, community members explained, is to prevent the overconsumption of resources that underpins society’s <a href="https://www.amazon.ca/Toxic-Capitalism-Consumerism-Waste-Generation/dp/1477219048">throwaway culture</a> and to protect the environment for future generations. These cultural practices challenge them to think differently about how to deal with their waste.</p>
<h2>Dealing with waste today</h2>
<p>Many Indigenous communities have developed <a href="https://www.amazon.ca/Indigenous-Peoples-Twenty-First-Century-Frideres/dp/019903317X">intrinsic relationships with the environment</a> that have sustained them throughout generations. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://unitingthreefiresagainstviolence.org/the-7-grandfathers-teachin/">Seven Grandfather Teachings</a> — respect, love, honesty, truth, bravery, humility and wisdom — have particularly guided First Nations in their relationships with the land and with others — <a href="https://www.edu.gov.mb.ca/k12/abedu/perspectives/concepts.html">living and non-living</a>. </p>
<p>However, applying these important teachings and the five cultural factors above to the management of municipal solid waste was not widespread in the two communities we worked with, because of increased MSW generation, according to community members.</p>
<p>Most of the community members we spoke with indicated that the application of cultural teachings, values and beliefs to managing MSW is extremely lacking. One member said, “When I see litter around in the street and waterways, I see a disconnect from <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/11771801231163635">our culture</a>. This is because our culture is to look after the land and respect it and leave it as you met it.” </p>
<p>Another member revealed that: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“A lot of people ignore our culture when it comes to waste management… However, if you are taught to protect the land, then you need to care more about recycling…The culture here has died compared to when I was a child, because everybody cleaned the environment, and you attended ceremonies to learn how things are done.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The legacy of <a href="https://gladue.usask.ca/sites/gladue1.usask.ca/files/2023-01/Indian%20Act%20Amendment_1884.pdf">bans on cultural gatherings</a> and assimilationist policies continue to have negative impacts on Indigenous communities to this day. </p>
<p>For example, by forcefully <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/indigenous-peoples-within-canada-9780199028481?lang=3n&cc=lk">relocating First Nations to isolated or remote</a> lands from their original territories, they depend on packaged products, which increases waste generation. Many communities that were also <a href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/61687944.pdf">nomadic and lived off the land became sedentary</a>, leaving them unprepared to manage the high volumes of waste they produced.</p>
<p>And, with infrastructure, programs and finances lacking, communities have not been able to properly manage MSW and its <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/364174909_Environmental_Sustainability_Impacts_of_Solid_Waste_Management_Practices_in_the_Global_South">resultant negative environmental and health impacts</a>. </p>
<h2>Holding culture at the centre of policy</h2>
<p>Through this research, we have established that the culture of First Nations influences MSW management. However, applying cultural practices is not common among community members because of the impacts of colonization. Most community members indicated that their culture has significantly eroded and some aspects lost because of it. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-pollution-is-as-much-about-colonialism-as-chemicals-dont-call-me-resilient-transcript-ep-11-170697">Why pollution is as much about colonialism as chemicals — Don't Call Me Resilient transcript EP 11</a>
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<p>Revitalizing Indigenous cultures is vital to improving the management of MSW and ensuring environmental protection in communities. It is through this reconnection with their traditions and practices that First Nations can apply their culture to protect the environment.</p>
<p>As participants in our research unequivocally suggested: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“People must be taught and be aware of the teachings… The teachings have to be the connection to the land, and that will make them think differently about things like waste management.” </p>
</blockquote>
<p>As Canada works towards reconciliation with Indigenous Peoples, supporting <a href="https://fpcc.ca">cultural revitalization programs</a> and efforts should be a responsibility for all persons, institutions and organizations. </p>
<p>The federal government, through Indigenous Services Canada, as well as provincial and municipal governments should work with Indigenous communities and incorporate their cultures into MSW policies, plans and activities. This could help engender greater participation in programs by community members, because of the connection with their values and beliefs.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/206918/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anderson Assuah does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The overarching goal of Indigenous cultural practices is to prevent the overconsumption of resources that underpins society’s throwaway culture.Anderson Assuah, Assistant Professor, Aboriginal and Northern Studies, University College of the NorthLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2003502023-03-14T20:58:26Z2023-03-14T20:58:26ZLeveraging digital platforms for public good: Stories of positive impact from India<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514293/original/file-20230308-24-vnq55t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=19%2C0%2C3244%2C2448&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Waste management workers stand outside a waste processing plant in Bengaluru, India. By formalizing the waste collection process, the 'I Got Garbage' digital platform transformed waste workers into micro-entrepreneurs.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Suchit Ahuja)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Digital platforms such as Uber, Airbnb, WeChat and TaskRabbit have changed the world by creating <a href="https://issues.org/rise-platform-economy-big-data-work/">new economic opportunities</a> through <a href="https://hbr.org/2018/03/thriving-in-the-gig-economy">gig work culture</a> and enabling a <a href="https://www.digitaljournal.com/pr/news/sharing-economy-market-2023-understanding-the-impact-of-consumer-demand-on-business-growth-till-2028">sharing economy</a>. However, concerns remain about how these platforms may <a href="https://www.immpressmagazine.com/the-gig-economy-exploitation-of-innovation/">exploit gig workers</a> and customers if driven purely by profit. </p>
<p>While these platforms are great at <a href="https://hbr.org/2019/01/why-some-platforms-thrive-and-others-dont">creating value by bringing buyers, sellers and consumers together</a>, their benefits often don’t transcend to their ecosystem. <a href="https://www.wired.com/story/tiktok-platforms-cory-doctorow/">They have been criticized</a> for their <a href="https://www.un.org/en/un75/impact-digital-technologies">poor social and environmental impacts</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105528">exclusionary practices</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/00081256221094307">digital colonialism</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/20539517221135176">surveillance capabilities</a>.</p>
<p>To leverage the power of platforms for social good, it’s important to design <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/digital-platforms-potential-impact-social-sector-abhishek-modi/">socially-oriented platforms</a> within <a href="https://hbr.org/2016/10/the-ecosystem-of-shared-value">ecosystems of shared value</a> that target the UN’s sustainable development goals.</p>
<p>To focus on sustainable development goals, platforms need to change from being exclusively focused on profits and value appropriation, to perceiving themselves as <a href="https://digitalpublicgoods.net/">public goods</a> that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/isj.12378">innovate responsibly</a> by co-creating and sharing economic, social and environmental value. </p>
<p>While this is easier said than done, some <a href="https://platformcommons.org/platform/">organizations have begun the process</a>.</p>
<h2>A new non-profit</h2>
<p>Commercial platforms are expected to earn an <a href="https://www.insighteurs.com/platform-economy-digital-business-models/#how-much-of-the-economy-is-a-platform">estimated $60 trillion by 2025</a>. Meanwhile, the <a href="https://platformcommons.org/">Platform Commons Foundation</a> — an Indian non-profit that builds inclusive platforms to address global <a href="https://www.grandchallenges.org/">grand challenges</a> — is focused on creating social value, while economic value is secondary.</p>
<p>The Platform Commons Foundation has launched a number of platforms focused on sustainable development goals such as poverty alleviation, providing quality education and decent work, improving economic growth and reducing inequalities.</p>
<p>One of the Platform Commons Foundation’s many platforms — I Got Garbage — transformed the lives of underpaid and marginalized waste management workers in <a href="https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/fandd/issues/2020/12/what-is-the-informal-economy-basics">India’s informal sector</a>, who faced frequent harassment and exploitation, by helping them earn a steady income and a dignified livelihood.</p>
<p>Another platform — Commons.farm — is an agritech platform that provides equitable and accessible services to <a href="https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/voices/necessity-of-holistic-development-of-small-marginal-farmer-communities-in-india/">smallholder farmers that face challenges</a> across the agricultural supply chain. </p>
<p>Smallholder farmers make up <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/06/agri-tech-innovation-can-improve-value-capture-and-transform-ecosystem-for-india-s-small-farmers/">80 to 90 per cent of India’s agriculture</a>. Yet, they own less than five acres of land and usually grow only two crops a year. They are often unable to find buyers for their produce, forcing them to only sell through intermediary controlled markets.</p>
<p>Let’s take a closer look at these platforms.</p>
<h2>Revolutionizing waste management</h2>
<p>I Got Garbage turned the informal waste collection process into a formal process. The platform consists of an ecosystem of <a href="https://www.swmrt.com/">thousands of citizens</a>, <a href="https://bengaluru.citizenmatters.in/4561-swmrt-solid-waste-management-guidelines-4561">government and municipal officers</a>, <a href="https://hasirudala.in/">non-governmental organizations</a>, waste worker communities and other institutions. </p>
<p>By formalizing the waste collection process, I Got Garbage transformed waste workers into micro-entrepreneurs who can earn sustainable wages and protect themselves from exploitation. </p>
<p>I Got Garbage did this through several technology interventions. Some of these interventions include the <a href="https://www.northeastern.edu/sei/2018/12/i-got-garbage/">I Got Garbage app</a> that runs on low-cost cellphones, SMS and WhatsApp-based communications in various Indian languages, waste and recycling management planning software, customer service training, providing uniforms and identity badges, geotagging locations for waste pick-up and tracking wages. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Women wearing masks and fluorescent worker vests sort through trash on a conveyor belt" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514082/original/file-20230307-18-qhiyis.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514082/original/file-20230307-18-qhiyis.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514082/original/file-20230307-18-qhiyis.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514082/original/file-20230307-18-qhiyis.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514082/original/file-20230307-18-qhiyis.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514082/original/file-20230307-18-qhiyis.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514082/original/file-20230307-18-qhiyis.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Waste workers separate paper and plastic on a conveyor belt in a recycling facility in New Delhi, India in September 2019. The ‘I Got Garbage’ digital platform turned the informal waste collection process into a formal process.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>I Got Garbage worked with the community of waste workers to understand their problems and gain their trust. It also signed households up for its services via Facebook and SMS/WhatsApp campaigns.</p>
<p>I Got Garbage made a significant impact as it reduced landfill waste by 40 per cent and processed more than 10,000 tons of recycling materials daily in one city. It employed more than 15,000 waste workers and expanded to several cities in less than five years since its inception.</p>
<p>I Got Garbage has led to a revolution of waste management and recycling in India which is set to be <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/posts/thebetterindia_cleanestcity-biomethanation-zerowaste-activity-7034484687683084288-9WIP">replicated in 72 countries</a> in Asia and Africa.</p>
<h2>Empowering farmers and preventing suicide</h2>
<p>The Indian agricultural sector suffers the same fragmentation and informal process issues as the waste management sector. </p>
<p>Productivity issues, corruption and supply chain issues within India’s agricultural sector are so stark they have caused a suicide epidemic among debt-ridden smallholder farmers. <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2022/03/17/opinions/india-farmer-suicide-agriculture-reform-kaur/index.html">Over 10,000 farmers died in 2020 alone</a> according to the government. </p>
<p>The situation was dire and needed intervention at the grassroots level.</p>
<p>The Platform Commons Foundation launched Commons.farm in 2019 to assist farmers and regional governments in and around Bengaluru. The idea was the same as I Got Garbage, except for the revenue model — empowering farmers by connecting them with each other to form co-operatives, resolving agriculture supply chain issues, enabling communication among farmers, governments and markets, and improving social and environmental impact.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A barefooted Indian man walks through a field of crops carrying a bunch of turnips" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514320/original/file-20230308-1015-2bwkbd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514320/original/file-20230308-1015-2bwkbd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514320/original/file-20230308-1015-2bwkbd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514320/original/file-20230308-1015-2bwkbd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514320/original/file-20230308-1015-2bwkbd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514320/original/file-20230308-1015-2bwkbd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514320/original/file-20230308-1015-2bwkbd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An Indian farmer carries turnips after harvesting them from a field in Kanachak village, on the outskirts of Jammu, India in February 2021.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Channi Anand)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This would empower smallholder farmers with digital tools to reduce waste, cut out corruption and communicate directly with suppliers and customers.</p>
<p>The platform obtains its primary revenues <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/sep/14/global-farm-subsidies-damage-people-planet-un-climate-crisis-nature-inequality">from government subsidy programs</a> instead of charging farmers for services. Local and state governments that use Commons.farm receive guaranteed impact outcomes from the money they spend on the platform, which is a fraction of the overall subsidy bill they would otherwise incur.</p>
<h2>Sustainable use of digital platforms</h2>
<p>Platforms like I Got Garbage and Commons.farm that also focus on sustainable development goals are gaining attention. The <a href="https://www.francis-project.eu/">FRANCIS project</a>, for example, hosts open innovation challenges in Europe that involve citizens, scientists and academics. Its aim is to develop affordable innovations that address real-world challenges.</p>
<p>Citizens can join the challenges via the online platform or in face-to-face events. Scientists run workshops during the challenges that offer method training. This project is currently working on a solar disinfection project targeting low- to middle-income households in rural areas, people in refugee camps and micro-entrepreneurs.</p>
<p>The Indian government has also created its own set of public platforms that it calls the <a href="https://indiastack.org/">India Stack</a>. It has built a <a href="https://uidai.gov.in/en/">biometric digital identity platform</a>, a real-time <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/03/01/business/india-digital-payments-upi.html">mobile payment platform</a>, a <a href="https://www.exemplars.health/emerging-topics/epidemic-preparedness-and-response/digital-health-tools/cowin-in-india">COVID-19 vaccine records platform</a> and an open and inclusive <a href="https://ondc.org/">e-commerce platform</a>.</p>
<p>Digital platforms can be used as private pipelines that enable monopolies or they can be used as open, inclusive mechanisms <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/01972243.2022.2105999">leveraged for the public good</a>. </p>
<p>By learning from examples that have leapfrogged common platform pitfalls to focus on the public good, we can move towards an equitable and empowering version of digital transformation. We have the opportunity to emulate these successful examples in our own contexts.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/200350/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Suchit Ahuja receives funding from FRQSC and SSHRC. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Yolande E. Chan receives funding from SSHRC.</span></em></p>To focus on sustainable development goals, platforms need to change from being exclusively focused on profits and value appropriation to perceiving themselves as public goods.Suchit Ahuja, Assistant Professor, Business Technology Management, Concordia UniversityYolande E. Chan, Dean, Desautels Faculty of Management, McGill UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1973782023-03-06T13:36:07Z2023-03-06T13:36:07ZWill we eventually have to send our trash into space if we run out of room on Earth?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510206/original/file-20230214-18-pi7ci8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=23%2C0%2C5266%2C3521&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A trash compactor rolls over an active dump site at Pioneer Crossing Landfill in Birdsboro, Pa.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/trash-compactor-rolls-over-an-active-dump-site-at-pioneer-news-photo/1315782016">Natalie Kolb/MediaNews Group/Reading Eagle via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption"></span>
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<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/curious-kids-us-74795">Curious Kids</a> is a series for children of all ages. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">curiouskidsus@theconversation.com</a>.</em></p>
<hr>
<blockquote>
<p>Will we eventually have to send our trash into space if we run out of room on Earth? Aiden, age 13, Maryland Heights, Mo.</p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>Our planet holds a lot of trash. Since the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Industrial-Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>, we humans have produced <a href="https://phys.org/news/2016-11-earth-technosphere-trillion-tons.html">30 trillion tons of stuff</a> – from skyscrapers and bridges to clothes and plastic bags. Much of it is still with us in the form of waste. </p>
<p>Globally, people add <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/zero-waste-families-plastic-culture">350 million tons</a> to this total every day. What’s worse, much of the world’s garbage is <a href="https://www.wastedive.com/news/world-bank-global-waste-generation-2050/533031/">mismanaged</a> – dumped on land, in waterways and in open dumps in cities and towns. This exposes people to <a href="https://www.who.int/tools/compendium-on-health-and-environment/solid-waste">serious health risks</a>. It <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2013.08.003">harms plants and soil</a>, and a lot of waste finds its way <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/plastic-pollution">into the oceans</a>. Thinking about what a mess we’re making can be pretty overwhelming. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/uUmtJIBibMM?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Managing trash in the U.S. is big business.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Waste in space?</h2>
<p>Sending trash into space isn’t as off the wall as it might sound. After all, there’s a lot of room out there, with no one – as far as we know today – to claim it. </p>
<p>Some researchers have suggested <a href="https://space.nss.org/wp-content/uploads/Space-Manufacturing-conference-12-111-Disposal-Of-High-Level-Nuclear-Waste-In-Space.pdf">sending waste into space</a>. They’re mainly thinking about <a href="https://www.npr.org/2011/03/15/134569191/spent-fuel-rods-now-a-concern-at-nuclear-plant">used radioactive fuel rods</a> from nuclear power plants. It’s true that nuclear waste will remain extremely hazardous for tens of thousands of years, and humans have done a <a href="https://worldnuclearwastereport.org">lousy job so far</a> of disposing of it safely on Earth. </p>
<p>These proposals, though, have <a href="https://opinion.sites.northeastern.edu/2020/12/29/why-dont-we-send-nuclear-waste-into-space/">never moved forward</a>, for many reasons. One is the risk: What if a rocket carrying tons of highly radioactive waste exploded on takeoff? Another is the cost, which would be <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/startswithabang/2019/09/20/this-is-why-we-dont-shoot-earths-garbage-into-the-sun/">vastly higher</a> than the already high price of storing it safely on Earth. </p>
<p>There is also a lot of “<a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/what-is-space-junk-and-why-is-it-a-problem.html">space junk</a>” already orbiting the planet, including broken satellites and meteor debris. NASA estimates there are <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/news/orbital_debris.html">over half a million pieces</a> the size of a marble or larger in Earth’s orbit. They travel at high speeds, so they can really damage spacecraft in a collision. It wouldn’t be smart to add to this problem. </p>
<p>Here’s a much better strategy: Reduce the amount of waste that goes into landfills, incinerators, open dumps on land and the oceans. Part of that job is up to governments, which set rules on issues like <a href="https://www.ncsl.org/environment-and-natural-resources/state-plastic-bag-legislation">whether to allow single-use plastic bags</a>. But there are many things people can do to reduce waste in their daily lives. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/OSUlu3pEMmY?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Many U.S. communities are starting to compost organic wastes, like food scraps and yard trimmings. This reduces the volume of waste going into landfills and produces a valuable fertilizer.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Many Rs</h2>
<p>You might be familiar with the “<a href="https://www.epa.gov/recycle">3 Rs of trash</a>”: reduce, reuse, recycle. Each step means less waste at the end of the day. </p>
<p>If you want to reduce waste in your life, choose reusable mugs, cutlery or grocery bags instead of single-use plastic items. Many towns and cities have <a href="https://berkeleyca.gov/doing-business/operating-berkeley/food-service/single-use-foodware-rules">made this the rule</a>. </p>
<p>Some communities also collect organic wastes, like food scraps and yard trimmings, and <a href="https://theconversation.com/city-compost-programs-turn-garbage-into-black-gold-that-boosts-food-security-and-social-justice-136169">turn them into compost</a> – a soil-like material that gardeners and landscapers use as fertilizer. And many gardeners do their own <a href="https://www.epa.gov/recycle/composting-home">composting at home</a>.</p>
<p>You can <a href="https://www.wastedive.com/news/adam-minter-on-why-secondhand-markets-are-the-true-circular-economies/567057/">reuse</a> by buying secondhand goods and clothes and donating your unwanted but still usable stuff. <a href="https://www.freecycle.org/pages/about">Freecycle networks</a> make it easy to give away usable items that you don’t need and get different goods in return. </p>
<p>Recycling paper, plastics, glass and aluminum keeps them out of landfills. It also <a href="https://kingcounty.gov/depts/dnrp/solid-waste/programs/climate/climate-change-recycling.aspx">helps to slow climate change</a>, since it can take less energy to make new products from recycled materials. In 2018, <a href="https://www.epa.gov/facts-and-figures-about-materials-waste-and-recycling/national-overview-facts-and-figures-materials">nearly one-third</a> of municipal solid waste in the U.S. was either recycled or composted. </p>
<p>Some items, like plastic bags and straws, can be hard to recycle. But aluminum cans, paper, cardboard and <a href="https://millerrecycling.com/plastics-recycling-numbers/">certain kinds of plastic</a> are successfully recycled at much higher rates. Knowing <a href="https://dnr.mo.gov/waste-recycling">what can be recycled where you live</a>, and <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-wishcycling-two-waste-experts-explain-173825">how to do it</a>, is important – <a href="https://www.realsimple.com/home-organizing/green-living/best-and-worst-states-recycling-study">the rules vary a lot from place to place</a>.</p>
<p><iframe id="51naC" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/51naC/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>There are <a href="https://www.gdrc.org/uem/waste/more-3r.html">more than 3 Rs to act on</a>. You can <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AO-EuhVzONM">repair</a>, <a href="https://www.thisoldhouse.com/cambridge-house/21014966/what-to-expect-with-reclaimed-wood">reclaim</a> and <a href="https://www.replate.com/waste-less-food/leftovers-reimagined/">reimagine</a> how you buy and use things. </p>
<p>There’s growing discussion about the <a href="https://www.repair.org/stand-up">right to repair</a> – giving consumers access to information and parts so they can repair their own goods, from electronics to cars. Companies would rather have you buy new replacements, but many people are pushing for rules that make it easier to fix your own stuff.</p>
<p>There are many options for reducing waste before space is the only place left to put it. Once you try some, you’ll find it’s easier than you think.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Hello, curious kids! Do you have a question you’d like an expert to answer? Ask an adult to send your question to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">CuriousKidsUS@theconversation.com</a>. Please tell us your name, age and the city where you live.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/197378/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kate O'Neill does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Humans generate a lot of trash, but there are cheaper and safer ways to handle it than loading it on rockets.Kate O'Neill, Professor of Global Environmental Politics, University of California, BerkeleyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2003512023-03-05T19:19:17Z2023-03-05T19:19:17ZBuildings used iron from sunken ships centuries ago. The use of recycled materials should be business as usual by now<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/513297/original/file-20230302-18-ur1b7l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">shutterstock</span> </figcaption></figure><p>At <a href="https://fremantleprison.com.au/">Fremantle Prison</a> in the 1850s, when metal was scarce, the prison gate and handrails were made from iron recovered from sunken ships. As I toured the prison recently, I reflected on how similar the situation was when COVID-19 disrupted building supply chains across Australia. The shortage of materials such as steel, which is still an issue, turned heads to using recycled steel, which would otherwise be exported overseas for full recovery.</p>
<p>Do we really needed material shortages for the construction industry to get serious about using products with recycled content? When resources are depleted, does it only then mean it’s time to go sustainable?</p>
<p>It is encouraging to see many state initiatives to recycle construction materials, such as <a href="https://www.wasteauthority.wa.gov.au/programs/view/roads-to-reuse">Roads to Reuse</a> in Western Australia. It offers a $5 per tonne incentive to use recycled materials such as road base and drainage rock for construction projects. </p>
<p>Are such programs enough to ensure the supply of construction materials is sustainable? No, and if you look back at the examples of the past two centuries, industry-wide reuse of such materials should have been business as usual by now. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1068172704849645568"}"></div></p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-make-roads-with-recycled-waste-and-pave-the-way-to-a-circular-economy-164997">How to make roads with recycled waste, and pave the way to a circular economy</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What is the next step?</h2>
<p>As awareness of waste recycling benefits has risen, recovery rates have improved.
The <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/national-waste-report-2022.pdf">National Waste Report 2022</a> shows Australia now has an 80% recovery rate for construction and demolition waste. That waste, 29 million tonnes of it, comprises 38% of all waste produced in Australia. </p>
<p>These recycled materials are becoming increasingly available to the market, but it isn’t being widely used. </p>
<p>The next challenge is to increase the use of these products across the construction sector. But how? That’s the focus of our recently completed <a href="https://sbenrc.com.au/research-programs/1-85/">research project</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-third-of-our-waste-comes-from-buildings-this-ones-designed-for-reuse-and-cuts-emissions-by-88-147455">A third of our waste comes from buildings. This one's designed for reuse and cuts emissions by 88%</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Showcasing the use of recycled materials</h2>
<p>We conducted four case studies in Victoria and Western Australia. The two states produce about 46% of Australia’s construction and demolition waste. </p>
<p>The case studies are <a href="https://www.burwoodbrickworks.shopping/">Burwood Brickworks Shopping Centre</a> and <a href="https://bigbuild.vic.gov.au/projects/mrpv/mordialloc-freeway">Mordialloc Freeway</a> in Victoria and the <a href="https://www.mainroads.wa.gov.au/projects-initiatives/all-projects/metropolitan/tonkin-gap">Tonkin Gap Project</a> and <a href="https://developmentwa.com.au/projects/residential/oneonefive-hamilton-hill/overview">OneOneFive Hamilton Hill</a> in WA. They comprise two road projects, a shopping centre and a housing development. One goal of these projects is to showcase the possibilities for using recycled materials in the construction industry. </p>
<p>Brickworks Shopping Centre was completed in 2019 and has won numerous awards for its demonstration of sustainability. The project achieved <a href="https://living-future.org/case-studies/burwood-brickworks/">full accreditation</a> under the rigorous criteria of the <a href="https://living-future.org/lbc/">Living Building Challenge</a>.</p>
<p>The large amounts of recycled materials used in the project include crushed concrete in a sub-base of bitumen, salvaged timber for ceiling cladding, and recycled brick for the floor and as a finish on the building façade. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/YSLZsyJ7nrM?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Brickworks Shopping Centre in Melbourne has been hailed the world’s most sustainable retail centre.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The head contractor explained the use of recycled products for these architectural features:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>The end user, who’s the consumer at Burwood Brickworks, they can see it and it’s front of mind that, hey, we can reuse these things. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>The Mordialloc project created a 9km freeway link between Dingley Bypass and Mornington Peninsula Freeway. Dubbed “<a href="https://roadsonline.com.au/behind-the-construction-of-australias-greenest-freeway/">Australia’s greenest freeway</a>”, it was completed in 2021. </p>
<p>The project saved more than 300,000 tonnes of waste from going to landfill (or 3 hectares of land would have been needed for stockpiling). It used 675 tonnes of plastic waste in noise walls and drainage pipes and 21,000 tonnes of reclaimed asphalt in pavements. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/0ElDXfuuzbk?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The Mordialloc Freeway project used more than 300,000 tonnes of recycled waste materials.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A member of the project’s design team said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>It was a good example of taking a design and […] looking at ways where you could improve it in terms of using recycled materials. So I know it’s got a tagline as Australia’s greenest freeway at the moment, but I’m sure it’s just setting a precedent now. And almost all, if not all, future road projects will incorporate an increasing amount of recycled materials in them. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>The Tonkin Gap Project is upgrading the Tonkin Highway east of Perth with extra lanes, new interchanges, bridges and a shared cycling and walking path. </p>
<p>By July 2022, the project had used 430,000 tonnes of recycled materials including:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>296,000 tonnes of sand</p></li>
<li><p>105,000 tonnes of treated spoil</p></li>
<li><p>27,000 tonnes of crushed recycled concrete</p></li>
<li><p>1,200 tonnes of reclaimed asphalt pavement. </p></li>
</ul>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/HyrdmoF2qq8?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Main Roads WA’s Tonkin Gap Project had used more than 430,000 tonnes of recycled materials by mid-2022.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A Main Roads WA representative said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>The culture comes down to a lot of experience. You need to make sure that there’s a positive experience using the [recycled] product, and make sure that there’s enough training and education and awareness that can be delivered to the industry on using the product and what they need to do to use it safely.</p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/with-the-right-tools-we-can-mine-cities-87672">With the right tools, we can mine cities</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>OneOneFive Hamilton Hill redeveloped an old high school and neighbouring lands (11.9 hectares) as a residential estate. It was one of DevelopmentWA’s <a href="https://developmentwa.com.au/our-work/innovation-through-demonstration">Innovation Through Demonstration</a> projects to showcase sustainability in the built environment. It was recognised as a sustainable project by the national <a href="https://envirodevelopment.com.au/">EnviroDevelopment initiative</a>.</p>
<p>Recycled materials in this project included:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>salvaged timber in landscaping features such as shade structures and seating</p></li>
<li><p>40,000 clay bricks and roof tiles reused as aggregates under the drainage infrastructure</p></li>
<li><p>old bricks in brick walls and a toilet block</p></li>
<li><p>crushed brick, tiles and concrete in the road sub-base</p></li>
<li><p>2,425 cubic metres of recycled concrete in retaining walls</p></li>
<li><p>400 tonnes of other recycled products in various constructions including temporary access roads. </p></li>
</ul>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/x4gdwIAue_o?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">OneOneFive Hamilton Hill reused demolition waste from an old high school in a residential development.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The project’s client representative said: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>We want to be showing that we’re pushing the boundaries and trying to, I suppose, provide demonstration projects that show what can be done within a normal commercial environment. </p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-needs-construction-waste-recycling-plants-but-locals-first-need-to-be-won-over-161888">Australia needs construction waste recycling plants — but locals first need to be won over</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What are the barriers and how do we overcome them?</h2>
<p>Case study participants said the major barriers to optimal industry use of recycled materials include:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>unsupportive regulations</p></li>
<li><p>limited availability of quality recycled materials</p></li>
<li><p>lack of expertise and understanding of their applications</p></li>
<li><p>inconsistency in recycled materials quality and performance. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>They said education, investigation and demonstration activities together with effective project management planning could help overcome these barriers.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>We thank our collaborators in the research <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/tim-ryley-1253269">Professor Tim Ryley</a> (Griffith University), <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/savindi-caldera-1187623">Dr Savindi Caldera</a> (University of Sunshine Coast), <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/atiq-zaman-7111/articles">Associate Professor Atiq Zaman</a> (Curtin University) and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/peter-s-p-wong-711280">Professor Peter S.P. Wong</a> (RMIT University).</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/200351/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Salman Shooshtarian receives funding from Sustainable Built Environment National Research Centre, Australia</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tayyab Maqsood receives funding from Sustainable Built Environment National Research Centre, Austalia. </span></em></p>The recovery rate from construction and demolition waste has been rising steadily in Australia. However, the use of recycled materials is still not the norm across the construction industry.Salman Shooshtarian, Lecturer, School of Property, Construction and Project Management, RMIT UniversityTayyab Maqsood, Associate Dean and Head of of Project Management, RMIT UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2005452023-03-01T19:06:03Z2023-03-01T19:06:03ZWe can’t keep putting apartment residents’ waste in the too hard basket<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512761/original/file-20230228-6045-110fn1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C6%2C4557%2C3022&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The harsh realities of managing the waste we produce are in the news: <a href="https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/no-purple-bin-for-you-residents-expected-to-take-glass-rubbish-to-drop-off-points-for-recycling-20230128-p5cg48.html">councils shunning new glass bins</a>, <a href="https://www.canberratimes.com.au/story/8073761/global-plastics-crisis-deepens-despite-rising-concerns/">more plastic being produced per person in the world</a> and <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/this-is-urgent-sydney-council-faces-growing-stink-as-bins-dumped-rubbish-pile-up-20230131-p5cgrp.html">Sydney bins overflowing</a>. And the <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/media-centre/media-releases/2021-census-count-includes-australians-living-wheels-and-water-most-us-still-firmly-land">growth in apartment living</a> in Australia threatens to add to these problems. Apartments worldwide have <a href="https://repository.up.ac.za/bitstream/handle/2263/82124/DuToit_Effect_2020.pdf?sequence=1">lower</a> recycling <a href="https://relondon.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/LWARB-Making-recycling-work-for-people-in-flats-full-report_200128-1.pdf">rates</a> than standalone houses.</p>
<p>Our research on <a href="https://rgs-ibg.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/geoj.12457">apartments and plastic use</a> in four cities – Melbourne, London, Barcelona and Perth – found apartments present extra challenges for waste production, collection, sorting and disposal. Our ongoing <a href="https://tremsnetwork.com/hub-themes/theme-1-2/social-and-policy-dimensions-of-waste-minimisation-and-waste-management/">research project</a> is exploring ways to minimise kerbside waste and maximise recycling. The problems with apartments arise from issues of space, design, infrastructure (such as bins, chutes and pick-ups of bins and hard waste) and the resources put into managing their waste. </p>
<p>However, there are examples in cities in Australia and overseas of schemes that have improved apartment waste recycling so it matches, if not exceeds, that of standalone houses.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1620505772575662087"}"></div></p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/households-find-low-waste-living-challenging-heres-what-needs-to-change-197022">Households find low-waste living challenging. Here's what needs to change</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What is being done about these problems?</h2>
<p>In Victoria, the state government has mandated a new, <a href="https://www.premier.vic.gov.au/fourth-bins-roll-out-divert-waste-landfill">separate bin</a> to collect waste glass from households. Glass is a high-impact packaging material, due to the energy and water used in both its production and recycling. </p>
<p>Broken glass is also a major contaminant for paper and cardboard in current mixed waste streams. The <a href="https://www.vic.gov.au/container-deposit-scheme">container deposit scheme</a> being introduced in Victoria, along with glass bins, will help separate glass from this recycling stream.</p>
<p>However, challenges lie ahead. Some local councils are showing <a href="https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/no-purple-bin-for-you-residents-expected-to-take-glass-rubbish-to-drop-off-points-for-recycling-20230128-p5cg48.html">signs of refusing</a> to provide bins for glass. Lack of space for multiple bins is one key reason. Multi-unit developments and apartments are just not designed for such infrastructure. </p>
<p>COVID-19 led to an explosion in the quantity of packaging waste because of online orders and deliveries. Plastic waste in particular appears to be largely out of control, despite growing angst and even bans on the use of some plastics. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/redcycles-collapse-is-more-proof-that-plastic-recycling-is-a-broken-system-194528">REDcycle's collapse is more proof that plastic recycling is a broken system</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>But waste management has been a problem for apartment buildings around the world since long before the pandemic. </p>
<p>For example, 30 apartment buildings in <a href="https://www.kiro7.com/news/local/recycling-exemptions-in-seattle-irk-some-residents/279194150/">Seattle</a> are exempted from providing recycling bins due to a lack of space. And in Sydney, residents of the <a href="https://southsydneyherald.com.au/residents-want-recycling-services/">Waterloo public housing estate</a> have been surprised to be entirely excluded from the city’s recycling scheme due to contamination of recycled waste streams.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Disposal chutes for landfill waste and recyclable waste" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512807/original/file-20230301-24-8o67ft.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512807/original/file-20230301-24-8o67ft.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512807/original/file-20230301-24-8o67ft.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512807/original/file-20230301-24-8o67ft.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512807/original/file-20230301-24-8o67ft.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512807/original/file-20230301-24-8o67ft.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512807/original/file-20230301-24-8o67ft.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some apartments have disposal chutes that make it easier for residents to dispose of landfill waste and recyclable waste separately.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Image: Bhavna Middha</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://kelleherenvironmental.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/SITAUK-LookingUp-web.pdf">Research in the United States</a> found a gap in recycling between apartments of different socioeconomic status was due to lower service levels (caretaking and janitorial) in low-income buildings.</p>
<h2>It’s not just an individual responsibility</h2>
<p>Thus far, action on waste production and prevention is limited to voluntary covenants for producers of packaging, and programs promoting changes in individual behaviour. </p>
<p>Households bear the brunt of responsibility – especially in apartments, where space to manage different bins, their smells and aesthetics is at a premium. Yet it is manufacturers and retailers who design and make highly packaged and non-recyclable materials. </p>
<p>While the rubbish keeps piling up, producers’ mostly ineffectual voluntary agreements lie on virtual shelves. A case in point is Sydney council <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/this-is-urgent-sydney-council-faces-growing-stink-as-bins-dumped-rubbish-pile-up-20230131-p5cgrp.html">blaming worker shortages</a> and COVID-19 overflow for the rubbish piling up, rather than the original producers of waste.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/if-the-un-wants-to-slash-plastic-waste-it-must-tackle-soaring-plastic-production-and-why-we-use-so-much-of-it-179107">If the UN wants to slash plastic waste, it must tackle soaring plastic production - and why we use so much of it</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Our <a href="https://tremsnetwork.com/hub-themes/theme-1-2/social-and-policy-dimensions-of-waste-minimisation-and-waste-management/">continuing research</a> is exploring the issues associated with apartments. These issues include how waste is produced – for example, through the demand created for packaging – and available space, as well as how policymakers, architects, builders and householders conceive of everyday apartment living. </p>
<p>In the shared spaces of apartments, waste production, collection, sorting and disposal depend on the design of these spaces and the organisation of infrastructure for collection and disposal. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Bins for different kinds of waste lined up in the basement of an apartment complex" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512806/original/file-20230301-28-fh6yle.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512806/original/file-20230301-28-fh6yle.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512806/original/file-20230301-28-fh6yle.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512806/original/file-20230301-28-fh6yle.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512806/original/file-20230301-28-fh6yle.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512806/original/file-20230301-28-fh6yle.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512806/original/file-20230301-28-fh6yle.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Many apartments don’t have as much space as this inner-city high-rise complex for all the bins needed to sort residents’ waste.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Image: Bhavna Middha</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/four-bins-might-help-but-to-solve-our-waste-crisis-we-need-a-strong-market-for-recycled-products-132440">Four bins might help, but to solve our waste crisis we need a strong market for recycled products</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What more can be done?</h2>
<p>We are exploring examples that try to break free of blaming individual choices and behaviours. The latter approach might produce short-term gains but fails to embed long-term changes – as this <a href="https://relondon.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/LWARB-Making-recycling-work-for-people-in-flats-full-report_200128-1.pdf">project in London showed</a>. It’s possible, though, to design circular economy systems for apartments that match or even exceed waste recycling for detached suburban houses. </p>
<p>For example, in the City of Melbourne’s <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-02-17/vic-food-waste-trial-melbourne-apartments-dehydrators/101978298">trial of dehydrators in apartment buildings</a> food waste is collected and processed on the premises. It recognises that individual apartments often lack space for composting. </p>
<p>In South Korea, apartments are an integral part of the <a href="https://seoulspace.com/waste-disposal-recycling-in-korea-full-breakdown/#:%7E:text=In%2520Korea%252C%2520most%2520apartments%2520will,with%2520your%2520general%2520waste%2520bag.">recycling regime</a>. Some have recycling bin space, including food waste bins, on every floor. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/despite-government-delays-food-waste-recycling-bins-are-coming-to-your-kitchen-sooner-than-you-think-195734">Despite government delays, food waste recycling bins are coming to your kitchen sooner than you think</a>
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<p>The city of New York has developed <a href="https://www.zerowastedesign.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/ZeroWasteDesignGuidelines2017_Web.pdf">“zero waste” guidelines</a> based on case studies in organic waste management and disposal in apartment buildings. The program includes retrofitting buildings. </p>
<p>To improve the recycling of waste from apartments, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921344920305085">research</a> points to the need to take into account all relevant factors, including the chemical properties of the waste, household practices and business models. We can apply what we know about apartment living to design better apartments and retrofit existing ones to reduce the waste they produce and manage it better. </p>
<p>With <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/media-centre/media-releases/2021-census-count-includes-australians-living-wheels-and-water-most-us-still-firmly-land">millions of Australians</a> now living in apartments, we can’t keep putting their waste in the too hard basket.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/200545/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bhavna Middha receives funding from the Australian Research Council (ARC) Industrial Transformation Research Hub for Transformation of Reclaimed Waste Resources to Engineered Materials and Solutions for a Circular Economy (TREMS) </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ralph Horne receives funding from the Australian Research Council (ARC) Industrial Transformation Research Hub for Transformation of Reclaimed Waste Resources to Engineered Materials and Solutions for a Circular Economy (TREMS)</span></em></p>Apartments have lower waste recycling rates than houses, which means the growing numbers of apartment dwellers could add to Australia’s waste management crisis. But there are solutions to the problem.Bhavna Middha, Research Fellow, Centre for Urban Research, RMIT UniversityRalph Horne, Associate Deputy Vice Chancellor, Research & Innovation, College of Design & Social Context, RMIT UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1957342022-12-15T19:07:00Z2022-12-15T19:07:00ZDespite government delays, food waste recycling bins are coming to your kitchen sooner than you think<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500630/original/file-20221213-16-wtj1iu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4861%2C3230&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Only <a href="https://experience.arcgis.com/experience/e6b5c78e1dac47f88e7e475ffacfc49b">24% of local councils</a> in Australia separately collect household food organics and garden organics (FOGO) waste. Another 16% provide garden waste collection only. This limited progress has prompted the federal government to push back the <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/protection/waste/publications/national-waste-policy-action-plan">target date</a>, from <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-12-01/food-waste-target-abandoned-by-federal-government-/101707458">2023 to 2030</a>, for all councils to collect food and garden waste separately from landfill waste. </p>
<p>Most food waste currently goes into red bins as mixed waste bound for landfills. Kerbside collection of organic waste will become a standard service for all residents in <a href="https://www.compostconnect.org/what-governments-in-australia-are-doing-to-support-composting/">New South Wales and Victoria by 2030</a>, for metropolitan residents in South Australia and Western Australia by 2025 and for Canberra residents by 2023. </p>
<p>To achieve these targets, effective policies and incentives will need to be put in place for councils or private waste management companies. They will have to build and operate the infrastructure needed to process FOGO waste, and will want to recoup their costs. </p>
<p>Happily, this waste has increasing value as a source of both high-quality compost and <a href="https://www.climatecouncil.org.au/resources/biogas-green-gas-renewable-gas/">biogas</a>, which can be used like natural gas. The markets for these products, with gas prices in particular soaring, should help drive widespread adoption earlier than 2030.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/four-bins-might-help-but-to-solve-our-waste-crisis-we-need-a-strong-market-for-recycled-products-132440">Four bins might help, but to solve our waste crisis we need a strong market for recycled products</a>
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<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1014743247560822785"}"></div></p>
<h2>Why collect this waste separately?</h2>
<p>The rationale for diverting organic waste from <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/protection/waste/publications/australian-landfill-capacities-future">increasingly limited</a> landfill space is clear. Collecting this waste separately reduces landfill impacts and costs, while delivering other environmental benefits. </p>
<p>Organic waste in a landfill will biodegrade slowly, eventually turning into biogas (methane and carbon dioxide). It can also produce organic acids that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2015.07.065">dissolve and mobilise heavy metals</a>, creating a toxic hazard.</p>
<p>Modern landfills operate for decades. Waste is covered as it is placed, but only with soil until the landfill is full. Despite the use of multi-layer liners and impermeable final covers, these eventually deteriorate. In addition to harmful local environmental legacies of landfills, emissions of methane – a potent greenhouse gas – cause global harm. </p>
<p>In contrast, returning clean organic material to soils is beneficial. Australia’s arable soils are typically low in organic carbon, which needs to be <a href="https://www.aora.org.au/sites/default/files/uploaded-content/field_f_content_file/using-compost-to-build-and-maintain-soil-carbon-factsheet.pdf">regularly supplemented</a>. </p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-need-more-carbon-in-our-soil-to-help-australian-farmers-through-the-drought-102991">We need more carbon in our soil to help Australian farmers through the drought</a>
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<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Piles of discarded food" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500643/original/file-20221213-6751-8iqefp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500643/original/file-20221213-6751-8iqefp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500643/original/file-20221213-6751-8iqefp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500643/original/file-20221213-6751-8iqefp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500643/original/file-20221213-6751-8iqefp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500643/original/file-20221213-6751-8iqefp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500643/original/file-20221213-6751-8iqefp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Food waste in landfill emits methane but it can instead be used to produce valuable compost and biogas.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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<p>But, to produce high-quality compost, FOGO must be collected in a separate bin to avoid contamination. It’s possible to extract organic material from mixed (red bin) waste. This is done by grinding the waste and then using magnets, eddy currents, water flotation and air sorting to remove glass, plastic and metal fragments. </p>
<p>However, red bin waste is not closely monitored. It can contain batteries, electrical goods, paints and other sources of heavy metals in dissolved or fine-particle form. </p>
<p>This is why NSW banned the use on land of compost derived from mixed waste in 2019. A NSW <a href="https://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/-/media/epa/corporate-site/resources/recycling/mixed-waste-technical-committee-report.pdf">EPA review</a> had identified cadmium, zinc and copper as metals of high concern in this compost. It also found chemicals such as flame retardants and disinfectants were household sources of persistent organic pollutants. </p>
<h2>How much waste are we talking about?</h2>
<p>The size and composition of the FOGO resource will change if Australia achieves the UN Sustainable Development Goal of halving the food waste generated per person by 2030, compared to 2015. The <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/protection/waste/publications/national-waste-policy-action-plan">2019 National Waste Policy and Action Plan</a> adopted this goal. </p>
<p>Estimates of food waste in Australia vary. The most comprehensive survey was a nation-wide audit in 2020 of <a href="https://fightfoodwastecrc.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/kerbside_bin_audits.pdf">450 kerbside bins</a> by the <a href="https://fightfoodwastecrc.com.au/">Fight Food Waste Cooperative Research Centre</a>. It showed weekly food waste was 0.79kg per person, including 0.34kg of inedible peels, bones and expired or perished food. These households disposed of a similar amount of food waste in the home by composting, feeding to pets or flushing down the sink. </p>
<p>The United Nations Environment Programme’s <a href="https://www.unep.org/resources/report/unep-food-waste-index-report-2021">2021 estimate</a> is similar at 1.5-1.7kg of weekly food waste per person. The <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/protection/waste/national-waste-reports/2020">National Waste Database</a> estimate for Australia is higher at 2.37kg. </p>
<p>According to the database, 31% of food waste in NSW was separately collected and composted or digested in 2018-19. The figure was less than 10% in all other states except Western Australia, where it was 13%. </p>
<p>As for garden waste, <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/protection/waste/national-waste-reports/2020">2.01kg per person each week</a> goes into kerbside bins. Over 50% of garden waste (85% in South Australia) is separately collected in all mainland states. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-best-before-food-labelling-is-not-best-for-the-planet-or-your-budget-189686">Why 'best before' food labelling is not best for the planet or your budget</a>
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<h2>How can collection costs be covered?</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www.aora.org.au/sites/default/files/uploaded-content/field_f_content_file/using-compost-to-build-and-maintain-soil-carbon-factsheet.pdf">demand for organic carbon</a> in Australian soils <a href="https://mraconsulting.com.au/getting-the-most-out-of-the-fogo-revolution/">far exceeds</a> the amount of compost that could be produced from FOGO. But, to tap into this market, the compost quality must be consistent. </p>
<p>A clear definition of acceptable FOGO and carefully controlled operations are needed to produce consistent quality compost. The <a href="https://mraconsulting.com.au/kerbside-fogo-needs-a-national-standard/">waste management industry</a> and <a href="https://www.agriculture.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/recycled-organics-in-australia-review-regulations-standards-final-report.pdf">advice to government</a> have called for FOGO bins to be limited to food waste and garden waste, excluding materials like paper, cardboard and animal waste. </p>
<p>Many councils compost garden waste on open pads, some under cover. Machinery is used to shred and turn over the piles to control temperature and moisture levels. </p>
<p>The control of this process becomes more critical for FOGO. Food waste can be smelly, particularly if the composting process is open to the air but not adequately aerated. </p>
<p>Tighter control, particularly of odour, can be achieved if composting is done in vessels. Typically, these take the form of <a href="https://www.phoenixpower.com.au/">concrete tunnels</a>. </p>
<p>High-quality compost for farming can fetch <a href="https://www.soilwealth.com.au/imagesDB/news/ICP_SW_Composteconomics_v3.pdf">A$50 to $80 per cubic metre</a>. That makes separate collection and processing of bio-waste more attractive financially. </p>
<p>In addition, surging gas and electricity prices and the revival in value of renewable energy credits have increased the viability of first anaerobically digesting FOGO to produce biogas, then composting the digested material. FOGO can be digested in sealed tunnels similar to composting tunnels. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/capturing-the-true-wealth-of-australias-waste-82644">Capturing the true wealth of Australia’s waste</a>
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<p>This biogas will not solve Australia’s gas shortage (FOGO biogas could meet about 2% of the demand). However, I calculate, as a conservative figure, that the income to an anaerobic digestion operator would exceed $40 per fresh tonne of waste. This figure is based on a conservative methane yield of 50m³ per tonne, a wholesale electricity price of $200 per MWhr and a renewable energy credit value of $50 per MWhr.</p>
<p>All of these considerations indicate we should be confident almost all households will have a FOGO service before 2030. The alternative is to waste this resource in landfills, with all their future environmental liabilities.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/195734/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>William Clarke has received funding from the Australian Research Council on projects related to the degradation of organic wastes in landfills and in anaerobic digesters. He has also performed numerous consulting projects assessing the biogas yields from various organic wastes. </span></em></p>Most food waste still goes into red bins of mixed waste bound for landfill. It’s using up precious landfill space and harming the environment when it could produce valuable compost and biogas instead.William Clarke, Professor of Waste Management, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1947792022-11-25T07:42:35Z2022-11-25T07:42:35ZWhy the UK needs to stop exporting plastic waste<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495846/original/file-20221117-22-wv1tzw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=8%2C0%2C5960%2C3964&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The mismanagement of plastic waste is one of the main causes of plastic pollution in nature.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/spilled-garbage-on-beach-big-city-1060330253">Larina Marina/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The world produces a vast amount of plastic. Global plastic production <a href="https://www.pewtrusts.org/-/media/assets/2020/07/breakingtheplasticwave_report.pdf">increased</a> from 2 million metric tons in 1950 to 348 million metric tons in 2017. Yet much of this plastic is wasted: <a href="https://www.pewtrusts.org/-/media/assets/2020/10/breakingtheplasticwave_mainreport.pdf">86%</a> of the world’s plastic waste in 2016 was either incinerated, sent to landfill or leaked into nature. </p>
<p>Many countries use international trade to manage their plastic waste. The justification for this is that plastic waste can be treated in destinations with better capacity for waste treatment. The UK, lacking capacity itself, <a href="https://wrap.org.uk/sites/default/files/2020-12/PackFlow%20COVID-19%20Plastic%20Phase%20I%20Report%20FINAL%20v2.pdf">exports 60%</a> of its plastic waste abroad. But in a recent <a href="https://committees.parliament.uk/publications/31509/documents/176742/default/">report</a>, the House of Commons Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Committee – the group of MPs responsible for improving and protecting the environment – have called on the government to stop the export of UK plastic waste by the end of 2027. </p>
<p>The movement of hazardous waste is controlled by an international agreement called the <a href="http://www.basel.int/">Basel Convention</a>. It requires the consent of the receiving country, accurate labelling of waste, and notification when plastic waste has been treated for waste to be exported legally. The Convention has recently increased the range of plastics that fall within its remit.</p>
<p>China has long been the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-020-20741-9">world’s leading</a> plastic waste importer. But in 2017 its government banned plastic waste imports, citing concerns over the low quality of material received. This has displaced vast quantities of plastic waste. The UK now exports <a href="https://wrap.org.uk/sites/default/files/2021-10/WRAP-Plastics-Market-Situation-Report-2021.pdf">most of its plastic waste</a> to Turkey, Indonesia, Vietnam, Malaysia and the Netherlands. </p>
<h2>Passing the burden</h2>
<p>The import of plastic waste is a valuable source of foreign exchange for many countries. But these countries often have limited waste treatment infrastructure.</p>
<p>Uncontrolled imports can therefore lead to the volume of plastic waste received exceeding the capacity of a country to cope with it. It also displaces its ability to treat its own domestic waste. The result is more plastic waste than can be safely handled and high levels of mismanagement. </p>
<p>Once a country has received the waste, monitoring of the treatment process is also scarce. A <a href="https://www.greenpeace.org/international/press-release/47759/investigation-finds-plastic-from-the-uk-and-germany-illegally-dumped-in-turkey/">Greenpeace investigation</a> in 2021 found evidence of plastic waste from the UK and Germany dumped illegally across 10 sites in southwestern Turkey.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1492560606364377095"}"></div></p>
<p>But mismanaged plastic waste is one of the main causes of plastic pollution in nature. One <a href="https://www.pewtrusts.org/-/media/assets/2020/10/breakingtheplasticwave_mainreport.pdf">report</a> estimates that 56% (239 million metric tonnes) of global annual plastic waste production by 2040 will be subject to mismanagement.</p>
<p>Exporting plastic waste also raises ethical questions. It allows exporting nations to forgo their responsibility to deal with their own plastic waste while claiming to be managing their waste responsibly.</p>
<h2>Upstream solutions</h2>
<p>A more systemic and responsible way of dealing with plastic waste is to reduce plastic consumption. The Committee’s report recommends measures that focus on reducing plastic waste at source, rather than improving the ability of waste treatment infrastructure to manage a greater capacity of waste. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A brown paper bag with the text 100% recyclable and reusable printed on the bottom." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495851/original/file-20221117-17-5g7jto.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495851/original/file-20221117-17-5g7jto.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495851/original/file-20221117-17-5g7jto.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495851/original/file-20221117-17-5g7jto.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495851/original/file-20221117-17-5g7jto.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495851/original/file-20221117-17-5g7jto.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495851/original/file-20221117-17-5g7jto.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">The Committee of MPs recommend solutions that reduce plastic use at source.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/brown-paper-bag-that-100-recyclable-1506701819">Dr. Victor Wong/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>The key suggestion was to accelerate the introduction of <a href="https://www.oecd.org/env/tools-evaluation/extendedproducerresponsibility.htm">Extended Producer Responsibility schemes</a>. Extended Producer Responsibility is an approach that aims to make companies bear a greater proportion of the cost of disposing the plastic they use for products put on the market. These schemes will apply to all companies in the UK who put at least 1 tonne of plastic packaging on the market each year by 2030, encouraging them to reduce their production of plastic waste. This can be achieved through innovations to “design out” plastics or by transitioning to a <a href="https://wrap.org.uk/taking-action/climate-change/circular-economy">circular economy</a> where plastic materials are reused or fully recycled. </p>
<p>The Committee’s report recommends the establishment of a plastic reuse task force, composed of representatives from industry and consumer groups. The group would coordinate strategies including incentives to adopt business models that encourage the reuse of plastic materials, single-use plastic charges, mandatory reporting on a company’s plastic footprint, and public campaigns to raise the profile of reuse schemes.</p>
<p>Deposit-return schemes also help and are already in progress in the UK. In 2023, <a href="https://depositreturnscheme.zerowastescotland.org.uk/">Scotland</a> will launch a national programme where people will pay a 20p deposit when they buy a drink in a plastic bottle or can, which will be repaid when the empty container is returned.</p>
<h2>Plastic waste is a global problem</h2>
<p>The recommendations made by the Committee are a positive step forward and would place the UK in a position of international leadership on tackling plastic pollution. But plastic value chains are transnational and waste is generated at each stage. This reduces the effectiveness of isolated national action. </p>
<p>National policies often do not have the reach or influence to tackle the global causes of plastic pollution. <a href="https://plasticspolicy.port.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/GPPC-Report.pdf">Research</a> that I co-authored found that isolated policies including national bans on plastic products are ineffective in reducing the generation of plastic waste. Fragmented national policies can also create loopholes in international policy that inadvertently reroutes plastic waste towards the destinations least equipped to deal with it. </p>
<p>But earlier this year, 173 countries formally adopted a <a href="https://wedocs.unep.org/xmlui/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/39764/END%20PLASTIC%20POLLUTION%20-%20TOWARDS%20AN%20INTERNATIONAL%20LEGALLY%20BINDING%20INSTRUMENT%20-%20English.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">UN resolution</a> to start negotiations for a global legally binding agreement to end plastic pollution by the end of 2024. The <a href="https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/ppesp_e/ppesp_e.htm">World Trade Organisation</a> has also launched an initiative to explore how trade policies can be used to reduce plastic pollution. International cooperation over plastic waste policy, along with the legal power of the Basel Convention, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43017-022-00361-1">offers hope</a> of a coordinated global response to plastic pollution that avoids policy fragmentation. </p>
<p>Environmental groups are critical of the trade in plastic waste. The Committee’s recommendation to ban UK plastic waste exports by 2027 is therefore an ambitious and welcome step forwards in tackling plastic pollution. But without global action, isolated national policies will not deliver change on the scale required to end this controversial trade.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/194779/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Steve Fletcher has received funding from the UN Environment Programme. He is a member of the UN International Resource Panel. </span></em></p>Many countries export their plastic waste abroad – but the mismanagement of this plastic waste is one of the leading causes of plastic pollution in nature.Steve Fletcher, Professor of Ocean Policy and Economy, University of PortsmouthLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1935642022-11-10T13:46:47Z2022-11-10T13:46:47ZBurning waste must end: African leaders look to recycling for better health and value<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/493607/original/file-20221104-24-8sfslt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4992%2C3330&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Proper waste management can save lives and create wealth. Photo by James Wakibia/SOPA Images/LightRocket.
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/scavenger-retrieves-materials-for-recycling-beside-burning-news-photo/1243927698?phrase=waste%20burning%20in%20africa&adppopup=true">from www,gettyimages.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When African environment ministers met in Senegal in mid-September, they made one of the most important <a href="https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/press-release/african-environment-ministers-vow-end-plastic-pollution-eliminate">decisions</a> in the history of waste management in Africa.</p>
<p>The ministers laid the foundation to end the open dumping and burning of waste.</p>
<p>Putting this decision into action will have multiple economic, environmental and social implications. It could save millions of lives on the continent. </p>
<p>One hundred and eighty million tons of waste, about <a href="https://olc.worldbank.org/system/files/What%20a%20Waste%202.0%20Overview.pdf#page=20">9% of the global total</a>, was generated in sub-Saharan <a href="https://www.unep.org/ietc/resources/publication/africa-waste-management-outlook">Africa</a> in 2016. Only about 11% of this waste was disposed of in properly designed and managed landfills. More than 60% went to open dumpsites. </p>
<p>In many African cities, up to 90% of waste is dumped in the open. Much of it is burned, sending plumes of noxious pollutants into homes, lungs and the environment. These <a href="https://www.unep.org/resources/report/global-waste-management-outlook#page=176">emissions</a> include dioxins, hydrocarbons and black carbon, all highly toxic climate pollutants. Decomposing organic waste also generates methane, which triggers open burning and is a major contributor to climate change.</p>
<p>The impact on people and the environment is severe. Exposure to air pollution causes more than <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34627472/">1.2 million</a> premature African deaths annually. <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0734242X12454934">Studies</a> of children living near major dumpsites have reported chronic respiratory, gastrointestinal and dermatological illnesses. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/sh-IhYeJoJU?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Open waste burning: challenges and opportunities.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>With Africa rapidly <a href="https://www.afdb.org/en/documents/africas-urbanisation-dynamics-2022-economic-power-africas-cities#:%7E:text=Urbanisation%20is%20one%20the%20most,increased%20by%20500%20million%20peopl">urbanising</a>, and waste destined to keep growing in scale and complexity, the ministers’ meeting in Dakar knew urgent action was required.</p>
<p>My contribution to informing such action is a report I co-wrote with Dr Andriannah Mbandi on <a href="https://engineeringx.raeng.org.uk/media/u4mnsto5/open-burning-final-report_1.pdf">Open burning of waste in Africa: Challenges and opportunities</a>. We wrote the report as leaders of the UN High Level Champions Initiative on Open Burning of Waste in Africa. The report makes recommendations for a transition to sustainable waste management across sub-Saharan Africa. </p>
<h2>Action on open waste burning</h2>
<p>Burning is one of the oldest methods of waste disposal, but has become more dangerous as the volume and complexity of waste increases. More and more chemicals are being released by burning plastic and electronic components. This put the issue on the agenda at the African Ministerial Conference on Environment (AMCEN-18) in Dakar (12-16 September 2022).</p>
<p>AMCEN was an opportunity to consolidate Africa’s negotiating position ahead of the 2022 UN <a href="https://unfccc.int/cop27">climate change conference</a> (COP27) in Egypt. And it ended with a bold <a href="https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/press-release/african-environment-ministers-vow-end-plastic-pollution-eliminate">commitment</a> to “eliminate open dumping and burning of waste in Africa by 2050”. </p>
<p>Until now, discussions of open burning of waste at international level have taken place on the sidelines. AMCEN-18 saw the first substantive discussions from an African perspective about resolving Africa’s waste challenge. </p>
<p>Apart from health and environmental impacts, ministers recognised the huge economic opportunities in better waste management. Up to 80% of solid waste generated in <a href="https://wedocs.unep.org/handle/20.500.11822/25514">African cities</a> is recyclable, with an estimated value of $8 billion each year. Yet only about 11% is currently recycled, mostly by the informal sector. It indicates a major opportunity to create jobs and livelihoods from the <a href="https://practicalaction.org/managing-our-waste/">reuse of waste</a>.</p>
<p>The AMCEN ministerial resolution recognised how waste can be a resource for value addition and employment. It also recognised the need to integrate informal waste recyclers into African economies. This requires:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>providing technical and institutional support</p></li>
<li><p>improving <a href="https://theconversation.com/waste-pickers-in-lagos-tell-their-stories-about-a-dangerous-existence-188621">working conditions</a></p></li>
<li><p>building on their entrepreneurial spirit and expertise</p></li>
<li><p>creating incentives that will turn informal waste pickers and small recycling enterprises into tax-paying businesses.</p></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/waste-pickers-in-lagos-tell-their-stories-about-a-dangerous-existence-188621">Waste pickers in Lagos tell their stories about a dangerous existence</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The AMCEN resolution asked development partners, including the African Development Bank, the International Monetary Fund and the Green Climate Fund, for support. It acknowledged the link between waste management, the <a href="https://sdgs.un.org/goals">UN SDGs</a> and the AU’s <a href="https://au.int/sites/default/files/documents/36204-doc-agenda2063_popular_version_en.pdf">Agenda 2063</a>, and its impact on climate change, biodiversity, human health, food systems, resource scarcity, and social and economic development.</p>
<p>Ministers recognised underlying challenges such as:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>a lack of public awareness</p></li>
<li><p>weak legislation and enforcement</p></li>
<li><p>insufficient budgets for waste collection and disposal</p></li>
<li><p>inadequate and malfunctioning equipment</p></li>
<li><p>lack of public participation</p></li>
<li><p>inadequate waste management governance. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>Member states were encouraged to allocate resources and put in place policies, systems and laws to meet these challenges. For example, they could provide incentives for reuse of waste, and monitor atmospheric pollution better.</p>
<h2>Joint effort at local level</h2>
<p>More than <a href="https://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9781464813290/6">60% of the waste</a> generated in African urban centres is biodegradable. Another 20% of it is recyclable (such as paper, plastics and metals). All this biodegradable and recyclable waste could be diverted from dumping sites. Doing so would reduce open waste burning by 60% by 2030.</p>
<p>Countries can achieve this by promoting a change in people’s behaviour and promoting the use of waste as a secondary resource input. </p>
<p>It requires a mammoth effort by governments, local authorities, the private sector and civil society, development partners, community groups, informal waste service providers and recyclers. </p>
<p>On the frontline are local authorities. They need to work with communities to change attitudes and behaviour, and enforce bylaws that prohibit open dumping and burning. They should also provide the infrastructure needed for waste separation and recycling.</p>
<p>The local level is where action will happen, and the goal is to get African countries and cities to join a partnership which is expected to be launched at COP27.</p>
<p>The historic AMCEN resolution saw unprecedented political commitment to tackling a serious health and environmental challenge. In three to five years, Africa could start to see the impacts on lives saved and economic opportunities created.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/193564/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>
I am leading the initiative of the United Nations High Level Climate Champions on open waste burning in Africa.</span></em></p>The decision by African ministers of environment to end open waste burning will not only save lives but also open up new income streams.Desta Mebratu, Professor and United Nations High Level Champions (UNHLC) Lead on Waste, Stellenbosch UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1915852022-10-19T19:06:35Z2022-10-19T19:06:35ZRight now, more adult incontinence products than baby nappies go to landfill. By 2030, it could be ten times higher<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490281/original/file-20221018-15512-s2kcro.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=40%2C26%2C2955%2C1836&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Many parents worry about the <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-other-countries-can-teach-us-about-ditching-disposable-nappies-114604">waste</a> created by <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/291130/scho0808boir-e-e.pdf">disposable nappies</a>.</p>
<p>But while baby nappy waste is well known, there’s a hidden waste stream that <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0956053X22003920">our research</a> has found is actually a bigger issue. More adult incontinence products go to landfill than baby nappies in Australia.</p>
<p>Adult incontinence is often underreported and undertreated. The social stigma and lack of access to affordable health support may stop people seeking treatment and instead rely on incontinence products.</p>
<p>As Australia’s population ages, this issue will grow. By 2030, we predict adult incontinence waste will be four to ten times greater than baby nappies. We’ll need to get much better at dealing with the waste issues associated with these products. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490563/original/file-20221019-22-gy6i0u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Baby nappy changed" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490563/original/file-20221019-22-gy6i0u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490563/original/file-20221019-22-gy6i0u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490563/original/file-20221019-22-gy6i0u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490563/original/file-20221019-22-gy6i0u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490563/original/file-20221019-22-gy6i0u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490563/original/file-20221019-22-gy6i0u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490563/original/file-20221019-22-gy6i0u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Baby nappies are a well known waste issue. But adult incontinence products now outweigh them as an issue.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Adult incontinence is common and long-lasting</h2>
<p>The reason these products will soon outstrip baby nappies is because infants usually only need nappies for a couple of years. By contrast, adult incontinence can stay with you for a lot longer – and it can emerge in <a href="https://www.ics.org/education/icspublications/icibooks/6thicibook">many different ways</a>. </p>
<p>How common is adult incontinence? It varies widely. The risk of urinary incontinence increases with age, and women experience higher levels of incontinence compared to men across all age groups. Women over 60 experience the biggest issues, with an <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0090429510000191?via%3Dihub">estimated 30% to 63% </a>of women over 65 living with some degree of urinary incontinence. </p>
<p>It’s common for people to manage their incontinence with single-use absorbent hygiene products, an umbrella term for incontinence products for both babies and adults. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490562/original/file-20221019-12-gu4913.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="older couple walking away" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490562/original/file-20221019-12-gu4913.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490562/original/file-20221019-12-gu4913.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490562/original/file-20221019-12-gu4913.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490562/original/file-20221019-12-gu4913.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490562/original/file-20221019-12-gu4913.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490562/original/file-20221019-12-gu4913.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490562/original/file-20221019-12-gu4913.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Single use incontinence products offer convenience and normality as we age but produce waste.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Like baby nappies, adult incontinence products are <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18843748/">usually made from</a> a combination of natural fibres, plastics, glues and synthetic absorbent materials. </p>
<p>What happens to these products after use <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0734242X20954271">varies around the world</a>, and can range from illegal dumping, to landfill, composting or burning in a waste-to-energy plant. </p>
<p>In Australia, both infant and adult products typically end up in landfill. The problem is, when you deposit organic waste in landfill, it gives off biogas (a mix of methane and carbon dioxide) and leachate, a polluted liquid that can leak through the lining at the bottom of landfills. </p>
<p>Some landfills in Australia are equipped with collection systems for leachate and biogas – but <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/landfill-survey-data.pdf">not all</a>. Biogas emissions and leachate leaks can still occur even if there are collection systems in place.</p>
<p>Food and garden waste are the main source of biogas and organic contaminants in leachate. While councils look to remove food and garden waste from landfills, our ageing population will contribute more incontinence product waste to them.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-we-need-to-talk-about-incontinence-86080">Why we need to talk about incontinence</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Could we divert adult incontinence products from landfill?</h2>
<p>Right now, we estimate about half of all adult incontinence products used in Australia end up in landfills without biogas collection. </p>
<p>The European Union has moved to <a href="https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/waste-and-recycling/landfill-waste_en">ban disposal</a> of untreated organic waste – including these products – to landfill. Because adult incontinence products usually contain plastics, the EU requires them to be incinerated where possible rather than biodegraded. Australia has no such laws for this waste. </p>
<p>Could biodegradable incontinence products tackle the waste issue? Only if there are systems in place to manage the waste and recover the resources. </p>
<p>A recycling pathway for biodegradable incontinence products could include <a href="https://www.epa.gov/agstar/how-does-anaerobic-digestion-work">anaerobic digestion</a> – systems that harness bacteria to take our waste and make useful products such as renewable natural gas and biofertiliser. This waste stream could also be composted, if the temperature rises high enough to kill off any pathogens and recover the resources. </p>
<h2>Problem solving</h2>
<p>This is only part of the solution. Tackling the stigma around incontinence and ensuring access to affordable treatment options could cut the waste stream. </p>
<p>Encouraging manufacturers to use biodegradable materials for both adult and baby incontinence products could enable resource recovery, provided policies, systems and infrastructure are put in place to divert and process the waste. And while this is happening, it’s important these improved incontinence products are accessible and affordable to people who need them.</p>
<p>The reason disposable baby nappies and adult incontinence products have come to dominate the market is simple: they’re convenient, despite the environmental impact. This is especially true for the quality of life for our ageing population. </p>
<p>As our population gets older, we’ll need to rethink this. Let’s bring the issue into the open and talk about it. And let’s find alternative solutions that give people dignity and a better quality of life – while minimising landfill waste and the impact on our environment. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/urinary-incontinence-can-be-a-problem-for-women-of-all-ages-but-there-is-a-cure-49365">Urinary incontinence can be a problem for women of all ages, but there is a cure</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/191585/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Beth Rounsefell is a Casual Academic at The University of Queensland, and currently works for EDL.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Emma Thompson-Brewster and Kate O'Brien do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Could we divert incontinence products from landfill? Yes – if we tackle social stigma and access to affordable health services, encourage biodegradable products and introduce supportive waste policiesBeth Rounsefell, Casual Academic, The University of QueenslandEmma Thompson-Brewster, Lecturer, Southern Cross UniversityKate O'Brien, Professor, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1924092022-10-13T14:19:58Z2022-10-13T14:19:58ZNigeria floods: expert insights into why they’re so devastating and what to do about them<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/489582/original/file-20221013-13-4wbcws.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">EPA/GEORGE ESIRI</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Nigeria is experiencing its worst flooding in over a decade.
<a href="https://www.enca.com/news/nigeria-floods-kill-500-displace-14-million-people">Over</a> 1.4 million people have been displaced, 500 have been reported dead and thousands have been injured.</p>
<p>Flooding isn’t a new challenge in Nigeria – it’s one of the country’s most prevalent natural disasters. During the rainy seasons, from March to July and mid August to mid October in the south, and July to October in the north, major rivers <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-nigeria-is-not-prepared-to-deal-with-flooding-104018">often burst</a> their banks. Dams burst too. This causes flooding in numerous Nigerian states, among them Delta, Kogi, Anambra, Bayelsa, Adamawa and Niger.</p>
<p>Various experts have written for The Conversation Africa on Nigeria’s flooding challenge and steps needed to alleviate their worst effects. </p>
<p>Here we share three insightful reads. </p>
<hr>
<p>Environment researcher Adaku Jane Echendu <a href="https://theconversation.com/nigeria-has-a-flooding-challenge-heres-why-and-what-can-be-done-169044">explains</a> that – unlike some natural disasters – floods due to rainfall can be controlled with proper planning and infrastructure. </p>
<p>She <a href="https://theconversation.com/nigeria-has-a-flooding-challenge-heres-why-and-what-can-be-done-169044">reveals</a> that the main drivers of Nigeria’s include poor, or non-existent, drainage systems, poor waste management, unregulated urban expansion and the lax implementation of laws. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/nigeria-has-a-flooding-challenge-heres-why-and-what-can-be-done-169044">Nigeria has a flooding challenge: here's why and what can be done</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Floods can be particularly devastating in Nigeria’s cities, causing the displacement of hundreds of thousands of people. In a study of Lagos and Port Harcourt, disaster risk reduction and resilience specialist Olasunkanmi Habeeb Okunola <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-nigerian-cities-can-do-to-cope-better-with-flood-risk-172312">found</a> that a variety of factors make cities vulnerable. These include institutional failures, inadequate infrastructure and a lack of disaster education.</p>
<p>Okunola outlines what cities must do to better cope with the risk of floods. Key to this is the need for government, non-governmental agencies, community-based organisations and residents to join forces and prepare for floods, reducing their impact. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-nigerian-cities-can-do-to-cope-better-with-flood-risk-172312">What Nigerian cities can do to cope better with flood risk</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Flooding may seem to be an inevitable reality for Nigeria. But, <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-nigeria-is-not-prepared-to-deal-with-flooding-104018">argues</a> water management expert Nelson Odume, risks can be minimised in a variety of ways. The most significant of these is coordinated spatial planning. This involves bringing urban planners and environmental practitioners together to organise the distribution of people and activities in a space. </p>
<p>He outlines the steps Nigeria needs to take to deal with flooding. These include installing gauging stations, developing suitable models for hydrological predictions, and collecting data that will enable accurate flood forecasting. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-nigeria-is-not-prepared-to-deal-with-flooding-104018">Why Nigeria is not prepared to deal with flooding</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/192409/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
Experts share their insights into Nigeria’s flooding challenge and steps needed to alleviate their worst effects.Moina Spooner, Assistant EditorWale Fatade, Commissioning Editor: NigeriaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1842432022-06-08T20:20:55Z2022-06-08T20:20:55ZLocal efforts have cut plastic waste on Australia’s beaches by almost 30% in 6 years<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/466701/original/file-20220601-48778-77lvo8.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=4%2C0%2C3254%2C2443&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kathryn Willis</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s common to hear about large amounts of plastic waste floating around our oceans. But while the problem of plastic waste is growing globally, in Australia it’s going the other way. </p>
<p>This is because most plastic rubbish we find on Australia’s beaches <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/fee.1447">comes from us</a>, not from <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1260352">other countries</a>. Our <a href="https://www.cell.com/one-earth/fulltext/S2590-3322(22)00263-9">new study</a> shows local efforts in waste management have worked, reducing coastal litter by 29% over the last six years.</p>
<p>We found the greatest reductions in litter in the environment when it was simpler to access bins or when people were motivated through economic measures. In essence, these actions either save time or money for people trying to dispose of waste appropriately. </p>
<p>What doesn’t work? Awareness raising without tools or infrastructure to back it up. Messages and reminders don’t work if there are no options at hand. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Rubbish bins with anti-littering sign" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/466699/original/file-20220601-49429-rgofeg.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/466699/original/file-20220601-49429-rgofeg.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466699/original/file-20220601-49429-rgofeg.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466699/original/file-20220601-49429-rgofeg.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466699/original/file-20220601-49429-rgofeg.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466699/original/file-20220601-49429-rgofeg.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466699/original/file-20220601-49429-rgofeg.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">These type of local government actions encourage the public to dispose of waste properly through economic incentives.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kathryn Willis</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Global issue, local solutions</h2>
<p>Plastic pollution is a global crisis harming <a href="https://theconversation.com/plastic-in-the-ocean-kills-more-threatened-albatrosses-than-we-thought-154925">wildlife</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2021.113167">economies</a> and livelihoods. The recent signing of the <a href="https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/38522/k2200647_-_unep-ea-5-l-23-rev-1_-_advance.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">Global Plastics Treaty</a> has added momentum to the world’s efforts to cut the estimated <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1260352">6-12 million</a> tonnes of plastic waste entering our oceans every year. </p>
<p>But we still know little about practical ways of cutting the amount of plastic entering the environment outside of rhetorical campaigns to ban plastic. </p>
<p>To find out what works, we focused on local governments. Councils are well placed to tackle the problem, as they are typically at the coal face of waste management. Councils collect and dispose of our waste while also dealing with illegal dumping and litter. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-analysed-data-from-29-798-clean-ups-around-the-world-to-uncover-some-of-the-worst-litter-hotspots-167280">We analysed data from 29,798 clean-ups around the world to uncover some of the worst litter hotspots</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>We undertook 563 litter surveys across 183 beaches in 32 local governments. From this, we identified actions with the largest effect on reducing coastal litter. Then we used three established theories of human behaviour to try to understand what makes these local actions successful. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/467116/original/file-20220606-20-igrjnj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/467116/original/file-20220606-20-igrjnj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/467116/original/file-20220606-20-igrjnj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/467116/original/file-20220606-20-igrjnj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/467116/original/file-20220606-20-igrjnj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/467116/original/file-20220606-20-igrjnj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/467116/original/file-20220606-20-igrjnj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/467116/original/file-20220606-20-igrjnj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Local interventions reduce plastic pollution in the environment.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author supplied</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In short, we found the most successful actions either saved time or money for people and local governments trying to dispose of waste in the right way. </p>
<p>We found that, in isolation, efforts to control plastic waste by targeting personal and social norms in the community did not reduce plastic litter on local beaches. This suggests a narrow focus on raising awareness will not work. But when awareness efforts are combined with tools and infrastructure, they become more <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2017.11.037">effective</a>. </p>
<p>Directly involving community members in clean-up activities like <a href="https://www.cleanupaustraliaday.org.au/">Clean Up Australia Day</a>, or programs focusing on dumping and littering also helped keep our coastlines cleaner. Such programs encouraged people to watch for and report litterbug behaviour through <a href="https://www.dontbeatosser.epa.nsw.gov.au/dont-be-tosser-campaign-put-your-rubbish-bin-dont-be-tosser">hotlines</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Woman picking up a litter bottle cap on the beach" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/466700/original/file-20220601-70854-i4bszx.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/466700/original/file-20220601-70854-i4bszx.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466700/original/file-20220601-70854-i4bszx.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466700/original/file-20220601-70854-i4bszx.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466700/original/file-20220601-70854-i4bszx.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466700/original/file-20220601-70854-i4bszx.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466700/original/file-20220601-70854-i4bszx.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">We found less plastic pollution in areas encouraging participation in clean-ups.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kathryn Willis</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Changing how we think of plastic</h2>
<p>To keep reducing waste around Australia, we need to transform our relationship with plastic. If we stop viewing plastic as a disposable commodity and start recognising its value, it will become something too good to throw away. </p>
<p>One of the biggest positive local government changes we saw was the shift towards collecting different streams of household waste and recycling. Local governments and the public are moving away from a collect and dump mindset to a reduce, sort and improve approach. </p>
<p>Many Australian households now have three or four bins to separate <a href="https://engage.vic.gov.au/sorting-household-recycling">glass</a>, green waste (often with <a href="https://www.cleanup.org.au/fogo">food scraps</a>) and <a href="https://www.waverley.nsw.gov.au/residents/waste_and_recycling/collection_days_and_bins/blue_lid_recycling_bin">paper</a> from their general waste and mixed recycling. These bins not only make it easier for us to separate and discard our waste properly, but well-separated waste and recycling streams make it easier for local governments to produce revenue from rubbish. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/four-bins-might-help-but-to-solve-our-waste-crisis-we-need-a-strong-market-for-recycled-products-132440">Four bins might help, but to solve our waste crisis we need a strong market for recycled products</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>With Australia’s recent <a href="https://theconversation.com/australias-waste-export-ban-becomes-law-but-the-crisis-is-far-from-over-151675">ban on waste exports</a>, better waste management holds clear benefits for people, communities, businesses and the environment. </p>
<h2>Tackling litter-prone areas</h2>
<p>Although litter is now declining along our beaches, we still have a long way to go. We’ve found high levels of plastic near our <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150742">major cities</a> and along <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12001">remote coastlines</a>, such as the west coast of Tasmania and the Gulf of Carpentaria. Pollution in remote areas is largely due to lost and discarded fishing gear washed up in remote areas.</p>
<p>By contrast, we can do a lot more to tackle hotspots closer to home, such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ac5690">waterways</a> and bushland near major population centres. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A blue plastic bottle cap, a white plastic fragment and a cigarette butt each partially buried in sand on a beach" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/466711/original/file-20220601-69342-qzuswp.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/466711/original/file-20220601-69342-qzuswp.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466711/original/file-20220601-69342-qzuswp.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466711/original/file-20220601-69342-qzuswp.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466711/original/file-20220601-69342-qzuswp.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466711/original/file-20220601-69342-qzuswp.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466711/original/file-20220601-69342-qzuswp.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Common types of litter found along Australia’s coastline.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kathryn Willis</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In Australia, we find more litter in socially and economically <a href="https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ac5690">disadvantaged neighbourhoods</a> as well as along our highways and in car parks and retail strips. By contrast, we find less in areas we associate with higher aesthetic and cultural values such as beaches and parks. </p>
<p>Interestingly, economically disadvantaged areas seem to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2018.02.009">benefit the most</a> from container deposit schemes and other economic incentives. These incentives appear to shift the behaviour of litterers and create an incentive to collect containers left in the environment. </p>
<p>It is encouraging to know we are the main source of plastic on our beaches. We have the power to change what happens locally. We don’t have to wait for global-scale action on plastics. </p>
<p>On this front, Australia has changed quickly and for the better. Our local governments and environmental groups can guide us to make wise decisions on waste.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/184243/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kathryn Willis was supported by the School of Social Sciences, University of Tasmania</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Britta Denise Hardesty receives funding from United Nations Environment, the Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment, The Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade and Oak Family Foundation. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chris Wilcox receives funding from Ocean Conservancy, PADI Aware, and CSIRO Oceans and Atmosphere. He also receives funding from Oak Family Foundation and PM Angell Foundation.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joanna Vince receives funding from the CSIRO for plastics related work. </span></em></p>Here’s some good environmental news – local governments and local actions have slashed the plastic on our beaches. Incentives, awareness and access are the key.Kathryn Willis, Marine Socioecologist, University of TasmaniaBritta Denise Hardesty, Senior Principal Research Scientist, Oceans and Atmosphere, CSIROChris Wilcox, Senior Principal Research Scientist, CSIROJoanna Vince, Senior lecturer, University of TasmaniaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1823652022-05-19T13:18:32Z2022-05-19T13:18:32ZSmart city technologies pose serious threats to women waste workers in India<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463709/original/file-20220517-15-63np80.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C449%2C4000%2C2203&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">An Indian woman sorts reusable items from a landfill on the outskirts of New Delhi in March 2021. Trash pickers sometimes toil alongside paid municipal sanitation workers and provide a vital service to cities. Their subsistence work is put at risk by smart city technologies.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Altaf Qadri)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Smart city technologies are an <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/00208523211033205">increasingly popular approach to urban governance</a> and sustainable development worldwide, but their implementation, use and impact on society are only just being fully understood.</p>
<p>Smart city projects aim to modernize urban spaces and improve citizens’ lives through <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0263775819841765">sustainability-oriented, technological, expert-led and capital-intensive initiatives</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/seeing-the-smart-city-mapping-technologies-in-canada-112458">Seeing the smart city: Mapping technologies in Canada</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>In India, projects undertaken under the banner of the national <a href="https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/100-indian-cities-were-to-be-smart-by-now-heres-why-none-are/articleshow/89923643.cms">Smart Cities Mission</a> (a “<a href="https://theconversation.com/will-indias-experiment-with-smart-cities-tackle-poverty-or-make-it-worse-53678">business model for urbanization</a>” launched in 2015) have prioritized the construction of elevated light rail networks, introduced surveillance technologies in public spaces, upgraded municipal service delivery and started <a href="https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/openindia/smartness-inc/">building new cities from scratch</a>. </p>
<p>Although these initiatives are often promoted as politically neutral and beneficial for all, they’re being increasingly criticized for catering to the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2020.01.012">priorities of affluent citizens and private developers</a> while <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2427.12699">displacing low-income people from living spaces and livelihoods</a> to make way for the smart “world-class” city.</p>
<p>Cities around the world are now looking toward smart solutions to prevent the spread of disease in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic. India has received international praise for its <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/12/indian-smart-cities-offer-a-model-for-pandemic-recovery/">smart city model for pandemic recovery</a> and many cities have continued to <a href="https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/pm-ensured-pace-of-development-continues-even-during-covid-19-pandemic-amit-shah/article35783048.ece">push technological development projects forward</a> throughout the pandemic.</p>
<p>But smart technologies are not socially and politically neutral. Rather, expert-led technological best practices can intensify gendered, casted, racialized and classed inequalities, and threaten the livelihoods of women who are informal workers in cities across India and the Global South. </p>
<p>This is particularly true for women working as recyclers in India’s informal economy, because the spaces they need to generate daily subsistence incomes are increasingly sanitized, surveilled and revitalized by the arrival of smart technology.</p>
<h2>Dirty work in the ‘clean city’</h2>
<p>The city of Ahmedabad, <a href="https://www.indiatimes.com/news/india/cleanest-cities-list-india-indore-first-ahmedabad-tenth-554704.html">considered one of India’s cleanest cities</a>, was one of the first 20 communities to receive funding through the country’s Smart Cities Mission. </p>
<p>Thousands of women informal recyclers (or waste pickers, as they’re called colloquially) <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals-network/2014/jul/01/india-waste-picking-women-waste-cities-urban">collect and sell recyclable materials</a> (like paper, cardboard, plastics and metals) from urban public spaces to earn around 50 to 150 rupees a day (about 66 cents to $1.98 in U.S. dollars).</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Trash collectors, some of them women in colourful saris, pick through mounds of trash at a landfill. Birds fly overhead." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463698/original/file-20220517-25-yz79u4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463698/original/file-20220517-25-yz79u4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463698/original/file-20220517-25-yz79u4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463698/original/file-20220517-25-yz79u4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463698/original/file-20220517-25-yz79u4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463698/original/file-20220517-25-yz79u4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463698/original/file-20220517-25-yz79u4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Trash collectors look for recyclables at an Indian landfill in March 2021.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Altaf Qadri)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Informal recyclers perform essential tasks of waste segregation and recycling where formal waste management systems have long been absent or lacking. Due to the informality and precarity of their work, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105253">workers experience significant health threats and exploitation daily</a>. </p>
<p>They also experience stigmatization due to their gender, poverty and because, as members of the Dalit caste, they’re perceived as impure and untouchable (<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10630732.2021.2007203">the hierarchical caste system separates “pure” from “polluted” castes and divides labour and labourers in society</a>). </p>
<p>India’s waste situation was already shifting before the pandemic. Urban cleanliness became a major social and political imperative in envisioning and creating supposedly world-class cities through the <a href="https://swachhbharatmission.gov.in/sbmcms/index.htm">Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (Clean India Mission)</a>, the 2014 flagship program of Prime Minister Narendra Modi and the ruling neoliberal Hindu Nationalist BJP Party. </p>
<p>In this initiative, solid waste management was prioritized as requiring modernization via technologies and public-private partnerships. But emerging approaches to waste management favoured <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/suparnadutt/2017/06/21/this-startup-is-making-indias-garbage-its-business/?sh=57f3fbc75512">entrepreneurial</a> and capital-intensive technical fixes like <a href="https://www.pmc.gov.in/en/vehicles-solid-waste-management">mechanized waste collection by vehicles</a> and <a href="https://thewire.in/labour/how-digital-snooping-on-sanitation-workers-is-worsening-their-struggles">GPS technologies</a>.</p>
<h2>Replaced by men</h2>
<p>My research into women informal recyclers working on city streets in Ahmedabad also reveals how emerging smart technologies aimed at modernizing <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F25148486221102374">solid waste management practices favour male waste workers</a>. </p>
<p>I’ve found that the manual work of recycling by women is being overtaken by machinery and a new male labour force, since operating equipment and driving vehicles, cycle rickshaws or trucks, are tasks predominantly performed by men in India. </p>
<p>The challenges for women recyclers were mounting even prior to the pandemic. The emerging male workforce could collect materials overnight and access materials in the dark <a href="https://observers.france24.com/en/20161223-indian-women-fight-right-walk-alone-night-without-fear">before women felt they could safely leave their homes</a> early in the morning. Equipped with waste collection trucks, these workers could also travel longer distances to cover larger areas and collect/transport heavier and more valuable recyclable items to the scrap market.</p>
<p>My research shows that women recyclers were coping with these challenges by working longer days and walking longer distances to find materials. As a result, they were experiencing intensifying physical, mental and financial burdens in generating daily incomes. </p>
<p>When the pandemic hit and India imposed a strict lockdown in March 2020, new private contractors and waste workers were designated as essential workers and continued collecting garbage and recyclables, <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3885161">while women informal recyclers had to stay home</a> and fend for themselves without an income. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Men in masks sit in the cab of a garbage truck." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463717/original/file-20220517-14-mg2olq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463717/original/file-20220517-14-mg2olq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463717/original/file-20220517-14-mg2olq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463717/original/file-20220517-14-mg2olq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463717/original/file-20220517-14-mg2olq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=460&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463717/original/file-20220517-14-mg2olq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=460&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463717/original/file-20220517-14-mg2olq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=460&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Waste workers sit inside a garbage truck carrying waste material from quarantine centres and hospitals treating COVID-19 patients in Mumbai in April 2020.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Rajanish Kakade)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Building back better?</h2>
<p>Smart technologies have been prioritized in <a href="https://www.businessworld.in/article/Covid-19-Leveraging-Smart-Cities-for-Crisis-Management-Tech-Implementation-Economic-Growth-/15-06-2021-393112/">Ahmedabad’s pandemic response with the aim of slowing disease spread.</a> </p>
<p>Pandemic-era projects like the accelerating shift to mechanized, privatized solid waste collection, the introduction of <a href="https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/iot-based-trash-bins-installed-at-6-places-in-gnagar/articleshow/90242105.cms">smart waste bins</a> in the city’s public spaces and the planned <a href="https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/city-is-no-1-in-smart-city-project-implementation/articleshow/76310219.cms">redevelopment of its largest slum area</a> are among the initiatives that are particularly salient for women recyclers. The spaces where they live and work are targeted for sanitization, surveillance and redevelopment. </p>
<p>The era of smart pandemic urban governance is likely to compound the threats to their lives and livelihoods. Hygiene concerns stemming from COVID-19 <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/2455328X211036338">further entrench the stigma of untouchability </a> for low-income Dalit women waste workers who are at risk due to smart city intentions to revitalize and transform cities into places of consumption.</p>
<p>The COVID-19 pandemic has revealed many systemic inequalities built into our societies and institutions. Recovery efforts aim to <a href="https://www.oecd.org/economy/policy-reset-can-deliver-a-stronger-more-resilient-equitable-and-sustainable-post-pandemic-recovery.htm">“build back better” and deliver a more equitable, inclusive and sustainable urban future</a>. </p>
<p>I suggest rethinking the transformation and development of new infrastructure, public spaces and services according to modern esthetic ideals and profit-making imperatives. Instead, a truly smart, equitable and sustainable pandemic recovery needs to be based on <a href="https://www.societyandspace.org/articles/critical-spatial-practices-of-repair">a reparative</a> approach and focus on the <a href="https://www.societyandspace.org/articles/the-pandemic-southern-urbanisms-and-collective-life">needs, priorities and everyday practices</a> of people living and working in cities.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/182365/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Josie Wittmer received funding for this research from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council, the Society of Woman Geographers, and the Canada Research Chairs program. She currently receives funding from the Queen's University Postdoctoral Fund.</span></em></p>‘Smart’ solutions to urban solid waste are creating serious challenges for low-income women waste workers in India.Josie Wittmer, Postdoctoral Fellow, Geography and Planning, Queen's University, OntarioLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1760352022-02-28T00:37:17Z2022-02-28T00:37:17ZAt Unguja Ukuu, human activity transformed the coast of Zanzibar more than 1,000 years ago<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/445313/original/file-20220209-17-1brmlqa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C7%2C5199%2C1730&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Anna Kotarba-Morley</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The medieval settlement of Unguja Ukuu, on the Zanzibar Archipelago off the coast of Tanzania, was a key port in an extensive Indian Ocean trade network that linked eastern Africa, southern Arabia, India and Southeast Asia.</p>
<p>Our archaeological research shows how human activities between the seventh and twelfth centuries AD <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15564894.2022.2030441">irreversibly modified the shoreline around the site</a>. At first, these changes may have helped the trading settlement develop, but later they may have contributed to its decline and abandonment. </p>
<h2>Ancient seafaring</h2>
<p>For millennia, the Indian Ocean has been the maritime setting for an early form of globalisation. Large trade networks operated across the vast ocean, foreshadowing modern global shipping networks. Unguja Ukuu was a crucial location in this early trade and an important node in the nascent slave trade out of continental Africa.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/from-war-elephants-to-cheap-electronics-modern-globalisation-has-its-roots-in-ancient-trade-networks-125483">From war elephants to cheap electronics: modern globalisation has its roots in ancient trade networks</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<p>Unguja Ukuu was an active settlement from the mid-first millennium until the early second millennium AD. Archaeological evidence and historical accounts suggest Unguja Ukuu is one of the earliest known trading settlements on the Swahili coast.</p>
<h2>The rise and fall of trading ports</h2>
<p>To understand how and why early ports thrived or declined, it is important to know how the coastal landscape influenced the way traders operated. This includes their choice of mooring locations and their connections to inland locations. </p>
<p>But the question of how these commercial activities in turn modified the coastline has received less attention.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443920/original/file-20220202-25-1ojip7s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443920/original/file-20220202-25-1ojip7s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443920/original/file-20220202-25-1ojip7s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443920/original/file-20220202-25-1ojip7s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443920/original/file-20220202-25-1ojip7s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443920/original/file-20220202-25-1ojip7s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443920/original/file-20220202-25-1ojip7s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443920/original/file-20220202-25-1ojip7s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Satellite image of the location of Unguja Ukuu and the surrounding landscape. Insets: A) the extent of the tidal channel leading to the settlement; B) satellite view of the settlement site; c) the Uzi channel leading towards the creek. Illustration by Juliën Lubeek.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">GoogleEarth</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Unguja Ukuu prospered in an ecologically marginal zone, hemmed in between the sandy back-reef shore of Menai Bay and mangrove-banked creeks to the east. </p>
<p>Menai Bay afforded shelter from monsoonal storms and navigable waterways across the shallow inner shelf to the shore. It also provided food and other materials from the mangrove habitat. </p>
<p>This landscape enabled the emergence of the farming, fishing, and trading settlement of Unguja Ukuu.</p>
<h2>Sediment, sand and shells</h2>
<p>We studied sediments, back-beach sands, and shells at Unguja Ukuu to understand how the settlement had affected its own environment. We found the accumulation of coastal sediments over centuries led to significant changes in the landscape.</p>
<p>Detritus from the settlement, such as food remains, hearths and other domestic waste, helped the beach spread outward into the sea. Our analyses show how human waste and the compaction of ancient surfaces drove the coastline change, supporting the emergence of a major trading site. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/445062/original/file-20220208-23-ibrjsk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/445062/original/file-20220208-23-ibrjsk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=319&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445062/original/file-20220208-23-ibrjsk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=319&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445062/original/file-20220208-23-ibrjsk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=319&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445062/original/file-20220208-23-ibrjsk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445062/original/file-20220208-23-ibrjsk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445062/original/file-20220208-23-ibrjsk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Photograph of the north section of Trench UU14 with a schematic representation of facies.
and the interpretations of the anthropogenic signatures in the sediments. Author provided.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As more land was used for urban living and agriculture, more sediment moved from the land to the sea. This contributed to rapid growth of beach fronts, physically altering the coastal landscape and the ecological conditions of the adjacent sea-scape. </p>
<p>These changes in turn could have resulted in habitat shifts and silting of the lagoon which possibly contributed to Unguja Ukuu’s decline. </p>
<h2>Early human impacts</h2>
<p>Human-made processes might also be implicated in the decline and eventual abandonment of Unguja Ukuu in the second millennium AD. This was an important period in the socio-political and economic transformation of coastal African societies, marking the emergence of maritime Swahili culture. </p>
<p>But suggesting a purely environmental cause for the settlement’s abandonment would be too simplistic. The interaction of coastal villages and harbours with their dynamic landscapes may have had a role in this regional reorganisation of settlements, harbours, and trade flows.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-the-term-anthropocene-jumped-from-geoscience-to-hashtags-before-most-of-us-knew-what-it-meant-130130">How the term 'Anthropocene' jumped from geoscience to hashtags – before most of us knew what it meant</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>New advances in archaeological science techniques, combined with systematic archaeological analyses, are increasingly allowing us to disentangle natural from human-made drivers of events. Such work often reveals <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-18603-4">far earlier human impacts than once envisioned</a>, shedding light on the early roots of Earth’s current geological epoch: the Anthropocene, in which human activity is a key force reshaping the planet. </p>
<h2>Human-made soil</h2>
<p>Our work records snapshots of the evolution of a natural coastal system at the fringes of an early settlement. </p>
<p>River sediments were covered by beach sands containing increasing amounts of human waste accumulating from the mid-seventh century AD. This backshore activity area was used for small-scale subsistence activities (including processing shells for meat), trade, and the dumping of industrial waste. </p>
<p>Earlier urban development shaped Unguja Ukuu’s soils over the long term and through periods of settlement decline and abandonment from the twelfth century AD onwards. A dark earth “anthrosol” (human-made soil) continues to evolve on these archaeological deposits today, supporting cultivation in and around the modern town. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/soil-its-what-keeps-us-clothed-and-fed-146">Soil: it's what keeps us clothed and fed</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Dark human-made soils such as these, formed by rapid decay of organic- and phosphate-rich waste from the settlement, may be used as markers for as-yet undiscovered archaeological sites on the eastern African coast. Their distinctive dark colour renders the soils easily identifiable on satellite images and other remote-sensing datasets.</p>
<h2>Understanding the past to shape the future</h2>
<p>Our study clearly shows how human modification of natural environments affected coastal landscapes on an East African island more than 1,000 years ago. These findings are a reminder that humans have been changing our environment for thousands of years - sometimes for the better, and sometimes for the worse. </p>
<p>Studying history and archaeology is not simply about learning from our ancestors’ mistakes so that we don’t repeat them. It is also about ensuring that scientifically rigorous data that show how human activity in the past often altered the landscapes and environments in which people lived is effectively communicated, to both governments and the public. </p>
<p>If we can do this we might be able to make better informed sustainable choices for the future of our planet.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/176035/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anna M. Kotarba-Morley receives funding from the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alison Crowther receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mike W Morley receives funding from the Australian Research Council (ARC). </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nicole Boivin received funding for this research from the European Research Council.</span></em></p>Human waste created the landscape for a medieval Indian Ocean trading port and may eventually have led to its demise.Anna M. Kotarba-Morley, Senior Lecturer in Archaeology, Flinders UniversityAlison Crowther, Senior Lecture in Archaeology, The University of QueenslandMike W. Morley, Associate Professor, Flinders UniversityNicole Boivin, Director, Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute of GeoanthropologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1762262022-02-24T13:53:06Z2022-02-24T13:53:06ZPlastic pollution is a global problem – here’s how to design an effective treaty to curb it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/447907/original/file-20220222-17-5zchyn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=14%2C29%2C4905%2C3245&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Plastic trash floating on the Buriganga river in Dhaka, Bangladesh,
Jan. 21, 2020</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/man-paddles-on-a-boat-as-plastic-bags-float-on-the-water-news-photo/1195130532">Munir Uz Zaman/AFP via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Plastic pollution is accumulating worldwide, on land and in the oceans. According to one widely cited estimate, by 2025, 100 million to 250 million metric tons of plastic waste could <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1260352">enter the ocean each year</a>. Another study commissioned by the World Economic Forum projects that without changes to current practices, there may be <a href="https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_The_New_Plastics_Economy.pdf">more plastic by weight than fish in the ocean by 2050</a>. </p>
<p>On March 2, 2022, representatives from 175 nations around the world took a historic step toward ending that pollution. The <a href="https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/press-release/historic-day-campaign-beat-plastic-pollution-nations-commit-develop">United Nations Environment Assembly voted</a> to task a committee with forging a legally binding global treaty on plastic pollution by 2024. U.N. Environment Program Executive Director Inger Andersen described it as “an insurance policy for this generation and future ones, so they may live with plastic and not be doomed by it.” </p>
<p>I am a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=nvnsqIoAAAAJ&hl=en">legal scholar</a> and have studied questions related to food, animal welfare and environmental law. My forthcoming book, “<a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/our-plastic-problem-and-how-to-solve-it/CAD4AF039D41B2CD6B66BF3B8DF57BF0">Our Plastic Problem and How to Solve It</a>,” explores legislation and policies to address this global “<a href="https://theconversation.com/were-failing-to-solve-the-worlds-wicked-problems-heres-a-better-approach-64949">wicked problem</a>.” </p>
<p>I believe plastic pollution requires a local, national and global response. While acting together on a world scale will be challenging, lessons from some other environmental treaties suggest features that can improve an agreement’s chances of success. </p>
<h2>A pervasive problem</h2>
<p>Scientists have discovered plastic in some of the most remote parts of the globe, from <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2022.112741">polar ice</a> to <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/in-depth/tech/science/2018/09/06/see-how-great-pacific-garbage-patch-feeds-off-our-throwaway-culture/1133734002/">Texas-sized gyres</a> in the middle of the ocean. Plastic can enter the environment from a myriad of sources, ranging from <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.3408">laundry wastewater</a> to illegal dumping, waste incineration and accidental spills. </p>
<p>Plastic never completely degrades. Instead, it breaks down into tiny particles and fibers that are easily ingested by <a href="https://theconversation.com/hundreds-of-fish-species-including-many-that-humans-eat-are-consuming-plastic-154634">fish</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/all-you-can-eat-landfill-buffet-spells-trouble-for-birds-92562">birds</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14020">land animals</a>. Larger plastic pieces can transport <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2021.629756">invasive species</a> and accumulate in freshwater and coastal environments, altering ecosystem functions. </p>
<p>A 2021 report by the <a href="https://www.nap.edu/read/26132/chapter/2">National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine</a> on ocean plastic pollution concluded that “[w]ithout modifications to current practices … plastics will continue to accumulate in the environment, particularly the ocean, with adverse consequences for ecosystems and society.”</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/447910/original/file-20220222-13-jy397x.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Infographic on quantities of plastic waste" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/447910/original/file-20220222-13-jy397x.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/447910/original/file-20220222-13-jy397x.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=826&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447910/original/file-20220222-13-jy397x.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=826&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447910/original/file-20220222-13-jy397x.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=826&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447910/original/file-20220222-13-jy397x.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1038&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447910/original/file-20220222-13-jy397x.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1038&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447910/original/file-20220222-13-jy397x.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1038&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Plastic pollution by the numbers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://ocean.si.edu/conservation/pollution/plastic-pollution-infographic">University of Georgia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>National policies are not enough</h2>
<p>To address this problem, the U.S. has focused on <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-solutions/2021/11/15/epa-national-recycling-strategy-plastics/">waste management and recycling</a> rather than regulating plastic producers and businesses that use plastic in their products. Failing to address the sources means that policies have limited impact. That’s especially true since the U.S. generates 37.5 million tons of plastic yearly, but <a href="https://www.epa.gov/facts-and-figures-about-materials-waste-and-recycling/plastics-material-specific-data">only recycles about 9% of it</a>. </p>
<p>Some countries, such as France and Kenya, have <a href="https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/plastic-bans-around-the-world/">banned single-use plastics</a>. Others, like Germany, have mandated <a href="https://www.dw.com/en/how-does-germanys-bottle-deposit-scheme-work/a-50923039">plastic bottle deposit schemes</a>. Canada has <a href="https://mcmillan.ca/insights/plan-for-the-banplastics-classified-as-toxic-substanceunder-canadian-environmental-protection-act/">classified manufactured plastic items as toxic</a>, which gives its national government broad power to regulate them. </p>
<p>In my view, however, these efforts too will fall short if countries producing and using the most plastic do not adopt policies across its life cycle.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1483400377064210434"}"></div></p>
<h2>Growing consensus</h2>
<p>Plastic pollution crosses boundaries, so countries need to work together to curb it. But existing treaties such as the 1989 <a href="http://www.basel.int/TheConvention/Overview/tabid/1271/Default.aspx">Basel Convention</a>, which governs international shipment of hazardous wastes, and the 1982 <a href="https://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/convention_overview_convention.htm">U.N. Convention on the Law of the Sea</a> offer little leverage, for several reasons. </p>
<p>First, these treaties were not designed specifically to address plastic. Second, the largest plastic polluters – <a href="https://grist.org/climate/ocean-plastic-which-countries-are-responsible/">notably, the U.S.</a> – have not joined these agreements. Alternative international approaches such as the <a href="https://www.iucn.org/news/marine-and-polar/201905/iucn-endorses-global-oceans-plastics-charter">Ocean Plastics Charter</a>, which encourages governments and global and regional businesses to design plastic products for reuse and recycling, are voluntary and nonbinding. </p>
<p>Fortunately, many world and business leaders now support a uniform, standardized and coordinated global approach to managing and eliminating plastic waste in the form of a treaty. </p>
<p>The American Chemistry Council, an industry trade group, <a href="https://www.americanchemistry.com/chemistry-in-america/news-trends/press-release/2021/plastic-makers-support-global-agreement-to-eliminate-plastic-waste-welcome-us-leadership">supports an agreement</a> that will accelerate a transition to a more <a href="https://www.weforum.org/topics/circular-economy">circular economy</a> that promotes waste reduction and reuse by focusing on waste collection, product design and recycling technology. <a href="https://www.plasticmakers.org/files/f844022f219e9f85633604e9d4fb6c1b2dcd2e35.pdf">America’s Plastic Makers</a> and the <a href="https://icca-chem.org/focus/plastics/plastic-makers-call-for-global-agreement-among-nations-to-eliminate-plastic-waste/">International Council of Chemical Associations</a> have also made public statements supporting a global agreement to establish “a targeted goal to ensure access to proper waste management and eliminate leakage of plastic into the ocean.” </p>
<p>However, these organizations maintain that plastic products can help reduce energy use and greenhouse gas emissions – for example, by enabling automakers to build lighter cars – and are likely to oppose an agreement that limits plastic production. As I see it, this makes leadership and action by governments critical. </p>
<p>The Biden administration also has <a href="https://www.eenews.net/articles/u-s-to-back-global-treaty-aimed-at-curbing-plastic-pollution/">stated its support for a treaty</a> and is sending Secretary of State Antony Blinken to the Nairobi meeting. On Feb. 11, 2022, the White House released a <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2022/02/11/joint-statement-between-the-united-states-and-france-on-the-one-ocean-summit-in-france/">joint statement</a> with France that expressed support for negotiating “a global agreement to address the full life cycle of plastics and promote a circular economy.”</p>
<p><a href="https://eia-international.org/wp-content/uploads/EIA-Report-Analysis-2021-Comparison_Resolutions_Plastic_UNEA-5.2.pdf">Early treaty drafts</a> outline two competing approaches. One seeks to reduce plastic throughout its life cycle, from production to disposal, a strategy that would probably include methods such as banning or phasing out single-use plastic products. </p>
<p>A contrasting approach focuses on eliminating plastic waste through innovation and design – for example, by spending more on waste collection, recycling and development of <a href="https://theconversation.com/bio-based-plastics-can-reduce-waste-but-only-if-we-invest-in-both-making-and-getting-rid-of-them-98282">environmentally benign plastics</a>. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/X4uefUtvLpc?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Some harmful impacts of plastic waste become more intense as the plastic breaks down into smaller and smaller fragments.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Elements of an effective treaty</h2>
<p>Countries have come together to solve environmental problems before. The global community has successfully addressed <a href="https://www.state.gov/key-topics-office-of-environmental-quality-and-transboundary-issues/convention-on-long-range-transboundary-air-pollution/">acid rain</a>, <a href="https://www.state.gov/key-topics-office-of-environmental-quality-and-transboundary-issues/the-montreal-protocol-on-substances-that-deplete-the-ozone-layer/">stratospheric ozone depletion</a> and <a href="https://www.epa.gov/international-cooperation/minamata-convention-mercury">mercury contamination</a> through international treaties. These agreements, which include the U.S., offer strategies for a plastics treaty.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1086/676037">The Montreal Protocol</a>, for example, required countries to report their production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances so that countries could hold each other accountable. As part of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-019-01244-4">the Convention on Long-range Air Pollution</a>, countries agreed to reduce sulfur dioxide emissions, but were allowed to select the method that worked best for them. For the U.S., that involved a system of buying and selling emission allowances that became part of the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/emissions-trading-resources/reducing-power-sector-emissions-under-1990-clean-air-act-amendments">Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990</a>.</p>
<p>Based on these precedents, I see plastic as a good candidate for an international treaty. Like ozone, sulfur and mercury, plastic comes from specific, identifiable human activities that occur across the globe. Many countries contribute, so the problem is transboundary in nature. </p>
<p>In addition to providing a framework for keeping plastic out of the ocean, I believe a plastic pollution treaty should include reduction targets for both producing less plastic and generating less waste that are specific, measurable and achievable. The treaty should be binding but flexible, allowing countries to meet these targets as they choose. </p>
<p>In my view, negotiations should consider the interests of those who experience the <a href="https://theconversation.com/plastic-waste-is-hurting-women-in-developing-countries-but-there-are-ways-to-stop-it-166596">disproportionate impacts</a> of plastic, as well as those who make a living off recycling waste as part of the <a href="https://www.wiego.org/sites/default/files/resources/files/WIEGO_Urban_Informal_Workers_Green_Economy.pdf">informal economy</a>. Finally, an international treaty should promote collaboration and sharing of data, resources and best practices. </p>
<p>Since plastic pollution doesn’t stay in one place, all nations will benefit from finding ways to curb it. </p>
<p><em>This article was updated March 2, 2022, with the international vote to write a plastics treaty.</em></p>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sarah J. Morath does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Representatives of 175 countries voted to start developing a global treaty to reduce plastic waste. Treaties addressing mercury, long-range air pollution and ozone depletion offer some lessons.Sarah J. Morath, Associate Professor, Wake Forest UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1738252022-01-12T13:37:49Z2022-01-12T13:37:49ZWhat is wishcycling? Two waste experts explain<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440348/original/file-20220111-13-xbfbme.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=45%2C36%2C6031%2C4008&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">When in doubt, throw it out – but not in the recycling bin. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/red-recycling-bins-overflowing-with-rubbish-on-the-royalty-free-image/1347945400">Basak Gurbuz Derman/Moment via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Wishcycling is putting something in the recycling bin and hoping it will be recycled, even if there is little evidence to confirm this assumption.</p>
<p>Hope is central to wishcycling. People may not be sure the system works, but they choose to believe that if they recycle an object, it will become a new product rather than being buried in a landfill, burned or dumped. </p>
<p>The U.S. recycling industry was launched in the 1970s in response to <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/how-1970s-created-recycling-we-know-it-180967179/">public concern over litter and waste</a>. The growth of recycling and collection programs changed consumers’ view of waste: It didn’t seem entirely bad if it could lead to the creation of new products via recycling.</p>
<p>Pro-recycling messaging from <a href="https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/recycling-reconsidered">governments, corporations and environmentalists</a> promoted and reinforced recycling behavior. This was especially true for plastics that had <a href="https://ourworldindata.org/faq-on-plastics#are-all-types-of-plastic-equally-easy-to-recycle">resin identification codes</a> inside a triangle of “chasing arrows,” indicating that the item was recyclable – even though that was usually far from the truth. In fact, only resins #1 (polyethylene terephthalate, or PET) and #2 (high-density polyethylene, or HDPE) are relatively easy to recycle and have viable markets. The others are hard to recycle, so <a href="https://www.wastedive.com/news/what-chinese-import-policies-mean-for-all-50-states/510751/">some jurisdictions don’t even collect them</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440296/original/file-20220111-25-blofkk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="ID codes for 7 major categories of plastic resin surrounded by 'chasing arrow' triangles" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440296/original/file-20220111-25-blofkk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440296/original/file-20220111-25-blofkk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=371&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440296/original/file-20220111-25-blofkk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=371&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440296/original/file-20220111-25-blofkk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=371&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440296/original/file-20220111-25-blofkk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440296/original/file-20220111-25-blofkk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440296/original/file-20220111-25-blofkk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The plastics industry developed codes in 1988 to identify categories of plastic resins that products were made from. Surrounding them with ‘chasing arrows’ wrongly suggested that they all were recyclable, when in fact many communities only processed the more common types. In 2013, the graphic was changed to a solid triangle.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/illustration/recycle-icons-with-numbers-and-letter-royalty-free-illustration/1306691434">iStock via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Wishcycling <a href="https://discardstudies.com/2021/02/15/on-wishcycling/">entered public consciousness</a> in 2018 when China launched <a href="https://theconversation.com/will-chinas-crackdown-on-foreign-garbage-force-wealthy-countries-to-recycle-more-of-their-own-waste-81440">Operation National Sword</a>, a sweeping set of restrictions on imports of most waste materials from abroad. Over the preceding 20 years, China had purchased millions of tons of scrap metal, paper and plastic from wealthy nations for recycling, giving those countries an <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-plastic-waste-crisis-is-an-opportunity-for-the-us-to-get-serious-about-recycling-at-home-93254">easy and cheap option for managing waste materials</a>.</p>
<p>The China scrap restrictions created enormous waste backups in the U.S., where governments had under-invested in recycling systems. Consumers saw that recycling was <a href="https://theconversation.com/as-more-developing-countries-reject-plastic-waste-exports-wealthy-nations-seek-solutions-at-home-117163">not as reliable or environmentally friendly</a> as previously believed. </p>
<p>An <a href="https://discardstudies.com/2021/02/15/on-wishcycling/">unlikely coalition of actors in the recycling sector</a> coined the term “wishcycling” in an effort to educate the public about effective recycling. As they emphasize, wishcycling can be harmful.</p>
<p>Contaminating the waste stream with material that is not actually recyclable makes the sorting process more costly because it requires extra labor. Wishcycling also <a href="https://www.wastedive.com/news/plastic-bags-covid-19-coronavirus-reusable-ban-suspension-california-massachusetts/579019/">damages sorting systems and equipment</a> and depresses an already fragile trading market.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440292/original/file-20220111-18741-1jq2rve.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Graphic from Asheville, N.C. showing items not to recycle" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440292/original/file-20220111-18741-1jq2rve.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440292/original/file-20220111-18741-1jq2rve.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440292/original/file-20220111-18741-1jq2rve.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440292/original/file-20220111-18741-1jq2rve.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440292/original/file-20220111-18741-1jq2rve.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440292/original/file-20220111-18741-1jq2rve.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440292/original/file-20220111-18741-1jq2rve.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Many communities are trying to educate consumers about what not to recycle.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.ashevillenc.gov/service/what-can-i-recycle/">City of Asheville, N.C.</a></span>
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<p><a href="https://mediaroom.wm.com/the-dangers-of-wishcycling/">Huge waste management companies</a> and <a href="https://sustainablecorvallis.org/action-teams/waste-prevention/recycling-block-captain-program/mobile-wishcycling/">small cities and towns</a> have launched educational campaigns on this issue. Their mantra is “<a href="https://penguinrandomhousehighereducation.com/book/?isbn=9780143135678">When in doubt, throw it out</a>.” In other words, only place material that truly can be recycled in your bin. This message is hard for many environmentalists to hear, but it cuts costs for recyclers and local governments. </p>
<p>[<em>Over 140,000 readers rely on The Conversation’s newsletters to understand the world.</em> <a href="https://memberservices.theconversation.com/newsletters/?source=inline-140ksignup">Sign up today</a>.]</p>
<p>We also believe it’s important to understand that the global waste crisis wasn’t created by consumers who failed to wash mayonnaise jars or separate out plastic bags. <a href="https://politybooks.com/bookdetail/?isbn=9780745687391">The biggest drivers are global</a>. They include capitalistic reliance on consumption, strong international waste trade incentives, a lack of standardized recycling policies and the devaluation of used resources. To make further progress, governments and businesses will have to think more about <a href="https://ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/topics/circular-economy-introduction/overview">designing products with disposal and reuse in mind</a>, <a href="https://www.breakfreefromplastic.org/">reducing consumption of single-use products</a> and making massive <a href="https://www.wastedive.com/news/biden-infrastructure-investment-jobs-act-recycling/609882/">investments in recycling infrastructure</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/173825/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Tossing something into your recycling bin that can’t be processed does more harm than good.Jessica Heiges, PhD Candidate in Environmental Science, Policy, and Management, University of California, BerkeleyKate O'Neill, Professor of Global Environmental Politics, University of California, BerkeleyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1649972021-11-21T18:55:52Z2021-11-21T18:55:52ZHow to make roads with recycled waste, and pave the way to a circular economy<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421245/original/file-20210915-19-1xgm0yi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C323%2C1982%2C997&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Main Roads Western Australia</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>It cost <a href="https://www.buildingfortomorrow.wa.gov.au/projects/russell-road-to-roe-highway/">A$49 million</a> to add 12.5 kilometres of extra lanes to Western Australia’s Kwinana Highway, south of Perth’s CBD. That’s not unusual. On average, building a single lane of road costs about <a href="https://www.bitre.gov.au/sites/default/files/rr148.pdf">A$5 million per kilometre</a>. </p>
<p>What is unusual about this stretch of extra freeway is not the money but the materials beneath the bitumen: two stabilising layers comprised of <a href="https://www.wasteauthority.wa.gov.au/images/resources/files/2021/06/RtR_Pilot_Report.pdf.pdf">25,000 tonnes of crushed recycled concrete</a>, about 90% of which came from the demolition of Subiaco Oval (once Perth’s premier football ground).</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/jiFwKw3NTkk?wmode=transparent&start=75" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
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<p>Recycling building and construction materials remains the exception to the rule in Australia. The<a href="https://www.awe.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/national-waste-policy-action-plan-2019.pdf"> National Waste Policy</a> agreed to by federal, state and territory governments has a target of 80% resource recovery by 2030. It’s currently <a href="https://www.awe.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/sustainable-procurement-guide.pdf">about 40%</a>.</p>
<p>Of the 74 million tonnes of waste <a href="https://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/pages/5a160ae2-d3a9-480e-9344-4eac42ef9001/files/national-waste-report-2020.pdf">generated in Australia in 2020</a>, masonry materials comprised about 22.9 million tonnes. Plastics, by comparison, comprised about 2.5 million tonnes. Of the 61.5 million tonnes of “core waste” managed by the waste and resource recovery sector, 44% (27 million tonnes) came from the construction and demolition sector, compared with 20% (12.6 million tonnes) from households and local government activities. </p>
<p>Most of this waste – concrete, brick, steel, timber, asphalt and plasterboard or cement sheeting – could be reused or recycled. It ends up in landfill due to simple economics. It’s cheaper to buy new materials and throw them away rather than reuse and recycle.</p>
<p>Changing this equation and moving to a circular economy, in which materials are reused and recycled rather than discarded in landfill, is a key goal to reduce the impact of building and construction on the environment, including its contribution to climate change. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-third-of-our-waste-comes-from-buildings-this-ones-designed-for-reuse-and-cuts-emissions-by-88-147455">A third of our waste comes from buildings. This one's designed for reuse and cuts emissions by 88%</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>The economics of ‘externalities’</h2>
<p>The fact it is more “economic” to throw materials away than reuse them is what economists call a market failure, driven by the problem of “externalities”. That is, the social and environmental costs of producing, consuming and throwing away materials is not reflected in the prices charged. Those costs are instead externalised – borne by others.</p>
<p>In such cases there is a legitimate – and necessary – role for governments to intervene and correct the market failure. For an externality such as carbon emissions (imposing costs on future generations) the market-based solution favoured by most economists is a carbon price.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/cop26-cities-create-over-70-of-energy-related-emissions-heres-what-must-change-171307">COP26: cities create over 70% of energy-related emissions. Here's what must change</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>For construction material waste, governments have a few more policy levers to help create a viable market for more recycling. </p>
<h2>Using procurement policies</h2>
<p>One way to make recycling more attractive to businesses would be to increase the cost of sending waste materials to landfill. But this would likely have unintended consequences, such as illegal dumping. </p>
<p>The more obvious and effective approach is to help create more demand for recycled materials through government procurement, adopting policies that require suppliers to, for example, use a minimum amount of recycled materials.</p>
<p>With enough demand, recyclers will invest in further waste recovery, reducing the costs. Lower costs in turn create the possibility of greater demand, creating a virtuous circle that leads to a circular economy.</p>
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<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432794/original/file-20211119-17-19fvngo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Diagram of the circular economy" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432794/original/file-20211119-17-19fvngo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432794/original/file-20211119-17-19fvngo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432794/original/file-20211119-17-19fvngo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432794/original/file-20211119-17-19fvngo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432794/original/file-20211119-17-19fvngo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432794/original/file-20211119-17-19fvngo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432794/original/file-20211119-17-19fvngo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.awe.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/sustainable-procurement-guide.pdf">Australian Government, Sustainable Procurement Guide: A practical guide for Commonwealth entities, 2021</a></span>
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<hr>
<p>Australia’s federal, state and territory governments all have sustainable procurement policies. The federal <a href="https://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/856a1de0-4856-4408-a863-6ad5f6942887/files/sustainable-procurement-guide.pdf">Sustainable Procurement Guide</a> states the Australian government “is committed to transforming Australia’s waste into a resource, where most goods and services can be continually used, reused, recycled and reprocessed as part of a circular economy”.</p>
<p>But these policies lack some basic elements.</p>
<h2>Three key market-making reforms</h2>
<p>Our research suggests three important reforms could make a big difference to waste market operations. This is based on interviewing 27 stakeholders from the private sector and government about how to improve sustainable procurement. </p>
<p>First, government waste policies that set aspirational goals are not supported by procurement policies setting mandatory minimum recycled content targets. All contractors on government-funded construction projects should be required to use a percentage of recycled waste materials. </p>
<p>Second, the nature of salvaging construction materials means quality can vary significantly. Cement recycled from a demolition site, for example, could contain contaminants that reduce its durability.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-needs-construction-waste-recycling-plants-but-locals-first-need-to-be-won-over-161888">Australia needs construction waste recycling plants — but locals first need to be won over</a>
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</p>
<hr>
<p>Governments can help the market through regularly auditing the quality of recycler’s processes, to increase buyer confidence and motivate suppliers to invest in production technologies.</p>
<p>Third, in some states (such as Western Australia) the testing regimes for recycled construction products are more complex than that what applies to raw materials.
More reasonable specifications would reduce compliance costs and thereby the cost of using recycled materials.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/164997/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Salman Shooshtarian receives funding from Australia Sustainable Built Environment National Research Centre</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Savindi Caldera receives relevant funding from Sustainable Built Environment National Research Centre, Australia.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tayyab Maqsood receives funding from Sustainable Built Environment National Research Centre. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span><a href="mailto:t.ryley@griffith.edu.au">t.ryley@griffith.edu.au</a> receives funding from SBEnrc (Sustainable Built Environment National Research Centre) associated with this article.</span></em></p>Government procurement policies are the key to reducing Australia’s mountain of construction waste.Salman Shooshtarian, Lecturer, School of Property, Construction and Project Management, RMIT UniversitySavindi Caldera, Research Fellow and Project Development Manager, Cities Research Institute, Griffith UniversityTayyab Maqsood, Associate Dean and Head of of Project Management, RMIT UniversityTim Ryley, Professor and Head of Griffith Aviation, Griffith UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1655172021-09-08T12:26:24Z2021-09-08T12:26:24ZPackaging generates a lot of waste – now Maine and Oregon want manufacturers to foot the bill for getting rid of it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/418974/original/file-20210901-17-1riez50.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=46%2C0%2C5184%2C3406&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Packaging for consumer products represents a large share of U.S. solid waste, and barely half of it is recycled. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/garbage-bag-with-different-trash-on-wooden-royalty-free-image/1044377978">iStock via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Most consumers don’t pay much attention to the packaging that their purchases come in, unless it’s <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XwCKftT4ZhY">hard to open</a> or the item is <a href="https://twitter.com/helepoleo/status/785209312708730880">really over-wrapped</a>. But packaging accounts for <a href="https://www.epa.gov/facts-and-figures-about-materials-waste-and-recycling/containers-and-packaging-product-specific-data">about 28% of U.S. municipal solid waste</a>. Only some 53% of it ends up in recycling bins, and even less is actually recycled: According to trade associations, at least 25% of materials collected for recycling in the U.S. are <a href="https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/the-era-of-easy-recycling-may-be-coming-to-an-end/">rejected and incinerated or sent to landfills instead</a>. </p>
<p>Local governments across the U.S. handle waste management, funding it through taxes and user fees. Until 2018 the U.S. exported huge quantities of recyclable materials, primarily to China. Then China banned most foreign scrap imports. Other recipient countries like Vietnam followed suit, triggering <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-plastic-waste-crisis-is-an-opportunity-for-the-us-to-get-serious-about-recycling-at-home-93254">waste disposal crises in wealthy nations</a>. </p>
<p>Some U.S. states have laws that make manufacturers responsible for particularly hard-to-manage products, such as <a href="https://www.ncsl.org/research/environment-and-natural-resources/e-waste-recycling-legislation.aspx">electronic waste</a>, <a href="https://batterycouncil.org/page/State_Recycling_Laws">car batteries</a>, <a href="https://mattressrecyclingcouncil.org/programs/">mattresses</a> and <a href="https://archive.epa.gov/epawaste/conserve/materials/tires/web/html/live.html">tires</a>, when those goods reach the end of their useful lives.</p>
<p>Now, <a href="http://www.mainelegislature.org/legis/bills/getPDF.asp?paper=HP1146&item=1&snum=130">Maine</a> and <a href="https://olis.oregonlegislature.gov/liz/2021R1/Downloads/MeasureDocument/SB582">Oregon</a> have enacted the first state laws making companies that create consumer packaging, such as cardboard cartons, plastic wrap and food containers, responsible for the recycling and disposal of those products, too. <a href="https://www.maine.gov/dep/waste/recycle/epr.html">Maine’s law</a> takes effect in mid-2024, and <a href="https://www.wastedive.com/news/oregon-epr-packaging-truth-in-labeling-living-wage/602640/">Oregon’s follows</a> in mid-2025.</p>
<p>These measures shift waste management costs from customers and local municipalities to producers. As researchers who study <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=YY6NEBQAAAAJ&hl=en">waste</a> and <a href="https://ourenvironment.berkeley.edu/users/1563327">ways to reduce it</a>, we are excited to see states moving to engage stakeholders, shift responsibility, spur innovation and challenge existing extractive practices.</p>
<p><iframe id="0zkCS" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/0zkCS/3/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>Holding producers accountable</h2>
<p>The Maine and Oregon laws are the latest applications of a concept called extended producer responsibility, or EPR. <a href="https://ilsr.org/the-concepts-of-extended-producer-responsibility-and-product-stewardship/">Swedish academic Thomas Lindhqvist</a> framed this idea in 1990 as a strategy to decrease products’ environmental impacts by making manufacturers responsible for the goods’ entire life cycles – especially for takeback, recycling and final disposal. </p>
<p>Producers don’t always literally take back their goods under EPR schemes. Instead, they often make payments to an intermediary organization or agency, which uses the money to help cover the products’ recycling and disposal costs. Making producers cover these costs is intended to give them an incentive to redesign their products to be less wasteful.</p>
<p>The idea of extended producer responsibility has driven regulations governing management of electronic waste, such as old computers, televisions and cellphones, in the European Union, China and <a href="https://www.ecycleclearinghouse.org/contentpage.aspx?pageid=10">25 U.S. states</a>. Similar measures have been adopted or proposed in nations including <a href="https://nicholasinstitute.duke.edu/sites/default/files/plastics-policies/8035_N_National_Sustainable_Waste_Management.pdf">Kenya</a>, <a href="https://www.nesrea.gov.ng/extended-producer-responsibility/">Nigeria</a>, <a href="https://leyrep.carey.cl/en/what-is-the-epr-law/">Chile</a>, <a href="http://circulodepoliticasambientales.org/assets/pdf/LEY%20REP.pdf">Argentina</a> and <a href="https://www.environment.gov.za/mediarelease/creecy_extendedproducerresponsibility_g44078gon20">South Africa</a>. </p>
<p>Scrap export bans in China and other countries have given new energy to EPR campaigns. <a href="https://www.breakfreefromplastic.org/about/#meet-the-members">Activist organizations</a> and even some <a href="https://ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/news/100-leading-businesses-call-for-epr-for-packaging">corporations</a> are now calling for producers to become accountable for more types of waste, including <a href="https://www.productstewardship.us/page/Packaging">consumer packaging</a>.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/XfE9th-Sbow?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Packaging helps sell consumer products, and consumers are starting to demand more sustainable containers.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What the state laws require</h2>
<p>The Maine and Oregon laws define consumer packaging as material likely found in the average resident’s waste bin, such as containers for food and home or personal care products. They exclude packaging intended for long-term storage (over five years), beverage containers, paint cans and packaging for drugs and medical devices. </p>
<p>Maine’s law incorporates some core EPR principles, such as setting a target recycling goal and giving producers an incentive to use more sustainable packaging. Oregon’s law includes more groundbreaking components. It promotes the idea of a <a href="https://www.repair.org/stand-up">right to repair</a>, which gives consumers access to information that they need to fix products they purchase. And it creates a “<a href="https://www.wastedive.com/news/oregon-epr-packaging-truth-in-labeling-living-wage/602640/">Truth in Labeling” task force</a> to assess whether producers are making misleading claims about how recyclable their products are.</p>
<p>The Oregon law also <a href="https://www.biocycle.net/oregon-second-state-to-pass-packaging-epr-law/">requires a study</a> to assess how bio-based plastics can affect compost waste streams, and it establishes a <a href="https://www.oregon.gov/deq/recycling/Documents/RSC-ProposalFactSheet.pdf">statewide collection list</a> to harmonize what types of materials can be recycled across the state. Studies show that contamination from poor sorting is one of the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2019.11.020">main reasons why recyclables often are rejected</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/418979/original/file-20210901-25-4a4qmg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Infographic on paint recycling in California." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/418979/original/file-20210901-25-4a4qmg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/418979/original/file-20210901-25-4a4qmg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=776&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/418979/original/file-20210901-25-4a4qmg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=776&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/418979/original/file-20210901-25-4a4qmg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=776&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/418979/original/file-20210901-25-4a4qmg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=976&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/418979/original/file-20210901-25-4a4qmg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=976&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/418979/original/file-20210901-25-4a4qmg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=976&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">California paint recycling data from PaintCare, a nonprofit stewardship organization that runs paint recycling programs across the U.S.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.paintcare.org/california-official-docs/">PaintCare</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Some extended producer responsibility systems, such as those for paint and mattresses, are funded by consumers, who pay an added fee at the point of sale that is itemized on their receipt. The fee supports the products’ eventual recycling or disposal. </p>
<p>In contrast, the Maine and Oregon laws require producers to pay fees to the states, based on how much packaging material they sell in those states. Both laws also include rules designed to limit producers’ influence over how the states use these funds. </p>
<h2>Will these laws reduce waste?</h2>
<p>There’s no clear consensus yet on the effectiveness of EPR. In some cases it has produced results: For instance, Connecticut’s <a href="https://www.productstewardship.us/page/Mattresses">mattress recycling rate rose from 8.7% to 63.5%</a> after the state instituted a takeback law funded by fees paid at the point of sale. On a national scale, the Product Stewardship Institute estimates that since 2007 U.S. paint EPR programs have reused and recycled almost 24 million gallons of paint, created 200 jobs and <a href="https://www.productstewardship.us/page/Paint">saved governments and taxpayers over $240 million</a>.</p>
<p>Critics argue that these programs need <a href="http://wiki.ban.org/images/f/f4/Holes_in_the_Circular_Economy-_WEEE_Leakage_from_Europe.pdf">strong regulation and monitoring</a> to ensure that corporations take their responsibilities seriously – and especially to prevent them from passing costs on to consumers, which requires enforceable accountability measures. Observers also argue that producers can have <a href="https://youtu.be/-lIg0hfFBfU">too much influence within stewardship organizations</a>, which they warn may undermine enforcement or the credibility of the law.</p>
<p>Few studies have been done so far to assess the long-term effects of extended producer responsibility programs, and those that exist do not show conclusively whether these initiatives <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling3020016">actually lead to more sustainable products</a>. Maine and Oregon are small progressive states and <a href="https://www.thomasnet.com/articles/top-suppliers/packaging-companies-suppliers/">are not major centers for the packaging industry</a>, so the impact of their new laws remains to be seen.</p>
<p>However, these measures are promising models. As Martin Bourque, executive director of <a href="https://ecologycenter.org/recycling/about/">Berkeley’s Ecology Center</a> and an internationally known expert on plastics and recycling, told us, “Maine’s approach of charging brands and manufacturers to pay cities for recycling services is an improvement over programs that give all of the operational and material control to producers, where the fox is directly in charge of the hen house.”</p>
<p>We believe the Maine and Oregon laws could inspire jurisdictions like California that are <a href="https://www.wastedive.com/news/2021-state-extended-producer-responsibility-recycling/594873/">considering similar measures</a> or <a href="https://insideclimatenews.org/news/06092021/baltimore-zero-waste-incinerator-wheelaborator/">drowning under waste plastic</a> to adopt EPR themselves. Waste reduction efforts across the U.S. took hits from foreign scrap bans <a href="https://theconversation.com/covid-19-has-resurrected-single-use-plastics-are-they-back-to-stay-140328">and then from the COVID-19 pandemic</a>, which spurred greater use of disposable products and packaging. We see producer-pay schemes like the Maine and Oregon laws as a promising response that could help catalyze broader progress toward a less wasteful economy.</p>
<p>[<em>Understand new developments in science, health and technology, each week.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/science-editors-picks-71/?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=science-understand">Subscribe to The Conversation’s science newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/165517/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Maine and Oregon have enacted laws that require makers of consumer product packaging to pay for recycling or disposing of it. Will other states follow?Jessica Heiges, PhD Candidate in Environmental Science, Policy, and Management, University of California, BerkeleyKate O'Neill, Professor of Global Environmental Politics, University of California, BerkeleyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1618882021-06-17T20:06:31Z2021-06-17T20:06:31ZAustralia needs construction waste recycling plants — but locals first need to be won over<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/406658/original/file-20210616-23-2jcmc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C7976%2C5313&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/two-caucasian-engineers-standing-recycling-center-244844368">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Strong community opposition to a proposed waste facility in regional New South Wales <a href="https://www.northerndailyleader.com.au/story/7124661/community-voices-concern-over-proposed-gunnedah-waste-facility/">made</a> <a href="https://www.nvi.com.au/story/7132271/proposed-gunnedah-waste-facility-a-hot-topic-at-council-meeting/">headlines</a> earlier this year. The <a href="https://www.planningportal.nsw.gov.au/major-projects/project/38166">A$3.9 million facility</a> would occupy 2.7 hectares of Gunnedah’s industrial estate. It’s intended to process up to 250,000 tonnes a year of waste materials from Sydney. </p>
<p>Much of this is construction waste that can be used in road building after processing. Construction of the plant will employ 62 people and its operation will create 30 jobs. Yet every one of the <a href="https://www.planningportal.nsw.gov.au/major-projects/project/38166/submissions/12921/3446">86 public submissions</a> to the planning review objected to the project.</p>
<p>Residents raised various concerns, which received widespread local media coverage. They were concerned about water management, air quality, noise, the impact of hazardous waste, traffic and transport, fire safety and soil and water. For instance, a submission by a local businessman and veterinary surgeon <a href="https://www.northerndailyleader.com.au/story/7124661/community-voices-concern-over-proposed-gunnedah-waste-facility/">stated</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“The proposed facility is too close to town, residences and other businesses […] Gunnedah is growing and this proposed development will be uncomfortably close to town in years to come.”</p>
</blockquote>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/406611/original/file-20210616-2626-1e7f4ix.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Map showing location of the proposed waste recycling facility in Gunnedah" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/406611/original/file-20210616-2626-1e7f4ix.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/406611/original/file-20210616-2626-1e7f4ix.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=427&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406611/original/file-20210616-2626-1e7f4ix.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=427&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406611/original/file-20210616-2626-1e7f4ix.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=427&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406611/original/file-20210616-2626-1e7f4ix.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=537&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406611/original/file-20210616-2626-1e7f4ix.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=537&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406611/original/file-20210616-2626-1e7f4ix.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=537&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The location of the proposed waste recycling facility in Gunnedah.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Source: Google Maps (2021)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The general manager of the applicant <a href="https://www.northerndailyleader.com.au/story/7147110/asbestos-lithium-storage-taken-off-plans-for-project-after-concerns-raised/">said</a> descriptions such as “toxic waste dump” were far from accurate. </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“It’s not a dump […] Its prime focus is to reclaim, reuse and recycle.” </p>
</blockquote>
<p>He added: “[At present] the majority of this stuff goes to landfill. What we’re proposing is very beneficial to the environment, which is taking these resources and putting them back into recirculation. The reality is the population is growing, more waste is going to get generated and the upside is we’re much better processing and claiming out of it than sending it to landfill.”</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-create-20m-tons-of-construction-industry-waste-each-year-heres-how-to-stop-it-going-to-landfill-114602">We create 20m tons of construction industry waste each year. Here's how to stop it going to landfill</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Why are these facilities needed?</h2>
<p>According to the latest data in the <a href="https://www.environment.gov.au/protection/waste/national-waste-reports/2020">National Waste Report 2020</a>, Australia generated 27 million tonnes of waste (44% of all waste) from the construction and demolition (C&D) sector in 2018-19. That’s a 61% increase since 2006-07. This waste stream is the largest source of managed waste in Australia and 76% of it is recycled. </p>
<p>However, recycling rates and processing capacities still need to increase massively. The <a href="https://majorprojects.planningportal.nsw.gov.au/prweb/PRRestService/mp/01/getContent?AttachRef=SSD-8530563%2120201211T040030.838%20GMT">environmental impact statement</a> for the Gunnedah project notes Sydney “is already facing pressure” to dispose of its growing construction waste. Most state and national policies – including the <a href="https://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/-/media/epa/corporate-site/resources/wastestrategy/140876-warr-strategy-14-21.pdf">NSW Waste Avoidance and Resource Recovery Strategy 2014-2021</a>, <a href="https://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/your-environment/recycling-and-reuse/warr-strategy/waste-and-resource-recovery-infrastructure">NSW Waste and Resource Recovery Infrastructure Strategy</a> and <a href="https://www.environment.gov.au/protection/waste/publications/national-waste-policy-2018">2018 National Waste Policy</a> – highlight the need to develop infrastructure to effectively manage this waste.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-20th-century-saw-a-23-fold-increase-in-natural-resources-used-for-building-73057">The 20th century saw a 23-fold increase in natural resources used for building</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Why, then, do people oppose these facilities?</h2>
<p>Public opposition to new infrastructure in local neighbourhoods, the Not-in-My-Back-Yard (<a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07263869000033801">NIMBY</a>) attitude, is a global phenomenon. Australia is no exception. We have seen previous public <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-07-11/queensland-ipswich-residents-angry-waste-management-proposal/12443514">protests against waste facilities</a> being established in local areas.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.goldenlightpublish.com/dosyalar/baski/JCEMI_2019_113.pdf">academic literature</a> reports the root causes of this resistance are stench and other air pollution, and concerns about impacts on property values and health. Factors that influence individuals’ perceptions include education level, past experience of stench and proximity to housing.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Protesters march behind a sign reading 'We demand fair development'." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/406608/original/file-20210616-13-11j62lm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/406608/original/file-20210616-13-11j62lm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406608/original/file-20210616-13-11j62lm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406608/original/file-20210616-13-11j62lm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406608/original/file-20210616-13-11j62lm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406608/original/file-20210616-13-11j62lm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406608/original/file-20210616-13-11j62lm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Local communities around the world have protested against local waste management plants that they see as a threat to their health.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/unitedworkers/12119826803/in/photostream/">United Workers/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What are the other challenges of recycling?</h2>
<p>Our research team at RMIT University explore ways to effectively manage construction and demolition waste, with a focus on developing a circular economy. Our <a href="https://sbenrc.com.au/research-programs/1-75/">research</a> shows this goal depends heavily on the development of end markets for recycled products. Operators then have the confidence to invest in recycling construction and demolition waste, knowing it will produce a reasonable return. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-planned-national-waste-policy-wont-deliver-a-truly-circular-economy-103908">The planned national waste policy won't deliver a truly circular economy</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>A consistent supply of recycled material is needed too. We believe more recycling infrastructure needs to be developed all around Australia. Regional areas are the most suitable for this purpose because they have the space and a need for local job creation. </p>
<p>To achieve nationwide waste recycling, however, everyone must play their part. By everyone, we mean suppliers, waste producers, waste operators, governments and the community. </p>
<p>Today we are facing new challenges such as massive urbanisation, shortage of virgin materials, increasing greenhouse gas emissions and bans on the export of waste. These challenges warrant new solutions, which include sharing responsibility for the waste we all generate. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-crisis-too-big-to-waste-chinas-recycling-ban-calls-for-a-long-term-rethink-in-australia-95877">A crisis too big to waste: China's recycling ban calls for a long-term rethink in Australia</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1319021014920122376"}"></div></p>
<h2>What can be done to resolve public concerns?</h2>
<p>Government has a key role to play in educating the public about the many benefits of recycling construction and demolition waste. These benefits include environmental protection, more efficient resource use, reduced construction costs, and job creation. </p>
<p>Government must also ensure communities are adequately consulted. A local <a href="https://www.nvi.com.au/story/7132271/proposed-gunnedah-waste-facility-a-hot-topic-at-council-meeting/">news report</a> reflected Gunnedah residents’ concern that the recycling facility’s proponent had not contacted them. They initiated the contact. One local said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“I do understand the short-term financial gains a development like this will bring to the community, but also know the financial and environmental burden they will cause.” </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Feedback from residents triggered a series of consultation sessions involving all parties.</p>
<p>A robust framework for consulting the community, engaging stakeholders and providing information should be developed to accompany any such development. Community education programs should be based on research. </p>
<p>For instance, <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13762-021-03217-1">research</a> indicates that, unlike municipal waste recycling facilities, construction and demolition waste management facilities have negligible to manageable impact on the environment and residents’ health and well-being. This is due to the non-combustible nature of most construction materials, such as masonrt. </p>
<p>Such evidence needs to be communicated effectively to change negative community attitudes towards construction and demolition waste recycling facilities. At RMIT, through our <a href="https://www.cdwasteportal.com.au">National Construction & Demolition Waste Research and Industry Portal</a>, we continue to play our part in increasing public awareness of the benefits. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/with-the-right-tools-we-can-mine-cities-87672">With the right tools, we can mine cities</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/161888/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Salman Shooshtarian receives funding from Australia Sustainable Built Environment National Research Centre </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tayyab Maqsood is affiliated with SBEnrc and RMIT.</span></em></p>Construction and demolition creates more waste than any other sector, but much of it can be recycled. However, public resistance to setting up new plants stands in the way of a sustainable market.Salman Shooshtarian, Lecturer, School of Property, Construction and Project Management, RMIT UniversityTayyab Maqsood, Associate Dean and Head of of Project Management, RMIT UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1578402021-05-02T12:41:31Z2021-05-02T12:41:31ZFrom making wine to managing mine waste, clay is important for many industries<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397445/original/file-20210427-21-1jamobb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C9%2C3008%2C1985&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The unique properties of clays make them suitable for a wide variety of applications.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The discovery and use of clays dates back to <a href="https://ceramics.org/about/what-are-engineered-ceramics-and-glass/brief-history-of-ceramics-and-glass">30,000 years ago</a>, making clays one of the oldest materials used in society. Clays are naturally occurring materials that were first used to make pottery and are now used abundantly in the manufacturing of goods, including ceramics, cosmetics and building materials. Clays also play <a href="http://doi.org/10.1007/s00706-019-02454-y">an important role in the “terroir,” the features a wine develops based on where the grapes are grown</a>.</p>
<p>Clay has unique properties that are useful in industries ranging from manufacturing to construction. But these properties can also pose a challenge in managing mine waste.</p>
<p>Clays and clay minerals are tiny particles with a unique <a href="https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/ja/ja_barton002.pdf">plate-like structure less than two microns</a> in size (for comparison, the average thickness of a strand of human hair is about 70 microns). The small size of clay minerals and their distinct structure give them unique properties, and different types of clay minerals can exhibit diverse characteristics. </p>
<h2>Properties of clays</h2>
<p>There are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/24749508.2017.1361128">four main groups of clay mineral</a>: kaolinite, illite, vermiculite and smectite. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397447/original/file-20210427-19-1sscsbp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An illustration of the molecular structure of kaolinite clay" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397447/original/file-20210427-19-1sscsbp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397447/original/file-20210427-19-1sscsbp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397447/original/file-20210427-19-1sscsbp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397447/original/file-20210427-19-1sscsbp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397447/original/file-20210427-19-1sscsbp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=591&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397447/original/file-20210427-19-1sscsbp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=591&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397447/original/file-20210427-19-1sscsbp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=591&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Clay minerals are classified based on the arrangement of their molecules and layers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Smectite clays for example, have the greatest ability to swell, often expanding several times their initial volume. Bentonite clay, a smectite, can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2011.10.003">swell up to 18 times its initial volume</a> by taking water into its interlayer, the distance between two layers of clays. This property makes it useful as a spill absorbent, but also means that it is very difficult to remove water from clay in dewatering processes, as in the case of mine waste management.</p>
<p>In contrast, kaolin, or china clay, does not swell and has low permeability, making it preferable for <a href="https://doi.org/10.1179/1745823414Y.0000000008">producing porcelain</a> or <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-1317(91)90015-2">improving the printability of paper</a>. </p>
<p>Clays also develop plasticity when wet, giving them the ability to stretch without breaking or tearing — a critical property for pottery sculpting. The <a href="http://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.10554.70086">drying and firing processes</a> cause the water molecules to escape from between the clay sheets, and irreversibly changing the chemical structure of the clays, turning the piece into a hard and long-lasting pottery piece.</p>
<h2>Clay and wine</h2>
<p>Vineyard owners use their knowledge of clay content in the soil to help them make decisions about planting and irrigation so that they can improve the quality of the wine they produce. The soil composition in vineyards influences the drainage levels and the uptake of minerals and nutrients for the roots. Sandy soils are great for drainage, and clays, which have a net negative charge, help <a href="http://www.soilquality.org.au/factsheets/cation-exchange-capacity">retain positively charged nutrients including calcium, magnesium and potassium</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397755/original/file-20210429-17-1esa900.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Vineyards with red clay soil" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397755/original/file-20210429-17-1esa900.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397755/original/file-20210429-17-1esa900.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397755/original/file-20210429-17-1esa900.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397755/original/file-20210429-17-1esa900.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397755/original/file-20210429-17-1esa900.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397755/original/file-20210429-17-1esa900.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397755/original/file-20210429-17-1esa900.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The composition of the soil and clays that grapes are grown in can affect the taste of the wine. Vineyard owners can use this knowledge to produce specific notes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Clays also hold water quite well, which can be helpful in dry climates to keep the soil cooler and wetter. Certain vine varieties produce the best results in a particular soil type. For example, clay soils tend to produce <a href="https://sommelierschoiceawards.com/en/blog/insights-1/soil-types-that-matter-for-grape-growing-164.htm">bold and muscular red wines like sangiovese and merlot</a> and <a href="https://www.winc.com/blog/how-soil-type-affects-your-wine">white wines like chardonnay</a>.</p>
<h2>Clay in mine waste</h2>
<p>While clays can be valuable materials in certain industrial processes, they can also cause problems in mine waste management. For example, <a href="https://www.capp.ca/explore/tailings-ponds/">oilsands tailings</a> — produced from the surface mining of oilsands — consist of a mixture of water, sand, fine particles, clays and residual bitumen. </p>
<p>These tailings are stored in ponds, where the heavier sands settle quickly to the bottom and the fine particles and clays remain suspended. The water-loving nature of clays means that a lot of water is trapped in the tailings, making consolidation and subsequent reclamation very challenging. </p>
<p>As of 2018, there are <a href="https://static.aer.ca/prd/documents/oilsands/2018-State-Fluid-Tailings-Management-Mineable-OilSands.pdf">more than 1.2 trillion litres of fluid tailings</a> accumulated in these ponds in Alberta. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/398129/original/file-20210430-21-e9zkiv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Alternating stripes of bitumen, water, sand and grass at a mine's tailings pond" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/398129/original/file-20210430-21-e9zkiv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/398129/original/file-20210430-21-e9zkiv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/398129/original/file-20210430-21-e9zkiv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/398129/original/file-20210430-21-e9zkiv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/398129/original/file-20210430-21-e9zkiv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/398129/original/file-20210430-21-e9zkiv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/398129/original/file-20210430-21-e9zkiv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Bitumen, water, sand and grass at a mine’s tailings pond, where the fine particles and clays gradually settle. Oilsands tailings are waste materials produced from extracting bitumen from the Alberta oilsands.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This fluid tailings problem is not exclusive to oilsands as all forms of mining — such as copper, potash and diamond — produce tailings. As the <a href="https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2020/05/11/mineral-production-to-soar-as-demand-for-clean-energy-increases">global production of minerals and metals continue to rise</a>, so does the production of tailings. </p>
<p>Clay measurement methods will become increasingly important to monitor and optimize tailings management strategies.</p>
<h2>Treatment methods</h2>
<p>Many tailings treatment solutions modify clay properties to accelerate dewatering and consolidation, and so understanding the clays present is critical for any treatment methods to work. </p>
<p>Clays can be characterized based on <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/24749508.2017.1361128">particle size, mineral type, surface area, cation exchange capacity, plasticity and flow behaviour</a>. In a laboratory setting <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282662304_DEMYSTIFYING_THE_METHYLENE_BLUE_INDEX">used in the oilsands industry for decades</a>, methylene blue dye can help determine some of these important properties.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397161/original/file-20210426-21-1xn4rfz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397161/original/file-20210426-21-1xn4rfz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397161/original/file-20210426-21-1xn4rfz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397161/original/file-20210426-21-1xn4rfz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397161/original/file-20210426-21-1xn4rfz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397161/original/file-20210426-21-1xn4rfz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397161/original/file-20210426-21-1xn4rfz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397161/original/file-20210426-21-1xn4rfz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">NAIT researchers are integrating robotics, sensors and optical systems to automate the methylene blue index laboratory method.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Author provided)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Northern Alberta Institute of Technology and its partners are developing an <a href="https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/science-data/funding-partnerships/funding-opportunities/current-investments/development-line-active-clay-analyzer-canadian-mining-industry/22904">automated clay analyzer</a> based on the <a href="https://www.astm.org/Standards/C837.htm">methylene blue index method</a> that would make it possible for in-field clay measurement. This would optimize treatment processes, translating to cost savings and faster reclamation of the tailings ponds.</p>
<p>From helping to create reclaimable tailings to producing a bottle of quality wine, advances in clay measurement can bring many economic and environmental benefits.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/157840/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jason Ng receives funding from Natural Resources Canada's Clean Growth Program, Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) and the Institute for Oil Sands Innovation (IOSI).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrea Sedgwick receives funding from Natural Resources Canada"s Clean Growth Program, Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC), Alberta Innovates, Alberta Jobs, Economy and Innovation and the Institute for Oil Sands Innovation (IOSI).</span></em></p>Throughout human history, clay has played a role in many different industries. Its unique properties make it suited for a wide applications in widely ranging industries.Jason Ng, Research Associate, Oil Sands Sustainability, Northern Alberta Institute of TechnologyAndrea Sedgwick, Applied Research Chair, Oil Sands Sustainability, Northern Alberta Institute of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1518492021-02-26T03:34:12Z2021-02-26T03:34:12ZWhy collaboration in the ASEAN region is vital to tackle plastic waste in the oceans<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/385544/original/file-20210222-15-13obrcj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=46%2C0%2C5184%2C3437&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">ASEAN members could play a crucial role in reducing global marine plastic debris.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">ANTARA FOTO/Noveradika/hp/11</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>A <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/347/6223/768.abstract?ijkey=BXtBaPzbQgagE&keytype=ref&siteid=sci">2015 study</a> by US scientist Jenna Jambeck revealed six out of 11 Southeast Asian countries are among the top 20 countries to have mismanaged their plastic wastes. </p>
<p>Indonesia ranks second, followed by the Philippines (third), Vietnam (fourth), Thailand (sixth), Malaysia (eighth) and Myanmar (17th).</p>
<p>Their <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/347/6223/768.abstract?ijkey=BXtBaPzbQgagE&keytype=ref&siteid=sci">combined marine plastic pollution</a> accounted for 1.4-3.54 million metric tonnes (MT) per year, out of 8-12 million MT globally. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/385464/original/file-20210222-21-1657t8c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/385464/original/file-20210222-21-1657t8c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/385464/original/file-20210222-21-1657t8c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=355&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385464/original/file-20210222-21-1657t8c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=355&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385464/original/file-20210222-21-1657t8c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=355&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385464/original/file-20210222-21-1657t8c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385464/original/file-20210222-21-1657t8c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385464/original/file-20210222-21-1657t8c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Mismanaged plastic waste derived from nine ASEAN countries.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Located between the Pacific and Indian Oceans, the ASEAN countries need to manage not just their own plastic waste, but also waste from other sources, either neighbouring countries or the oceans.</p>
<p>Having said that, we call for a collaborative effort from the ASEAN countries to tackle global marine plastic waste issues. </p>
<h2>What has ASEAN done so far?</h2>
<p>In 2019, the issue of marine debris as a <a href="http://www.jeeng.net/Marine-Debris-Pathway-Across-Indonesian-Boundary-Seas,132428,0,2.html">transboundary issue</a> was in the spotlight at the <a href="https://www.asean2019.go.th/en/meeting/special-asean-ministerial-meeting-on-marine-debris-2/">ASEAN special ministerial meeting in Bangkok, Thailand</a>. Delegates of the ten ASEAN members attended. </p>
<p>The high-level meeting encouraged countries to set up action plans, at national and regional levels, to tackle this issue. However, in 2019, ASEAN member states launched <a href="https://environment.asean.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/ASEAN-Framework-of-Action-on-Marine-Debris-FINAL.pdf">ASEAN Framework of Action on Marine Debris</a> as an optimistic way forward but needs to be translated into concrete regional plan of action through a legally binding mechanism with clear milestones and stakeholder roles.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/386079/original/file-20210224-23-1o26geo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/386079/original/file-20210224-23-1o26geo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/386079/original/file-20210224-23-1o26geo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/386079/original/file-20210224-23-1o26geo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/386079/original/file-20210224-23-1o26geo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/386079/original/file-20210224-23-1o26geo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/386079/original/file-20210224-23-1o26geo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Marine plastic waste in the ASEAN region comes from member states and the global oceans.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">ANTARA FOTO/Dedhez Anggara/hp.</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>At a national level, several countries have come up with their own plans to reduce plastics on land.</p>
<p>But there has been no specific plan to regulate marine plastic waste at a regional level. Each nation seems to have its own policy to manage waste in its territory.</p>
<p>In Malaysia, the government has already imposed a <a href="https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/ban-on-non-biodegradable-plastic-bags-takes-effect-in-malaysias-federal-territories">ban on non-biodegradable plastics</a>. The Thai government is actively discussing the possibility of a <a href="https://www.bangkokpost.com/business/1493670/environmental-tax-could-cut-e-waste">tax on waste</a>. </p>
<p>Other countries, such as <a href="https://www.env.go.jp/en/water/marine_litter/pdf/112576.pdf">Singapore</a> and <a href="https://southeastasiaglobe.com/plastic-pollution-vietnam/">Vietnam</a>, have already declared national commitments to tackle marine plastic waste.</p>
<p>Indonesia is currently enhancing <a href="https://www.thejakartapost.com/adv/2018/05/04/waste-recycling-goes-hi-tech.html">waste recycling technology</a> and <a href="https://news.mongabay.com/2020/03/this-solar-powered-device-aims-to-clean-1000-rivers-will-it-work/">developing garbage-collecting vessels</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Seagull observing food packaging." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/386081/original/file-20210224-9618-1p8wnsu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/386081/original/file-20210224-9618-1p8wnsu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/386081/original/file-20210224-9618-1p8wnsu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/386081/original/file-20210224-9618-1p8wnsu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/386081/original/file-20210224-9618-1p8wnsu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/386081/original/file-20210224-9618-1p8wnsu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/386081/original/file-20210224-9618-1p8wnsu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Marine plastic can harm animals in the oceans and coastal areas.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://pixabay.com/photos/seagull-bird-fauna-waste-plastic-4401424/">pixabay</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In addition to each nation’s waste policy, countries in ASEAN should set up a regional action plan comprising common actions to reduce plastics in the oceans.</p>
<p>To ensure its effectiveness, we recommend these actions should be monitored and reported in the ASEAN high-level meeting as the ASEAN countries do not only receive waste from their own territories, but also from other countries in the world. </p>
<p>While the region, dominated by highly populated developing nations, is still struggling to reduce plastic wastes on land, they also need to solve the problem of marine waste from neighbouring countries <a href="http://www.jeeng.net/Marine-Debris-Pathway-Across-Indonesian-Boundary-Seas,132428,0,2.html">transported by the winds and currents to their coastal areas</a>. </p>
<p>A regional action plan could strengthen the ASEAN legacy on marine plastic and provide a model for global action.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Baca juga:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/indonesia-needs-more-research-on-how-plastic-waste-in-the-ocean-impact-marine-life-heres-why-124172">Indonesia needs more research on how plastic waste in the ocean impact marine life. Here's why</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>We recommend collaboration between ASEAN nations to enhance waste-recycling technology. This is very important because our wastes are different from those of European countries or the US.</p>
<p>With strong partnerships and management, this technology could be available to manage waste in the region’s oceans. </p>
<p>The collaboration, between governments, private sectors, NGOs and universities, should include:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>effective legal instruments</p></li>
<li><p>management measures based on monitoring and assessment</p></li>
<li><p>a transition to a circular economy</p></li>
<li><p>improved waste-management infrastructure</p></li>
<li><p>support for public-private partnerships.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>We also recommend increased funding for research on marine debris as well as ensuring policies and regulations are based on this research.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
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</figure>
<p><strong><em>This story is part of <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/oceans-21-96784">Oceans 21</a></em></strong>
<br>Our series on the global ocean opened with <a href="https://oceans21.netlify.app/">five in-depth profiles</a>. Look out for new articles on the state of our oceans in the lead-up to the UN’s next climate conference, COP26. The series is brought to you by The Conversation’s international network.</p>
<hr>
<h2>Aims for ocean health</h2>
<p>Marine debris strongly relates to ocean health, but also to our own health. </p>
<p>It <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-16510-3_4">could take up to hundreds of years</a> for <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0025326X19304254">plastics</a>, from the largest (macro-debris), small (micro-debris), to the smallest (nano-debris), to decompose. </p>
<p>They can potentially <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0228811">spread diseases and invasive species</a>, harmful to marine biota, ecosystems and also humans through food chains.</p>
<p>Hence, addressing <a href="https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-14-life-below-water.html">this issue</a> is important as we are also aiming to achieve the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), including <a href="https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-12-responsible-consumption-and-production.html">sustainable consumption and production</a>, <a href="https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-13-climate-action.html">climate change</a> and <a href="https://www.globalgoals.org/17-partnerships-for-the-goals">partnerships for sustainable development</a>.</p>
<p>To achieve these targets, we must address the main challenges of marine plastic debris in ASEAN nations. </p>
<p>Last but not least, we need to improve public behaviour through education on waste, which is at concerning levels, as can easily be seen on the roads, waterways, rivers and coastlines. </p>
<p>Marine plastic debris is a complex problem and its impact portrays the characteristics of a society, civilisation and a country.</p>
<p>By taking action together, we hope to save the plant and animal life of marine ecosystems and improve the ocean’s health.</p>
<hr><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/151849/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Para penulis tidak bekerja, menjadi konsultan, memiliki saham atau menerima dana dari perusahaan atau organisasi mana pun yang akan mengambil untung dari artikel ini, dan telah mengungkapkan bahwa ia tidak memiliki afiliasi di luar afiliasi akademis yang telah disebut di atas.</span></em></p>The countries of the ASEAN region have important roles to play in tackling the global problem of marine plastic waste.Noir Primadona Purba, Lecturer and Marine Reseacher, Universitas PadjadjaranKirana Agustina, Engagement Specialist for National Plastic Action Partnership, World Resources InstituteLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1527782021-01-07T15:09:08Z2021-01-07T15:09:08ZHealth crisis: up to a billion tonnes of waste potentially burned in the open every year<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/377553/original/file-20210107-19-9lgm6z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3543%2C2360&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/accra-ghana-marchapril-2016-worker-dump-1252179298">Aline Tong/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As much as one billion tonnes of waste could be burned in open and uncontrolled fires around the world each year, according to one <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/es502250z">estimate</a> – close to half of all the municipal solid waste generated on Earth. But even if the true total is a fraction of that amount, the impact on human health and the environment is likely to be profound, particularly for the hundreds of millions of people living in countries throughout the global south where burning rubbish outdoors is the main method of waste treatment.</p>
<p>Uncontrolled waste fires burn at much lower and inconsistent temperatures, which means combustion is incomplete. This releases substances from the waste and creates new ones as molecules are decomposed and reformed in the flames. Dioxins and related compounds are often formed when PVC is burned in open fires. At least 30 of these types of compound are considered harmful to human health. They can persist in the environment for years and in the human body for perhaps a decade or more. There is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10590500903310047">evidence</a> they can damage the brain and disrupt hormones.</p>
<p>In high-income countries such as the UK, waste incineration most often takes place in <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/waste-to-energy-52085">energy-from-waste plants</a> (sometimes abbreviated as EfW), which use expensive equipment to control the burn while generating heat and electricity. It takes a lot of money and sophisticated engineering to burn solid waste safely.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/377550/original/file-20210107-15-1wuhtp7.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A graphic showing how hazardous emissions from waste burning reach people and the environment." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/377550/original/file-20210107-15-1wuhtp7.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/377550/original/file-20210107-15-1wuhtp7.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/377550/original/file-20210107-15-1wuhtp7.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/377550/original/file-20210107-15-1wuhtp7.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/377550/original/file-20210107-15-1wuhtp7.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/377550/original/file-20210107-15-1wuhtp7.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/377550/original/file-20210107-15-1wuhtp7.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">How emissions from burning waste in the open reach people and the environment.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.raeng.org.uk/publications/reports/seel-global-review">Cook & Velis (2021)</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>People burn waste when their options are limited. Across low- and middle-income countries, <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-earths-plastic-pollution-problem-could-look-by-2040-143220">two billion people</a> don’t have their solid waste collected at all, which means they have to take responsibility for disposing of items that have reached the end of their engineered life. If there is little space to dump on land, or no river nearby, the choice to burn becomes more appealing.</p>
<h2>A burning issue</h2>
<p>Our <a href="https://doi.org/10.5518/100/58">research</a> has found that open burning is not only a necessity but a means to an end. In some countries of the global south, it’s common practice for informal recyclers to set fire to electrical cables and burn away the PVC insulation so the copper can be sold – a much quicker and easier method than stripping it off manually. The same goes for other electronic components, such as the printed circuit boards found in computers and other home appliances. These contain <a href="https://theconversation.com/global-electronic-waste-up-21-in-five-years-and-recycling-isnt-keeping-up-141997">a wealth of valuable metals</a> that are bound with plastics.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A mass of colourful plastic-coated wires engulfed in flames." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/377554/original/file-20210107-15-fery6y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/377554/original/file-20210107-15-fery6y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/377554/original/file-20210107-15-fery6y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/377554/original/file-20210107-15-fery6y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/377554/original/file-20210107-15-fery6y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/377554/original/file-20210107-15-fery6y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/377554/original/file-20210107-15-fery6y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Burning plastic produces airborne compounds that are thought to be hazardous to health.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/burning-copper-wiring-release-toxins-404761519">Unigraphoto/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In households, burning food and other biological waste reduces its smell and discourages foraging animals that might transmit disease. In hospitals and medical centres, materials that could carry pathogens can be neutralised by burning them, and even the <a href="https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/328146/9789241516228-eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">World Health Organization</a> encourages this when there is no other option. Despite these benefits, open burning of waste threatens the health and lives of those who have few choices but to inhale the emissions.</p>
<p>Part of the challenge is that local authorities are incentivised not to pay attention to open burning. Waste burned at the roadside doesn’t have to be collected and fires in dumpsites free up valuable space to deposit more rubbish. Superficially, combustion makes waste disappear. But in reality, it’s converted into hazardous substances that are much more easily dispersed and inhaled.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/global-electronic-waste-up-21-in-five-years-and-recycling-isnt-keeping-up-141997">Global electronic waste up 21% in five years, and recycling isn't keeping up</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Waste burning has devastating consequences for those who are most exposed to it. Overwhelmingly, it’s the urban poor and waste pickers who make up the world’s informal recycling sector. Treating this problem at the level of entire systems of waste production and management is the only way to effectively address it. This means providing waste management services for all communities, urban and rural. But it also means designing and manufacturing products that cause less harm when burned, particularly in areas where there is a high risk of that happening.</p>
<p>Much of the waste burned in open fires is plastic, which <a href="https://theconversation.com/plastic-warms-the-planet-twice-as-much-as-aviation-heres-how-to-make-it-climate-friendly-116376">releases CO₂</a> and other greenhouse gasses. To make things even more challenging, those plastics that aren’t burned <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-earths-plastic-pollution-problem-could-look-by-2040-143220">might pollute the land and water</a> instead. Here lies an unsettling trade-off. Can the global community overcome decades of neglect to find a solution to one of the biggest environmental issues of our time?</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/152778/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Costas Velis received funding from the Lloyd's Register Foundation for this project, which was commissioned by the Royal Academy of Engineering. He is a Chartered Waste and Resources Manager with the Chartered Institute of Wastes Management, serving in the Special Interest Group on Thermal Treatment. He is also a member of the International Solid Waste Association and leads the Marine Litter Task Force, as well as being a member of the Energy Recovery Working Group.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ed Cook received funding from the Lloyd's Register Foundation for this project, which was commissioned by the Royal Academy of Engineering. He is a Chartered Waste and Resources Manager with the Chartered Institute of Wastes Management.</span></em></p>Two billion people worldwide lack a dedicated system of waste collection and management.Costas Velis, Lecturer in Resource Efficiency Systems, University of LeedsEd Cook, Research Fellow in Circular Economy Systems, University of LeedsLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.