tag:theconversation.com,2011:/id/topics/water-use-25689/articlesWater use – The Conversation2024-03-20T21:24:09Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2229412024-03-20T21:24:09Z2024-03-20T21:24:09ZWater woes in southern Alberta could spell disaster for aquatic ecosystems, and the people who rely on them<p>Freshwater will be an increasingly scarce resource as we head into spring and summer in Western Canada with implications for the livelihoods and economic prosperity of humans, and non-humans alike, in southern Alberta and the downstream Prairie provinces. </p>
<p>The Bow River — in addition to the Oldman and South-Saskatchewan sub-basins — play a vital role in Western Canada. These rivers also have <a href="https://albertawater.com/water-licences-transfers-and-allocation/">a large number of competing uses</a> including agricultural and irrigation needs, municipal uses, hydroelectric developments, industrial consumption and <a href="https://open.alberta.ca/publications/after-the-flood">recreational and cultural uses</a> — including a <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/rainbow-trout-bow-river-1.4921565">world-class sports fishery</a>. </p>
<p>The Rocky Mountains serve as Western Canada’s water towers and are the critical source of the snowpack which plays a major role in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/groundwater-recharge">groundwater recharge</a>. The <a href="https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-24-2731-2020">diminishing winter snowpack</a>, combined with increasing frequencies of <a href="https://agriculture.canada.ca/en/agricultural-production/weather/canadian-drought-monitor">multi-year droughts in the Prairies</a> from below-average regional precipitation, is setting up the summer of 2024 as another year of <a href="https://www.aer.ca/regulating-development/rules-and-directives/bulletins/bulletin-2023-43">abnormally low volumes</a> of water flowing through the basin.</p>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/new-report-shows-alarming-changes-in-the-entire-global-water-cycle-197535">New report shows alarming changes in the entire global water cycle</a>
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<p>Make no mistake, dwindling flows will have wide reaching social, environmental and economic impacts. Governments and policymakers must act quickly to avert a larger crisis.</p>
<h2>Compounding impacts</h2>
<p>In addition to impacting the water available for human use, low flows and water levels have direct and indirect impacts on the <a href="https://trivent-publishing.eu/books/engineeringandindustry/watershedandriverbasinmanagement/11.%20C.%20W.%20Koning%20et%20al..pdf">organisms that live in and rely on the aquatic ecosystem</a>. Limited water supplies raise serious concerns about the <a href="https://www.canlii.org/en/commentary/doc/2006CanLIIDocs562#!fragment/zoupio-_Toc2Page1-Page10/BQCwhgziBcwMYgK4DsDWszIQewE4BUBTADwBdoAvbRABwEtsBaAfX2zgCYAFMAc0ICMjHvwEAGAJQAaZNlKEIARUSFcAT2gByTVIiEwuBMtUbtu-YZABlPKQBCGgEoBRADLOAagEEAcgGFnKVIwACNoUnYJCSA">long-term impacts on our aquatic ecosystems</a>.</p>
<p>Complicating matters is the <a href="https://open.alberta.ca/publications/albertas-water-priority-system-tools-for-water-licence-holders">“first in time, first in right” (FITFIR) water governance</a> principle which emerged out of the Western United States and is essentially a first come, first served system of water allocation. To make matters worse, <a href="https://doi.org/10.4296/cwrj3501079">new applications for water access have been closed since 2006</a>, a decision which will have a “significant effect on water supply strategies available to municipal water users, as many communities currently hold water licences that are not adequate for their projected growth.” </p>
<p>In <a href="https://open.alberta.ca/publications/0778546209">2006 the government of Alberta</a> acknowledged that “the limits for water allocations have been reached or exceeded in the Bow, Oldman and South Saskatchewan River sub basins.” In the South Saskatchewan Basin, most of the water is allocated to a handful of license holders who have had licenses for high volumes of water for years. This is a substantial hurdle to overcome when trying to retain river water for aquatic ecosystems — a goal <a href="https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/10.1139/er-2022-0126">often referred to as environmental flows or “e-flows”</a>.</p>
<p>Without substantial changes to the licensing program, aquatic ecosystem health will continue to be secondary to existing license holder uses. </p>
<p>Further complicating the matter is that allocations are looked at <a href="https://static1.squarespace.com/static/62f582febb0b3104adabb617/t/6358b7a0bf6485031a91dc36/1666758567761/Final+Report+-+Review+of+the+Implementation+of+the+Approved+WMP+for+the+SSRB.pdf">annually and not seasonally</a>. This means that the system can’t adapt “on the fly” when low flows hit, unless there are specific government directives implemented to that effect. This is also true of current monitoring and reporting efforts across the country, with reporting and interpretation of data being done only after an <a href="https://edmontonjournal.com/business/energy/survey-finds-oilsands-environmental-monitoring-ineffective-after-10-years">issue has occurred, if at all</a>. </p>
<p>Perhaps most egregiously, the FITFIR approach has also long been criticized by Indigenous groups as disproportionately impacting their water rights and <a href="https://www.watercanada.net/feature/three-out-of-ten-odds-of-a-solution-to-first-nation-water-rights-in-alberta/">limiting water supplies in favour of competing industry and large agricultural needs</a>.</p>
<h2>Low-level impacts</h2>
<p>Alberta’s water regulations are generally not helping matters. Currently, regulations around pollution release are predominantly applied at the end-of-pipe, not throughout the river, meaning the impacts on the river will vary based on how much water is present. This often results <a href="https://doi.org/10.2166/wqrj.2019.033">in poor water quality events occurring in the summer,</a> when flow is lowest and the pollutants are less diluted. This has direct consequences on aquatic food webs and those that rely upon the river, especially in areas downstream of major sources of pollution.</p>
<p>Lower river flows and levels can result in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2014.11.010">increased water temperatures and</a> decreased oxygen availability for aquatic organisms. This can have harmful consequences on sensitive species like fish and their invertebrate food sources. The projected low flows in 2024 will likely lead to increased fish mortality.</p>
<p>There are numerous habitats around rivers that rely on certain levels of flow to be present for survival. Riparian areas (river banks) along the river run the risk of drying up and dying off if flow isn’t <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13157-020-01392-4">adequate</a>. While seasonal fluctuations in water levels are normal, the <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/edmonton/what-low-water-levels-in-edmonton-could-mean-for-fish-this-winter-1.7028203">uncharacteristically low flows this past fall and winter</a>, combined with expected lower water levels in the coming year may mean that these sensitive habitats are isolated for extended periods of time — not receiving the water and nutrients required for their survival.</p>
<p>The impacts aren’t restricted to organisms living directly in and around rivers in the region either. Low water flows affect the entire food web <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/02705060.2023.2203728">from aquatic insects to apex predators</a> and with fewer prey available, larger fish populations may decline. These impacts also will only grow downstream as cumulative pressures on the river increase.</p>
<p>While rivers have seasonal flow patterns, low water flow isn’t just a seasonal issue. Climate change projections have been predicting more <a href="https://albertawater.com/climate-change-in-the-bow-basin/">frequent and severe droughts</a>, which will only exacerbate this issue.</p>
<h2>Preventing drought?</h2>
<p>2024 is likely the first of a series of years where we will see reduced snowpack, altered precipitation timing (and amounts) and increased water use pressures all combining to reduce river flows. </p>
<p>We have seen an initial reaction by <a href="https://www.alberta.ca/release.cfm?xID=8971229900128-9793-C959-193E503D6C61CAD4">the provincial government</a> in Alberta; however, there has been a noticeable lack of acknowledgement from many governments and regulatory bodies across the country. This is a national issue and will be an ongoing issue as a result of climate change. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://thetyee.ca/Analysis/2024/02/19/Alberta-Brutal-Water-Reckoning/">tension between different water users has been predicted for over a decade</a>. Policy options to date have been limited and have lacked the inclusion of ecosystem-related considerations. There <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/business/article-parched-alberta-negotiating-with-water-holders-to-strike-share/">also has been discussion</a> around <a href="https://prism.ucalgary.ca/server/api/core/bitstreams/596932e4-12f8-46d6-90f6-7512479be965/content">increasing the allowance</a> of water which can be moved between basins. However, such systems could have major implications on <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/eet.1891">aquatic ecosystem health if utilized widely and must be done with great care.</a></p>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/johannesburgs-water-crisis-is-getting-worse-expert-explains-why-the-taps-keep-running-dry-in-south-africas-biggest-city-223926">Johannesburg's water crisis is getting worse – expert explains why the taps keep running dry in South Africa's biggest city</a>
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<p>As we move through what will be an unprecedented low water year, it will be critical that policymakers, regulators and all Canadians understand the far-reaching impacts. </p>
<p>Our existing approaches aren’t working. We must look beyond our current systems. This includes utilizing the knowledge of water quality experts as well as Indigenous Peoples who have relied on the river for centuries. </p>
<p>The management issue presenting itself is extremely complex and <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2016.1238345">will require equally complex responses with input from all concerned parties</a>. But the costs of failure will be far greater than the costs of action.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222941/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Barrett receives funding from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) of Canada and is involved in research projects in southern Alberta funded by the City of Calgary, Alberta Innovates, and the NSERC Alliance Program.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kerry Black receives funding from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council, the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council, and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research and is involved in research projects in southern Alberta funded by the City of Calgary, Alberta Innovates, and the NSERC Alliance Program.</span></em></p>Declining precipitation, climate change and governance failures will drive water flow scarcity in 2024 with serious implications across Western Canada.David Barrett, Research Associate, Faculty of Science, University of CalgaryKerry Black, Assistant Professor and Canada Research Chair, Integrated Knowledge, Engineering and Sustainable Communities, University of CalgaryLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2245662024-03-14T17:19:12Z2024-03-14T17:19:12ZEight ways to overhaul the UK’s inadequate sewer system<p>The recent surge in public scrutiny over untreated sewage in waterways paints a stark picture of the UK’s ageing sewer network. </p>
<p>Combined sewer overflows (CSOs) are a legacy of a bygone era. Victorian combined sewers, designed to collect both sewage and surface water runoff, are <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/explainers-62631320">buckling</a> under the pressure. When excess rainwater overwhelms their capacity, overflows are triggered, releasing untreated sewage and rainwater directly into rivers, lakes and the sea.</p>
<p>While CSOs were originally intended as a solution for exceptional circumstances, their frequent activation exposes a deeper truth – the UK’s sewer system is riddled with inadequacies. A <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0269749123022273?via%3Dihub">recent review</a> by my colleagues and I found that fundamental questions surrounding CSOs remain unanswered. For example, we do not know the volume of sewage that is spilled, exactly what it contains (especially in terms of emerging contaminants), and nor do we have a comprehensive view of its impact on the health of people, ecosystems and the economy.</p>
<p>Based on what we do know, however, here are eight ways to overhaul the UK’s sewer system.</p>
<h2><strong>1. Reduce water consumption</strong></h2>
<p>In the 1960s, the average Briton used <a href="https://www.ofwat.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/The-long-term-potential-for-deep-reductions-in-household-water-demand-report-by-Artesia-Consulting.pdf">85 litres</a> of water per day. Today, that figure has jumped to <a href="https://www.ofwat.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/Water-Company-Performance-Report-2022-23.pdf">146 litres</a>. This translates to a much larger volume of wastewater flowing into an already strained sewer system. By finding ways to prevent this extra water from entering the network in the first place, we could significantly alleviate the pressure on its capacity. </p>
<h2><strong>2. Capture rainwater</strong></h2>
<p>One readily available solution lies in harnessing the power of rainwater, by capturing it through simple devices such as <a href="https://theconversation.com/if-more-houses-had-water-butts-it-could-help-with-drought-flooding-and-water-pollution-191469">water butts</a>. This can decrease the volume of water entering the network. Captured rainwater also offers a valuable secondary benefit as a readily available, eco-friendly source of water for tasks including gardening and flushing toilets. </p>
<h2><strong>3. Fix misconnections</strong></h2>
<p>Misconnected pipes pose a hidden threat, occurring when sewage pipes are mistakenly connected to rainwater drains, diverting raw sewage directly into rivers and streams. Conversely, rainwater can also be misdirected into the sewer system, overloading its capacity. <a href="https://www.ciwem.org/news/drain-misconnections">Estimates suggest</a> that between 150,000 and half a million homes have misconnected pipes.</p>
<h2><strong>4. Only flush the three Ps</strong></h2>
<p>The only things which should be flushed down the toilet are pee, poo and paper. But <a href="https://www.dwrcymru.com/en/blog/spot-the-april-fools">strange things</a> have been found in sewers, from adult toys to false teeth and even pet snakes. </p>
<p>However, it is <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/producers-urged-to-address-flushable-wet-wipes-labelling">wet wipes</a> that contribute to 94% of sewer blockages. When combined with discarded cooking fats, they can form enormous <a href="https://ww3.rics.org/uk/en/modus/built-environment/resilient-infrastructure/anatomy-of-a-fatberg--can-our-sewers-cope-.html">“fatbergs”</a> in sewers. Even so-called <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.164912">“flushable”</a> wet wipes can cause considerable issues, due to the time they take to degrade. Blockages cause sewage to back-up and ultimately spill out through CSOs.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/nearly-a-quarter-of-people-in-the-uk-flush-wet-wipes-down-the-toilet-heres-why-they-shouldnt-203301">Nearly a quarter of people in the UK flush wet wipes down the toilet – here's why they shouldn't</a>
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<img alt="Feces and wet wipes in a domestic sewer causing a blockage" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579604/original/file-20240304-48072-3z44br.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579604/original/file-20240304-48072-3z44br.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579604/original/file-20240304-48072-3z44br.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579604/original/file-20240304-48072-3z44br.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579604/original/file-20240304-48072-3z44br.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579604/original/file-20240304-48072-3z44br.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579604/original/file-20240304-48072-3z44br.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Wet wipes can build up in sewers and cause harmful blockages.</span>
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<h2><strong>5. Use smart technology</strong></h2>
<p>While other utilities have embraced innovative technology, the water sector lags behind. The electricity sector has developed the smart grid – a network of sensors and software that allows for real-time monitoring and optimisation of energy use. By 2022, <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/64186258d3bf7f7fee268026/Q4_2022_Smart_Meters_Statistics_Report.pdf">31.3 million</a> smart energy meters had been installed across the UK. In contrast, the number of smart water meters remains unknown. </p>
<p>Water utilities are missing out on increased efficiencies. Even standalone smart meters, not integrated into a wider smart system, can lead to a <a href="https://www.thameswater.co.uk/news/smart-water-meter-milestone">17% reduction</a> in water usage, compared with traditional meters. However, this strategy relies on customers’ willingness to have meters; some <a href="https://www.theecoexperts.co.uk/home-hub/water-meter">40% of households</a> in England and Wales don’t even have a basic water meter.</p>
<h2><strong>6. Use nature-based solutions</strong></h2>
<p>Achieving the UK’s net zero target by 2050 demands innovative solutions across all sectors, including the sewer system. But traditional approaches to increasing sewage capacity often rely on expanding infrastructure such as large concrete pipes, which come with a significant carbon footprint.</p>
<p>The construction of <a href="https://www.tideway.london/media/5689/tideway-sustainability-report-2022.pdf">London’s Tideway project</a>, a vast combined sewer, generated 768,756 tonnes of CO₂ – roughly 0.19% of the UK’s total emissions in 2022. Replicating this approach across the UK’s 77 most populous urban areas would collectively produce 14.4% of its emissions.</p>
<p>Fortunately, nature-based solutions offer a promising alternative. These low carbon and even carbon-sequestering approaches can effectively manage wastewater and rainwater runoff. Human-made wetlands mimic natural ecosystems to treat sewage, while <a href="https://www.rhs.org.uk/garden-features/rain-gardens">rain gardens</a> and <a href="https://www.susdrain.org/delivering-suds/using-suds/suds-components/retention_and_detention/retention_ponds.html">retention ponds</a> capture rainwater, preventing it from overwhelming the sewer system. </p>
<h2><strong>7. Take the C out of CSO</strong></h2>
<p>Unlike more modern systems, combined sewers act as a mixing bowl for a variety of water sources, collecting everything from rainwater and domestic sewage to industrial runoff. This creates a complex cocktail of potential pollutants, including hazardous chemicals, that can be difficult and expensive to treat effectively at large centralised facilities.</p>
<p>By separating these different sources, the treatment process could be simplified. For instance, industrial wastewater, which can be laden with heavy metals, could be diverted to specialised treatment plants equipped with advanced technologies such as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/ultrafiltration">ultrafiltration</a>. This targeted approach would allow for more effective treatment of smaller volumes of wastewater, reducing the burden on the current system. </p>
<h2><strong>8. Decentralise</strong></h2>
<p>The traditional model of transporting all sewage to a central treatment plant should also be reviewed. Decentralisation could see more households using “greywater” (wastewater from showers, sinks and washing machines) for garden irrigation. At a neighbourhood level, communities could treat domestic sewage locally, potentially incorporating natural solutions such as human-made wetlands.</p>
<p>The combination of climate change, population growth and rising water consumption is pushing our Victorian-era sewage system to breaking point. To safeguard our waterways and build resilience for future challenges, a radical rethink is essential, and soon.</p>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>William Perry previously received funding from Dŵr Cymru Welsh Water to write an independent review on combined sewer overflows as part of his academic appointment.</span></em></p>The UK’s Victorian-era sewer network is at breaking point.William Perry, Postdoctoral Research Associate at the School of Biosciences, Cardiff UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2111432023-09-26T15:16:39Z2023-09-26T15:16:39ZWhat’s the carbon footprint of owning pet fish? An expert explains<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549367/original/file-20230920-21-sqqv47.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=40%2C0%2C4464%2C2967&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">One of the most popular species of fish found in tropical marine aquariums is the common clownfish (Amphiprion ocellaris).</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/unhappy-clown-fish-swims-aquarium-tank-1449838790">jflin98/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>While the environmental impact of having <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-cats-and-dogs-affect-the-climate-and-what-you-can-do-about-it-206812">dogs and cats</a> as pets has been examined to some extent, the impact of keeping pet fish has remained unexplored – until now. </p>
<p>Dogs in particular have a significant carbon “<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-about-your-carbon-pawprint-9878">pawprint</a>”. An average-size dog (weighing 10-20kg) in Europe is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/biz044">responsible</a> for between 349 and 1,424kg of CO₂-equivalent emissions per year – compared with between 150kg and 251kg of CO₂-eq for an average-size cat (weighing 2kg-6kg). </p>
<p>But there had never been a study examining the carbon footprint of pet fish, despite <a href="https://ornamentalfish.org/wp-content/uploads/OATA-Annual-Report-2020-21-online.pdf">4 million</a> households owning them in the UK alone – <a href="https://www.ornamentalfish.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/Customer-Profile-Survey-Results-2011-2012.pdf">70% of which</a> are tropical freshwater fish.</p>
<p>My <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/jfb.15478">study</a> found the carbon footprint of a tropical aquarium in the UK ranges from 85.3kg to 635.2 kg of CO₂-eq per year – equivalent to between 1.6% and 12.4% of the average UK household’s annual emissions. This estimate is based on a range of scenarios including aquarium sizes between 50 and 400 litres and different tank operating conditions. But most household aquariums sold by retailers are in the 50-to-100 litre range.</p>
<p>Electricity generation is the main source of emissions from tropical aquariums. Maintaining one requires lots of electricity to power the heaters, lights and pumps. This electricity consumption is much greater in emissions terms than the CO₂ produced in transporting tropical fish from countries such as Singapore or Indonesia to the UK and Europe.</p>
<p>However, the precise carbon footprint of an aquarium varies depending on its location. For example, tropical fish kept in France have a much smaller carbon footprint than those kept in the UK, because the French electricity grid is <a href="https://ember-climate.org/countries-and-regions/countries/france/">more decarbonised</a>.</p>
<p>This also means that as electricity grids continue to decarbonise globally, and especially in Europe, the carbon footprint of keeping tropical fish will decrease.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two graphs showing the carbon emissions of keeping pet fish" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/547316/original/file-20230909-48264-8gkxww.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/547316/original/file-20230909-48264-8gkxww.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=278&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547316/original/file-20230909-48264-8gkxww.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=278&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547316/original/file-20230909-48264-8gkxww.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=278&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547316/original/file-20230909-48264-8gkxww.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=349&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547316/original/file-20230909-48264-8gkxww.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=349&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547316/original/file-20230909-48264-8gkxww.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=349&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">(a) Yearly carbon emissions produced by heating different-sized aquariums in three countries (green = Poland, blue = UK, red = France) whose electricity grids have various levels of decarbonisation. (b) Yearly carbon emissions of running a 200 -litre aquarium (2000-2022) and predicted emissions for 2040 based on pledges to decarbonise electricity grids.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Perry; Journal of Fish Biology (2023)</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Water consumption</h2>
<p>Water consumption is another factor to consider. Tropical aquariums are closed systems so fish waste can build up, increasing the levels of ammonia which is deadly to fish. So, fishkeepers must perform regular water changes – which means replacing the aquarium water with treated tap water or, for marine fish, water that has been purified using <a href="https://www.practicalfishkeeping.co.uk/features/what-you-need-to-know-about-reverse-osmosis/">reverse osmosis</a> (whereby water is pushed under pressure through a semi-permeable membrane). However, reverse osmosis is not efficient and produces five litres of reject water for every one litre of purified water.</p>
<p>Estimates of water consumption for tropical aquariums vary depending on aquarium size, use of reverse osmosis, frequency of water changes and amount of water replaced. Based on industry recommendations and a range of aquarium sizes, I estimated that tropical aquariums can use anywhere between 156 and 31,200 litres of water per year.</p>
<p>For example, if you have a 50-litre aquarium and you change 6% of the water <a href="https://www.fishkeeper.co.uk/faq/how-often-and-much-do-i-need-to-change-my-aquarium-water-and-clean-my-filter/">every week</a> with tap water, you would use 156 litres per year. But if you have a 400-litre aquarium and do a 25% water change every week with a reverse osmosis system, you could use up to 31,200 litres per year. </p>
<p>Clearly, these examples represent two extremes of water consumption, equivalent to between 0.2% and 30.1% of the average UK household’s annual water use. While the upper limit can sound alarming, most aquariums sit in the middle range by both water use and emissions. But, given that drought events are expected to increase under future climate scenarios, any additional levels of water consumption can quickly become unsustainable. </p>
<p>Context is also important, as estimates on energy consumption are based on the aquarium being in a 20C (68F) room. If a central heating system is on all day or it is a warm summer’s day, this will reduce the emissions generated from heating the aquarium. Alternatively, if the room is colder than 20C, those emissions will be higher – although the heat from the aquarium will also heat the room, so may be viewed as an electric radiator.</p>
<h2>Ways to reduce environmental impact of pet fish</h2>
<p>My estimates provide the first insights into the environmental impact of a popular hobby. They show that keeping tropical fish is generally a more environmentally friendly option than keeping a dog or even a cat.</p>
<p>They can also inform our decisions on how to reduce the environmental impact of keeping fish, such as: </p>
<ol>
<li><p>Use renewable electricity, generated at home or by changing electricity provider.</p></li>
<li><p>Keep the water temperature as low as possible according to species guidelines. </p></li>
<li><p>Put aquarium lights and pumps on timers. </p></li>
<li><p>Only do water changes when necessary; and </p></li>
<li><p>Re-use the reject water both from your aquarium and the reverse osmosis system. </p></li>
</ol>
<p>Keeping tropical fish is a great way to enjoy beautiful ecosystems in your home. Done correctly, it can also help prevent the world from becoming a little bit more tropical.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>William Perry does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>New research reveals the environmental impact of keeping tropical fish as household pets – but there are ways to reduce it.William Perry, Postdoctoral Research Associate at the School of Biosciences, Cardiff UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2055712023-07-02T20:02:18Z2023-07-02T20:02:18ZThe Murray-Darling Basin shows why the ‘social cost of water’ concept won’t work<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533850/original/file-20230625-98671-sa646o.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=31%2C3%2C2066%2C1394&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source"> Kate McBride</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Access to safe, clean water is a basic <a href="https://www.unwater.org/water-facts/human-rights-water-and-sanitation">human right</a>. But water scarcity or barriers to access can cause conflict within and between countries. </p>
<p>Fights over water can be expected to <a href="https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/science/climate-issues/water">intensify as the world warms</a>, evaporation increases and rainfall becomes less predictable. So we’ll need to work even harder to resolve disputes and share this precious resource. </p>
<p>Earlier this year, for the first time in almost half a century, the <a href="https://www.unwater.org/news/un-2023-water-conference">United Nations held a conference squarely focused on water</a>. Thousands of water experts gathered in New York for three days in March, to chart a way forward. </p>
<p>We were among the delegates. Since then, we have discussed and debated ideas that surfaced at this international meeting. Some were worthwhile, but others were wrong. In particular, we challenge the concept of a global “social cost of water”. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532807/original/file-20230620-46525-4a5amn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Infographic outlining the UN 2023 Water Conference vision statement" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532807/original/file-20230620-46525-4a5amn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532807/original/file-20230620-46525-4a5amn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532807/original/file-20230620-46525-4a5amn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532807/original/file-20230620-46525-4a5amn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532807/original/file-20230620-46525-4a5amn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532807/original/file-20230620-46525-4a5amn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532807/original/file-20230620-46525-4a5amn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Picturing The UN 2023 Water Conference vision.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.unwater.org/news/un-2023-water-conference">UN 2023 Water Conference</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/were-ignoring-the-value-of-water-and-that-means-were-devaluing-it-207936">We're ignoring the value of water – and that means we're devaluing it</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What is a global social cost of water?</h2>
<p>One of the big ideas that came up at the conference was the need for a “new economics of water as a common good”, which includes the “social cost of water”. </p>
<p>Elaborating on his idea <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-00800-z">in the journal Nature</a>, Swedish scientist Johan Rockström and colleagues wrote:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>[Researchers] must assess the ‘social cost of water’, akin to the ‘social cost of carbon’, which considers the costs to society of loss and damage caused by water extremes and not meeting the basic provision of water for human needs.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The <a href="https://www.rff.org/publications/explainers/social-cost-carbon-101/">social cost of carbon</a> is an estimate, in dollars, of the economic damages that would result from emitting one additional tonne of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. It’s a decision-making tool used by governments, especially in the United States, for cost-benefit analysis of climate policy. </p>
<p>The social cost of water concept proposes valuing all types of water, including water vapour in the atmosphere that later falls as rain. This means attempting to put a dollar value on moisture flowing across borders, and implicitly creating world water markets. According to this logic, if <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-00800-z">most of Nigeria’s rain</a> comes from forests in central Africa, then Nigeria should be prepared to pay central African nations to maintain the source of this moisture generation. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1638209350463541248"}"></div></p>
<p>But we believe the concept of a global social cost of water is fundamentally flawed, as we explained in our <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-01564-2/">correspondence in Nature</a> in May, alongside <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-01563-3">others</a> who also questioned its logic and purpose. Further correspondence in June also described calls to govern water on a global scale as “<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-01924-y">unrealistic</a>” and distracting from sustainable and equitable access. </p>
<p>It’s unclear how a global social cost of water would work in practice. Writing as economists who have studied local water markets for decades, we see many problems with the concept, such as: </p>
<ul>
<li><p>how water moisture volumes would be estimated reliably and regularly</p></li>
<li><p>how a dollar value could be reliably associated with water moisture flows across borders</p></li>
<li><p>how payments would be enforced between countries, and by what institutions</p></li>
<li><p>whether the money paid between countries would actually improve water security</p></li>
<li><p>what would happen when moisture flows across borders lead to floods with loss of human lives – would the downwind country receive compensation for water disasters as well as droughts? </p></li>
</ul>
<p>Australia has the most sophisticated water markets in the world, in the Murray-Darling Basin. But even here there are <a href="https://academic.oup.com/oxrep/article-abstract/36/1/132/5696682">considerable differences in how markets work</a>. Water values and costs are also very different.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-the-social-cost-of-carbon-2-energy-experts-explain-176255">What is the ‘social cost of carbon’? 2 energy experts explain</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A man looks out of the second-storey window of his flooded shack at Scott’s Creek, Morgan." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534965/original/file-20230630-23-ziw4ih.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534965/original/file-20230630-23-ziw4ih.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534965/original/file-20230630-23-ziw4ih.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534965/original/file-20230630-23-ziw4ih.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534965/original/file-20230630-23-ziw4ih.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534965/original/file-20230630-23-ziw4ih.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534965/original/file-20230630-23-ziw4ih.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In December, 2022, the swollen Murray River flooded homes in South Australia. The floodwater reached the second floor of Darren Davey’s shack at Scott’s Creek, Morgan.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://photos.aap.com.au/search/murray%20flood?q=%7B%22pageSize%22:25,%22pageNumber%22:2%7D">MATT TURNER, AAP</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Australia’s Murray-Darling Basin: a case in point</h2>
<p>The value of water in the Basin consists of benefits and costs. Some benefits include:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>direct use of water to grow crops or irrigate pasture</p></li>
<li><p>recreational use such as boating and water sports</p></li>
<li><p>indirect use including the benefits to health and wellbeing from living alongside a natural water body</p></li>
<li><p>future use values, knowing there is sufficient water to sustain healthy ecosystems and rivers in years to come</p></li>
<li><p>future generational, existence and cultural values such as non-use values associated with the ancient <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2015/jul/10/fish-traps-brewarrina-extraordinary-ancient-structures-protection">Brewarrina fish traps</a>. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>Costs include harm to mental health associated with a lack of water during drought. At the other extreme, there’s the cost of too much water causing floods, property damage and loss of life, or salinity harming viticulture in the Riverland. </p>
<p>This shows the social value of water is incredibly difficult to measure even within one area such as the Basin, let alone trying to enforce a global water market.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/water-buybacks-are-back-on-the-table-in-the-murray-darling-basin-heres-a-refresher-on-how-they-work-200529">Water buybacks are back on the table in the Murray-Darling Basin. Here's a refresher on how they work</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What should instead happen next?</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-01564-2">We think the best way</a> to address the water crisis is to focus on local management and institutions, plan carefully and implement a wide range of policies. These include: </p>
<ul>
<li><p>using economic methods and tools to assess and implement local water policies where feasible</p></li>
<li><p>removing subsidies that incentivise water exploitation</p></li>
<li><p>establishing sustainable extraction limits</p></li>
<li><p>strengthening water institutions to allow measurement, monitoring and enforcement of water use</p></li>
<li><p><a href="https://reliefweb.int/report/world/what-why-and-how-world-water-crisis-global-commission-economics-water-phase-1-review-and-findings">promoting water justice and sharing</a>. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>This is a big task. Misdirection down blind alleys is a distraction that the world cannot afford.</p>
<iframe style="border-radius:12px" src="https://open.spotify.com/embed/episode/42TLwJwAxQ8uE0bYuZNufh?utm_source=generator" width="100%" height="152" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="" allow="autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; fullscreen; picture-in-picture" loading="lazy"></iframe><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/205571/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sarah Ann Wheeler has received funding from the Australian Research Council; GRDC; Wine Australia; MDBA; CRC Food Waste; CSIRO; Goyder Institute; SA Department of Environment and Water; ACCC; NT Department of Environment, Parks and Water Security; NSW Health; Commonwealth Department of Agriculture and Water; Meat and Livestock Australia; ACIAR; RIRDC; UNECE; NCCARF; National Water Commission; and the Government of Netherlands.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>The International Food Policy Research Institute, where Claudia Ringler works, receives funding from a considerable number of donors; none of which is linked to this piece. Claudia Ringler is a member of the International Advisory Committee (IAC) of UNU-INWEH.</span></em></p>After almost half a century, the United Nations has waded back into the murky world of water policy. But one of the ideas following this year’s international meeting has been shot down.Sarah Ann Wheeler, Professor in Water Economics, University of AdelaideClaudia Ringler, Deputy Director, Environment and Production Technology Division, International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2075532023-06-25T11:08:20Z2023-06-25T11:08:20Z920 million people could face conflict over the world’s rivers by 2050: what our study found in Africa<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533686/original/file-20230623-21-q74dgb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Blue Nile river passes through the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Eduardo Soteras/AFP via Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/nile-basin-at-a-turning-point-as-ethiopian-dam-starts-operations-178267">Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam project</a> on the Nile River started operating in February 2022. It reinforced tensions between Ethiopia, Sudan and Egypt. The three countries rely most heavily on the Nile’s water. Sudan and Egypt consider the US$4.6 billion dam a threat to vital water supplies. Ethiopia sees it as essential for its development.</p>
<p>This is just one example of how conflicts can arise between states that share river basins. And there’s a real risk that such conflicts will become more common as <a href="https://theconversation.com/global-warming-to-bring-record-hot-year-by-2028-probably-our-first-above-1-5-c-limit-205758">global temperatures rise</a>.</p>
<p>Hundreds of rivers are shared between two or more countries. Sharing waters can be a source of cooperation or conflict. This depends on economic, cultural and institutional conditions. It also depends on <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-imperialist-past-that-started-dam-politics-between-egypt-sudan-and-ethiopia-156760">historical relations</a> between countries. </p>
<p>Although <a href="https://www.newsecuritybeat.org/2023/03/tracking-conflict-cooperation-worlds-international-freshwater-resources/">cooperation historically prevails over conflict</a> and large-scale violent international conflicts haven’t happened so far, tensions over water have long existed. They are also <a href="https://climate-diplomacy.org/case-studies/water-conflict-and-cooperation-between-india-and-pakistan">rising</a> in <a href="https://www.international-alert.org/stories/climate-change-trigger-conflicts-border-rivers-central-asia/">several river basins</a>. </p>
<p>Africa has <a href="https://tfddmgmt.github.io/tfdd/map.html">66</a> transboundary river basins. These include the Nile basin, and the Juba–Shebelle and Lake Turkana basins in the Horn of Africa. Conflict risk can rise as populations grow, water use intensifies and the climate changes. </p>
<p>There’s no consensus on the precise mechanisms that fuel conflict in such basins. It is, however, possible to identify basins where risks are projected to compound. This can be done by combining data on conflict risk conditions identified in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S095937801730537X?via%3Dihub">existing literature</a>. </p>
<p>In <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/07900627.2023.2184650?scroll=top&needAccess=true&role=tab&aria-labelledby=full-article">a recent study</a> I conducted with three water system researchers from IHE Delft, Utrecht University and Wageningen University & Research, we came up with three possible futures regarding conflict risk in global transboundary river basins. </p>
<p>Our study projects that if nothing substantially changes in how transboundary river basins are managed and with climate change worsening, 920 million people will live in very high to high conflict-risk basins by 2050. </p>
<p>If nations improve water use, strengthen cooperation and do more to prevent or mitigate conflict, this number drops to 536 million. </p>
<p>Water treaties and strong river basin organisations increase the likelihood of long-term, stable cooperation between states. </p>
<h2>Our research</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/07900627.2023.2184650?scroll=top&needAccess=true&role=tab&aria-labelledby=full-article">Our study</a> combined projections on the construction of mega-dams and institutional resilience. It looked at hydroclimatic, governance and socio-economic risk factors. Combining these factors provided an idea of the overall conflict risk per transboundary river basin. </p>
<p>We used a broad interpretation of conflict over transboundary water resources. This ranged from accusations and diplomatic tensions to economic sanctions and violent disputes. </p>
<p>A lack of cooperation between countries can lead to a loss of benefits that could arise from joint activities. These include adapting to climate change, protecting the environment and developing socio-economically. Tensions between states over such issues can also spill over into other sectors, compromising regional political or economic relations.</p>
<h2>Our findings</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/07900627.2023.2184650?src=recsys">Our results</a> show that under a business-as-usual scenario – where no major changes are made – 920 million people out of the <a href="https://tfddmgmt.github.io/tfdd/map.html">4.4 billion people living in transboundary river basins</a> will live in very high to high conflict-risk basins by 2050. In Africa, this number includes people living in Eritrea, Ethiopia, Rwanda, Uganda, Kenya, Somalia, Burkina Faso, Mauritania and Niger. It also includes those in Mozambique, Malawi, Benin and Togo.</p>
<p>In the high ambition scenario – which implies improved water use practices and rising institutional resilience – this number decreases to 536 million. The low-ambition scenario implies some improvement in water use efficiency, institutional capacity and governance quality. Under this scenario, 724 million people would be living in very high to high conflict-risk basins by 2050.</p>
<p>Basins in Africa and Asia especially are projected to face high overall risks, since several risks collide here. In Africa, several basins face extra risks like high variability of water flows and limited water availability. There is also a dependence of downstream countries on upstream ones. </p>
<p>The current tensions in the Nile over <a href="https://theconversation.com/ethiopias-dam-dispute-five-key-reads-about-how-it-started-and-how-it-could-end-187644">Ethiopia’s Grand Renaissance Dam</a>, for instance, could escalate when Ethiopia decides to develop several new mega-hydropower dams. Egypt and to a lesser extent Sudan are highly dependent on basin-related water resources. </p>
<h2>What it means</h2>
<p>Our study shows that potentially, 11 more large hydropower dams could be built in the Nile basin. This is based on physical feasibility, energy yield and construction costs. The projection takes into account some restrictions, such as protected natural reserves. </p>
<p>Seven of these dams would be in Ethiopia, and the other four would be in South Sudan. The construction of these dams would be happening alongside rising water shortages, high water dependencies and limited economic resources to deal with water-related risks.</p>
<p>These new dams could worsen regional climate change impacts and water demands, especially when the population and economy are both growing. Although scholars cannot predict when this will occur, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-020-19089-x">a multi-year drought in the Nile basin is inevitable</a>. This would have severe impacts on water allocation. </p>
<p>The prospect of a multi-year drought in parts of the Nile basin requires preparations today. And even if the impact of new dams will be moderate, the perception of risk could affect how Egypt, for instance, makes decisions over shared river cooperation.</p>
<p>Two other large basins – the Juba–Shebelle in Kenya, Somalia and Ethiopia, and the Lake Turkana basin in Kenya and Ethiopia – are projected to face high conflict risk levels. In these two basins, <a href="https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/emergency-response-appeal-greater-horn-of-africa">multiple issues</a>, such as local conflict, low human development and limited water availability already collide today. </p>
<p>This may be worsened without additional efforts towards 2050 due to relatively high population growth and climate change impacts – without sufficient resources to adapt. </p>
<p>Even in our high ambition scenario – which implies substantial improvements in water management, overall domestic governance and institutional resilience – the Juba–Shebelle and Lake Turkana basins still face high risks. </p>
<p>The challenges and risks these basins face must be explicitly included in wider plans. For example, when large hydropower dams are built, their operation must not hinder the climate adaptation goals of the wider region.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207553/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sophie de Bruin does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Hundreds of rivers are shared between two or more countries – this could be a source of cooperation or conflict.Sophie de Bruin, Researcher in Environmental Change, Vrije Universiteit AmsterdamLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2066042023-06-22T04:03:29Z2023-06-22T04:03:29ZWhy shouldn’t I pour oil or paint down the sink? And what should I do instead?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528756/original/file-20230529-29-7ypy4t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C10%2C3600%2C2382&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Are you ever tempted to pour used cooking oil down the sink? Just turn on the tap and flush it all away. What about that half-used tin of paint in the cupboard? It would be so easy just to wash it down the drain, wouldn’t it?</p>
<p>Well, please don’t! Not just because these bad habits cause problems in your house, backyard, apartment block or neighbourhood (and these products <em>do</em> lead to huge blockages and other issues for household pipes).</p>
<p>It’s also because pouring these things down the sink triggers society-wide problems for the entire sewerage system and the workers who maintain it.</p>
<p>For the sake of all of us, please dispose of these liquids properly. Here’s what you need to know.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-where-does-my-poo-go-when-i-flush-the-toilet-does-it-go-into-the-ocean-78254">Curious Kids: Where does my poo go when I flush the toilet? Does it go into the ocean?</a>
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<h2>A disaster for our sewerage systems</h2>
<p>The smooth day-to-day operation of our wastewater collection, treatment and disposal relies on the cooperation of people to “do the right thing”. </p>
<p>I’ve contacted many of our water utilities across Australia for this article. They are in broad agreement: <a href="https://www.sawater.com.au/my-home/leaks-or-blockages/tips-for-happy-pipes">please don’t</a> put oil, fats, grease or paint or other chemicals down the sink. </p>
<p>They all offer advice on far better alternatives. But the water industry has no control over what we do in the privacy of our homes. It really is up to us.</p>
<h2>The worst culprits</h2>
<p>Canberra’s water utility, Icon Water, gives <a href="https://www.iconwater.com.au/My-Home/Caring-for-your-drain.aspx">advice</a> on what you can and can’t flush down the sink. They rate “fats, oils and grease” as the worst culprits. </p>
<p>When still hot, oils are often liquid and easily pour. But down in the sewer pipes they rapidly cool and solidify. </p>
<p>This is a serious and common problem. Western Australia’s Water Corporation estimates <a href="https://www.watercorporation.com.au/Help-and-advice/Water-issues/Wastewater/What-not-to-flush">30%</a> of sewer blockages are due to fats, oils and grease. </p>
<p>All sewerage systems are vulnerable to blockages from unsafe materials tipped down the sink, or flushed down the toilet.</p>
<p>Oils, fats and grease can combine with other materials flushed down the toilet. These particularly include hair and so-called “flushable wipes” (which, despite the name, <a href="https://theconversation.com/regardless-of-what-the-federal-court-says-you-shouldnt-put-flushable-wipes-down-the-loo-119639">should not be flushed</a> down the loo). </p>
<p>These can build up over time, creating giant monstrosities known as “<a href="https://theconversation.com/regardless-of-what-the-federal-court-says-you-shouldnt-put-flushable-wipes-down-the-loo-119639">fatbergs</a>”: horrible clumps of wipes, hair, hardened oils and other waste.</p>
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<p>Fats and oils act as the glue that helps fatbergs build up at choke points in sewer systems. </p>
<p>Thames Water engineers in the United Kingdom worked in underground sewers for two weeks during 2021 to remove one the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/feb/19/workers-clear-huge-disgusting-fatberg-from-london-sewer">size of a small house</a>. I’m claustrophobic and cannot imagine a more horrible job.</p>
<h2>Uncontrolled release of raw sewage</h2>
<p>Blocked sewers are not just a smelly problem for the water industry; they are bad for all of us. They can trigger the uncontrolled release of raw and untreated sewage into the environment. </p>
<p>As Sydney Water <a href="https://www.sydneywater.com.au/water-the-environment/what-you-can-do/protect-your-plumbing.html">explains</a>, these can be health and environmental nightmares. </p>
<p>I have seen raw sewage flowing in public places, parks, people’s backyards, shopping centres, thanks to blocked pipes. <a href="https://www.worksafe.qld.gov.au/safety-and-prevention/hazards/hazardous-exposures/biological-hazards/infection-risks-from-work-with-sewage#:%7E:text=Skin%20infections%3A%20Germs%20in%20sewage,Vaccination%20can%20prevent%20hepatitis%20A">Raw sewage</a> is a serious public and environmental health hazard. </p>
<h2>So what am I supposed to do instead with oils?</h2>
<p>Cooking oils can actually be <a href="https://recyclingnearyou.com.au/cooking-oil">recycled</a> and used to make stockfeeds, cosmetics and biofuels.</p>
<p>With some careful preparations diesel <a href="https://afdc.energy.gov/files/u/publication/straight_vegetable_oil_as_diesel_fuel.pdf">engines</a> can run on cooking oil. </p>
<p>It is particularly important the <a href="https://www.sydneywater.com.au/your-business/managing-trade-wastewater/commercial-trade-wastewater/retail-food-trade-wastewater.html">food industry</a> carefully manage their waste as it can generate very large volumes of fats, oil and grease. </p>
<p>Small amounts of cooking oil can safely be composted. But be careful; too much can disrupt the flow of oxygen. This can trigger anaerobic decomposition of compost, which smells unpleasant and can also attract unwanted pests. </p>
<p>Even just disposing of fats, oils and grease into the rubbish and landfill is much better than tipping it down the sink. Remember, you may need to cool hot oil down before putting it in the bin. </p>
<h2>What about tipping that old paint down the sink?</h2>
<p>Many people are unsure what to do with unused housepaint.</p>
<p>GWM Water, the water service for regional western Victoria, says paint, oils, lubricants, pesticides and thinners <a href="https://www.gwmwater.org.au/connecting-services/wastewater-sewerage-and-trade-waste/what-not-to-put-down-the-drain">should not</a> go down the sink. They can damage sewer pipes, cause pollution and create fumes which can be dangerous for maintenance workers.</p>
<p>Sewer maintenance workers have to work underground in incredibly demanding environment; squeezing into tight, enclosed spaces in sewerage system is part of the job. </p>
<p>The quality of air that they breathe reflects what people flush down the sink. Some chemicals can even create explosive conditions in sewer pipes. Sadly, sewer workers have even been killed from dangerous <a href="https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/world-news/sewage-worker-killed-after-being-5859682">fumes</a>.</p>
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<span class="caption">What are you supposed to do with excess house paint?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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<h2>What should I do instead with old paint?</h2>
<p>Contact your local council or refer to this helpful <a href="https://files.accesscanberra.act.gov.au/legacy/3426/Preventing%20pollution%20from%20painting.pdf">guide</a> from the ACT government.</p>
<p>The paint industry encourages all people to take unwanted paints to a “<a href="https://www.paintback.com.au/find-location">Paintback</a>” dropoff centre. This industry-funded scheme aims to reduce the risks of unsafe disposal of unwanted paint products and maximise recycling.</p>
<p>Please try to thoughtfully dispose of all waste products. And please try to resist the temptation to quickly flush away oils or paint that could damage or block the sewerage system. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/ive-always-wondered-can-i-flush-cat-poo-down-the-toilet-159340">I've always wondered: can I flush cat poo down the toilet?</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/206604/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ian A Wright receives funding from industry, as well as Commonwealth, NSW and local governments. He formerly worked for Sydney Water Corporation.</span></em></p>Pouring these products down the sink causes society-wide problems for the entire sewerage system and the workers who maintain it.Ian A. Wright, Associate Professor in Environmental Science, Western Sydney UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2021252023-03-20T03:02:36Z2023-03-20T03:02:36ZHow did millions of fish die gasping in the Darling – after three years of rain?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516248/original/file-20230320-24-zym4lc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=4%2C0%2C1017%2C682&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Bill Ormonde</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Millions of dead fish float on the surface of the river. Native bony herring and introduced young carp, as well as a few mature Murray cod and golden perch. History is repeating on the Darling River at Menindee. This new fish kill is even worse than the enormous 2018–2019 fish kill. And it’s in almost the same location. </p>
<p>But how can so many fish die when we’ve been having floods? What’s killing them? </p>
<p>In both 2018 and 2023, the immediate answer is the same: the fish ran out of oxygen. Five years ago, it was because the river was almost dry. This time, it’s likely to be factors like the heatwave days earlier, receding floodwaters, bacteria pulling oxygen from the water – and no escape. </p>
<p>But two events like this in five years speaks to a deeper cause. The Darling River – known as the Baaka by Barkandji Traditional Owners – is very sick. Too much of its water is siphoned off for agriculture. Our native fish are hardy. They’re used to extremes. But this is too much, even for them. </p>
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<h2>Short term pressure, long term pain</h2>
<p>I was a member of the expert panel investigating the 2018–2019 Menindee fish kills. Everyone agreed the fish ran out of oxygen. It was a very dry period, and a cool front arriving after a heat wave mixed deep low-oxygen river water with the thin top layer which had oxygen. </p>
<p>But our panel also examined the long-term changes to the river. We found the long-term cause for the river’s decline was simple: too much water was being <a href="https://www.science.org.au/supporting-science/science-policy-and-sector-analysis/reports-and-publications/fish-kills-report">diverted upstream</a>. </p>
<p>It wasn’t just climate <a href="https://theconversation.com/excessive-water-extractions-not-climate-change-are-most-to-blame-for-the-darling-river-drying-192621">change</a> – it was irrigation. We warned it could <a href="https://theconversation.com/we-wrote-the-report-for-the-minister-on-fish-deaths-in-the-lower-darling-heres-why-it-could-happen-again-115063">happen again</a>. Now it has. </p>
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<span class="caption">Native bony bream died in their millions, as did young carp, golden perch and even Murray cod.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Bill Ormonde</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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<p>When faced with such environmental disaster, our leaders tend to reach for Dorothea MacKellar’s famous poem, My Country, and its line about a land “Of droughts and flooding rains.” Coalition water ministers at both federal and state level confidently blamed the drought for the first fish kill. Now, NSW premier Dominic Perrottet has linked <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-03-18/nsw-menindee-mass-fish-kill-worst-in-region/102115184">this kill</a> to the recent floods. </p>
<p>This is part of the reason. But only part. When floodwaters engorged the Darling and its tributaries, it was a bonanza for bacteria that broke down dead wood lying on the floodplain. Unfortunately, this explosion of microorganisms had a devastating side effect: they sucked oxygen out of the water. </p>
<p>This is what’s known as a blackwater event (in reality, more greeny-brown). As the floodwaters moved downstream and the Darling’s flow decreased, millions of fish fled the floodplains and found themselves crammed back in the narrow river channel where they were hit by plummeting oxygen levels. </p>
<p>Desperate, the fish looked to escape. But upstream, their exit was blocked. In December, authorities had fully opened the gates to the Menindee main weir for the <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-12-05/menindee-weir-opens-allowing-unimpeded-migration-for-native-fish/101732232">first time</a> in a decade to let fish migrate. But now the gates are shut. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516254/original/file-20230320-18-yvz5st.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="menindee weir" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516254/original/file-20230320-18-yvz5st.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516254/original/file-20230320-18-yvz5st.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516254/original/file-20230320-18-yvz5st.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516254/original/file-20230320-18-yvz5st.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516254/original/file-20230320-18-yvz5st.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516254/original/file-20230320-18-yvz5st.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516254/original/file-20230320-18-yvz5st.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Fish could swim up river past the Menindee main weir in December - but as flows slowed, the gates have been shut.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Richard Kingsford</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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<p>They couldn’t get into the main <a href="https://www.mdba.gov.au/water-management/infrastructure/menindee-lakes">Menindee Lakes</a>, where they might have found water with more oxygen, as they were blocked by the regulators – large taps used mainly to let water out. </p>
<p>Could they escape downstream? Perhaps some did. But for millions of fish, there was no time. Their bodies will only <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-03-19/emergency-centre-activated-to-clean-up-menindee-fish-kill/102117524">make the problem worse</a>, as tonnes of rotting fish deposit vast quantities of nutrients into the river. That’s great for bacteria, algae and some fish-eating birds. But it’s not healthy for the river, its fish, or its people. </p>
<p>Yes, fish kills have always occurred but not at <a href="https://www.science.org.au/supporting-science/science-policy-and-sector-analysis/reports-and-publications/fish-kills-report">this scale</a>. The fundamental reason the fish of the Darling keep dying is because there is not enough water allowed to flow.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/fish-kills-and-undrinkable-water-heres-what-to-expect-for-the-murray-darling-this-summer-126940">Fish kills and undrinkable water: here's what to expect for the Murray Darling this summer</a>
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<h2>Why is the Darling in such trouble?</h2>
<p>Since the 1980s, the Darling’s tributaries have steadily shrunk. The Macquarie, the Namoi, the Gwydir, the Border Rivers and the Condamine-Balonne are all shadows of the rivers they once were. </p>
<p>Much of their water is captured in large dams, such as Burrendong Dam, or intercepted by floodplain harvesting, which was legalised only last year by the NSW government to the dismay of environmentalists and <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2022-08-01/floodplain-harvesting-legislated-southern-nsw/101287572">farmers downstream</a>. </p>
<p>Just last week, before news of the fish kills at Menindee, water allocations announced by the NSW Government in the Namoi and Gwydir Rivers were at 113% and 275% respectively. While some of the water held in dams goes to the environment, much of the water in rural reservoirs is allocated for extraction – around 44% of the water held in the Gwydir Valley’s Copeton Dam, and 61% of the water in Keepit and Split Rock Dams in the Namoi Valley. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516257/original/file-20230320-18-1vd4wc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="river red gum on darling" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516257/original/file-20230320-18-1vd4wc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516257/original/file-20230320-18-1vd4wc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516257/original/file-20230320-18-1vd4wc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516257/original/file-20230320-18-1vd4wc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516257/original/file-20230320-18-1vd4wc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516257/original/file-20230320-18-1vd4wc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516257/original/file-20230320-18-1vd4wc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">River red gums rely on periodic flooding. Without floodwaters, they can die.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The fish kills at Menindee are the clearest sign yet of how policy and management have failed the Darling. These catastrophes were inevitable. And the pain isn’t limited to fish. We are suffering too. </p>
<p>Taxpayers forked out nearly half a billion dollars <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-02-26/wentworth-to-broken-hill-pipeline-turned-on/10844986">for a pipeline</a> from the Murray to Broken Hill, which nearly ran out of water in 2019. Why? Because the Darling was no longer dependable. In 2019, the towns of Wilcannia and Brewarrina <a href="https://www.thesaturdaypaper.com.au/news/rural/2019/03/09/wilcannia-the-town-with-no-water/15520500007800#hrd">ran out of water</a>, significantly affecting Aboriginal communities. Why? Because the Darling was so low. </p>
<p>Fish kills like this one make news for a few days, and then get forgotten. But unless we tackle the fundamental problem of a lack of water in our rivers, there will be many more to come. This is not a natural disaster. It is man-made. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/water-buybacks-are-back-on-the-table-in-the-murray-darling-basin-heres-a-refresher-on-how-they-work-200529">Water buybacks are back on the table in the Murray-Darling Basin. Here's a refresher on how they work</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Correction: A previous version of this article said the water farmers and other users could take from the Namoi and Gwydir rivers was well beyond the total flows left in the rivers. In fact, the figures stated include carryover water allocations, and do not reflect the amount of water that can currently be extracted. The article has been amended to reflect this.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/202125/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Richard Kingsford receives funding from the Australian Research Council, New South Wales, Queensland, Victorian and South Australian Governments, the Murray-Darling Basin Authority and a range of non-government organisations, including World Wide Fund for Nature, The Nature Conservancy and philanthropic sources. He is a member of the Wentworth Group of Concerned Scientists and a councillor on the Biodiversity Council. He is also part of the Next Generation Water Management Hub led by Charles Sturt University (funded through the Regional Research Collaboration Program of the Department of Education of the Australian Government), focusing on fish ecology and management. </span></em></p>For the second time in five years, millions of fish suffocated in the Darling River. This was not a natural disaster – it’s our doingRichard Kingsford, Professor, School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1961442022-12-20T19:09:26Z2022-12-20T19:09:26ZFor Australia to lead the way on green hydrogen, first we must find enough water<p>Australia is <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2214629622002559">well-positioned</a> to be a global leader in green hydrogen production. Green hydrogen is produced using a renewable power source such as solar or wind. As a substitute for fossil fuels, it will help to meet <a href="https://theconversation.com/labors-renewable-target-is-much-more-ambitious-than-it-seems-we-need-the-best-bang-for-buck-policy-responses-186302">growing renewable energy needs</a>.</p>
<p>However, high-quality water is needed to produce hydrogen. Supplies of high-quality water must also be secured into the future to support our agriculture, industries, cities, towns and communities. Climate change and population growth will increase pressure on these supplies.</p>
<p>Community discussion is needed to identify where the water to produce hydrogen will come from. We need to ensure this developing industry does not disadvantage other water users, as we discuss in our new <a href="https://www.deakin.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0009/2539584/Water-energy-nexus-whitepaper.pdf">white paper</a>. </p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-will-power-the-future-elon-musks-battery-packs-or-twiggy-forrests-green-hydrogen-truth-is-well-need-both-191333">What will power the future: Elon Musk's battery packs or Twiggy Forrest's green hydrogen? Truth is, we'll need both</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Green hydrogen industry looks set to boom</h2>
<p>Green hydrogen is likely to partially replace petrol and diesel for large vehicles such as trucks and heavy machinery as Australia moves to a carbon-neutral economy. It has the advantage of being a fuel suitable for sectors such as <a href="https://theconversation.com/when-it-comes-to-climate-change-australias-mining-giants-are-an-accessory-to-the-crime-124077">mining</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/tracking-the-transition-the-forgotten-emissions-undoing-the-work-of-australias-renewable-energy-boom-162506">transport</a> that are struggling to reduce emissions.</p>
<p>The green hydrogen market is expected to grow rapidly. Hydrogen energy outputs in Australia are estimated to exceed <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/state-of-hydrogen-2021.pdf">100MW by 2025</a>. More than <a href="https://www.pwc.com.au/integrated-infrastructure-building-australia/getting-h2-right-australias-competitive-hydrogen-export-industry/producing-at-globally-competitive-prices.html">90 projects representing A$250 billion</a> in investment are planned. </p>
<p>Most demand for hydrogen this decade is <a href="https://igcc.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Investor-Group-on-Climate-Change-Hydrogen-Report.pdf">likely to be domestic</a> – for chemical production, industrial processes and other uses. In the longer term, major export demand is <a href="https://igcc.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Investor-Group-on-Climate-Change-Hydrogen-Report.pdf">expected from the Asia-Pacific</a>.</p>
<p>By 2040, Australia’s green hydrogen production cost is <a href="https://www.pwc.com.au/integrated-infrastructure-building-australia/getting-h2-right-australias-competitive-hydrogen-export-industry/producing-at-globally-competitive-prices.html">predicted to be the equal-lowest</a> in the world. Electrolysis, which splits water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen, will be the <a href="https://www.irena.org/publications/2022/Jan/Geopolitics-of-the-Energy-Transformation-Hydrogen">main method of producing</a> this green hydrogen.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501761/original/file-20221219-13-9h4zfh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501761/original/file-20221219-13-9h4zfh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501761/original/file-20221219-13-9h4zfh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=295&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501761/original/file-20221219-13-9h4zfh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=295&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501761/original/file-20221219-13-9h4zfh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=295&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501761/original/file-20221219-13-9h4zfh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=370&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501761/original/file-20221219-13-9h4zfh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=370&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501761/original/file-20221219-13-9h4zfh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=370&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">To produce green hydrogen, electricity from a renewable source is used to split water molecules – H₂O – into hydrogen and oxygen.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/breakthrough-in-gas-separation-and-storage-could-fast-track-shift-to-green-hydrogen-and-significantly-cut-global-energy-use-186644">Breakthrough in gas separation and storage could fast-track shift to green hydrogen and significantly cut global energy use</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How much water are we talking about?</h2>
<p>The amount of water needed to generate green hydrogen varies. The exact <a href="https://apo.org.au/node/314538">amount of water required</a> depends on the technology used to produce hydrogen, the water quality and any need for cooling or water purification.</p>
<p>On average, a litre of water can produce enough hydrogen to deliver about <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Wendy-Timms/publication/336498351_More_Joules_per_Drop_-_How_Much_Water_Does_Unconventional_Gas_Use_Compared_to_Other_Energy_Sources_and_What_Are_the_Legal_Implications/links/5da3b326299bf116fea49860/More-Joules-per-Drop-How-Much-Water-Does-Unconventional-Gas-Use-Compared-to-Other-Energy-Sources-and-What-Are-the-Legal-Implications.pdf">10 megajoules of energy</a>. That’s enough to push a 50-tonne truck 15 metres.</p>
<p>The previous Australian government <a href="https://www.minister.industry.gov.au/ministers/taylor/media-releases/strong-potential-future-australia-germany-hydrogen-exports">predicted</a> the hydrogen industry could be worth A$50 billion a year by 2050. At that scale, it would need about <a href="https://theconversation.com/green-hydrogen-is-coming-and-these-australian-regions-are-well-placed-to-build-our-new-export-industry-174466">225 billion litres</a> (gigalitres) of water. While that’s roughly as much as <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/environment/environmental-management/water-account-australia/latest-release">residents of a city like Perth use</a> in a year, it’s only about <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/industry/agriculture/water-use-australian-farms/latest-release">3% of the water used for agriculture</a> in Australia in 2020-21. </p>
<p>There are many possible sources of water. Surface water, groundwater and recycled water are all available inland. Coastal areas have unlimited seawater, which can be <a href="https://www.rechargenews.com/energy-transition/vast-majority-of-green-hydrogen-projects-may-require-water-desalination-potentially-driving-up-costs/2-1-1070183">desalinated for hydrogen production</a>.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1506123013653209095"}"></div></p>
<p>But there are trade-offs whenever we allocate a water resource. In many areas, the available fresh water is fully allocated to towns, cities, agriculture, industry and the environment. The pressure on water supplies will increase as populations grow and much of Australia becomes hotter and drier under climate change.</p>
<p>Further, most water would have to be treated to be suitable for hydrogen production. Treatment can be expensive and uses additional energy, as does desalination and pumping water long distances.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/new-zealand-is-touting-a-green-hydrogen-economy-but-it-will-face-big-environmental-and-cultural-hurdles-187521">New Zealand is touting a green hydrogen economy, but it will face big environmental and cultural hurdles</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Failure to plan for water use could be costly</h2>
<p>Current issues in the gas industry provide a cautionary tale. High gas prices in eastern Australia can be deemed the result of failure to consider impacts on domestic customers of developing a gas export industry. </p>
<p>Western Australia, in contrast, reserved enough gas for domestic users. As a result, its prices are <a href="https://www.energyquest.com.au/western-australia-low-energy-price-paradise/">among the lowest in the OECD</a>.</p>
<p>A similar failure may arise if corporations buy high-quality water for hydrogen generation, diminishing supplies for agricultural, domestic or environmental use. North Africa exports substantial amounts of <a href="https://corporateeurope.org/en/2022/05/hydrogen-north-africa-neocolonial-resource-grab">green hydrogen to Europe</a>, but this is <a href="https://timep.org/commentary/analysis/who-will-benefit-from-tunisias-green-hydrogen-strategy/">controversial</a> because of <a href="https://www.brookings.edu/blog/africa-in-focus/2022/05/10/the-promise-of-african-clean-hydrogen-exports-potentials-and-pitfalls/">regional water shortages</a>. </p>
<p>In Australia, competition for water will intensify due to climate change and ongoing demands from agriculture – <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/environment/environmental-management/water-account-australia/latest-release#media-releases">72%</a> of national water consumption in 2020-21 – industry, mining, households and the environment. Using potable water to produce hydrogen may be at odds with community expectations. </p>
<p>Care must be taken to ensure industry expansion does not <a href="https://www.ecnt.org.au/repowerfaq_waterhydrogen">adversely affect other users</a>. This will be particularly difficult in Australia because rainfall is <a href="https://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/national-location-information/dimensions/climatic-extremes">highly variable by world standards</a> – not news to those who have lived through recent years of drought then flooding rains.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1533923466029563904"}"></div></p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/albanese-just-laid-out-a-radical-new-vision-for-australia-in-the-region-clean-energy-exporter-and-green-manufacturer-186815">Albanese just laid out a radical new vision for Australia in the region: clean energy exporter and green manufacturer</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>So what are the likely solutions?</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://ecos.csiro.au/hydrogen-industry-australia/">key challenge</a> is to produce hydrogen in large quantities in a way that is cost-effective and sustainable. </p>
<p>This can be achieved by planning effectively for industry growth. Our <a href="https://www.deakin.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0009/2539584/Water-energy-nexus-whitepaper.pdf">white paper</a> identifies public policy and industry-related issues posed by this growth.</p>
<p>We must identify regions likely to support hydrogen production and storage, find nearby sources of water and calculate volumes needed. Then, we must develop plans to support existing water users while providing a viable solution for the green hydrogen industry.</p>
<p>Alternative sources such as recycled water or treated groundwater are likely part of that solution. Harvesting water from industrial and urban wastewater <a href="https://ecat.ga.gov.au/geonetwork/srv/eng/catalog.search#/metadata/130930">could be a game changer</a>. It would require moderate treatment but have fewer effects on other water users.</p>
<p>We will learn a lot from pilot programs such as the <a href="https://arena.gov.au/projects/new-energies-service-station-geelong-demonstration-project/">New Energies Service Station</a> in Geelong, which will create hydrogen from 100% recycled water.</p>
<p>In planning to overcome the challenges, we’ll need to develop relevant data, information and analysis to get the settings right.</p>
<p>It is possible to create a vibrant, sustainable and profitable green hydrogen industry to support decarbonisation of Australian and global economies, but it won’t happen by accident. Careful planning is essential, and communities must be involved in deciding where water will come from and how it can be accessed.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/196144/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rebecca Lester receives funding from the Australian Research Council, and the Australian and Victorian Governments. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>I was Deputy Director-General then Director-General, Water Victoria (1989-92); then Secretary, Department of Energy and Minerals, Victoria (1992-1995). Later I was Deputy Secretary then General Manager, Office of Water, Victoria. During that time I was a Victorian representative on the Murray Darling Basin Commission and then on the Basin Officials Committee (2004-2011). I was Director and MD of a consulting company owned by a law firm (now called Norton Rose Gledhill) from 1995-2003. During that time I was involved with various water and energy projects including the corporatisation of the Snowy Mountains Scheme. I am a shareholder in Xpansiv, a large renewable energy and water exchange, and was formerly a board member. I am a board member and shareholder in Flinders Peak Water, an organisation dedicated to using recycled water for food/agriculture. Through Deakin University I am connected to various water-related projects, including MDB and Drought Resilience programs, funded out of government grants.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Wendy Timms receives funding from the Australian Research Council, CO2CRC, Fluid Potential and the Victorian government. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Don Gunasekera does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Australia’s emerging green hydrogen industry requires a secure supply of high-quality water. Competing demands for this scarce resource mean careful planning is needed to meet all water users’ needs.Rebecca Lester, Professor, Aquatic Ecology and Director, Centre for Regional and Rural Futures, Deakin UniversityDavid Downie, Strategic Adviser, Regional Development, Deakin UniversityDon Gunasekera, Research Fellow, Centre for Supply Chain and Logistics, Deakin UniversityWendy Timms, Professor of Environmental Engineering, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1878622022-11-03T01:42:32Z2022-11-03T01:42:32ZOversized plumbing is adding millions to Australian building costs, thanks to a standard dating back to the 1940s<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478038/original/file-20220808-18-488j02.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=17%2C0%2C5973%2C3988&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Outdated plumbing standards are leading to oversized systems and inflated costs for Australian apartment buildings. Their plumbing systems are required to handle demand for water that’s more than three times the actual recorded peak demand, our <a href="https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)WR.1943-5452.0001625">newly published research</a> shows.</p>
<p>The “designed peak demand” as laid out in the <a href="https://store.standards.org.au/product/as-nzs-3500-1-2021">Australian plumbing standard</a> dictates the design and scale of the water services in apartment buildings. The large discrepancy between designed and actual demand in most of these buildings means the water system is much larger than needed, adding to both construction and maintenance costs. </p>
<p>One <a href="https://www.waterdemand.com.au/our-story">case study</a> of a 13-storey apartment building estimated A$120,000 could have been saved in building costs if actual peak demand were used for the plumbing design. With <a href="https://www.afr.com/property/commercial/apartment-construction-is-on-the-rise-but-can-it-continue-20220408-p5abzx">hundreds of apartment buildings</a> built in Australia every year, updated standards could save many millions of dollars.</p>
<p>Even more of a problem is that oversized systems don’t work as designed. This leads to plumbing defects that account for a <a href="https://theconversation.com/water-leaks-cracks-and-flawed-fire-safety-systems-sydneys-apartments-are-riddled-with-building-defects-169526">high proportion</a> of strata insurance claims and cost the Australian economy <a href="https://www.strata.community/_files/ugd/de87c4_9714a2c320804ecbb270af78ee492826.pdf">about $200 million a year</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/water-leaks-cracks-and-flawed-fire-safety-systems-sydneys-apartments-are-riddled-with-building-defects-169526">Water leaks, cracks and flawed fire safety systems: Sydney's apartments are riddled with building defects</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>We can improve plumbing systems using more accurate estimates of peak demand. However, it’s not simply a matter of reducing the size of pipes and pumps. This may create other damaging problems such as noisy vibrations in the pipes known as <a href="https://doi.org/10.2166/ws.2012.036">water hammer</a>. </p>
<p>Updating the standard requires work to develop a modern and accurate process of sizing plumbing systems. </p>
<h2>Plumbing standards and practices are outdated</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://store.standards.org.au/product/as-nzs-3500-1-2021">Australian plumbing standard</a> provides a solution for sizing water services to comply with the <a href="https://ncc.abcb.gov.au/editions/2019-a1/ncc-2019-volume-three-amendment-1/contents-and-introduction/copyright-and-licence">Plumbing Code of Australia</a>. Based on the number of apartments, the solution estimates the probable maximum water demand – the “designed peak demand”. The pipe size is then determined based on a desired range for how fast the water flows and water pressure at times of peak use.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477164/original/file-20220802-11-fgij7y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477164/original/file-20220802-11-fgij7y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=834&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477164/original/file-20220802-11-fgij7y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=834&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477164/original/file-20220802-11-fgij7y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=834&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477164/original/file-20220802-11-fgij7y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1048&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477164/original/file-20220802-11-fgij7y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1048&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477164/original/file-20220802-11-fgij7y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1048&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hunter’s work (1940) laid the foundation of plumbing engineering.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This approach is based on the “<a href="https://plumbing.org.au/product/selection-sizing-of-copper-tubes-for-water-piping-systems-ebook/">Barrie Book</a>”. It was developed using the British plumbing code in the mid-1970s. The British and many other international plumbing codes are based on pioneering <a href="https://www.aspe.org/product/the-original-hunter-papers-the-foundation-of-plumbing-engineering/">work by Roy B. Hunter</a> in the US, which was published in 1940. </p>
<p>Hunter monitored the use of water fixtures in two hotel buildings at times of high demand. He used the data to determine each type of fixture’s probability of use at these times. Knowing the fixture flow rate and number of fixtures, the probable total demand can be determined. </p>
<h2>We are much more water-efficient today</h2>
<p>The over-estimation for buildings today is not a reflection on Hunter’s work. It is a result of changes in our water use and advances in plumbing technology. </p>
<p>In Australia, the <a href="https://www.waterrating.gov.au/">Water Efficiency Labelling and Standards</a> adopted in response to the Millennium Drought have largely driven changes in fixture flow rates and water use. For example, consumption in our two biggest cities has dropped by between a quarter and a third this century.</p>
<p>In Melbourne, residents used an average of 248 litres per person per day (L/p/d) in 2001. By 2020 it was <a href="https://waterforlifestrategy.com.au/68059/widgets/334364/documents/235665">158 L/p/d</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478686/original/file-20220811-18-oeo40l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Line graph of history of Melbourne water consumption per person" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478686/original/file-20220811-18-oeo40l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478686/original/file-20220811-18-oeo40l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478686/original/file-20220811-18-oeo40l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478686/original/file-20220811-18-oeo40l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478686/original/file-20220811-18-oeo40l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=567&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478686/original/file-20220811-18-oeo40l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=567&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478686/original/file-20220811-18-oeo40l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=567&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Daily residential and total water use per person in Melbourne from 2001 to 2020, and projected use.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://ehq-production-australia.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/0318fc55ade25397ce385ab67084290bd4979cf7/original/1655335035/0886016397d6a869b7b40f26597fa463_Draft_Water_for_Life_Strategy.pdf?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Credential=AKIAIBJCUKKD4ZO4WUUA%2F20220811%2Fap-southeast-2%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20220811T043443Z&X-Amz-Expires=300&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Signature=7cea4adc71265cdc16d5a28a23009234837c8464b2babec903d97ff723a7a9d4">Draft Greater Melbourne Urban Water & System Strategy: Water for Life/Melbourne Water</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In Sydney, demand fell from about <a href="https://www.sydneywater.com.au/content/dam/sydneywater/documents/Sydney-Water_Water-Conservation-Report_20-21.pdf">270 L/p/d to 200 L/p/d</a> over the same period. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478689/original/file-20220811-4224-5piny7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Line graph showing Total daily demand and residential usage of drinking water per person in Sydney from 1991-2021" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478689/original/file-20220811-4224-5piny7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478689/original/file-20220811-4224-5piny7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=304&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478689/original/file-20220811-4224-5piny7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=304&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478689/original/file-20220811-4224-5piny7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=304&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478689/original/file-20220811-4224-5piny7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478689/original/file-20220811-4224-5piny7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478689/original/file-20220811-4224-5piny7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Total daily demand and residential usage of drinking water per person in Sydney from 1991-2021.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.sydneywater.com.au/content/dam/sydneywater/documents/Sydney-Water_Water-Conservation-Report_20-21.pdf">Water Conservation Report 2020-2021/Sydney Water</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Oversized systems are costly</h2>
<p>A <a href="https://www.waterdemand.com.au/our-story">case study</a> of a 13-storey residential building with around 120 apartments found the pipe size would have been 40mm instead of 100mm if designed for actual peak demand. This could save $120,000 in building costs. This suggests very large savings could be made across the construction sector.</p>
<p>For the hot water system, the smaller pipe could reduce heat loss by 30-40%, saving another $2,000 a year in energy costs. </p>
<p>Pumps that are oversized as a result of overestimating peak demand are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11081-020-09553-4">less energy-efficient and cost more</a>. They start and stop more often, to “throttle down” water flow, which reduces the life of the pump. Pressure surges can also create <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/1573062X.2014.989860">water hammer</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/analysis-of-5-500-apartment-developments-reveals-your-new-home-may-not-be-as-energy-efficient-as-you-think-182143">Analysis of 5,500 apartment developments reveals your new home may not be as energy efficient as you think</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477160/original/file-20220802-13-kfqmxu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477160/original/file-20220802-13-kfqmxu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477160/original/file-20220802-13-kfqmxu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=948&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477160/original/file-20220802-13-kfqmxu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=948&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477160/original/file-20220802-13-kfqmxu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=948&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477160/original/file-20220802-13-kfqmxu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1192&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477160/original/file-20220802-13-kfqmxu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1192&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477160/original/file-20220802-13-kfqmxu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1192&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Building water pipes with cracks at the joint.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Image: James Gong</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>To deliver a given amount of water, wider pipes have lower flow velocities than narrower pipes, so oversized pipes may rarely experience self-cleansing velocities. These relatively high flows flush out trapped air and particulates that can cause <a href="https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9496(2009)135:4(227)accelerate%20the%20%5Bwear%20of%20pipe%20wall">pipe walls to wear out faster</a>. Long-term low flows also promote the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2017.07.019">growth of biofilms and bacteria</a>, which can result in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.corsci.2011.10.026">corrosion</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2012.09.053">discoloured water</a>.</p>
<p>Repeated water hammer, combined with other factors such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.5006/2937">water chemistry</a>, can lead to plumbing systems <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11668-016-0211-1">failing prematurely</a>. When this happens after a building developer’s defects and liability period expires (usually within <a href="https://www.consumer.vic.gov.au/housing/building-and-renovating/definitions">two years for non-structural defects</a>), home owners are left liable for a hidden design problem.</p>
<p>A 2021 <a href="https://www.strata.community/strata-insurance-report">strata insurance report</a> listed “water damage including leaks” and “burst water pipe” among the top four most common causes of claims in Australia. The combined claim costs were estimated at <a href="https://www.strata.community/strata-insurance-report?pgid=kt3pjo23-59917e83-1fc7-4333-aaf3-e274cc92d5db">over $500 million</a> from 2016-2020, based on a review of some 49% of all strata schemes in Australia. This equates to an annual nation-wide cost of $200 million.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478034/original/file-20220808-14-tt5qf8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478034/original/file-20220808-14-tt5qf8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478034/original/file-20220808-14-tt5qf8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=151&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478034/original/file-20220808-14-tt5qf8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=151&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478034/original/file-20220808-14-tt5qf8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=151&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478034/original/file-20220808-14-tt5qf8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=190&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478034/original/file-20220808-14-tt5qf8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=190&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478034/original/file-20220808-14-tt5qf8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=190&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.strata.community/strata-insurance-report">Chart: The Conversation. Data: N. Johnston, A data-driven holistic understanding of strata insurance in Australia and New Zealand/Strata Community Association</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/dealing-with-apartment-defects-a-how-to-guide-for-strata-owners-and-buyers-150292">Dealing with apartment defects: a how-to guide for strata owners and buyers</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How can we improve plumbing design?</h2>
<p>Deakin researchers are developing methods to estimate peak demand more accurately for multi-level residential buildings. Digital water meters have provided a rich dataset that shows how Australians use water indoors.</p>
<p>With more accurate estimates of peak demand, pipe sizes would reduce significantly using the existing standardised approach. However, smaller pipes may experience more severe water hammer and higher risk of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1515/corrrev-2017-0120">pipe erosion and corrosion</a> due to higher flow. </p>
<p>Future plumbing design has to consider a wide range of flow conditions. Most times the flow is much lower than the expected peak demand, but it can change quickly. Modelling can help us understand how systems perform under various conditions. </p>
<p>Capturing the dynamics of the flow, pressure, temperature and energy use is a challenge that requires further research. Australian plumbing standards and practices need a systematic update that goes beyond peak demand.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/187862/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>James Gong receives funding from Hydraulic Consultants Association of Australasia and Australian Building Codes Board. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brendan Josey receives funding from Hydraulic Consultants Association of Australasia and Australian Building Codes Board.</span></em></p>Australian plumbing standards require apartment buildings to have systems designed for three times their actual peak water use. This can lead to costly water damage on top of inflated building costs.James Gong, Senior Lecturer in Water Engineering, Deakin UniversityBrendan Josey, PhD Candidate, School of Engineering, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1882582022-08-26T12:49:25Z2022-08-26T12:49:25ZWhy clean, affordable water should not be in the hands of private companies targeting profit – new research<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481204/original/file-20220825-24-1c3orv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=52%2C45%2C4966%2C2867&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/hosepipe-being-used-water-garden-summer-2186807005">Shutterstock/Nigel J. Harris</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>England’s water companies have come in for some <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2022/aug/20/water-company-ceos-industry-political-failure">heavy criticism</a> this summer. An extremely <a href="https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/about-us/press-office/news/weather-and-climate/2022/driest-july-in-england-since-1935">dry July</a> has led to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/aug/12/drought-declared-england-hosepipe-ban-water-restrictions">drought status</a> being declared in many areas, while 3 billion litres of water <a href="https://www.nao.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Water-supply-and-demand-management.pdf">are lost</a> through leakage every single day. </p>
<p>Those firms have also come under fire for the pollution they cause, with only <a href="https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm5802/cmselect/cmenvaud/74/report.html">14% of English rivers</a> meeting “good” ecological status. Increasing sewage discharges into rivers and seas is a serious public health issue, with the Environment Agency <a href="https://www.standard.co.uk/news/uk/environment-agency-investors-water-southern-thames-b1012337.html">calling for prison sentences</a> for those responsible for the most serious incidents. </p>
<p>Meanwhile, shareholders and investors have seen significant returns. In the 12 years to 2021, England’s nine water and sewerage companies paid out an <a href="https://gala.gre.ac.uk/id/eprint/34274/14/34274%20HALL_Water_and_Sewerage_Company_Finances_%28Rev.2%29_2021.pdf">average of £1.6 billion a year</a> in dividends. Directors’ pay too, has soared. The new CEO of Thames Water received a £3.1 million <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2022/aug/15/drought-hits-water-company-chief-executives-paid">“golden hello”</a> when she joined in 2020. </p>
<p>Our <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13563467.2022.2084521">latest research</a> examines the way that private equity investors have come to dominate ownership of England’s water companies – and how they operate with considerably less transparency than publicly listed companies and a more aggressive approach to extracting profit. </p>
<p>These high levels of dividends, directors’ pay (and debt finance, which could make some of the companies increasingly precarious as interest rates rise) are all paid for by water consumers. Many of these customers struggle to pay, and the cost of living crisis will only put them under even more strain. </p>
<p>Overall then, the English water system works through ordinary households funding generous returns to largely unknown shareholders via complex corporate structures often routed via tax havens, simply through their consumption of water. </p>
<p>So what has happened to regulation in all this? In our paper, we argue that the regulatory process – which in England involves three separate agencies responsible for quality, environmental impact, and prices – faces significant challenges in achieving a fair balance between the interests of investors, consumers and the environment. </p>
<p>Water companies motivated by profit need to be given financial incentives to operate in the wider social interest. The prices they are allowed to charge customers are based on estimates of future costs and achieving certain targets concerning water quality, pollution incidents, leakage and consumption. </p>
<p>This can produce bizarre results. For example, the government wants to see water consumption fall from around 140 litres per person per day to 110 litres by 2050. If this happens, water companies will be able to increase prices. Effectively then, we would all end up paying them a reward for achieving our own reduction in consumption. </p>
<h2>Muddying the water</h2>
<p>It all adds up to a very unusual business model. After all, it is not as if an unhappy customer can simply choose to get their water from another source.</p>
<p>And our paper shows that the current regulatory structure is no match for the sophisticated practices of private finance. It faces an unmanageable task. </p>
<p>Efforts to tilt the balance in favour of consumers inevitably impinge on investors, and this meets with resistance. Some <a href="https://nic.org.uk/app/uploads/NIC-Strategic-Investment-Public-Confidence-October-2019.pdf">reports</a> have found a systemic bias toward investors in infrastructure regulation.</p>
<p>No other country has followed the English example, and elsewhere water is largely in the public sector. Paris took its water back <a href="https://iwaponline.com/wp/article-abstract/16/1/197/20125/Discussion-The-remunicipalization-of-Paris-s-water?redirectedFrom=fulltext">into public ownership</a> in 2010 after 25 years of private control. The year after, the unit price of water was cut by 8% as a result of savings due to public management. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Water pouring out of pipe." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481205/original/file-20220825-723-79i9zy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481205/original/file-20220825-723-79i9zy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481205/original/file-20220825-723-79i9zy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481205/original/file-20220825-723-79i9zy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481205/original/file-20220825-723-79i9zy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481205/original/file-20220825-723-79i9zy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481205/original/file-20220825-723-79i9zy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cash flow.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/water-flow-pipe-sunset-abstract-399659251">Shutterstock/harnchoke punya</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Switching to public ownership is not simple, but one <a href="https://gala.gre.ac.uk/id/eprint/31646/3/31646%20LOBINA_et_al_Water_Remunicipalisation_in_Paris_%28PSIRU%29_2021.pdf">recent study</a> suggests it is becoming increasingly popular in Europe. Nor would it be cheap, but in the long run, cost savings are likely with profits reinvested, and public ownership should lead to greater transparency.</p>
<p>The current arrangement is not working. Put simply, it is impossible to mould private profit incentives to meet the public interest in water. As extreme weather events are set to increase, water needs to be in public ownership to ensure that social and environmental outcomes can be prioritised over private profits.</p>
<p>England’s water was privatised with an ideological faith in private sector efficiency. But there is a major policy inconsistency in the heavy reliance on the public sector to steer water companies towards social and environmental goals. After 33 years, the private ownership experiment has failed.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/188258/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kate Bayliss does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Paris successfully took water back into public ownership. There is growing evidence to suggest England should do the same.Kate Bayliss, Research Associate, Department of Economics, SOAS, University of LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1878852022-08-05T15:31:47Z2022-08-05T15:31:47ZFive easy ways to use less water at home – and not just in a drought<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/476915/original/file-20220801-19-z0zuac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C6240%2C4156&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Wait for starchy cooking water to cool and then use it to water your plants.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/natural-fertilizer-water-after-boiling-eggs-1565981779">VH-studio/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>With so much of the world suffering from drought, you might think your ability to help is minimal. But when you consider the average person in the UK uses around <a href="https://www.water.org.uk/news-item/vast-majority-of-brits-have-no-idea-how-much-water-they-use-each-day/">142 litres of water a day</a>, it’s easy to see how small changes to your routine can add up.</p>
<p>More than half of the water that is extracted from rivers, streams and aquifers in the UK feeds the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/statistical-data-sets/env15-water-abstraction-tables">public water supply</a>. These abstractions, as they’re called, worsen drought conditions by draining local waterways, depriving vegetation, fish and other aquatic life of the water they need to survive droughts.</p>
<p>Filling paddling pools to cool off, taking multiple showers each day to stay clean, watering the garden to revive wilting plants – all these extra activities contribute to a sharp increase in public water use on hot and dry days. And these impacts can endure for months, as freshwater systems need a lot of additional rainfall to recover from droughts.</p>
<p>If each person can reduce their water use during a drought, it would significantly benefit the natural world in its recovery. Here are five things you can do, starting today.</p>
<h2>1. Shower less</h2>
<p>Most of the water you use is <a href="https://www.water.org.uk/news-item/vast-majority-of-brits-have-no-idea-how-much-water-they-use-each-day/">in the shower</a>. For every minute you’re under the shower head (depending on how powerful it is), around 10 litres of water drains away. Since most people shower for <a href="https://www.mirashowers.co.uk/blog/trends/revealed-what-brits-are-really-getting-up-to-in-the-bathroom-1/#:%7E:text=Most%20Brits%20(62%25)%20bathe,latest%20UK%20shower%20habits%20survey.">an average of seven minutes</a>, half of your daily water use takes place first thing in the morning.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A hand testing the shower water while adjusting the tap." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/476514/original/file-20220728-2377-j4qs5x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/476514/original/file-20220728-2377-j4qs5x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/476514/original/file-20220728-2377-j4qs5x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/476514/original/file-20220728-2377-j4qs5x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/476514/original/file-20220728-2377-j4qs5x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/476514/original/file-20220728-2377-j4qs5x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/476514/original/file-20220728-2377-j4qs5x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">For each minute you shave off your shower time, you save 10 litres of water.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/woman-taking-shower-home-female-hands-1932944879">l i g h t p o e t/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Turning off the shower while shampooing your hair or applying shower gel can help conserve water, as can shortening the length of your shower overall. Be sure not to switch to a bath though – the average soak in the tub uses <a href="https://www.water.org.uk/news-item/vast-majority-of-brits-have-no-idea-how-much-water-they-use-each-day/">around 80 litres of water</a>.</p>
<h2>2. Use rainwater in the garden</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/476516/original/file-20220728-11927-w6xz8u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A green, plastic barrel connected to a black draining pipe and stood in a garden." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/476516/original/file-20220728-11927-w6xz8u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/476516/original/file-20220728-11927-w6xz8u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/476516/original/file-20220728-11927-w6xz8u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/476516/original/file-20220728-11927-w6xz8u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/476516/original/file-20220728-11927-w6xz8u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/476516/original/file-20220728-11927-w6xz8u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/476516/original/file-20220728-11927-w6xz8u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Water butts can be purchased in garden centres.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/green-water-butt-brown-catch-pipe-15464518">Robert Hackett/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>During a dry spell, the average gardener can use <a href="https://www.southwestwater.co.uk/siteassets/documents/uwu-0618-web-version.pdf">hundreds of litres</a> of water to keep their plants hydrated. Some people will use a watering can (good), others might leave a sprinkler on all day (bad). Most use drinking water, which is a waste – plants are happy with rain water.</p>
<p>Add a water butt that collects the rain which falls on your roof and use it for the garden. To find out how to install one, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2jk0lstsu5o">watch this</a>. </p>
<h2>3. Use the short flush</h2>
<p>Per flush, your toilet uses about <a href="https://www.water.org.uk/news-item/vast-majority-of-brits-have-no-idea-how-much-water-they-use-each-day/">5 litres of water</a>, and up to 10 litres in older models. If available, use the short flush to significantly reduce how much water is wasted.</p>
<h2>4. Cut back on car washing</h2>
<p>If you need to wash your car, do it the old-fashioned way with a bucket and soap rather than hosing it down. The water contained in a bucket (<a href="https://www.water.org.uk/news-item/vast-majority-of-brits-have-no-idea-how-much-water-they-use-each-day/">roughly 30 litres</a>) is significantly less than the average that flows through a hose (around <a href="https://www.southwestwater.co.uk/siteassets/documents/uwu-0618-web-version.pdf">15 litres per minute</a>). Better yet, avoid washing your car entirely during a drought.</p>
<h2>5. Reuse water</h2>
<p>If you’re washing vegetables, you could collect the water in a bowl in the sink and later give it to the plants in your house or outside. While you’re waiting for warm water to come out of a tap, use the cold to fill the kettle. Close the tap while you’re lathering your hands with soap or brushing your teeth. Though these are only small savings, they do make a difference over time.</p>
<p>Inflatable pools are lovely for cooling down on the hottest days. A cleaning pump can filter the water and recycle it without you needing to use more water to keep the pool clean.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A blue, plastic paddling pool in a garden with a white filter attached." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/476911/original/file-20220801-20-52lc5a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/476911/original/file-20220801-20-52lc5a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/476911/original/file-20220801-20-52lc5a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/476911/original/file-20220801-20-52lc5a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/476911/original/file-20220801-20-52lc5a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/476911/original/file-20220801-20-52lc5a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/476911/original/file-20220801-20-52lc5a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pool filters can clean and recycle water without the need for additional cleaning.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/tuscany-italy-june-29-2020-blue-1772802524">Daniele COSSU/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Save water, save money</h2>
<p>All these tips can significantly reduce your water use and combat the effects of drought on the environment. They can also save you money.</p>
<p>If you’re able to renovate your home, it’s worth installing a system for collecting rain water which, combined with a pump, can flush toilets. In Belgium, for example, it is common practice to have such a system installed (effectively, a large underground water butt) in newly built houses. </p>
<p>Most people would struggle to afford these kinds of measures, and so drought-proofing homes and communities should be part of the effort to adapt countries to the extreme weather expected in a rapidly warming world.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><strong><em>Don’t have time to read about climate change as much as you’d like?</em></strong>
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<hr><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/187885/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Niko Wanders receives funding from the Dutch Science Foundation, the European Union and National Geographic for his work on drought and climate change. </span></em></p>Rationing water at home will benefit moisture-starved ecosystems.Niko Wanders, Assistant Professor in Hydrological Extremes, Utrecht UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1838062022-05-29T19:54:24Z2022-05-29T19:54:24Z11,000 litres of water to make one litre of milk? New questions about the freshwater impact of NZ dairy farming<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465427/original/file-20220526-13-lehs4k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=22%2C14%2C4898%2C3231&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Water scarcity and water pollution are increasingly <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41545-019-0039-9#:%7E:text=At%20present%2C%20slightly%20less%20than,least%201%20month%20each%20year.&text=According%20to%2C3%20the%20number,52%25%20of%20the%20global%20population">critical global issues</a>. Water <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature21403">scarcity is driven</a> not only by shortages of water, but also by rendering water unusable through pollution. New Zealand is no exception to these trends.</p>
<p>Demand for water has rapidly increased, and New Zealand now has the <a href="https://www.oecd.org/newzealand/oecd-environmental-performance-reviews-new-zealand-2017-9789264268203-en.htm">highest per capita</a> take of water for agriculture among OECD countries. Regulatory failures have also led to <a href="https://www.sbc.org.nz/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/99419/A-Best-Use-Solution-for-NZs-Water-Problems.pdf">over-allocation</a> of many ground and surface water resources.</p>
<p>Some water sources are also well on the way to being unusable. Over the past few decades, nutrient and sediment emissions into waterways <a href="https://www.oecd.org/newzealand/oecd-environmental-performance-reviews-new-zealand-2017-9789264268203-en.htm">have increased</a>, driven by agricultural and horticultural intensification.</p>
<p>Much is made of the environmental benefits of New Zealand’s “grass-fed” dairy systems. But a major downside of high-intensity outdoor farming systems is the nitrate leaching from animal waste and synthetic fertilisers that contaminates fresh water.</p>
<h2>Milk’s grey water footprint</h2>
<p>Our <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14486563.2022.2068685?journalCode=tjem20">new paper</a> focuses on nitrate pollution in Canterbury. We comprehensively quantify, for the first time, the nitrate “grey water” footprint of milk production in the region.</p>
<p>A <a href="https://waterfootprint.org/media/downloads/TheWaterFootprintAssessmentManual_2.pdf">water footprint</a> (WF) is a measure of the volume of fresh water used to produce a given mass or volume of product (in this case, milk).</p>
<p>It’s made up of both “consumptive” and “degradative” components. The consumption component is rainwater (green WF) and groundwater or surface water (blue WF) used in irrigation. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/air-of-compromise-nzs-emissions-reduction-plan-reveals-a-climate-budget-thats-long-on-planning-short-on-strategy-181478">Air of compromise: NZ's Emissions Reduction Plan reveals a climate budget that’s long on planning, short on strategy</a>
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<p><a href="https://waterfootprint.org/media/downloads/Report65-GreyWaterFootprint-Guidelines_1.pdf">Grey water</a> is the degradative part – the volume of water needed to dilute the pollutants produced to the extent the receiving water remains above water quality standards.</p>
<p>Most water footprint studies of food systems highlight the consumptive water component and often neglect the degradative component. However, we found Canterbury’s pasture-based systems mean grey water is the biggest component.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465446/original/file-20220526-24-7k1e0b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465446/original/file-20220526-24-7k1e0b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465446/original/file-20220526-24-7k1e0b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465446/original/file-20220526-24-7k1e0b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465446/original/file-20220526-24-7k1e0b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465446/original/file-20220526-24-7k1e0b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465446/original/file-20220526-24-7k1e0b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Too many cows? Recalculating the impact of milk production.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Getty Images</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Standards and thresholds</h2>
<p>Our analysis found the nitrate grey water footprint for Canterbury ranged from 433 to 11,110 litres of water per litre of milk, depending on the water standards applied and their nitrate thresholds. </p>
<p>The 11,110 litre figure is to meet the Australasian <a href="https://environment.govt.nz/publications/australian-and-new-zealand-guidelines-for-fresh-and-marine-water-quality/">guideline level</a> to protect aquatic ecosystems, and the 433 litre figure is to meet current drinking water limits. </p>
<p>(Drinking water having lower limits may seem counter-intuitive, but the limit is based on 70-year-old research that has been superseded without legislation catching up.)</p>
<p>The larger footprint is higher than many estimates for global milk production. It reveals that footprints are very dependent on the inputs (such as feed and fertiliser) included in analyses and water quality standards.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/if-we-want-to-improve-nzs-freshwater-quality-first-we-need-to-improve-the-quality-of-our-democracy-159322">If we want to improve NZ’s freshwater quality, first we need to improve the quality of our democracy</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>A previous <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2012.03.006">dairy water footprint study</a> in Canterbury gave a grey water footprint of about 400 litres of water to make a litre of milk. However, it used the New Zealand drinking water standard for nitrate-nitrogen (nitrogen present in the form of nitrate ion) of 11.3 milligrams per litre (mg/l). </p>
<p>This vastly underestimates the problem. <a href="https://waterfootprint.org/media/downloads/TheWaterFootprintAssessmentManual_2.pdf">The Water Footprint Assessment Manual</a>, which sets a global standard, stipulates the concentration of pollutants should meet “prevailing” freshwater quality standards. </p>
<p>In New Zealand, the National Policy Statement for Freshwater Management sets a bottom line for <a href="https://environment.govt.nz/assets/Publications/Files/national-policy-statement-for-freshwater-management-2020.pdf">nitrate-nitrogen of 2.4mg/l</a>, much lower than the level for drinking water.</p>
<p>Our analysis – based on prevailing freshwater quality standards – shows the production of one litre of milk in Canterbury requires about 11,000 litres of water to meet the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14486563.2022.2068685?journalCode=tjem20">ecosystem health standards</a>.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1420184973584199680"}"></div></p>
<h2>12-fold reduction needed</h2>
<p>The large footprint for milk in Canterbury indicates just how far the capacity of the environment has been overshot. To maintain that level of production and have healthy water would require either 12 times more rainfall in the region or a 12-fold reduction in cows.</p>
<p>Dairy farming at current levels of intensity is clearly unsustainable. We know <a href="https://environment.govt.nz/publications/environment-aotearoa-2019/">85% of waterways</a> in pasture catchments, which make up half the country’s waterways (measured by length), exceed nitrate-nitrogen guideline values for healthy ecosystems.</p>
<p>Evidence is also <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29435982/">emerging</a> of the direct <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S001393511930218X">human health</a> effects (colon cancer and birth defects) of nitrate in drinking water. Extensive dairy farming in Canterbury is already leading to significant pollution of the region’s groundwater, much of which is used for drinking water.</p>
<p>Current practices also threaten the market perception of the sustainability of New Zealand’s dairy industry and its products. The “grass-fed” marketing line overlooks the huge amounts of fossil-fuel-derived fertiliser used to make the extra grass that supports New Zealand’s very high animal stock rates. </p>
<p>Also overlooked is the palm kernel expeller (PKE) fed directly to cows. New Zealand is the <a href="https://www.indexmundi.com/agriculture/?commodity=palm-kernel-meal&graph=imports">biggest importer globally</a> of this byproduct of palm oil production.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/without-a-better-plan-new-zealand-risks-sleepwalking-into-a-biodiversity-extinction-crisis-182279">Without a better plan, New Zealand risks sleepwalking into a biodiversity extinction crisis</a>
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</p>
<hr>
<h2>The synthetic fertiliser problem</h2>
<p>Growing use of synthetic nitrogen fertiliser has helped dramatically increase nitrate levels and the water pollution problems New Zealand faces.</p>
<p>Until the 1990s, reactive nitrogen (a term used for a variety of nitrogen compounds that support growth) in pastures was predominantly obtained through nitrogen-fixing clover plants. But synthetic nitrogen fertiliser from fossil fuels displaced natural systems and drove intensification.</p>
<p>Globally, synthetic nitrogen production has now <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo325">eclipsed</a> all that produced by natural systems. This disruption of the nitrogen cycle seriously threatens global human sustainability, not only through its impacts on the climate, but also through localised impacts on fresh water.</p>
<p>The European Science Foundation <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/european-nitrogen-assessment/summary-for-policy-makers/8C71929358438A6F1BDBEADB38E44E67">described</a> the industrial-scale production of synthetic nitrogen as “perhaps the greatest single experiment in global geo-engineering that humans have ever made”.</p>
<p>It is clear that water is becoming a defining political and economic issue. Changing attitudes to its quality and accessibility depends on accurate information – including how water is used to dilute agricultural waste.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/183806/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mike Joy is affiliated with The Environmental Law Initiative (ELI). </span></em></p>A new study of dairying in Canterbury shows previous estimates vastly underestimate the impact of intensive farming. A 12-fold reduction in cow numbers could be needed to meet safe water standards.Mike Joy, Senior Researcher; Institute for Governance and Policy Studies, Te Herenga Waka — Victoria University of WellingtonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1770092022-02-16T16:49:04Z2022-02-16T16:49:04ZHow ancient plants ‘learnt’ to use water when they moved on to land – new research<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446738/original/file-20220216-17-1dk3bte.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Focal point/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>“Plants, whether they are enormous, or microscopic, are the basis of all life including ourselves.” This was David Attenborough’s introduction to <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/m0013cl7">The Green Planet</a>, the latest BBC natural history series.</p>
<p>Over the last 500 million years, plants have become interwoven into every aspect of our lives. <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41477-019-0555-0">Plants</a> support <a href="https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/nph.17822">all other life</a> on Earth today. They provide the oxygen people breathe, as well as cleaning the air and cooling the Earth’s temperature. But without water, plants would not survive. Originally found in aquatic environments, there are estimated to be around 500,000 land plant species that emerged from a single ancestor that floated through the water. </p>
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<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/513999/original/file-20230307-18-3frmra.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/513999/original/file-20230307-18-3frmra.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513999/original/file-20230307-18-3frmra.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513999/original/file-20230307-18-3frmra.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513999/original/file-20230307-18-3frmra.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513999/original/file-20230307-18-3frmra.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513999/original/file-20230307-18-3frmra.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><em>Many people think of plants as nice-looking greens. Essential for clean air, yes, but simple organisms. A step change in research is shaking up the way scientists think about plants: they are far more complex and more like us than you might imagine. This blossoming field of science is too delightful to do it justice in one or two stories.</em> </p>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/topics/plant-curious-137238?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=PlantCurious2023&utm_content=InArticleTop">This article is part of a series, Plant Curious</a>, exploring scientific studies that challenge the way you view plantlife.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>In our recent paper, published in <a href="https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nph.17981">New Phytologist</a>, we investigate, at the genetic level, how plants have learnt to use and manipulate water – from the first tiny moss-like plants to live on land in the Cambrian period (around 500 million years ago) through to the giant trees forming complex forest ecosystems of today.</p>
<h2>How plants evolved</h2>
<p>By comparing more than 500 genomes (an organism’s DNA), our results show that different parts of plant anatomies involved in the transport of water – pores (stomata), vascular tissue, roots – were linked to different methods of gene evolution. This is important because it tells us how and why plants have evolved at distinct moments in their history. </p>
<p>Plants’ relationship with water has changed dramatically over the last 500 million years. Ancestors of land plants had a very limited ability to regulate water but descendants of land plants have adapted to live in drier environments. When plants <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/11/14/science/plant-genes-evolution.html">first colonised land</a>, they needed a new way to access nutrients and water without being immersed in it. The next challenge was to <a href="https://www.science.org/content/article/world-s-first-trees-grew-splitting-their-guts">increase in</a> size and stature. Eventually, plants evolved to live in arid environments <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/m00142v0">such as deserts</a>. The evolution of these genes was crucial for enabling plants to survive, but how did they help plants first adapt and then thrive on land?</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/ferns-the-houseplants-that-reveal-how-tropical-rainforests-are-responding-to-climate-change-175397">Ferns: the houseplants that reveal how tropical rainforests are responding to climate change</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Stomata, the minute pores in the surface of leaves and stems, open to allow the uptake of carbon dioxide and close to minimise water loss. Our study found that the genes involved in the development of stomata were in the first land plants. This indicates that the first land plants had the genetic tools to build stomata, a key adaptation for life on land.</p>
<p>The speed in which <a href="https://academic.oup.com/plphys/article/174/2/639/6117438?login=false">stomata respond varies</a> between species. For example, the stomata of a daisy close more quickly than those of a fern. Our study suggests that the stomata of the first land plants did close but this ability speeded up over time thanks to gene duplication as species reproduced. Gene duplication leads to two copies of a gene, allowing one of these to carry out its original function and the other to evolve a new function. With these new genes, the stomata of plants that grow from seeds (rather reproducing via spores) were able to close and open faster, enabling them to be more adaptable to environmental conditions.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446739/original/file-20220216-27-1o0lqr8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Images of a plant's stomata, open and closed." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446739/original/file-20220216-27-1o0lqr8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446739/original/file-20220216-27-1o0lqr8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446739/original/file-20220216-27-1o0lqr8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446739/original/file-20220216-27-1o0lqr8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446739/original/file-20220216-27-1o0lqr8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446739/original/file-20220216-27-1o0lqr8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446739/original/file-20220216-27-1o0lqr8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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<h2>Old genes and new tricks</h2>
<p>Vascular tissue is a plant’s plumbing system, enabling it to transport water internally and grow in size and stature. If you have ever seen the rings of a chopped tree, this is the remnants of the growth of vascular tissue. </p>
<p>We found that rather than evolving by new genes, vascular tissue emerged through a process of genetic tinkering. Here, old genes were repurposed to gain new functions. This shows that evolution does <a href="https://theconversation.com/we-found-the-genes-that-allowed-plants-to-colonise-land-500-million-years-ago-128977">not always occur</a> with new genes but that old genes can learn new tricks.</p>
<p>Before the move to land, plants were found in freshwater and marine habitats, such as the algal group <em>Spirogyra</em>. They floated and absorbed the water around them. The <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/aug/23/lost-worlds-revisited-the-hidden-life-of-plant-roots">evolution of roots</a> enabled plants to access water from deeper in the soil as well as providing anchorage. We found that a few key new genes emerged in the ancestor of plants that live on land and plants with seeds, corresponding to the development of root hairs and roots. This shows the importance of a complex rooting system, allowing ancient plants to access previously unavailable water.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A dam floor cracked by lack of water." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446763/original/file-20220216-3870-vdx0us.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446763/original/file-20220216-3870-vdx0us.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446763/original/file-20220216-3870-vdx0us.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446763/original/file-20220216-3870-vdx0us.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446763/original/file-20220216-3870-vdx0us.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446763/original/file-20220216-3870-vdx0us.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446763/original/file-20220216-3870-vdx0us.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hot weather and climate changes left this Bulgarian dam almost empty in 2021.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Minko Peev/Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The development of these features at every major step in the history of plants highlights the importance of water as a driver of plant evolution. Our analyses shed new light on the genetic basis of the greening of the planet, highlighting the different methods of gene evolution in the diversification of the plant kingdom.</p>
<h2>Planting for the future</h2>
<p>As well as helping us make sense of the past, this work is important for the future. By understanding how plants have evolved, we can begin to understand the limiting factors for their growth. If researchers can identify the function of these key genes, they can begin to improve water use and drought resilience in crop species. This has particular importance for food security. </p>
<p>Plants may also hold the key to solving some of the most pressing questions <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41477-019-0506-9">facing humanity</a>, such as reducing our reliance on chemical fertilisers, improving the sustainability of our food and reducing our <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/world-australia-57675513">greenhouse gas emissions</a>.</p>
<p>By identifying the mechanisms controlling plant growth, researchers can begin to develop more resilient, efficient crop species. These crops would require less space, water and nutrients and would be more sustainable and reliable. With <a href="https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/blog/2019/05/nature-decline-unprecedented-report/">nature in decline</a>, it is vital to find ways to live more harmoniously in our green planet.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/177009/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alexander Bowles receives funding from Leverhulme Trust. </span></em></p>When plants moved from living in water to land, they had to adapt. How that happened can help address food security.Alexander Bowles, Postdoctoral research associate, University of BristolLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1705232022-01-06T03:17:41Z2022-01-06T03:17:41ZSydney’s dams may be almost full – but don’t relax, because drought will come again<p>Dams serving capital cities such as Canberra, Hobart and Sydney are <a href="http://www.bom.gov.au/water/dashboards/#/water-storages/summary/state">near full</a> after two years of <a href="https://theconversation.com/heavy-rains-are-great-news-for-sydneys-dams-but-they-come-with-a-big-caveat-131668">widespread rainfall</a>. But these wet conditions won’t last.</p>
<p>Under climate change, droughts in Australia will become more <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/ng-interactive/2018/oct/03/the-new-normal-how-climate-change-is-making-droughts-worse">frequent and severe</a>. Our drinking water supplies, and water crucial for irrigation and the environment, will dwindle again.</p>
<p>Sydney, Australia’s most populous city, is among those that must prepare for the next drought. The NSW government is <a href="https://www.industry.nsw.gov.au/water/plans-programs/metro-water-plans/gsws/about">developing</a> the Greater Sydney Water Strategy, to guide water management in coming decades.</p>
<p>Among the plan’s more contentious proposals are increased use of Sydney’s existing desalination plant and expanding the use of recycled water (highly treated sewage), including for drinking water. So let’s examine whether such measures are enough to secure Sydney’s water future.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="water spills from dam" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/439599/original/file-20220106-21-qqb6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/439599/original/file-20220106-21-qqb6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=345&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439599/original/file-20220106-21-qqb6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=345&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439599/original/file-20220106-21-qqb6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=345&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439599/original/file-20220106-21-qqb6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=434&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439599/original/file-20220106-21-qqb6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=434&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439599/original/file-20220106-21-qqb6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=434&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Water has been spilling from Warragamba Dam, but dry conditions will eventually return.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">WaterNSW</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A city of water scarcity</h2>
<p>During the most recent drought from 2017 to 2020, Sydney’s water storage levels dropped by 50% of full dam capacity in two years – a much faster depletion than in previous droughts. </p>
<p>Inflows into Sydney’s dams have dropped over the past 30 years. From 1991 to 2020, inflows averaged 770 million litres a year – 45% less than the long-term average.</p>
<p>The news isn’t all bad. Sydney used less water in 2019-20 than it did in 1990, despite its population growing from 3.8 million to 5.4 million. </p>
<p>But as the Greater Sydney Water Strategy <a href="https://www.industry.nsw.gov.au/water/plans-programs/metro-water-plans/gsws/about">states</a>, increasing climate variability means that, without action, the city could face a shortage of drinking water as periods of severe drought become longer and more frequent. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="delighted boy holds hose" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/439592/original/file-20220106-13-w4tmch.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=16%2C0%2C5478%2C3707&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/439592/original/file-20220106-13-w4tmch.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439592/original/file-20220106-13-w4tmch.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439592/original/file-20220106-13-w4tmch.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439592/original/file-20220106-13-w4tmch.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=509&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439592/original/file-20220106-13-w4tmch.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=509&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439592/original/file-20220106-13-w4tmch.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=509&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sydney must prepare for a drier future.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Brendan Esposito/AAP</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Desalination for the nation?</h2>
<p>The strategy raises the prospect of increased use of Sydney’s existing desalination plant, and building a second plant in the Illawarra region south of Sydney.</p>
<p>Desalination removes salt from sea water to create drinking water. The Millenium drought – from the late 1990s until 2010 – prompted several major Australian cities, including Sydney, to build <a href="https://theconversation.com/cities-turn-to-desalination-for-water-security-but-at-what-cost-110972">desalination plants</a>.</p>
<p>The technology can revolutionise water supply. For example, in 2020-21, Perth’s two desalination plants supplied 47% of the city’s water. But desalination plants can also face limitations and challenges.</p>
<p>The plants are expensive to build and to operate – and can sit idle for years, as the Kurnell plant did between 2012 and 2019. This can make them politically unpopular and see them <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-07-17/victorias-desalination-plant-to-take-33-extra-years-to-pay/6626706">criticised</a> as “white elephants”.</p>
<p>Even at full production, the Kurnell plant produces <a href="https://www.water-technology.net/projects/kurnell-desalination">only 15%</a> of Sydney’s daily demand. And while an additional plant in the Illawarra will extend desalinated supply to more households, the technology can’t supply water to all parts of Sydney due to the city’s complex distribution infrastructure.</p>
<p>As I discuss below, expanded use of recycled water is a better option for Sydney than more desalination. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/melbournes-desalination-plant-is-just-one-part-of-drought-proofing-water-supply-55934">Melbourne's desalination plant is just one part of drought-proofing water supply</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Ocean wave with land in background" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/439596/original/file-20220106-19-1wrollj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/439596/original/file-20220106-19-1wrollj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439596/original/file-20220106-19-1wrollj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439596/original/file-20220106-19-1wrollj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439596/original/file-20220106-19-1wrollj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439596/original/file-20220106-19-1wrollj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439596/original/file-20220106-19-1wrollj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Desalination removes salt from seawater.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nick Bothma/EPA</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Can we stomach recycled water?</h2>
<p>Many Australian cities, including Sydney, already use recycled water – sewage that has been heavily treated – in applications such as watering golf courses and parks, flushing toilets and fighting fires. </p>
<p>The draft plan raises the prospect of also adding recycled water to drinking supplies, which has long been a vexed issue in Australia. Some people oppose it on health grounds, while others just can’t get over the “yuck” factor.</p>
<p>The concept of recycled water has a lot going for it. For example, <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/its-a-waste-seawater-not-the-solution-20051125-gdmijn.html">analysis</a> suggests it would be far cheaper and use much less energy than desalination.</p>
<p>Making better use of recycled water would also reduce the environmental impact of disposing of wastewater in rivers and oceans. And the potential supply of recycled water will only increase as populations grow. </p>
<p>Finally, good recycled water projects are used continuously, not just at times of water stress. The Rouse Hill recycled water scheme in Sydney, which <a href="https://www.sydneywater.com.au/education/wastewater-recycling/water-recycling/rouse-hill-water-recycling-plant.html">supplies</a> 32,000 properties for non-drinking water uses, is a great model.</p>
<p>The draft plan says recycled water would not be added to drinking supplies without public support, but past history suggests this may be hard to achieve. In 2006, for example, Toowoomba residents <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/oct/06/can-recycled-water-be-the-next-frontier-for-towns-running-out-of-drinking-water">rejected a plan</a> to drink recycled water, despite the town facing a grave water shortage.</p>
<p>However, as urban water supplies become ever more scarce, Australians may have to get used to the idea of drinking recycled water – and authorities will have to find new and better ways of selling the concept to the public.</p>
<p>The Sydney water plan recognises this. It emphasises the need for public consultation, and raises the prospect of investing in a recycled water demonstration plant to “highlight the safety of demonstrated and proven technology”.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/when-water-is-scarce-we-cant-afford-to-neglect-the-alternatives-to-desalination-111249">When water is scarce, we can't afford to neglect the alternatives to desalination</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="man leans towards water in front of Sydney Harbour Bridge" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/439597/original/file-20220106-25-1tlp8wa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/439597/original/file-20220106-25-1tlp8wa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439597/original/file-20220106-25-1tlp8wa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439597/original/file-20220106-25-1tlp8wa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439597/original/file-20220106-25-1tlp8wa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439597/original/file-20220106-25-1tlp8wa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439597/original/file-20220106-25-1tlp8wa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Better use of recycled water would reduce wastewater flows to Sydney’s beaches and rivers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">CSIRO</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A major omission</h2>
<p>The plan shows how Sydney’s growing population could sustainably adapt to to a drier future. But it ignores one important measure for reducing water use - <a href="https://www.infrastructureaustralia.gov.au/sites/default/files/2019-06/aither_urban_water_pricing_reform.pdf">charging</a> customers a penalty for excessive water use.</p>
<p>Under the measure, also known as an “<a href="http://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/p86761/pdf/14-1-A-6.pdf">inclining block tariff</a>”, the rate per unit of water increases as the volume of consumption increases.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/06/150602132228.htm">Research has shown</a> water pricing can be an effective way to manage water scarcity, as well as helping water utilities recover the costs of their services. Australian cities such as Melbourne, Canberra and Brisbane apply inclining block tariffs to water, but Sydney does not.</p>
<p>Sydney Water’s price regulator, IPART, has <a href="https://www.ipart.nsw.gov.au/Home/Industries/Water/Reviews/Metro-Pricing/Prices-for-Sydney-Water-Corporation-from-1-July-2020">argued against</a> charging high water users more, saying it would provide less incentive for smaller households to conserve water and impose unfair costs on larger households.</p>
<p>Granted, water pricing is a <a href="https://academic.oup.com/oxrep/article/36/1/86/5696684">complex</a> issue and may require <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2468312420300237">protections</a> for lower-income users and the environment. </p>
<p>But under worsening climate change, our major cities cannot eschew any opportunity to ease pressure on water supplies.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/170523/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ian Wright receives research funding from local governments, Sydney Water and the Clean Ocean Foundation. He is a research associate with the Blue Mountains World Heritage Institute. </span></em></p>A draft plan for Sydney’s water supplies includes expanding desalination and potentially adding highly treated sewage to drinking water. All options must be on the table as the climate warms.Ian A. Wright, Senior Lecturer in Environmental Science, Western Sydney UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1723092021-11-29T14:09:49Z2021-11-29T14:09:49ZSouth African groundwater project shows the power of citizen science<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/433883/original/file-20211125-17-1pjwar.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Billions of people globally rely on groundwater. Accurate data about water quality is key.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock/ssupawas</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.org/media/earths-fresh-water/">About 30%</a> of the water on the planet is under the ground, out of sight and not easily accessed. Little is known about this “invisible” groundwater. This is especially so in remote areas, such as the part of South Africa’s Limpopo province where a research project called <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/09734082211014435">Diamonds on the Soles of their Feet</a> is taking place.</p>
<p>Academics and residents are working together in two Limpopo villages, Ga-Komape and Ga-Manamela, to find out more about the areas’ groundwater resources. This is important data: 74% of people in rural areas like these <a href="https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/Bios-Eco-Aqua-017-2.pdf">depend on groundwater</a> for their crops and domestic water supply. People use this water but there’s very little knowledge about how much there is, how it recharges, whether it is clean and so forth.</p>
<p>Over the past three years, residents from the villages have been trained to capture groundwater data. They use a simple dip meter, record rainfall levels from rain gauges and take images of water flows in rivers. This data is captured on smart phones and relayed to a website where it is available for government, researchers and planners who can use this to better understand what is going on under the ground – after all, you can’t manage what you can’t measure.</p>
<p>This is what’s known as <a href="https://theconversation.com/people-powered-science-in-africa-a-boost-for-democracy-and-knowledge-63068">citizen science</a>. “Ordinary” citizens are no longer passive and disengaged but are actively engaged with scientists. The project is transforming volunteers in these remote rural areas from being passive and not engaging with science to becoming scientists themselves. The data being collected is verified, validated and made visible. It is taking science out of the laboratory and into the field, making science accessible to society so that they are part of the solution and not part of the problem.</p>
<p>The tendency in citizen science projects is to focus only on the value of hard data. Our project is different: we are of course interested in the data, but are also concerned with transformation and empowering people. The aim of this work is to achieve a more just society through the democratisation of knowledge and improved water literacy. The project’s name, “Diamonds on the soles of their feet” stems from the fact that farmers have a real treasure that they share with us as researchers – and that is of real value.</p>
<p>The residents are now curious about water. They have a sense of belonging to a geographical area beyond their homes, being part now of a wider project that extends from one side of the Hout River Catchment to the other. Their work has garnered international recognition, too. At the <a href="https://falling-walls.com/science-summit-2021/">Falling Walls Summit</a>, part of Berlin Science Week 2021 in early November, Diamonds on the Soles of their Feet was selected as one of 20 winners from 189 projects in 80 countries across the globe.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/433079/original/file-20211122-21-1chmt0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A man and a woman use a long thin plastic pipe to measure water in a well" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/433079/original/file-20211122-21-1chmt0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/433079/original/file-20211122-21-1chmt0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433079/original/file-20211122-21-1chmt0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433079/original/file-20211122-21-1chmt0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433079/original/file-20211122-21-1chmt0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433079/original/file-20211122-21-1chmt0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433079/original/file-20211122-21-1chmt0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Limpopo residents at work collecting groundwater data.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Professor Jaqui Goldin</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Obstacles</h2>
<p>The Falling Walls Summit asks scientists to show what walls have been broken down between science and society. In our project’s case, there were several walls.</p>
<p>The project started with funds from the <a href="https://um.dk/en/danida-en/">Danish International Development Agency</a> (DANIDA) through the University of Copenhagen three years ago. We chose Limpopo because it is a typical rural area where people are extremely dependent on ground water and also because it is one of South Africa’s poorest provinces. </p>
<p>When we started, there simply wasn’t very much data about water in remote rural wells because it is very difficult to access these remote rural wells. Limpopo is a sprawling province; there are huge distances between villages and the roads are generally poor.</p>
<p>There was also an insidious historical divide between commercial farmers and small scale farmers. Commercial farmers know a lot about water in their boreholes but the data they have gathered over the past decades has not been shared. Now, farmers see that there is a project caring about water for the future and they have shown their interest and willingness to be part of this, and to share their data. </p>
<h2>Transcending disciplines</h2>
<p>Then there was the wall that scientists often put up: between the humanities and sciences such as hydrology, engineering, geology and so forth. Some of the work needed to collect data is purely scientific, of course – but some of it is about empowering communities.</p>
<p>As an anthropologist, working with water and society, I am clear that the protection and care of natural resources can’t happen unless communities who are closest to that resource are involved. This means applying deeply participatory, ethnographic methods to solicit the views and knowledge of people living close to the wells. </p>
<p>There is a wealth of information that is not being tapped into. When looking for data on groundwater, the voice of hydrologists, geologists and other experts resonates, rather than the voice of community members who are often marginalised because they don’t have the right jargon, or scientific terms to talk about water. </p>
<p>My doctoral thesis and <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1081/PAD-120019242">related research</a> was on shame and trust: shame is prevalent when people feel they are ignored and made to feel “stupid” just because they don’t have the degrees or badges that give them recognition. The approach for this project is an “ethics of care”. It really means acknowledging people who have rich indigenous knowledge and experience and are themselves often experts when it comes to water. Anthropologists have worked closely with communities and have tools and techniques which are part of the science kit. With this combination of approaches and science, our multi-disciplinary team has been able to break down some walls.</p>
<h2>Future work</h2>
<p>As a result of collecting data, people in the villages are now curious about water. They want to know more and they are really proud of being able to read the data – in other words, to be water literate. The project has also resonated with tribal authorities, which effectively govern these rural areas. This bodes well, as with authorities’ buy-in, the project will more likely be sustainable.</p>
<p>This interest and involvement could also be transferable to other domains, such as health, youth development and measuring water quality. Overall, it’s about developing a community of practice: people who can work alongside scientists, taking science out of the laboratory and into the field.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/172309/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jacqueline Goldin is really grateful to DANIDA – through the University of Copenhagen who funded the first phase of Diamonds on the Soles of their Feet and to the Water Research Commission – who are truly science engagers - for their ongoing support in citizen science and groundwater monitoring.</span></em></p>It’s about developing a community of practice: people who can work alongside scientists, taking science out of the laboratory and into the field.Jacqueline Goldin, Extraordinary Associate Professor of Anthropology and Water Sciences, University of the Western CapeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1677502021-10-19T11:37:17Z2021-10-19T11:37:17ZWe are ignoring the true cost of water-guzzling data centres<p>The 1960s ushered in a new age of processing digital information, driven by the intelligence needs of <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1992/02/21/business/cold-war-s-end-hits-cray-computer.html">the cold war</a>. <a href="https://theconversation.com/moores-law-is-50-years-old-but-will-it-continue-44511">Moore’s law</a> meant microchips doubled in speed every two years, shrinking costs and miniaturising machines that once filled entire rooms. Today, the smartphone probably being used to read this article is <a href="https://www.zmescience.com/science/news-science/smartphone-power-compared-to-apollo-432/">millions of times more powerful</a> than the <a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/apollo-8-1968-nasa-mission-was-first-to-leave-earth-orbit-4158245">computer that landed the Apollo missions</a> on the moon.</p>
<p>While those huge supercomputers have disappeared, the proliferation of the cloud and the <a href="https://www.techerati.com/features-hub/opinions/the-next-decade-of-the-data-centre/">internet of things</a>, with everything down to our <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41528-020-00092-7">socks</a> being able to connect to the internet, means <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2021/03/09/data-center-real-estate-reits-after-covid.html">more and more computer processors</a> that need to communicate with data centres around the world. Even something as simple as scrolling down on this article triggers communications that may eventually pass through a distant data centre. </p>
<p>Data centres can range in size from small cabinets through to vast “hyperscale” warehouses the size of stadiums. Inside, are computers called servers which support the software, apps and websites we use every day.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.srgresearch.com/articles/microsoft-amazon-and-google-account-for-over-half-of-todays-600-hyperscale-data-centers">As of the end of 2020</a>, 597 hyperscale data centres were in operation (39% in the US, 10% in China, 6% Japan), up by almost 50% since 2015. Amazon, Google and Microsoft account for more than half of these and a further 219 are in various stages of planning.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Graph of the growth of hyperscale data centers" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/422983/original/file-20210923-18-g5th5x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/422983/original/file-20210923-18-g5th5x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=287&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422983/original/file-20210923-18-g5th5x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=287&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422983/original/file-20210923-18-g5th5x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=287&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422983/original/file-20210923-18-g5th5x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422983/original/file-20210923-18-g5th5x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422983/original/file-20210923-18-g5th5x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Growth of hyperscale data centers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Synergy Research Group</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Energy eaters</h2>
<p>Data centres accounted for around <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aba3758">1%</a> or <a href="https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.26033.40800">2%</a> of global electricity demand in 2020. All that processing power generates lots of heat, so data centres must keep cool to prevent damage. While some companies are using <a href="https://www.datacenterdynamics.com/en/news/naver-plans-cloud-ring-second-korean-data-center/">cool air on mountain sites</a> and <a href="https://news.microsoft.com/innovation-stories/project-natick-underwater-datacenter/">Microsoft has used the cold waters of Scotland</a> to experiment with underwater data centres, up to <a href="https://www.agci.org/sites/default/files/files%2Bqs/2020%20Q1%20Research%20Review_Masanet_Data%20Centers.pdf">43% of data centre electricity</a> in the US is used for cooling.</p>
<p>This energy goes into cooling water which is either sprayed into air flowing past the servers, or evaporated to transfer heat away from the servers. Not only is energy required to cool the water (unless the system is specifically designed as a closed loop) but that water is lost as it evaporates. In a relatively small 1 megawatt data centre (that uses enough electricity to power 1,000 houses), these traditional types of cooling would use <a href="https://journal.uptimeinstitute.com/dont-ignore-water-consumption/">26 million litres</a> of water per year.</p>
<p>Water directly used for cooling is what most data centre operators focus on, but the largest source of water usage is actually <a href="https://doi.org/10.2172/1372902">electricity generation</a>. This comes from how water is heated to generate steam which turns a turbine and generates electricity. Fossil fuels and nuclear power all consume water in this way, and even hydroelectric power involves some water loss from reservoirs.</p>
<p>The transition to renewables is therefore important to reduce both water and carbon footprints. By 2030, wind and solar energy could <a href="https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2015/IRENA_Water_Energy_Food_Nexus_2015.pdf">reduce water withdrawals</a> related to power generation by 50% in the UK, 25% in the US, Germany and Australia, and 10% in India.</p>
<h2>More than the daily water recommendation?</h2>
<p>Data centre water demand is more complicated than the carbon footprint. Reaching zero carbon is a reasonable goal, but zero-water is not necessarily the right choice. Consumption goals need more context.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/426980/original/file-20211018-19-1fc96e6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Warehouse building with external fans and pipes" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/426980/original/file-20211018-19-1fc96e6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/426980/original/file-20211018-19-1fc96e6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/426980/original/file-20211018-19-1fc96e6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/426980/original/file-20211018-19-1fc96e6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/426980/original/file-20211018-19-1fc96e6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/426980/original/file-20211018-19-1fc96e6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/426980/original/file-20211018-19-1fc96e6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A data centre in California’s Silicon Valley.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sundry Photography / shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Some data centres are in regions with abundant water, easily accessible without competing with other potential users. However, others may be built in areas of drought with degrading infrastructure.</p>
<p>Regional water stress must be considered for each data centre, not just in relation to the water used for on-site cooling, but also linked to the power plants that generate the electricity that power the centre. </p>
<p>For example, a <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/abfba1">recent US study</a> showed that the western US has more water stress compared to the eastern US, and that electricity generated in the south west is more water intensive due to the use of more hydropower. Despite this, the west and south west have more data centres. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Map of data centre water footprint in the USA." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423000/original/file-20210923-26-17ffpqe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423000/original/file-20210923-26-17ffpqe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=169&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423000/original/file-20210923-26-17ffpqe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=169&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423000/original/file-20210923-26-17ffpqe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=169&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423000/original/file-20210923-26-17ffpqe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=212&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423000/original/file-20210923-26-17ffpqe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=212&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423000/original/file-20210923-26-17ffpqe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=212&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The subbasin or state of direct and indirect environmental impact associated with data centre operation. (A) Water footprint (m3). (B) WSF (m3 US-eq water). (C) Carbon footprint (tons CO2-eq/y).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Md Abu Bakar Siddik et al 2021 Environ. Res. Lett. 16 064017</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Opposition is starting to grow even as new projects are being approved. The US has seen <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/internet/drought-stricken-communities-push-back-against-data-centers-n1271344">local communities protest</a> against new data centres, which may be why <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2020-04-01/how-much-water-do-google-data-centers-use-billions-of-gallons">in the past</a> Google has considered its usage of water to be a trade secret. Similar concerns led to a temporary ban on new data centres in <a href="https://www.datacenterdynamics.com/en/news/hollands-kroon-facing-drinking-water-shortage-if-new-data-centers-are-built/">The Netherlands</a>, and France is in the process of passing <a href="http://www.senat.fr/leg/ppl20-680.html">new laws</a> to require more transparency.</p>
<h2>We do not give water enough value</h2>
<p>Companies are not pricing water risk into their calculations when picking locations for data centres. A lower price does not necessarily mean lower risk. When Microsoft assessed its water footprint at a data centre in San Antonio, Texas, it found the true cost of water was <a href="https://www.ecolab.com/-/media/Widen/Nalco-Water/Water/R-2009_Water_Scarcity_Could_Put_Your_Data_Center_at_Risk_pdf.pdf">11 times more than it was paying</a>.</p>
<p>This is similar to carbon footprints. We undervalue or ignore abatement costs associated with greenhouse emissions, and the impacts are hardly marginal. Carbon dioxide and water are inextricably linked, and <a href="https://yaleclimateconnections.org/2021/08/climate-change-and-droughts-whats-the-connection/">climate change is already stressing drought-prone areas around the world</a>.</p>
<p>The first step is transparency. Some companies like <a href="https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/corporate-responsibility/reports-hub">Microsoft</a> and <a href="https://sustainability.fb.com/water/">Facebook</a> already publish aggregated water data, but others need to do the same. Every operator needs to publish their water efficiency plan and back it up with the relevant regional numbers.</p>
<p>Most data centre owners have received the message about reducing their carbon footprint and the transition to renewable energy. We regularly see new projects announced with net-zero carbon goals. They now need to do something similar for water.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/167750/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Mytton has a financial interest in StackPath, LLC., an edge computing company, and is engaged as a Research Affiliate by the Uptime Institute, a technology industry research firm.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Masaō Ashtine does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>‘Hyperscale’ warehouses filled with computer servers use water for electricity and cooling.Masaō Ashtine, Posdoctoral Researcher in Local Energy Systems, University of OxfordDavid Mytton, Researcher, Centre for Environmental Policy, Imperial College LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1664222021-08-30T20:05:50Z2021-08-30T20:05:50ZRobber barons and high-speed traders dominate Australia’s water market<p>What began as an informal arrangement between neighbouring farmers, where one farm’s surplus water could be transferred to another, has over the past two decades morphed into a complex set of commodity markets whose annual turnover exceeds A$1.8 billion.</p>
<p>When the Murray–Darling Basin water markets were established, little consideration was given to training farmers or equipping them with the tools they would need.</p>
<p>“Many older farmers struggle even to use a smartphone,” one farmer told us in research for our book <a href="https://www.textpublishing.com.au/books/sold-down-the-river">Sold Down The River</a>, to be published this week. “They simply can’t use the water trading platforms.”</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/418202/original/file-20210827-22966-1q3grb5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/418202/original/file-20210827-22966-1q3grb5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/418202/original/file-20210827-22966-1q3grb5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=915&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/418202/original/file-20210827-22966-1q3grb5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=915&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/418202/original/file-20210827-22966-1q3grb5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=915&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/418202/original/file-20210827-22966-1q3grb5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1150&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/418202/original/file-20210827-22966-1q3grb5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1150&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/418202/original/file-20210827-22966-1q3grb5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1150&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<p>But others can, to their huge advantage. “Being a water broker is a lot like buying and selling shares or any other financial asset,” one investor said last year. </p>
<p>“There is no depreciation, there’s no goodwill, there is no maintenance and repairs. There are not many asset classes that are that good.”</p>
<p>The 2015 film adaptation of Michael Lewis’s bestselling <a href="https://youtu.be/vgqG3ITMv1Q">The Big Short</a> ends with a chilling line. </p>
<p>Investment genius Michael Burry had predicted the 2007 US housing market collapse and the ensuing financial crisis but, the movie said, was now “focusing all of his trading on one commodity — water”.</p>
<p>In a shocking report delivered to the treasurer in February, the Australian <a href="https://www.accc.gov.au/focus-areas/inquiries-finalised/murray-darling-basin-water-markets-inquiry-0">Competition and Consumer Commission</a> found “scant rules governing the conduct of market participants, and no particular body to oversee trading activities, undermining confidence in fair and efficient markets”.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>In particular, water market intermediaries such as brokers and exchange platforms currently operate in a mostly unregulated environment, resulting in a lack of clarity regarding the role brokers play, and permitting undisclosed conflicts of interest to arise.</p>
<p>Trading behaviours that can undermine the integrity of markets, such as market manipulation, are not prohibited, insider trading prohibitions are insufficient, and information gaps make these types of detrimental conduct difficult to detect.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The report has shifted the debate about water in the Murray-Darling Basin. Regulators, politicians, officials and researchers all realise that something has gone horribly wrong.</p>
<h2>Scant rules, little oversight</h2>
<p>At the beginning of the water trading experiment, little effort was put into defining the goals of water trading, or how its success would be measured. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-murrumbidgee-rivers-wet-season-height-has-dropped-by-30-since-the-1990s-and-the-outlook-is-bleak-165764">The Murrumbidgee River's wet season height has dropped by 30% since the 1990s — and the outlook is bleak</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Yet despite that oversight, it’s easy to conclude that on any relevant measure the market has failed. It has failed the environment. It has failed farmers and towns. It has failed to recognise the rights of Indigenous Australians. And it has failed in its basic function of allocating water to where it can best be used.</p>
<p>Like a plane crash, the market failed because crucial systems and backups broke down simultaneously. </p>
<p>Here are the top four fractures in the multi-point failure:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Essential design steps weren’t taken. The designers spent little time on ensuring proper market conduct and integrity. There are multiple exchanges and at no particular moment is there a clear picture of the market value of water rights, even within the same valley. Large irrigators appear to be taking water over which they don’t have rights and selling it outside the markets to farmers of walnuts and other thirsty crops, leaving <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/environment/sustainability/water-watchdog-has-big-riverina-irrigator-in-its-sights-over-diversion-20210611-p580d0.html">dying rivers</a> in their wake.</p></li>
<li><p>To ensure the water market was “liquid”, the designers removed restrictions on who could own and trade water rights. Then they took the extraordinary step of exempting traders from regulation that would normally apply to financial markets and markets for commodities. External traders used tactics no one anticipated including market manipulation and high-speed trading.</p></li>
<li><p>The <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2016C00469">Commonwealth Water Act</a> gave responsibility for overseeing the markets to the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission, whose expertise is competition, rather than the Australian Securities and Investments Commission, whose expertise is in finance. A <a href="https://treasury.gov.au/consultation/corporations-and-australian-securities-and-investments-commission-legislation-amendment-water-trading-exemptions-regulation-2014">2014 regulation</a> expressly exempted basic tradable water rights from the definition of “derivative” under the ASIC Act.</p></li>
<li><p>There is little precision in the water policy debate. Terms such as “hoarding”, “efficiency”, “speculation” and “investment” are used without consistency or clarity. People in and around the Murray-Darling Basin have been talking over each other for years, allowing rorts that should have been caught early to persist.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Added to these are a series of counter-intuitive tax advantages and subsidies that drive water rights away from the best land toward arid lands far down-river. </p>
<h2>The silence is deafening</h2>
<p>A giant policy experiment is sucking hundreds of millions of dollars each year out of the Murray-Darling Basin, and it is sending water away from our most productive land and what used to be our most vibrant food-bowl communities.</p>
<p>The federal government has had the <a href="https://www.accc.gov.au/focus-areas/inquiries-finalised/murray-darling-basin-water-markets-inquiry/final-report">report</a> of the Competition Commission’s water markets inquiry since February. The silence is deafening.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/water-injustice-runs-deep-in-australia-fixing-it-means-handing-control-to-first-nations-155286">Water injustice runs deep in Australia. Fixing it means handing control to First Nations</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>In our research and in our book, we have mapped out a way forward for allocating scarce irrigation water and balancing the management of our largest river system. </p>
<p>Indigenous rights, environmental sustainability and food security are but some of what’s at stake.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/166422/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Scott is affiliated with H4 CO PTY LTD and is a panel member at the Energy Transition Hub and is a member of the Australian Labor Party. Scott is a senior advisor to the Smart Energy Council and consults to governments, businesses and communities. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stuart Kells does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A new book says Australia’s 20-year water trading experiment is sucking hundreds of millions of dollars each year out of the Murray-Darling Basin and directing water away from productive land.Scott Hamilton, Strategic Advisory Panel Member, Australian-German Energy Transition Hub, The University of MelbourneStuart Kells, Adjunct Professor, College of Arts, Social Sciences and Commerce, La Trobe UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1587722021-05-11T02:46:50Z2021-05-11T02:46:50Z‘Boys and their toys’: how overt masculinity dominates Australia’s relationship with water<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/399399/original/file-20210507-23-h4b7nb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C24%2C5472%2C3604&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>In Australia over recent months, the fury of women has been hard to ignore. The anger, much of it directed at the toxic masculine culture <a href="https://theconversation.com/cultural-misogyny-and-why-mens-aggression-to-women-is-so-often-expressed-through-sex-157680">of Parliament House</a>, has sparked a national conversation about how these attitudes harm women.</p>
<p>The movement has led me to think about how masculine cultures pervade our relationship with water. I worked as a civil engineer in the water industry for nine years, managing projects from planning through to construction. I’m now a water policy researcher, and in a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/02508060.2021.1886832">recent paper</a> I explored how dominant masculinity is limiting our response to dire water problems.</p>
<p>Overly masculine environments affect the way decisions are made. In particular, a reliance on technological and infrastructure “fixes” to solve problems is linked to masculine ideas of power.</p>
<p>Under this way of thinking, water is to be controlled, re-purposed and rerouted as needed. I believe we must reassess these old methods. Does it really need to be all about control and power? Managing water in tandem with nature may be more prudent. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="two male engineers look at dam" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/399401/original/file-20210507-25-vore35.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/399401/original/file-20210507-25-vore35.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399401/original/file-20210507-25-vore35.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399401/original/file-20210507-25-vore35.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399401/original/file-20210507-25-vore35.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399401/original/file-20210507-25-vore35.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399401/original/file-20210507-25-vore35.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dams and other major water infrastructure are a mainstay of male-dominated water management.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Hiring women is not enough</h2>
<p>In the case of federal parliament, the toxic masculinity problem has partly been blamed on a lack of women in senior roles. Similarly, in the area of water supply, sewerage and drainage services, <a href="https://data.wgea.gov.au/">only 19.8% of the workforce</a> comprises people who identify as women (compared to 50.5% across all industries). The sector include state government departments, water authorities and consultancies. </p>
<p>Globally, the lack of women in water engineering has primarily been addressed by <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/19378629.2017.1361427">increasing</a> the representation of women in the field, <a href="https://www.wsaa.asn.au/sites/default/files/publication/download/Tapping%20the%20Power%20of%20Diversity.pdf">on boards</a> and in management. </p>
<p>However creating a more diverse workforce does not automatically lead to a diversity of thinking. In the case of water management, hiring women, or others such as LGBTI and Indigenous employees, does <a href="https://www.wsaa.asn.au/sites/default/files/publication/download/Tapping%20the%20Power%20of%20Diversity.pdf">not necessarily mean</a> their contributions are valued. Very often, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/19378629.2017.1361427">a masculine culture</a> prevails. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/our-national-water-policy-is-outdated-unfair-and-not-fit-for-climate-challenges-major-new-report-155116">Our national water policy is outdated, unfair and not fit for climate challenges: major new report</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="male engineer points as female look on" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/399405/original/file-20210507-21-19htqh5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/399405/original/file-20210507-21-19htqh5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399405/original/file-20210507-21-19htqh5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399405/original/file-20210507-21-19htqh5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399405/original/file-20210507-21-19htqh5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399405/original/file-20210507-21-19htqh5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399405/original/file-20210507-21-19htqh5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hiring women is not enough - their contribution should be valued.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Pipelines and gadgets aren’t always the answer</h2>
<p>Toxic masculinity doesn’t just refer to overtly sexist cultures or allegations of sexual assault. It can also refer to male-dominated decision making where other ideas are undervalued.</p>
<p>Take, for example, the dominant “technocracy” approach to water management, in which infrastructure and technology is relied on to solve problems.</p>
<p>In Australia as elsewhere, this can perhaps be seen in the emergence of “smart water management” which uses gadgets such as smart meters and other technology to gather and communicate real-time data to help address water management challenges. </p>
<p>As other researchers <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/343748198_The_moral_hazards_of_smart_water_management">have argued</a>, this “<a href="https://www.routledge.com/Boys-and-their-Toys-Masculinity-Class-and-Technology-in-America/Horowitz/p/book/9780415929332">boys and their toys</a>” approach perpetuates a mindset that sustainability problems - often caused by deep-seated structural and behaviour faults such as over-consumption - can be solved with engineering and technology.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-cant-drought-proof-australia-and-trying-is-a-fools-errand-124504">We can’t drought-proof Australia, and trying is a fool's errand</a>
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</em>
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<hr>
<p>The idea that technology is a symbol of masculinity has been explored by <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1097184X03260956">many</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307/3178066">feminist</a> <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/42968827">theorists</a>. </p>
<p>Technical prowess, being “in control” and rationality have <a href="https://www.water-alternatives.org/index.php/allabs/19-a-1-1-7/file">historically been seen</a> as typically male characteristics. And senior technological roles are <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1097184X03260956">usually occupied</a> by men. </p>
<p>There’s nothing inherently wrong with using technology to solve water issues. But when technocratic thinking is “monolithic” and ignores wider societal issues, it can become a problem. </p>
<p>Take, for example, Victoria’s North-South pipeline built during the Millennium Drought. This A$750 million piece of infrastructure connected to Melbourne in 2010 but has <a href="https://www.3aw.com.au/the-750m-pipe-weve-never-used-and-never-will-but-still-pay-for/">lain idle</a> ever since – largely due to fears from farmers that taking water from rural areas will hurt agricultural output.</p>
<p>Similarly, desalination plants in many parts of Australia are an expensive technological approach that solve one problem, yet can create <a href="https://e360.yale.edu/features/as-water-scarcity-increases-desalination-plants-are-on-the-rise">many others</a>. They use a lot of energy, which contributes to climate change if drawn from fossil fuels, and can damage marine life.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two men look at laptop" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/399413/original/file-20210507-17-jsscc2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/399413/original/file-20210507-17-jsscc2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399413/original/file-20210507-17-jsscc2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399413/original/file-20210507-17-jsscc2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399413/original/file-20210507-17-jsscc2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399413/original/file-20210507-17-jsscc2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399413/original/file-20210507-17-jsscc2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Most technology jobs in water management are occupied by men.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Finding another way</h2>
<p>Global water scarcity is inescapable. Water use is growing at a <a href="https://worldwater.io/">rate faster</a> than population growth while climate change is <a href="https://theconversation.com/seriously-ugly-heres-how-australia-will-look-if-the-world-heats-by-3-c-this-century-157875">diminishing</a> clean water suppies in many areas.</p>
<p>We need look no further than Australia’s trouble-plagued Murray Darling Basin to know it’s time to reassess the old methods and explore new ways in our relationship with water. </p>
<p>Exerting control over water – say, building an extensive sewer network and water supply system – may have been needed when Australia was modernising. But now it’s time to take a more humble approach that works in tandem with the environment. </p>
<p>A different approach would incorporate valuable knowledge in the social sciences, such as recognising the politics and social issues at play in how we manage water. </p>
<p>For example, in 2006 residents in the Queensland town of Toowoomba rejected the prospect of drinking <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/toowoomba-says-no-to-recycled-water-20060731-gdo2hm.html">recycled wastewater</a> after a highly politicised referendum campaign. Residents had <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/oct/06/can-recycled-water-be-the-next-frontier-for-towns-running-out-of-drinking-water">just three months</a> to consider the proposal, which divided the community. A non-masculine approach might involve better public consultation and an effort by authorities to understand community attitudes prior to planning.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/water-injustice-runs-deep-in-australia-fixing-it-means-handing-control-to-first-nations-155286">Water injustice runs deep in Australia. Fixing it means handing control to First Nations</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Australians are the world’s <a href="https://www.yourhome.gov.au/water">greatest per capita consumers</a> of water. A new approach might also involve questioning this consumptive <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/02508060.2020.1805579">behaviour</a> and reducing our water use, rather than relying on technological fixes.</p>
<p>Such approaches are likely to require giving up some control. And it may require working closely with traditional owners to incorporate Indigenous understandings of water.</p>
<p>In 2017 for example, the New Zealand government <a href="https://theconversation.com/three-rivers-are-now-legally-people-but-thats-just-the-start-of-looking-after-them-74983">passed legislation</a> that recognised the Whanganui River catchment as a legal person. The reform formally acknowledged the special relationship local Māori have with the river.</p>
<p>This different approach may also mean moving to community decision making models or even programs to increase youth involvement in water management. </p>
<p>An over-reliance on technology and infrastructure papers over the need to understand the behaviours that lead to water problems. We must seek new, sustainable approaches that recognise the role of water in our social, political and cultural lives.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/158772/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anna Kosovac does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Pipelines, dams, gadgets: does water management really need to be all about control and power? Adopting less masculine ideas and working with nature may be more prudent.Anna Kosovac, Research Fellow in Water Policy, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1520662021-03-22T14:58:01Z2021-03-22T14:58:01ZHow the UK’s first lockdown changed water habits – and risked shortages<p>Though it may have escaped the public’s attention at the time, the three months from late March to June 2020 were exceptionally challenging for water providers all across the UK. The sudden changes in personal routines that greeted the onset of lockdown influenced when people showered, cleaned and looked after their homes and gardens. </p>
<p>With offices, restaurants and other public places closed and everyone but essential workers told to stay at home, water companies struggled to balance supply with the unusual patterns of domestic demand.</p>
<p>It didn’t help that the period was also particularly <a href="https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/about-us/press-office/news/weather-and-climate/2020/2020-spring-and-may-stats">sunny and dry</a>. By the end of May, the daily peak in water consumption was <a href="https://www.artesia-consulting.co.uk/blog/New%20Waterwise%20article!%20The%20effect%20of%20the%20coronavirus%20lockdown%20on%20water%20use">35% higher</a> than before lockdown and came in the evening, whereas it previously peaked around 8am. About 2,000 homes in the Midlands <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-birmingham-52875417">suffered water shortages</a> and several water companies had to ask clients to <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-52890535">reduce how much water they used</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://artesia.shinyapps.io/Artesia-Reports/">We charted</a> this unique period by speaking with people living in England and Wales and tracking water use in data, news articles and scientific studies. While some of these changes may only be temporary, some in the water sector worry that demand patterns and increased home water use may become locked into everyday routines as more people opt to work from home.</p>
<h2>Working from home</h2>
<p>Throughout lockdown, people did most of their drinking, cooking, dish washing and toilet flushing at home. Those working from home slipped into more flexible domestic routines without the commute determining when they needed to rise and shower. This meant that water use didn’t spike first thing on weekday mornings as it normally would. The morning peak shifted from 9am to 10am, while more generally, water use was higher during lockdown on average.</p>
<p><strong>Average hourly consumption before and during lockdown</strong></p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/390913/original/file-20210322-19-1d3vi2b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A line graph showing daily peaks and troughs in water use." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/390913/original/file-20210322-19-1d3vi2b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/390913/original/file-20210322-19-1d3vi2b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=311&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390913/original/file-20210322-19-1d3vi2b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=311&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390913/original/file-20210322-19-1d3vi2b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=311&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390913/original/file-20210322-19-1d3vi2b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390913/original/file-20210322-19-1d3vi2b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390913/original/file-20210322-19-1d3vi2b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.artesia-consulting.co.uk/">Artesia</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>Water use increased most during evenings, when homeworkers had more free time to invest in cooking and other activities without the commute. That meant people consuming more water washing fresh produce, boiling rice and pasta and cleaning dishes. </p>
<p>These thirsty lifestyle changes during lockdown were eventually tempered somewhat as people staying at home showered, washed their hair and did their laundry less often – and used less water and energy in the process. Compared to the workplace, working from home demanded fewer social expectations to be presentable. </p>
<h2>Leisure and gardening</h2>
<p>Cleanliness routines structured leisure time and relaxation in otherwise monotonous days. People who were no longer able to visit cinemas, pubs and restaurants replaced these treats with a relaxing bath or an invigorating shower. With the “one journey outside” <a href="https://theconversation.com/daily-exercise-rules-got-people-moving-during-lockdown-heres-what-the-government-needs-to-do-next-143773">policy</a>, the people we spoke to were exercising more and taking extra showers to freshen up throughout the day.</p>
<p>Domestic gardens became important spaces for recreation and socialising too. Throughout the spring and early summer of 2020, <a href="https://www.business-live.co.uk/retail-consumer/garden-furniture-retailer-moda-reports-18267964">sales of garden furniture</a>, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2020/aug/23/pool-sales-covid-19-backyard-swimming">paddling pools</a> and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/may/17/how-lockdown-has-created-veg-growing-revolution-uk-coronavirus">plant seeds</a> rocketed. </p>
<p>The government’s Office for National Statistics <a href="https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/healthandsocialcare/conditionsanddiseases/articles/anewnormalhowpeoplespenttheirtimeafterthemarch2020coronaviruslockdown/2020-12-09">reported that</a> the amount of time people spent gardening doubled in March and April 2020 compared with the same period in 2015. Many people relied on hosepipes as water butts used for collecting rainwater ran dry.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-analysed-electricity-demand-and-found-coronavirus-has-turned-weekdays-into-weekends-134606">We analysed electricity demand and found coronavirus has turned weekdays into weekends</a>
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<h2>Adapting to change</h2>
<p>With the full return of students to school in September, patterns of water use returned to something resembling life pre-lockdown.</p>
<p>But the new habits that people picked up during lockdown will potentially linger for months and even years after the pandemic. Many people we spoke to as part of our study expected to continue working from home after government restrictions were lifted. Prior to the outbreak, 68% of British employees <a href="https://yougov.co.uk/topics/economy/articles-reports/2020/09/22/most-workers-want-work-home-after-covid-19">never worked from home</a>. As the country prepares to emerge from its third national lockdown, the <a href="https://voxeu.org/article/working-home-revolutionising-uk-labour-market">evidence suggests</a> that more than 40% want to continue working from home for a few days a week.</p>
<p>Before the pandemic, the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/escaping-the-jaws-of-death-ensuring-enough-water-in-2050">Environment Agency was warning</a> that the UK is at risk of running short of water by 2050 due to climate change and population growth. Water companies are preparing with efficiency measures and long-term planning, but the large shifts in where water was consumed and how much during spring 2020 caught many of them by surprise.</p>
<p>Water helped preserve a semblance of normal life for many during lockdown, by helping people discover the relative freedom of their own gardens and in offering an escape from boredom and a chance to relax. For others, greater water use at home will have meant <a href="https://www.nea.org.uk/publications/covid-water-use-and-the-impact-on-poverty-in-the-uk/">higher bills</a> which some struggled to afford. </p>
<p>Lockdowns have shown how wider social trends influence water demand. Flexible working arrangements encouraged people to move their most water-intensive routines outside peak hours, but new routines made many people use more water in daily life. And if a new generation of gardeners emerges from the pandemic, there’s an opportunity to encourage water-wise gardening practices. Water butts which pool rainwater could help households cut their water demand in future by using hosepipes less often.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/152066/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cecilia Alda Vidal received funding from the University of Manchester’s Collaboration Labs programme, the Economic and Social Research Council, Artesia, Anglian Water and the Anglian Centre for Water Studies at the University of East Anglia.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alison Browne has received funding from ESRC, EPSRC, Innovate UK, Artesia Consulting, Anglian Water and the Anglian Centre for Water Studies at the University of East Anglia. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ruby Smith has received funding from Artesia Consulting, Anglian Water and the Anglian Centre for Water Studies at the University of East Anglia.
</span></em></p>With fewer people commuting, home water use changed radically overnight in March 2020.Cecilia Alda Vidal, PhD student in Human Geography, University of ManchesterAlison Browne, Lecturer in Human Geography, Sustainable Consumption Institute, University of ManchesterRuby Smith, Research Assistant in Geography, University of ManchesterLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1560712021-02-25T14:31:31Z2021-02-25T14:31:31ZPasha 98: Why it’s important to understand how much water is in the Nile river<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/386444/original/file-20210225-17-1vbv891.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">shutterstock</span> </figcaption></figure><p>The Nile river flows through 11 countries in Africa. It is a major source of water for millions of people. This makes it increasingly important that the river is used in a way that’s equitable and fair to all. The starting point is to know how much water there is in the river system, and where – including soil moisture. </p>
<p>In today’s episode of Pasha, Emad Hasan, a postdoctoral researcher in remote sensing hydrology at Binghamton University and the State University of New York, talks about how satellite observations are used to gather this important data. What the data reveal is that there’s potential for a crisis. Lake Victoria water tower receives about twice the water volume that the Blue Nile basin receives during the wet season. And the Sudd basin (the southern water sink) loses about twice as much water as the northern Main Nile region.</p>
<p>Progressive planning to save water resources for future development is absolutely critical.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/satellite-data-provides-fresh-insights-into-the-amount-of-water-in-the-nile-basin-148545">Satellite data provides fresh insights into the amount of water in the Nile basin</a>
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<p><strong>Photo:</strong><br>
“Aerial of Juba, the capital of South Sudan, with river Nile on the right” by Frontpage found on <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/aerial-juba-capital-south-sudan-river-79424332">Shutterstock</a></p>
<p><strong>Music:</strong>
“Happy African Village” by John Bartmann, found on <a href="http://freemusicarchive.org/music/John_Bartmann/Public_Domain_Soundtrack_Music_Album_One/happy-african-village">FreeMusicArchive.org</a> licensed under <a href="https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/">CC0 1</a>.</p>
<p>“A Sea Change by Kyle Preston”, found on <a href="https://freemusicarchive.org/music/Kyle_Preston/Geo/A_Sea_Change">FreeMusicArchive.org</a> licensed under <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">Attribution NonCommercial License.</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/156071/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
It won’t be easy to get the 11 countries in the basin to agree to a plan that avoids chronic water shortages in the future. Good information sharing and technical cooperation are critical.Ozayr Patel, Digital EditorLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1541732021-02-05T01:31:22Z2021-02-05T01:31:22ZA major coal mine expansion was knocked back today, but where’s the line in the sand?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/382641/original/file-20210204-16-17k1i15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1195%2C793&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source"> CLIMATE CAMP 09</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>An independent expert panel today <a href="https://www.ipcn.nsw.gov.au/projects/2020/10/dendrobium-extension-project-ssd-8194">rejected</a> a proposal to expand the operations of the <a href="https://www.south32.net/our-business/australia/illawarra-metallurgical-coal/dendrobium-mine">Dendrobium coal mine</a> under Sydney’s drinking water catchment. This is a significant and welcome decision. However, flawed environmental laws that enabled the proposal to get so far must be overhauled.</p>
<p>The mine’s proponents had been seeking to <a href="https://www.planningportal.nsw.gov.au/major-projects/project/9696">extract</a> 78 million additional tonnes of coal out to 2048. The New South Wales Department of Planning, Industry and Environment (DPIE) had recommended the mine be approved. The backing came despite grave concerns over the mine’s impact on drinking water supplies.</p>
<p>We are experts in environmental regulation and one of us, Pete Dupen, is a former mining manager for the state government agency WaterNSW. Our research shows the damage mining causes to Sydney’s water supplies is unsustainable, and regulation in Australia has largely failed to set firm limits on cumulative damage to the environment.</p>
<p>The problem is rife in both state and <a href="https://epbcactreview.environment.gov.au/resources/final-report">federal</a> laws, and must urgently be addressed. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Man stands at dam edge" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/382642/original/file-20210204-24-u5qggb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/382642/original/file-20210204-24-u5qggb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=460&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/382642/original/file-20210204-24-u5qggb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=460&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/382642/original/file-20210204-24-u5qggb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=460&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/382642/original/file-20210204-24-u5qggb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=578&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/382642/original/file-20210204-24-u5qggb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=578&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/382642/original/file-20210204-24-u5qggb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=578&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">The mine extension was rejected due to concerns over damage to water supplies.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Mark Baker/AP</span></span>
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<h2>‘Unacceptable’ damage</h2>
<p>NSW’s Independent Planning Commission (<a href="https://www.ipcn.nsw.gov.au/projects/2020/10/dendrobium-extension-project-ssd-8194">IPC</a>) was tasked with assessing the Dendrobium mine proposal due to the high number of objections received.</p>
<p>The multinational company that owns the mine, South32, wanted to extend underground longwall mining at the operation until 2048.</p>
<p>Coal from Dendrobium, located west of Wollongong, is used in steel-making in Australia and overseas. South32 argued the expansion would deliver a net economic benefit of A$2.8 billion. </p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/be-worried-when-fossil-fuel-lobbyists-support-current-environmental-laws-138526">Be worried when fossil fuel lobbyists support current environmental laws</a>
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<p>The extension would have allowed 78 million tonnes of coal to be extracted from two new areas comprising 21 “long wall” panels, 18 of which would have been more than 300 metres wide. </p>
<p>The panels would have been dug out from beneath a so-called “Special Area” – land where, under law, stored water must be protected and ecological integrity maintained. The area covered by the proposed expansion supplies drinking water to much of Greater Sydney.</p>
<p>In its <a href="https://www.ipcn.nsw.gov.au/projects/2020/10/dendrobium-extension-project-ssd-8194">verdict</a> released on Friday, the IPC said the project would cause “unacceptable” damage and should be refused.</p>
<p>Among the reasons for the decision were:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>the risk of significant “subsidence” or sinking of the ground’s surface resulting from the longwall mine design. This would degrade 25 watercourses and swamps </p></li>
<li><p>potentially significant surface water losses into the groundwater system, damaging ecological processes and contribute to increased concentrations of metals in drinking water</p></li>
<li><p>the impact of past and existing longwall mining in the catchment, including the (as yet unquantified) loss of surface water flows from some sections of rivers and streams</p></li>
<li><p>uncertainty around managing mine water inflow (surface waters permanently diverted underground) after mine closure.</p></li>
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<h2>No line in the sand</h2>
<p>Thankfully in this case, the IPC took into account cumulative damage to water supplies when making its decision. But as precedent shows, that consideration is not a given.</p>
<p>Australian laws tend to focus on the impacts of individual projects in isolation. Crucially, they fail to use clear thresholds of unacceptable cumulative environmental impact – a line in the sand, beyond which damage will not be tolerated.</p>
<p>The failing is reflected in the recommendation by NSW planning officials that the Dendrobium extension be approved. If cumulative damage was properly considered earlier, the proposal would have been scuppered years ago.</p>
<p>Climate change and drought have <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-drought-is-affecting-water-supply-in-australias-capital-cities-127909">crippled</a> urban water supplies in recent years. Yet underground coal mines have been allowed to eat away at Sydney’s water catchments, Pac-Man like, for decades. </p>
<p>Our research shows existing coal mines in the catchments of Sydney’s “Metropolitan Special Area” have, or will, divert <a href="https://www.ipcn.nsw.gov.au/resources/pac/media/files/pac/projects/2020/10/dendrobium-extension-project-ssd-8194/public-submissions/environmental-defenders-office-on-behalf-of-protect-our-water-alliance/201215-peter-dupen.pdf">450 billion litres</a> of drinking water into underground fractures. That’s almost <a href="http://media.bom.gov.au/social/blog/39/when-dam-size-matters/">as much</a> water as is contained in Sydney Harbour. </p>
<p>A NSW government-appointed <a href="https://www.chiefscientist.nsw.gov.au/independent-reports/mining-in-the-sydney-drinking-water-catchment">expert panel</a> recently examined the risk mining activities posed to the water quantity in Greater Sydney’s water catchments. Among its <a href="https://chiefscientist.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/281732/IEPMC-Part-2-Report.pdf">recommendations</a> was an interagency taskforce to determine how much water loss due to mining was acceptable.</p>
<p>Yet even as the IPC assessed the Dendrobium proposal, this question had not yet been answered. This is despite the NSW government in April last year <a href="https://www.planning.nsw.gov.au/News/2020/Stronger-Protection-for-Sydneys-water-catchment-following-extensive-review">accepting</a> all 50 of the panel’s recommendations.</p>
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<img alt="Aerial view of Warragamba Dam" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/382643/original/file-20210204-18-gvof2y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/382643/original/file-20210204-18-gvof2y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/382643/original/file-20210204-18-gvof2y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/382643/original/file-20210204-18-gvof2y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/382643/original/file-20210204-18-gvof2y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/382643/original/file-20210204-18-gvof2y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/382643/original/file-20210204-18-gvof2y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">The cumulative damage to Sydney’s drinking water supplies is not being properly addressed.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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<p>The <a href="https://majorprojects.planningportal.nsw.gov.au/prweb/PRRestService/mp/01/getContent?AttachRef=SSD-8194%2120201102T024456.148%20GMT">draft conditions</a> for the expansion, set by DPIE, would not have addressed cumulative impacts before approval was granted.</p>
<p>Several years ago, WaterNSW developed cumulative impact criteria to be applied to mining developments before approval. But the document remains a draft and has not been published, for reasons unknown.</p>
<h2>A national problem</h2>
<p>The problems we raise are not isolated to NSW environment law. At a federal level, the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation (EPBC) Act needs an urgent overhaul.</p>
<p>The Morrison government last week released an <a href="https://epbcactreview.environment.gov.au/resources/final-report">independent review</a> of the laws by Professor Graeme Samuel. Among the report’s many scathing criticisms were that “cumulative impacts on the environment are not systematically considered”.</p>
<p>Samuel said Commonwealth environment authorities assess development proposals only when they meet certain criteria. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-major-report-excoriated-australias-environment-laws-sussan-leys-response-is-confused-and-risky-154254">A major report excoriated Australia's environment laws. Sussan Ley's response is confused and risky</a>
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<p>Even when the Commonwealth does scrutinise a proposal, decisions are made only on a project-by-project basis, rather than as part of an “integrated system of environmental management that ensure cumulative impacts are well managed”, Samuel said.</p>
<p>Weaknesses in Australian federal and state laws, and enforcement, often means cumulative effects are not considered <a href="http://www.unswlawjournal.unsw.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/2-Nelson.pdf">on paper</a> or in practice. </p>
<p>For example, the Victorian Auditor-General <a href="https://www.audit.vic.gov.au/sites/default/files/2020-06/20200617-Endangered-Grasslands-report.pdf">recently found</a> measures designed to mitigate the cumulative effect of residential developments on Melbourne’s urban fringe were not being implemented.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Land cleared for development" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381282/original/file-20210129-21-sufsex.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381282/original/file-20210129-21-sufsex.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381282/original/file-20210129-21-sufsex.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381282/original/file-20210129-21-sufsex.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381282/original/file-20210129-21-sufsex.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381282/original/file-20210129-21-sufsex.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381282/original/file-20210129-21-sufsex.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Across Australia, the law does not require decision-makers to adequately consider cumulative effects of development.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Shoring up our drinking water</h2>
<p>Few environmental problems are more pressing than permanent impacts on a major city’s water supply. But protecting water resources from cumulative harm requires the following </p>
<ul>
<li><p>well-defined thresholds, set with rational justification and able to be changed as new information arises</p></li>
<li><p>robust measurements to assess if thresholds are being approached or exceeded</p></li>
<li><p>clear conditions for developers that require concrete actions if thresholds are crossed</p></li>
<li><p>transparency and trust in how the decisions are being made.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Clearly, the law and associated planning processes must consider the accumulating damage stressing the natural world. Otherwise, we may reach irreversible tipping points without even realising it.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/world-first-mining-standard-must-protect-people-and-hold-powerful-companies-to-account-144285">World-first mining standard must protect people and hold powerful companies to account</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/154173/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Pete Dupen received funding from Protect Our Water Alliance to prepare a submission to the IPC, under instruction from the NSW Environmental Defenders’ Office.
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rebecca Louise Nelson receives funding from the Australian Research Council (#DE180101154 'Regulating Cumulative Environmental Effects: Designing Global Best Practice'). She is also a director of Bush Heritage Australia and a member of the Advisory Committee on Social, Economic and Environmental Sciences of the Murray-Darling Basin Authority.</span></em></p>The damage mining causes to Sydney’s water supplies is unsustainable, and the law has failed to stop it.Pete Dupen, PhD Student, University of Technology SydneyRebecca Louise Nelson, Associate Professor in Law, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1520022020-12-21T22:23:51Z2020-12-21T22:23:51ZEven in a ‘water-rich’ country like New Zealand, some cities could face water shortages this summer<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374936/original/file-20201214-13-1fafyl0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=41%2C118%2C3894%2C2454&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">MNStudio/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>After eight months of drought rules, Auckland finally <a href="https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/auckland-council-relaxes-water-restrictions-after-drought-rules/RXYUKBMJORMNR3ZDD75WRJFCYA/">relaxed water restrictions</a> last week, but as New Zealand heads into <a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/national/429468/marine-heatwaves-higher-tropical-cyclone-risk-what-la-nina-means-for-new-zealand-this-summer">another La Niña summer</a>, other cities can expect serious water shortages both now and in the future.</p>
<p>Although this summer’s projected rainfall should keep Auckland’s water supply levels sustainable in the short term, Wellington could be <a href="https://www.stuff.co.nz/dominion-post/wellington/123472555/universal-water-metering-in-wellington-necessary-to-avoid-droughtlike-summer-conditions-report-says">running dry within the next six years</a>. </p>
<p>For both cities, addressing the gap in water supply and demand is an immediate and ongoing problem. Growing populations and increasingly variable climate conditions, combined with ageing infrastructure, mean local authorities will have to think about how they can either increase supply or change patterns of consumption. </p>
<p>In a <a href="https://www.motu.nz/our-expertise/environment-and-resources/nutrient-trading-and-water-quality/review-of-policy-instruments-for-freshwater-management/">new working paper</a>, we explore the merits and limitations of options available to policymakers to help navigate the changing water landscape.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/extreme-heat-and-rain-thousands-of-weather-stations-show-theres-now-more-of-both-for-longer-141869">Extreme heat and rain: thousands of weather stations show there's now more of both, for longer</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Policy solutions to address water (short)falls</h2>
<p>For two of New Zealand’s largest cities, Auckland and Wellington, curbing demand is likely to be a more cost-effective approach than increasing water supply. Building reservoirs or constructing desalination plants is costly compared with adopting a range of targeted policy instruments that could encourage a change in individual use. </p>
<p>The benefits of taking a multi-faceted policy approach to curbing demand is evident when comparing water consumption patterns in Auckland and Wellington. </p>
<p>Aucklanders had water meters installed in the 1990s and are charged per unit of water consumed. They use <a href="https://www.stuff.co.nz/dominion-post/wellington/123472555/universal-water-metering-in-wellington-necessary-to-avoid-droughtlike-summer-conditions-report-says">30% less water per person</a> than Wellington users, who don’t have meters and are charged a flat rate for use. </p>
<p>Coupled with this, Auckland Council has run targeted campaigns to educate users about ways to conserve water and household water bills include information about use patterns that are designed to “nudge” users towards conservation.</p>
<p>In other regions of New Zealand, the merits of a cost-driven approach are also clear. The Kāpiti Coast in the lower North Island has had a <a href="https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/wellington-water-discovers-leak-of-20000-litres-a-day-as-consumption-spikes/QEFK32XFMT64LUGQX5K4EYPSJI/">26% reduction in water use</a> since water meters, pricing and targeted education campaigns were introduced in 2014.</p>
<p>The evidence suggests that a policy approach that combines pricing incentives with education campaigns and regulation encourages users to conserve water.</p>
<h2>Looking ahead to warmer and drier summers</h2>
<p>However, even with the implementation of a range of water-saving policies, New Zealand city dwellers are not achieving the reductions needed to close the demand gap, particularly given the projections of warmer, drier summers. Most cities will need to adopt further policy changes.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Map of expected temperatures this summer." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374929/original/file-20201214-19-1oczm23.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374929/original/file-20201214-19-1oczm23.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374929/original/file-20201214-19-1oczm23.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374929/original/file-20201214-19-1oczm23.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374929/original/file-20201214-19-1oczm23.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374929/original/file-20201214-19-1oczm23.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374929/original/file-20201214-19-1oczm23.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Warmer-than-usual temperatures are forecast for all of New Zealand this summer, and the warming trend is expected to continue.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">NIWA</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The patterns of water consumption in Australia’s two largest cities, Melbourne and Sydney, provide some insight into how further behavioural changes could be achieved in New Zealand. </p>
<p>First, Australia’s arid climate leaves few in doubt about water’s value and its scarcity. Second, this is reinforced through higher price signals, some of which rise and fall with dam levels. The <a href="https://watersource.awa.asn.au/community/customers/why-sydney-residents-use-30-more-water-per-day-than-melburnians/">result</a> is that Melburnians, who pay progressively more per litre the more water they use, use 150 litres per person per day. Sydneysiders, who <a href="https://www.ipart.nsw.gov.au/Home/Industries/Water/Reviews/Metro-Pricing/Prices-for-Sydney-Water-Corporation-from-1-July-2020">until recently</a> paid a flat price for residential water, use 210 litres per person per day.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-sydney-residents-use-30-more-water-per-day-than-melburnians-117656">Why Sydney residents use 30% more water per day than Melburnians</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>For New Zealand policymakers, the challenge lies not only in bringing about changes in the choices water users make through prices that more accurately reflect scarcity, but also in engineering a shift in values around water consumption. For too long, New Zealanders have thought the country is <a href="https://www.waternz.org.nz/Attachment?Action=Download&Attachment_id=4358">water-rich</a>, ignoring the fact this applies only to certain regions and seasons.</p>
<p>Achieving a long-term shift in behaviour will require an acknowledgement that <a href="https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/63/3/164/228159">values influence policy and vice versa</a>. For most cities, the starting point in this transition will be identifying targeted policy options to reduce the growing supply-demand gap and engender a shift in values. </p>
<p>For Auckland, this might mean reviewing the pricing structures that determine patterns of water use. For Wellington, the most cost-effective approach is likely to be the introduction of meters and volumetric pricing. </p>
<p>For residents of all urban areas, internalising the fact that water is scarce can’t come soon enough.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/152002/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Julia Talbot-Jones works for Victoria University of Wellington and is an affiliate of Motu Economic and Public Policy Research. Through Motu, she received funding from the Aotearoa Foundation to complete this research. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sophie O'Brien and Suzie Greenhalgh do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Given long-term forecasts for growing urban populations and an increasingly variable climate, local authorities will have to think about how best to encourage people to conserve water.Julia Talbot-Jones, Lecturer, Te Herenga Waka — Victoria University of WellingtonSophie O'Brien, Research Analyst, Motu Economic and Public Policy ResearchSuzie Greenhalgh, Portfolio Leader (Society, Culture & Policy), Manaaki Whenua - Landcare ResearchLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1467762020-09-23T14:23:12Z2020-09-23T14:23:12ZPasha 81: A closer look at the informal water market in Kenya<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/359532/original/file-20200923-21-6lq4ap.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">GettyImages</span> </figcaption></figure><p>Water is a scarce resource. In certain parts of Nairobi, Kenya, water is hard to come by. This has created a market for informal vendors to exist. Often these vendors sell water at highly inflated prices and they often take water from cut municipality pipes, which can lead to contaminated water. But the vendors are necessary because they provide people with water which they would normally struggle to access. This means that steps need to be taken to ensure that water is provided to people in a cost-effective and safe way. </p>
<p>In today’s episode of Pasha, Anindita Sarkar, an assistant professor at the University of Delhi, explains how water is supplied in settlements like this – including through water ATMs – and how the market can be improved. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/kenyas-urban-poor-are-being-exploited-by-informal-water-markets-144582">Kenya's urban poor are being exploited by informal water markets</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><strong>Photo:</strong>
“A young boy carries heavy water containers to his home in the back alleys of Mathare informal settlement on July 9, 2020 in Nairobi, Kenya.” By Alissa Everett found on <a href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/young-boy-carries-heavy-water-containers-to-his-home-in-the-news-photo/1271526328?adppopup=true">Getty Images</a></p>
<p><strong>Music</strong>
“Happy African Village” by John Bartmann, found on <a href="http://freemusicarchive.org/music/John_Bartmann/Public_Domain_Soundtrack_Music_Album_One/happy-african-village">FreeMusicArchive.org</a> licensed under <a href="https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/">CC0 1</a>.</p>
<p>“Chamber Ambience” by Nasienie, found on <a href="https://freemusicarchive.org/music/Nasienie/Private_Loops/01_nasienie_-_chamber_ambience">FreeMusicArchive.org</a> licensed under <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/">Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 International License.</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/146776/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
The main reason for the growth of the informal water market is government failure to deliver adequate public services.Ozayr Patel, Digital EditorLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1405652020-08-03T15:51:00Z2020-08-03T15:51:00ZIran: decades of unsustainable water use has dried up lakes and caused environmental destruction<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/346595/original/file-20200709-87076-570zep.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Lake Urmia, Iran.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Artem Grachev / shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Salt storms are an emerging threat for millions of people in north-western Iran, thanks to the catastrophe of Lake Urmia. Once one of the world’s largest salt lakes, and still the country’s largest lake, Urmia is now barely a tenth of its former size.</p>
<p>As the waters recede, extensive salt marshes are left exposed to the wind. These storms are getting saltier and are now happening more often – even in the cold and rainy seasons of the year. As more drying uncovers more salt marshes, things will only get worse. </p>
<p>Salt storms pose a direct threat to the respiratory health and eyesight of at least 4 million people living in both rural and urban areas around Lake Urmia. Increasing soil salinity reduces the yield of agricultural and orchard crops grown around the lake, while the lake has shrunk so much that boating is no longer possible, resulting in a loss of <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/iran-blog/2015/jan/23/iran-lake-urmia-drying-up-new-research-scientists-urge-action">tourism</a>.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/H7euP07yEA0?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Urmia 1986-2016. Salt marshes have been exposed as the lake has shrunk. (Source: Google Timelapse)</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This dramatic decline is down to human activity. Over the past three decades, Iran has followed a succession of five-year economic development plans, part of which involved providing large government loans for the agricultural sector to expand and switch from being primarily rain-fed to irrigated. To provide the necessary water for the farms, as well as for growing domestic and industrial use, more than 50 dams were constructed on rivers that drain much of north-western Iran and flow into the lake.</p>
<p>While these dams siphoned off the water that once fed the lake, the drying process was intensified by climate change. The rate of rainfall has reduced in recent decades and the Urmia basin has experienced several <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0380133014002688?via%3Dihub">multi-year droughts</a>.</p>
<p>All this has left a massively shrunken lake and a host of associated economic, social and health impacts. Yet what’s happening with Lake Urmia is just one example of water-environmental problems emerging right across Iran.</p>
<h2>Iran is getting warmer and drier</h2>
<p>In a recent <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-64089-y">journal article</a>, we examined how both climate change and human activity had affected hydrological changes in Iran in recent decades. The country has 30 main river basins, and we gathered three decades of key hydro-climatic data for each, including surface temperature, precipitation, how much water was stored underground in soil and rock, surface runoff (the amount of excess rainwater that cannot be absorbed by the soil), and measures of evaporation and transpiration from plants.</p>
<p>We then calculated the average values of each of these variables over two 15-year periods, 1986-2001 and 2002-2016, and compared the two. This allowed us to see what was changing in each of these basins and by how much. </p>
<p>Our work showed that Iran’s main river basins have got warmer but are receiving less precipitation, are storing less water underground, and seeing less runoff. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/350879/original/file-20200803-18-1xsixg1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Rusting boat on salty ground, lake and mountains in distance." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/350879/original/file-20200803-18-1xsixg1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/350879/original/file-20200803-18-1xsixg1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350879/original/file-20200803-18-1xsixg1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350879/original/file-20200803-18-1xsixg1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350879/original/file-20200803-18-1xsixg1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350879/original/file-20200803-18-1xsixg1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350879/original/file-20200803-18-1xsixg1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A boat is left to rust as Lake Urmia shrinks.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Tolga Subasi / shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Some river basins where precipitation and runoff decreased still saw an increase in evapotranspiration (the sum of evaporation and plant transpiration). This may seem odd at first, as less rainwater surely means there is less water to evaporate or for plants to transpire. Lake Urmia, for instance, is an endorheic basin, which means nothing flows out of it and all water that flows in eventually evaporates (this is why the lake is salty). But why would evapotranspiration have actually increased, even as the basin is fed by less water?</p>
<p>This is actually an indicator of human activity. First, all those dams generally increase the surface area of the body of water, compared to the natural flow before the dam was built. Artificial lakes and reservoirs, therefore, leave more water exposed to air and direct sunlight, thus increasing evaporation.</p>
<p>But it’s also down to farming. As more crops are grown, more water is transpired by plants – and more water is needed to grow those plants. To add water where needed, farmers have turned to groundwater and large-scale water transfer engineering projects. </p>
<p>This use of water to maintain and expand human activities is unsustainable and has serious environmental and socio-economic consequences, particularly in this dry part of the world, as seen by changes to Lake Urmia. Policymakers need to mitigate the adverse hydrological changes and associated socio-economic, environmental and health impacts, and move towards something more sustainable.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/140565/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Salt storms are an emerging threat, as Lake Urmia dries up and exposes huge salt marshes.Zahra Kalantari, Associate Professor, Stockholm UniversityDavood Moshir Panahi, PhD Student, Department of Physical Geography, Stockholm UniversityGeorgia Destouni, Professor of Hydrology, Hydrogeology and Water Resources, Stockholm UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1383572020-05-17T08:49:24Z2020-05-17T08:49:24ZHow water scarcity adds to women’s burden in northern Ghana<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/334512/original/file-20200512-82375-115a3ti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Women spend considerable time finding water for their homes</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/melanieandjohn/72055739">John and Melanie/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Achieving universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all by the year 2030 is considered fundamental in attaining the <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0956247816628435">Sustainable Development Goal 6</a>. But about <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/content/2/2/e1500323">4 billion people</a>, nearly two-thirds of the population of the world, face severe water scarcity and over 2 billion people live in countries experiencing high water stress.</p>
<p>Water supply is not equitably distributed across the globe. In sub-Saharan Africa, about <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.org/article/water-inequality/">40%</a> of the population lacks safe drinking water.</p>
<p>Another dimension of water inequality is gender. A <a href="http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/water/wwap/">study</a> conducted in 25 sub-Saharan African countries by UNESCO World Water Assessment Programme in 2019 estimated that women spend not less than 16 million hours daily to collect drinking water, whereas their male counterparts spend 6 million hours.</p>
<p>These inequalities are evident in Ghana. About <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222514952_Water_and_sanitation_in_Ghana">38%</a> of the population lack access to potable water and there are regional <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-local-solutions-are-best-for-urban-water-supply-in-ghana-133236">disparities</a> and urban-rural dichotomies in water supply. Discussions about supply have paid little attention, though, to the disproportionate effects of water insecurity on women. </p>
<p>To fill the gap, our <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13549839.2020.1744118">study</a> examined the gendered implications of sporadic water supply for livelihoods in Tatale-Sanguli District.</p>
<p>We discovered that water shortages affected both men and women in the district, but weighed more on women than men. Women and girls were found to be the primary drawers of water for household needs, because of patriarchal cultural norms. </p>
<p>Our findings should inform policy intervention through the district assembly. Interventions that diversify livelihoods could reduce the vulnerability
of women to water shortages. </p>
<h2>Water supply in the district</h2>
<p>The study was conducted in the Tatale Township and two neighbouring communities of Yachado and Kpalbutabo in the Tatale-Sanguli District of the northern region of Ghana. Subsistence agriculture is the predominant economic activity.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
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<span class="caption">Potable water is just a dream for many women in sub-Saharan Africa.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/hancindex/10727426273">Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<p>The district experiences a short rainy season and a long and more pronounced dry season. The main sources of water supply are streams, rivers, shallow ponds, hand-dug wells, boreholes and rainwater. While water supply systems are generally inadequate, the problem worsens during the dry season, when most of the streams dry up. </p>
<p>Although technologies such as rooftop harvesting for rainwater for domestic use and agriculture exist, storage facilities are lacking. Consequently, supply is sporadic in the dry season from November to May.</p>
<h2>Who is more burdened, how and why?</h2>
<p>The population of the district is 60,039 and females constitute 50.4% of it. Most women are engaged in some form of agricultural activity. </p>
<p>Water is required for different productive activities pursued by both men and women. But the responsibility of fetching water in the study communities rests heavily on girls and older women. The strict gender roles and cultural norms in the Tatale-Sanguli District make the collection and use of water a gendered issue. </p>
<p>A male participant in Kpalbutabo put it this way:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Men don’t suffer like women when the entire household lacks water … women are more concerned about water because they take care of children. Women don’t expect their husbands to bath children or wash their clothing. It is their responsibility. So when water becomes scarce, women tend to have no peace of mind. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>A combination of reproductive and productive workload makes women more susceptible to the drudgery of sporadic water supply than men. According to 65% of female participants who took part in the survey, they spent about three to four hours travelling over a long distance daily to fetch water.</p>
<p>Water shortage often creates rancour and tension at home and with neighbours at public water supply points. One woman in the study noted that when water is scarce women have less sleep and go to farm late; life generally becomes difficult for them.</p>
<p>When the water supply becomes critical, men and boys sometimes help by fetching it on bicycles, motor bikes or tricycles. Women lack these assets. Thus, disparities in access to physical assets in favour of men add to women’s burden.</p>
<p>Another aspect of gender disparities is that during menstruation, the cultural norm is that women must have a separate container of water for their own use. They have to fetch enough water for men to use before their period starts because it is a taboo for some men to drink water collected by women who are menstruating. </p>
<p>When water supply for agriculture is limited, some younger women and men move away temporarily to find different ways of earning a living, leaving older family members behind. </p>
<h2>How to relieve women’s burden</h2>
<p>To relieve the people of the Tatale-Sanguli District from the drudgery of limited water supply, we recommend that the local government and non-governmental organisations should intensify their water provision efforts in the district. They can do this by expanding systems of pipes, boreholes and hand pumps to reach communities.</p>
<p>Their efforts should recognise the gendered effects and differentiated burdens of water use. One way would be for the district assembly to aim at diversifying livelihoods.</p>
<p><em>This article was co-authored with Emmanuel Bintaayi Jeil. He holds an MPhil in Geography and Rural Development from the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi-Ghana.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/138357/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kabila Abass does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The study confirms that collecting water for daily use weighs more heavily on women, making life more difficult for especially older women.Kabila Abass, Senior Lecturer, Department of Geography and Rural Development, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST)Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.