tag:theconversation.com,2011:/id/topics/weight-training-13972/articlesWeight training – The Conversation2024-01-01T14:45:08Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2202692024-01-01T14:45:08Z2024-01-01T14:45:08ZResistance (exercise) is far from futile: The unheralded benefits of weight training<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/567305/original/file-20231222-21-ph8fgz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=455%2C14%2C8365%2C5662&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Resistance training works about as well as aerobic exercise in all the critical areas, including cardiovascular health.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/resistance-exercise-is-far-from-futile-the-unheralded-benefits-of-weight-training" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Everyone can agree that exercise is healthy. Among its many benefits, exercise improves heart and brain function, aids in controlling weight, slows the effects of aging and helps lower the risks of several chronic <a href="https://doi.org/10.1101%2Fcshperspect.a029694">diseases</a>.</p>
<p>For too long, though, one way of keeping fit, aerobic exercise, has been perceived as superior to the other, resistance training, for promoting health when, in fact, they are equally valuable, and both can get us to the same goal of overall physical fitness.</p>
<p>Aerobic exercise such as running, swimming and cycling is popular because it provides great benefits and with ample <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001335">scientific evidence</a> to back that up.</p>
<p>What has been far less influential to date is that resistance training — whether that’s with dumbbells, weightlifting machines or good old push-ups, lunges and dips — works about as well as aerobic exercise in all the critical areas, including cardiovascular health.</p>
<p>Resistance training provides another benefit: building strength and developing power, which become increasingly important as a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s12603-021-1665-8">person ages</a>.</p>
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<iframe src="https://player.vimeo.com/video/843867756" width="500" height="281" frameborder="0" webkitallowfullscreen="" mozallowfullscreen="" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Video about different forms of resistance training explores how all are effective at building strength.</span></figcaption>
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<p>Building and maintaining muscle strength keeps us springing out of our chairs, maintaining our balance and posture and firing our metabolism, as my colleagues and I explain in a paper recently <a href="https://doi.org/10.1249/FIT.0000000000000916">published</a> by the American College of Sports Medicine.</p>
<p>So, if aerobic exercise and resistance training offer roughly equal benefits, how did we end up with so many runners and cyclists compared to weightlifters?</p>
<p>It was a combination of timing, marketing and stereotyping.</p>
<h2>The rise of aerobics</h2>
<p>The preference for aerobic exercise dates back to landmark research from the <a href="https://www.cooperinstitute.org/research/ccls">Cooper Centre Longitudinal Study</a>, which played a pivotal role in establishing the effectiveness of aerobics — Dr. Ken Cooper invented or at least popularized the word with his book <a href="https://www.cooperaerobics.com/About/Aerobics.aspx"><em>Aerobics</em></a>, spurring desk-bound Baby Boomers to take up exercise for its own sake.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, resistance training languished, <a href="https://www.cnet.com/health/fitness/does-lifting-weights-make-women-bulky/">especially among women</a>, due to the misguided notion that weightlifting was only for men who aspired to be hyper-muscular. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-Atlas">Charles Atlas</a>, anyone?</p>
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<img alt="A smiling man holding small blue dumbbells" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/567302/original/file-20231222-29-if70n6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/567302/original/file-20231222-29-if70n6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/567302/original/file-20231222-29-if70n6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/567302/original/file-20231222-29-if70n6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/567302/original/file-20231222-29-if70n6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/567302/original/file-20231222-29-if70n6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/567302/original/file-20231222-29-if70n6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Resistance training does not invariably lead to bulking up, nor does it demand lifting heavy weights.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
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<p>Cultural influences solidified the dominance of aerobic exercise in the fitness landscape. In 1977, Jim Fixx made running and jogging popular with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Complete_Book_of_Running"><em>The Complete Book of Running</em></a>. In the 1980s, Jane Fonda’s <a href="https://www.janefonda.com/shop/fitness-videos/jane-fondas-complete-workout/"><em>Complete Workout</em></a> and exercise shows such as <em><a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0268895/">Aerobicize</a></em> and the <em><a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0299431/">20 Minute Workout</a></em> helped solidify the idea that exercise was about raising one’s heart rate.</p>
<p>The very word “aerobic,” previously confined to the lexicon of science and medicine, entered popular culture about the same time as leg warmers, tracksuits and sweatbands. It made sense to many that breathing hard and sweating from prolonged, vigorous movement was the best way to benefit from exercising.</p>
<p>All the while, resistance training was waiting for its turn in the spotlight.</p>
<h2>Recognizing the value of resistance</h2>
<p>If aerobics has been the hare, resistance training has been the tortoise. Weight training is now coming up alongside and preparing to overtake its speedy rival, as athletes and everyday people alike recognize the value that was always there.</p>
<p>Even in high-level sports training, weightlifting did not become common until the last 20 years. Today, it strengthens the bodies and lengthens the careers of soccer stars, tennis players, golfers <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-016-0486-0">and many more</a>. </p>
<p>Rising popular interest in resistance training owes a debt to <a href="https://www.livestrong.com/article/545200-the-fall-of-fitness/">CrossFit</a>, which, despite its controversies, has helped break down stereotypes and introduced more people, particularly women, to the practice of lifting weights.</p>
<p>It’s important to recognize that resistance training does not invariably lead to bulking up, nor does it demand lifting heavy weights. As our team’s research has shown, lifting lighter weights to the point of failure in multiple sets provides <a href="https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/japplphysiol.00154.2016">equal benefits</a>.</p>
<h2>Strength and aging</h2>
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<img alt="An older couple in sweatshirts using small dumbbells" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/567293/original/file-20231222-23-reglr3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/567293/original/file-20231222-23-reglr3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/567293/original/file-20231222-23-reglr3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/567293/original/file-20231222-23-reglr3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/567293/original/file-20231222-23-reglr3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/567293/original/file-20231222-23-reglr3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/567293/original/file-20231222-23-reglr3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Resistance training can be vital to maintaining overall functionality and independence.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>The merits of resistance training extend beyond improving muscle strength. It addresses a critical aspect often overlooked in traditional aerobic training: the ability to exert force quickly, or what’s called power. As people age, activities of daily living such as standing up, sitting down and climbing stairs demand <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s11556-022-00297-x">strength and power</a> more than cardiovascular endurance.</p>
<p>In this way, resistance training can be vital to maintaining overall functionality and independence.</p>
<h2>Redefining the fitness narrative</h2>
<p>The main idea is not to pit resistance training against aerobic exercise but to recognize that they complement each other. Engaging in both forms of exercise is better than relying on one alone. The <a href="https://doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000001189">American Heart Association</a> recently stated that “…resistance training is a safe and effective approach for improving cardiovascular health in adults with and without cardiovascular disease.”</p>
<p>Adopting a nuanced perspective is essential, especially when we guide <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arr.2021.101368">older individuals</a> who may associate exercise primarily with walking and not realize the limitations imposed by neglecting strength and power training.</p>
<p>Resistance training is not a one-size-fits-all endeavour. It encompasses a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jshs.2023.06.005">spectrum of activities</a> tailored to individual capabilities.</p>
<p>It’s time to redefine the narrative around fitness to make more room for resistance training. It’s not necessary to treat it as a replacement for aerobic exercise but to see it as a vital component of a holistic approach to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1249/ESM.0000000000000001">health and longevity</a>.</p>
<p>By shedding stereotypes, demystifying the process and promoting inclusivity, resistance training can become more accessible and appealing to a broader audience, ultimately leading to a new way to perceive and prioritize the benefits of this form of training for <a href="https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2021-105061">health and fitness</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220269/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stuart Phillips receives funding from CIHR, NSERC, U.S. NIH, and several industry funders. He is affiliated with Exerkine Corporation. </span></em></p>It’s time for aerobics to share the spotlight with weightlifting as a form of exercise that promotes health and may be de rigueur as we age.Stuart Phillips, Professor, Kinesiology, Tier 1 Canada Research Chair in Skeletal Muscle Health, McMaster UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2131312023-10-13T12:32:13Z2023-10-13T12:32:13ZSteep physical decline with age is not inevitable – here’s how strength training can change the trajectory<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552200/original/file-20231004-25-yjv50i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=22%2C0%2C5086%2C3408&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Resistance training can take many forms and can be individualized to suit a person's needs as they age. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/mature-woman-weight-training-in-gym-royalty-free-image/1163686644?adppopup=true">Jamie Grill/Tetra Images via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Raise your hand if you regularly find yourself walking up a flight of stairs. What about carrying heavy bags of groceries? How about picking up your child or grandchild? Most of us would raise our hands to doing at least one of those weekly, or even daily. </p>
<p>As people age, it can become more and more difficult to perform some physical tasks, even those that are normal activities of daily living. However, prioritizing physical fitness and health as you get older can help you go through your normal day-to-day routine without feeling physically exhausted at the end of the day. </p>
<p>It can also help you continue to have special memories with your family and loved ones that you might not have been able to have if you weren’t physically active. For example, I ran two half-marathons with my dad when he was in his 60s!</p>
<p>I am an exercise physiologist who studies how people can <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=gn8ZiLMAAAAJ&hl=en">use resistance training to improve human performance</a>, whether it be in sports and other recreational settings, in everyday life, or both. I am also a certified strength and conditioning specialist. My career has given me the opportunity to design exercise programs for kids, college athletes and elderly adults. </p>
<p>Staying physically active as you get older doesn’t need to include running a half-marathon or trying to be a bodybuilder; it could be as simple as trying to get through the day without feeling winded after you go up a flight of stairs. Although our muscles naturally get weaker as we age, there are ways we can combat that to help improve quality of life as we get older.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552794/original/file-20231009-27-zdfuk7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Man in his 60s, a middle-aged woman and a middle-aged man, all wearing race medals and running gear." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552794/original/file-20231009-27-zdfuk7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552794/original/file-20231009-27-zdfuk7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=576&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552794/original/file-20231009-27-zdfuk7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=576&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552794/original/file-20231009-27-zdfuk7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=576&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552794/original/file-20231009-27-zdfuk7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=724&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552794/original/file-20231009-27-zdfuk7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=724&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552794/original/file-20231009-27-zdfuk7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=724&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">From left are the author’s father, who was age 61 at the time, the author’s wife and the author after completing the Lincoln Half Marathon.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Zachary Gillen</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
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<h2>Muscle loss and chronic disease</h2>
<p>One of the most important parts of exercise programming, no matter who I am working with, is proper resistance training to build muscle strength. Some amount of age-related loss of muscle function is normal and inevitable. But by incorporating resistance training that is appropriate and safe at any ability level, you can slow down the rate of decline and even prevent some loss of muscle function.</p>
<p>The medical term for a condition that involves <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/ageing/afy169">age-related loss of muscle function and mass is sarcopenia</a>. Sarcopenia can begin as early as age 40, but it tends to be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1097/01.mco.0000134362.76653.b2">more common in adults age 60 and older</a>. Sarcopenia is associated with a number of health issues such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/glx245">increased risk of falling</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.123.064071">cardiovascular disease</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13103519">metabolic disease</a>, among others.</p>
<p>In one of our team’s previous studies, we saw that otherwise healthy individuals with sarcopenia had issues <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/jcsm.12932">delivering vital nutrients to muscle</a>. This could lead to greater likelihood of various diseases, such as Type 2 diabetes, and slow down recovery from exercise. </p>
<p>Recent estimates suggest that sarcopenia affects <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.metabol.2023.155533">10% to 16% of the elderly population worldwide</a>. But even if a person doesn’t have clinically diagnosed sarcopenia, they may still have some of the underlying symptoms that, if not dealt with, could lead to sarcopenia.</p>
<h2>Strength training is key</h2>
<p>So the question is, what can be done to reverse this decline? </p>
<p>Recent evidence suggests that one of the key factors leading to sarcopenia is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/glx245">low muscle strength</a>. In other words, combating or reversing sarcopenia, or both, may be best done with a proper resistance-training program that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-021-02642-8">prioritizes improving strength</a>. In fact, the decline in muscle strength seems to <a href="https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.2009.28047">occur at a much faster rate</a> than the decline in muscle size, underscoring the importance of proper strength training as people age.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552839/original/file-20231009-26-epspie.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Chart showing the general pattern for changes in muscle strength and size across stage of life." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552839/original/file-20231009-26-epspie.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552839/original/file-20231009-26-epspie.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=638&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552839/original/file-20231009-26-epspie.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=638&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552839/original/file-20231009-26-epspie.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=638&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552839/original/file-20231009-26-epspie.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=802&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552839/original/file-20231009-26-epspie.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=802&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552839/original/file-20231009-26-epspie.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=802&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Typical age-related changes in muscle strength and size with and without strength training.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Zachary Gillen</span></span>
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<p>Continuing to regularly strength train with moderate to heavy weights has been shown to be not only effective at combating the symptoms of sarcopenia but also <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jamda.2018.09.011">very safe when done properly</a>. The best way to make sure you are strength training properly is to seek out guidance from a qualified individual such as a personal trainer or strength and conditioning specialist.</p>
<p>Despite the clear benefits of strength training, it’s been shown that only about 13% of Americans age 50 and older do some form of <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17572957/">strength training at least twice a week</a>. </p>
<h2>Finding what works for you</h2>
<p>So how does a person properly strength train as they age?</p>
<p>The National Strength and Conditioning Association, a leading organization in advancing strength and conditioning around the world, states that for older adults, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000003230">two to three days per week of strength training</a> can be incredibly helpful for maintaining healthy muscle and bone and combating a number of chronic conditions.</p>
<p>The organization recommends that these workouts involve one to two exercises involving multiple joints per major muscle group, with six to 12 repetitions per set. These are done at an intensity of 50% to 85% of what’s known as one-repetition maximum – the most weight you could handle for a single repetition – with the exception of body weight exercises that use one’s own body weight as the resistance, such as pushups.</p>
<p>I would also recommend resting for about two to three minutes between sets, or even up to five minutes if the set was challenging. For older adults, particularly those age 60 and older, the National Strength and Conditioning Association guidelines suggest that a program like this be performed two to three days per week, with 24 to 48 hours between sessions. </p>
<p><iframe id="sGvo5" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/sGvo5/3/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>Making life’s tasks lighter</h2>
<p>The guidelines above are only one example out of many options, but they provide a framework that you can use to build your own program. However, I would highly recommend seeking out a professional in the field to give specific exercise programming advice that can be tailored to your own needs and goals as you age.</p>
<p>Following such a program would give your muscles an excellent stimulus to enhance strength, while also allowing enough recovery, a very important consideration as people age. You might think it looks like a huge time commitment, but an exercise routine like this can be done in less than an hour. This means that in less than three hours of strength training per week you can help improve your muscle health and reduce the risk of getting sarcopenia and associated health issues. </p>
<p>It’s also important to note that there is no one right way to do resistance training, and it needn’t involve traditional weight equipment. Group classes like Pilates and yoga or those that involve circuit training and work with resistance bands can all produce similar results. The key is to get out and exercise regularly, whatever that entails.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/213131/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Zachary Gillen does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Weightlifting and other forms of resistance training can help stave off loss of muscle mass and other age-related physical decline.Zachary Gillen, Assistant Professor of Exercise Physiology, Mississippi State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1909022022-10-18T05:27:54Z2022-10-18T05:27:54ZLift heavy or smaller weights with high reps? It all depends on your goal<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/486426/original/file-20220926-17-vss0a7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C8%2C2980%2C2001&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>So you want to lift weights but aren’t sure where to start. You scroll through your Instagram feed looking for guidance – but all you see are fitness influencers touting the idea you either lift big or don’t bother. </p>
<p>That’s a bit intimidating and disheartening, right? But as with most things exercise and health, its not really that simple.</p>
<p>I’m an exercise scientist (and former Commonwealth powerlifting medallist and national Olympic weightlifting champion) who researches resistance training, also known as lifting weights. Research suggests lifting smaller weights and doing more repetitions (or, in gym parlance, “reps”) can have a role to play – but it all depends on your goals.</p>
<p>In short: if your goal is to build serious strength and bone density, lifting heavy is an efficient way to do it. But if you can’t lift heavy or it’s not your thing, please don’t think lifting lighter weights is a complete waste of time.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485819/original/file-20220921-22-a4hdau.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A woman works out using a smaller weight." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485819/original/file-20220921-22-a4hdau.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485819/original/file-20220921-22-a4hdau.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485819/original/file-20220921-22-a4hdau.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485819/original/file-20220921-22-a4hdau.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485819/original/file-20220921-22-a4hdau.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485819/original/file-20220921-22-a4hdau.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485819/original/file-20220921-22-a4hdau.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">If you can’t lift heavy or it’s not your thing, please don’t think lifting lighter weights is a waste of time.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/woman-squatting-while-holding-a-kettle-bell-6539867/">Photo by RODNAE Productions/Pexels</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/this-finals-season-a-brief-priming-workout-could-boost-performance-on-the-sports-field-and-beyond-188823">This finals season, a brief ‘priming’ workout could boost performance on the sports field and beyond</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Hang on: what do we mean by ‘heavy’ or ‘light’?</h2>
<p>What’s heavy for one person may be a piece of cake for another.</p>
<p>In resistance training, the load or “heaviness” of a weight is often expressed as a percentage of a “one repetition maximum” (frequently shortened to “1RM”).</p>
<p>A one repetition maximum is the heaviest load you are able to successfully lift <em>once</em>. </p>
<p>Around 80% of your one repetition maximum is often defined as “high intensity” or heavy lifting. </p>
<p>Around 40% or less of your one repetition maximum is often defined as “low intensity”. </p>
<p>In other words, lifting 80% of your one repetition maximum would allow you to do about eight reps.</p>
<p>The more reps we do, the less accurate the relationship.</p>
<p>But some estimates predict you could do approximately 20 reps at 60% of your one repetition maximum (of course, it varies depending on the person). </p>
<p>It’s worth remembering not everyone <em>can</em> lift heavy, perhaps due to age, injury or just being new to the gym. And perhaps while you are unable to lift heavy now, it doesn’t mean that will always be the case. </p>
<p>But the key thing is this: if you’re going to train at a lower intensity, say 40% of your one repetition maximum, you’ll need to do a lot of reps to have a positive benefit.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485790/original/file-20220921-13-nlqzgr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A woman gets ready to squat with a heavy weight bar." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485790/original/file-20220921-13-nlqzgr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485790/original/file-20220921-13-nlqzgr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485790/original/file-20220921-13-nlqzgr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485790/original/file-20220921-13-nlqzgr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485790/original/file-20220921-13-nlqzgr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485790/original/file-20220921-13-nlqzgr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485790/original/file-20220921-13-nlqzgr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">What’s heavy for one person may be a piece of cake for another.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/eFx1KZhaSvo">Photo by Sushil Ghimire on Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The benefits of lifting heavy</h2>
<p>Lifting loads ranging from <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17461391.2018.1450898">40% to 80% of your one repetition maximum</a> has been shown to elicit improvements in muscle mass (hypertrophy). However, research also <a href="https://journals.lww.com/nsca-jscr/Fulltext/2017/12000/Strength_and_Hypertrophy_Adaptations_Between_Low_.31.aspx?casa_token=77cmEPgUQr0AAAAA:MchrZRbKBGLl5WCJbqYN5X06rkBHReifOetdXfzJiBg22P62ZnZl6m8OZKov8975QRAjTbYK0Gf2ivA62W0NiAA">shows</a> lifting at higher loads is needed to maximise improvements in muscular strength.</p>
<p>High intensity exercise is probably <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S8756328220304762">the most effective</a> type of exercise for maintaining and improving bone health. Research has <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S8756328220304762">shown</a> the best approach for bone health is to combine high intensity resistance and impact training.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485791/original/file-20220921-14-iddml5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485791/original/file-20220921-14-iddml5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485791/original/file-20220921-14-iddml5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485791/original/file-20220921-14-iddml5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485791/original/file-20220921-14-iddml5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485791/original/file-20220921-14-iddml5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485791/original/file-20220921-14-iddml5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485791/original/file-20220921-14-iddml5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">If you choose to lift lighter weights, you will need to do more reps to get the same benefits in terms of muscle growth compared to if you were lifting heavier.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Lifting lighter? Here’s what you need to know</h2>
<p>Research has <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00223-015-9976-6">shown</a> participation in high rep, low intensity BodyPump™ classes may offset age-related reductions in lumbar spine bone mineral density.</p>
<p>If you choose to lift lighter weights, you’ll need to do more reps to get the same benefits lifting heavy would yield. </p>
<p>Research also <a href="https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/wk/jsc/2022/00000036/00000002/art00012">shows</a> if you’re lifting lighter, muscular failure is likely required to elicit muscle growth. In other words, you likely need to lift all the way until exhaustion.</p>
<p>Lifting heavy may get you the same benefit without needing to go all the way to exhaustion.</p>
<p>What about burning energy? </p>
<p>On average, a one hour low intensity/high rep style resistance training session may burn <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32587526/">about 300 calories</a>. A heavy session with longer rest periods equates to roughly the same calorie burn as a higher rep session with less rest.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A person holds a small handweight." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485811/original/file-20220921-12-a80i7j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C8%2C5559%2C3684&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485811/original/file-20220921-12-a80i7j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485811/original/file-20220921-12-a80i7j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485811/original/file-20220921-12-a80i7j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485811/original/file-20220921-12-a80i7j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485811/original/file-20220921-12-a80i7j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485811/original/file-20220921-12-a80i7j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">It’s worth noting low load training is hard.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/w45roKo6QYw">Photo by Kelly Sikkema on Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There may be also be <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-020-01388-4">sex differences</a> in the way in which older men and older women respond to resistance training. For example, older men may benefit from higher intensity programs, whereas older women may actually benefit from higher volume programs (more repetitions).</p>
<p>It’s worth noting low load training is hard. It’s actually really uncomfortable to do low load/high rep training to failure, or close to it (remember: “training to failure” means getting to a point where you actually cannot do any more lifts). It requires a significant degree of motivation and willingness to tolerate discomfort. </p>
<p>Doing <a href="https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/wk/jsc/2022/00000036/00000002/art00012">low load training without serious effort</a> is unlikely to result in significant improvements in muscle growth and strength. So if you choose this style, make sure you are ready to put in the effort.</p>
<p>Benefits of light weights include the fact they are portable, meaning you can workout in a pleasant environment such as the beach, the park or while on holidays. They don’t cost as much and are easy to store. For many, they are also not as intimidating. </p>
<p>For some, these benefits will make it easier to stick to a regular exercise routine. For others, these benefits may not outweigh some of the aforementioned advantages of more traditional heavy weight training.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485815/original/file-20220921-17-ke25fp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A woman lifts a small handweight in a barre class" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485815/original/file-20220921-17-ke25fp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485815/original/file-20220921-17-ke25fp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485815/original/file-20220921-17-ke25fp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485815/original/file-20220921-17-ke25fp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485815/original/file-20220921-17-ke25fp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485815/original/file-20220921-17-ke25fp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485815/original/file-20220921-17-ke25fp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">If an influencer or fellow gym-goer is saying their way is the only way, make sure you question it.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/yKlzaQNb-QY">Photo by Alexandra Tran on Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>It depends on your goal</h2>
<p>The moral of the story? It does matter what you do, and how you do it. But, probably not as much as you think. </p>
<p>If an influencer or fellow gym-goer is saying their way is the only way, question it with a healthy scepticism. </p>
<p>They are not you, they do not have your exact goals or limitations, and there’s likely more than one way for you to achieve the outcome you’re after.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/75-hard-what-you-need-to-know-before-taking-on-this-viral-fitness-challenge-187551">75 Hard: what you need to know before taking on this viral fitness challenge</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/190902/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mandy Hagstrom does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>If you can’t lift heavy or it’s not your thing, please don’t think lifting lighter weights is a waste of time.Mandy Hagstrom, Senior Lecturer, Exercise Physiology. Director of Teaching and Education, School of Health Sciences, UNSW., UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1784752022-03-14T17:22:52Z2022-03-14T17:22:52ZRunning injuries don’t happen for the reasons you think – here’s the three best ways to prevent them<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451840/original/file-20220314-18-eeq24d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C6006%2C3998&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Most running injuries happen because of overuse.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/runner-sport-knee-injurywoman-pain-while-395823328">sawaddeebenz/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Running is one of the <a href="https://www.latimes.com/travel/la-trb-fitbit-global-workouts-20150824-story.html">most popular</a> forms of physical activity worldwide. But though it requires little expertise or equipment – and can be <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0033062017300488?casa_token=A4F7ppCpKtwAAAAA:UXtyxI8cJDgRHzbl9QXlgktUsB3U6v6DaL0Q3d5b5sgVSwp5dqztbGs0SDGCBnThkfD5-XRC">very beneficial</a> for our health – it unfortunately also comes with a relatively high risk of injury. In fact, one survey found nearly half of all runners <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1440244018301798?casa_token=rUcD_hcLHv0AAAAA:DS6BQbUBlO8uk1ahHV0nBPVrdZYH3xdjzSG48_dhhfNuNsr7QidfwdINlvO5frO1bFOSnPCB#abs0005">experience injury or pain</a>. Another study even estimated that runners experience nearly <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-015-0333-8">18 injuries</a> for every 1,000 hours of running.</p>
<p>Novice runners have the highest likelihood of sustaining an injury. The most common injuries they experience are in their lower body (such as in the Achilles tendon, shins or knees) and are often the result of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2095254621000454">overuse</a> – an injury that happens in a muscle or joint due to repetitive trauma, usually as a result of doing more than you’re capable of, or not training with proper technique. </p>
<p>But that doesn’t mean injuries are inevitable. There are many ways you can protect yourself from an injury – so long as you ignore some long held ideas about the best way to do this.</p>
<h2>Injury prevention myths</h2>
<p>One common belief in the running community is that static stretching as part of a warm-up or cool-down can reduce risk of injury. But recent evidence suggests that stretching <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15438627.2016.1258640">does little</a> to prevent injuries. It may even reduce running performance in races less than <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15438627.2016.1258640">60 minutes</a> long.</p>
<p>The belief that footwear is a significant factor in whether or not a person gets injured may also be untrue. While comfortable, properly fitting shoes are important for preventing minor issues <a href="https://www.asics.com/gb/en-gb/running-advice/how-to-prevent-blisters-when-running/#:%7E:text=Running%20shoes%20which%20are%20too,turn%2C%20will%20lead%20to%20blisters.&text=If%20your%20feet%20are%20too,them%20more%20prone%20to%20blisters.">such as blisters</a> and can help with <a href="https://theconversation.com/super-shoes-explaining-athletics-new-technological-arms-race-156265">running performance</a>, there’s little evidence suggesting that footwear alone <a href="https://meridian.allenpress.com/jat/article/55/12/1215/446284/Can-the-Appropriate-Footwear-Prevent-Injury-in">reduces injury risk</a>. </p>
<p>There’s also little evidence that shoes prescribed based on foot posture <a href="https://meridian.allenpress.com/jat/article/55/12/1215/446284/Can-the-Appropriate-Footwear-Prevent-Injury-in">reduce injury</a>. A study using army recruits during basic training even showed there was little difference in <a href="https://www.jospt.org/doi/full/10.2519/jospt.2014.5342">injury risk</a> regardless of the type of support a person’s shoe had. </p>
<h2>Evidenced-based tips</h2>
<p>If you want to run injury free, here are the best, evidence-based ways:</p>
<p><strong>1. Build strength</strong></p>
<p>A recent study of Brazilian runners found that performing an eight-week training programme that focused on foot and ankle strength reduced injury risk by <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0363546520969205">nearly 60%</a> compared to a group who didn’t strength-train.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A woman in athletic wear performs a squat." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451839/original/file-20220314-24-psl2qq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451839/original/file-20220314-24-psl2qq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451839/original/file-20220314-24-psl2qq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451839/original/file-20220314-24-psl2qq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451839/original/file-20220314-24-psl2qq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451839/original/file-20220314-24-psl2qq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451839/original/file-20220314-24-psl2qq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Weight training may help reduce injury risk somewhat.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/side-view-young-athlete-squatting-wall-646596646">Artem Varnitsin/ Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While exercising to prevent injury in runners is a relatively new concept, such programmes have also shown promise in other running-based sports such as <a href="https://bmcsportsscimedrehabil.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13102-017-0083-z">football</a> and <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02640414.2020.1721255">volleyball</a> where overuse injuries are also common. In general, strength training should be done three to five times a week for at least 15 minutes each session. Exercises should focus on building muscular endurance, coordination and balance – such as lunges and squats.</p>
<p><strong>2. Not recovering between training sessions</strong></p>
<p>Failing to recover between training sessions is shown to lead to chronic fatigue or overtraining – which can cause <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1941738111434406?casa_token=dNAxbIh11ewAAAAA:01f4QFlseYa-cqwLx0CVswAWugvlvTAqqnMvUCdXqZkPObjM2Y2d0KBh9evEtxiwr-YN1SvqQV9i">performance decline</a>, low mood and muscle aches. These <a href="https://europepmc.org/article/med/1623894">increase risk</a> of overuse injuries as the body’s muscles and tissues aren’t able to repair and adapt between runs. The amount of time a person’s body needs to recover between runs will vary, though 36-48 hours is typical.</p>
<p>Not getting enough or not getting <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-014-0260-0?fbclid=IwAR1BPqYJynmx-Z5mCslc0J-SvnFJxp44BGwwCOSdFxCWbF3RuGpnW_3cCso">good quality sleep</a> can also lead to overuse injuries, as sleep is important for helping the body to recover and restore itself. This is why it’s important to get around seven to nine hours of sleep each night – <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/17461390801954794?casa_token=RAv3GSqMuWQAAAAA:s0rqNuo747JNQkxeszXPtGZqWA2V0bS0MC8FsV4SSIOUhzg0tmOf6vWSxPd3ntJ4LflRlis5QByk">alongside adequate nutrition</a>. </p>
<p><strong>3. Avoid doing too much too soon</strong></p>
<p>Runners are often also advised to follow the “10% rule” when training to avoid injury, meaning they shouldn’t increase their training load (the volume and intensity of their running) by more than 10% each week. Yet research shows that the 10% rule is <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6253751/">no better</a> at reducing injury risk than increasing your training load by a <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0363546507307505?casa_token=2Y4rOhNnNiwAAAAA%3A3ONPQgOopOGHyMX8IPno7NatAiLOLp60F8suMlX2s9IOcnwzPB4sqyM38kYuCMRhC_eJhGU0DGI">greater degree</a>: increasing by <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17940147/">up to 24%</a> each week has no greater risk of injury for novice runners. </p>
<p>On the other hand, increasing running volume by <a href="https://www.jospt.org/doi/pdfplus/10.2519/jospt.2014.5164">around 30%</a> each week is linked to greater risk of injury in novice runners. In practical terms, this would mean increasing your running load from 10km per week to 28.5km per week over a four-week period. </p>
<p>Given that injuries are typically the result of a combination of factors – including age, gender, experience and injury history – growing evidence suggests that the best way for runners to avoid injury is to learn how to <a href="https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/bjsports/early/2017/08/17/bjsports-2017-098113.full.pdf">listen to</a> their bodies. A recent study showed that having an obsessive passion for running was associated with an <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8057706/">increased risk</a> of injury – this is likely due to runners ignoring their bodies and avoiding the early warning signs of injury. </p>
<p>Being able to listen to your body improves with experience. But two studies have shown that people suffering from both knee and <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0363546515584760">achilles injuries</a> were still able to run without significantly worsening their pain or injury so long as they listened to their body and <a href="https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/bjsports/early/2017/08/17/bjsports-2017-098113.full.pdf">modified their running style</a> slightly. </p>
<p>It’s unlikely a person can avoid getting injured altogether – though following these strategies may help reduce the risk and severity of injuries somewhat. If you do get injured, the best thing to do is consult a professional. But pain permitting, you may still be able to do <a href="https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/ijsnem/31/2/article-p135.xml">other types of exercises</a> in the meantime (such as cycling or using an <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E15Q3Z9J-Zg">elliptical</a> or even <a href="https://theconversation.com/three-reasons-runners-should-start-lifting-weights-178453">strength training</a>) to help as <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-021-01547-1">you recover</a>. And, as you become <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1440244018301798?casa_token=rUcD_hcLHv0AAAAA:DS6BQbUBlO8uk1ahHV0nBPVrdZYH3xdjzSG48_dhhfNuNsr7QidfwdINlvO5frO1bFOSnPCB#abs0005">more experienced</a> as a runner, you may actually suffer fewer injuries than you did at the start.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/178475/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Running injuries don’t have to be inevitable.Nathan Liddle, Lecturer in Physiotherapy, Teesside UniversityJonathan Taylor, Lecturer in Sport and Exercise, Teesside UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1782092022-03-02T11:45:41Z2022-03-02T11:45:41ZJust 30-90 minutes of resistance training weekly decreases risk of premature death – new research<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/449504/original/file-20220302-21-1uavg31.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5943%2C3709&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">It's important to do resistance training alongside other types of exercise.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/senior-people-trainer-using-resistance-band-1454696495">Leszek Glasner/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>There’s long been evidence that moderate aerobic exercise (think walking, running, or cycling) are good for your lifelong health and well-being. Research even shows us more active people also <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140673617316343?via%3Dihub">tend to live longer, healthier lives</a> with lower rates of disease – <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jpubhealth/article/41/3/e253/5139677">including cancers, diabetes and cardiovascular disease</a>. </p>
<p>But what about resistance exercise – like lifting weights? While it’s thought these kinds of exercises are probably also good for health and longevity, less evidence has existed showing the benefits. But a recent study now shows that <a href="https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/early/2022/01/19/bjsports-2021-105061">30-90 minutes of resistance training a week</a> is enough to potentially decrease risk of premature death from all causes by 10%-20%.</p>
<p>The team of researchers from three universities in Japan conducted a meta-analysis – meaning they pooled data from 16 separate studies looking at longevity, disease risk and resistance exercise. This allowed them to look at tens of thousands of participants altogether.</p>
<p>They found that 30-90 minutes of resistance exercise per week was optimal for lowering overall risk of dying from all causes. More strikingly, they also found regularly performing more than three hours of strength training per week could actually increase risk of premature death by about 10%. </p>
<p>They also found that the optimal amount of time spent resistance training varied when it came to preventing different diseases. For example, while 40-60 minutes of strength training per week is optimal for reducing risk of cardiovascular disease, the risk of diabetes continues to drop the more time a person spent resistance training each week. However, resistance training was shown to have no effect on the risk of some specific types of cancer, such as bowel, kidney or pancreatic. </p>
<p>The findings of this study are largely in line with what the NHS already recommends. According to them, adults aged 19 to 64 should aim to do <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/exercise/">two strength training sessions</a> per week in order to benefit their overall health. But given public health guidelines are often a compromise between what’s optimal to perform and what people won’t be put off by, it’s promising to see that the optimal amount of strength training per week to benefit health so closely mirrors current guidelines. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A middle-aged man performs an arm exercise at the gym using a weight machine." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/449505/original/file-20220302-12454-tkhu4z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/449505/original/file-20220302-12454-tkhu4z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/449505/original/file-20220302-12454-tkhu4z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/449505/original/file-20220302-12454-tkhu4z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/449505/original/file-20220302-12454-tkhu4z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/449505/original/file-20220302-12454-tkhu4z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/449505/original/file-20220302-12454-tkhu4z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Resistance exercise doesn’t just have to mean lifting weights.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/adult-age-man-working-training-gym-1289966182">VH-studio/ Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There are a couple of limitations with this study. While the number of people pooled across the studies is large, the number of studies actually included in the analysis is still quite small. The participants of the study were also primarily North American or western European – so the findings may not be as relevant for people of many different ethnic backgrounds. Another limitation is that most of the studies included in the analysis relied on questionnaires of large groups of people asking about their exercise habits. The problem with this is that people may overestimate or lie about the amount of exercise they actually do. </p>
<h2>Optimal exercise</h2>
<p>Strength training is good for your overall health in many more ways than you might expect.</p>
<p>Besides the obvious – that it makes you stronger, for example – researchers are beginning to learn more about the role certain hormones and cells that are released during resistance exercise play in our body. </p>
<p>For example, myokines are hormones that our muscles release in response to all sorts of stimuli – <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32393961/">including exercise</a>. Circulating around the body, myokines are able to regulate metabolism, as well as liver, brain and kidney function. One specific myokine I’ve spent a career studying is myostatin. While we know that <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22340904/">it regulates muscle size</a>, there’s all sorts of new evidence that it also influences <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34856088/">metabolism</a> and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34634123/">fat cell growth</a> – which all play a role in helping us keep healthy and live longer. </p>
<p>Research also shows us that <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34650440/">resistance exercise</a> releases tiny cell fragments from our muscle cells called “extracellular vesicles”. These allow our muscle tissues to better communicate with each other. While we don’t entirely know what they’re doing, we do know that they’re carrying RNA (a molecule similar to DNA), proteins and even mitochondria (which help convert food into energy our cells can use) from <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fimmu.2018.00738/full">cell to cell</a>. So although we aren’t entirely clear of their function yet, this is just another reminder of the influence our muscles have on many aspects of our health and body function.</p>
<p>However, the authors of this recent study only looked at the relationship between strength training and longevity. This means they didn’t look at why it has a protective effect – and why more than three hours of strength training per week was also linked to slightly greater risk of premature death. While we may be able to speculate on why strength training has this protective effect based on what other research has shown, more follow-up studies will be needed that really seek to explore these questions. </p>
<p>But while this study has shown strength training to be beneficial for preventing premature death from many harmful diseases, that doesn’t mean you should only strength train. It’s important to also do moderate intensity aerobic exercise (such as walking, jogging or cycling) most days of the week to optimise your chances of living a longer, healthier life.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/178209/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bradley Elliott receives funding from The Endocrine Society, The Physiological Society, the Quintin Hogg Charitable Trust and private philanthropic donors. He is affiliated with The Physiological Society, and is a Trustee of the British Society for Research on Ageing.</span></em></p>The study found that short amounts of weekly resistance exercise lowered risk of premature death from many different diseases by around 10-20%.Bradley Elliott, Senior Lecturer in Physiology, University of WestminsterLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1503442020-11-27T14:14:03Z2020-11-27T14:14:03ZSupersets save time in the gym – which may help you reach fitness goals faster<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371708/original/file-20201127-22-150xntu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=75%2C6%2C4517%2C3057&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Superset exercises should target opposing muscle groups.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/young-man-gym-exercising-chest-on-387341089">Dreams Come True/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://theconversation.com/resistance-training-heres-why-its-so-effective-for-weight-loss-146453">Resistance training</a> is an increasingly popular way to build strength, lose weight and get in shape. But despite its many benefits, it can also be time consuming – which is why many fitness enthusiasts have started incorporating “supersets” into gym routines. When done properly, supersets have the potential to help you build strength and muscle – all while spending less time in the gym.</p>
<p>Sometimes called <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20733520/">paired sets</a>, supersets are a form of strength training in which you perform a <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31817252/">set of repetitions</a> of usually two exercises, back-to-back with <a href="https://www.docdroid.net/hzFwx1s/nsca-essentials-of-strength-training-and-conditioning-4th-edition-pdf">minimal or no rest</a> between them. The exercises should also target opposing muscle groups – namely the agonists (the force-generating muscles) and the antagonists (the muscle that relaxes when the agonist contracts). For example, leg curls (where the hamstrings are the agonists and the quadriceps the antagonists) would typically be followed by leg extensions (where the quadriceps are the agonists and the hamstrings the antagonists) to make up a superset. </p>
<p>However, many people perform supersets incorrectly. Many believe supersets to be the same as <a href="https://www.docdroid.net/hzFwx1s/nsca-essentials-of-strength-training-and-conditioning-4th-edition-pdf">compound sets</a>, in which two exercises engaging the same muscle group are performed back-to-back. Or they get confused with <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28796130/">contrast training</a>, in which two similar exercises are paired to increase power, the first performed with a heavier load, while the second is performed explosively with a lighter load – such as heavy squats followed by vertical jumps. Many also think supersets comprise <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28796130/">upper and lower body exercises</a> performed in succession. </p>
<h2>The science of supersets</h2>
<p>Based on <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/16/24/4897?type=check_update&version=2">current research</a>, it appears that supersets can be a time-efficient way to develop muscle size and strength in the short-term when done properly.</p>
<p><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20300020/">Researchers have compared</a> the effect of performing exercises in a traditional sequence (for example, completing four sets of bench presses before moving onto the next exercise) and as supersets. They found superset workouts are faster (completed in 31 minutes as opposed to 40) because the superset exercises were done in pairs, instead of pausing after each individual exercise. </p>
<p>They also found supersets required the body to <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20300020/">use more stored energy</a> (such as fat and carbohydrates) during exercise and for an hour afterwards. This could ultimately increase fat burning, and may even lead to more muscle gain as supersets mean more work is performed. </p>
<p>A similar study also found that supersets required a person to work <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5421986/">8% harder</a> than traditional sets. This means that you can use supersets to complete more resistance training in the same or less time – and this may be as effective as traditional routines. Working harder may also burn more calories during and after exercise. </p>
<p><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20847705/">Another study</a> had participants perform a pair of pull-push exercises (bench pull and bench press) in both traditional format and as supersets. Rest periods for all types of exercise were controlled to two minutes, so that each training session only lasted ten minutes. They found that supersets allowed participants to work harder as they were able to complete more reps in ten minutes compared to the traditional format. More work completed in the same time demands greater effort, which could result in greater strength and muscle gains (although this hasn’t yet been proven).</p>
<p>Not only that, but the order superset exercises are performed in could also impact performance. <a href="https://www.dovepress.com/exercise-order-affects-the-total-training-volume-and-the-ratings-of-pe-peer-reviewed-article-IJGM">One study found</a> that performing a leg curl followed by a leg extension allowed participants to perform more reps while feeling less difficult to perform than doing the exercises in separate sets. The researchers weren’t sure why this was the case, but it could be due to the large quadriceps muscles being activated during the leg curl, making the leg extension easier to perform. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Young woman in the gym performing a leg extension." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371709/original/file-20201127-23-1abqzck.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371709/original/file-20201127-23-1abqzck.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371709/original/file-20201127-23-1abqzck.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371709/original/file-20201127-23-1abqzck.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371709/original/file-20201127-23-1abqzck.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371709/original/file-20201127-23-1abqzck.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371709/original/file-20201127-23-1abqzck.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Leg extensions following leg curls made reps easier to perform.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/young-sportswoman-doing-fitness-exercises-leg-1817779649">Vladimir Sukhachev/ Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Supersets may also be slightly less exhausting than traditional sets. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28796130/">One study</a> compared a superset (bent over row followed by a bench press), with two versions of compound exercises (either a dumbbell bench press followed by a regular bench press, or a back squat followed by a bench press). Participants also completed a control session of three sets of bench presses.</p>
<p>All pairings comprised three sets of ten repetitions at 65% of the maximum load a person was able to lift in one repetition, with two minutes’ rest in between sets. Participants found all paired exercises felt difficult to perform and resulted in loss of speed and power compared to the control session. However, the superset felt less difficult to perform than the control or the compound exercises and resulted in less speed loss overall – so was likely to be more effective when time was limited compared to the other formats.</p>
<h2>Short-term versus long-term</h2>
<p>It’s worth noting, however, that many of the above superset studies <a href="https://journals.lww.com/nsca-jscr/Fulltext/2010/10000/Agonist_Antagonist_Paired_Set_Resistance_Training_.41.aspx">used different exercise intensities</a>, and had people lift different volumes of weights, making it hard to properly compare results. For example, reducing intensity (with lighter weights), while increasing volume (with more repetitions) might enhance muscle gains over the long-term, while low volume, high-intensity supersets might be better for developing <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2468867319300513?via%3Dihub">maximal strength and power</a>. </p>
<p>Most superset studies have only looked at the effects in the short-term, during a single exercise session – so it’s uncertain whether they’re more effective than traditional resistance training for building strength, muscle size, or both. Results will likely depend on the combination of the number of sets, reps, load and rest periods performed. </p>
<p>But in the short-term, current evidence shows supersets allow you to complete <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31817252/">more work in less time</a> because of their intensity. This has the potential to <a href="https://theconversation.com/resistance-training-heres-why-its-so-effective-for-weight-loss-146453">burn more calories</a>, both during and after the training session. But the intensity (loads lifted), volume (number of sets and reps) and order of the exercises within the superset are potentially important for maximising these benefits.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/150344/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The key is to make sure you’re performing them correctly.David R Clark, Senior Lecturer, Strength and Conditioning, Liverpool John Moores UniversityCarl Langan-Evans, Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Strength and Conditioning, Liverpool John Moores UniversityRob Erskine, Reader in Neuromuscular Physiology, Liverpool John Moores UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/923662018-02-26T11:57:04Z2018-02-26T11:57:04ZCan coffee improve your workout? The science of caffeine and exercise<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/207827/original/file-20180226-120971-1b6j9ij.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/resting-runner-260897984?src=XTj1Xdt-nA15eRNsMggkmg-1-1">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Caffeine is one of the most researched substances reported to help athletes perform better and train longer and harder. As a result, professional and amateur sportspeople often take it as a performance-enhancing “ergogenic” aids for a wide range of activities. These include intermittent exercise such as football and racket sports, endurance exercise such as running and cycling, and resistance exercise such as weightlifting.</p>
<p>But while most research looks at the effects of pure caffeine consumed as tablets with water, in the real world most people get their caffeine from coffee, energy drinks or other products like special gels or <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-017-0848-2">chewing gum</a>. So will drinking a cup of joe before your workout actually make a difference? The answer could depend as much on your genes as what kind of coffee you’re drinking.</p>
<p><a href="https://jissn.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1550-2783-7-5">Scientists think</a> caffeine affects the body chemical adenosine, which normally promotes sleep and suppresses arousal. Caffeine ties up the receptors in the brain that detect adenosine and so makes it more alert.</p>
<p>But it may also increase stimulation of the central nervous system, making exercise seem like it involves less effort and pain. In high-intensity activities such as resistance training or sprinting, it may increase the number of fibres used in muscle contractions, meaning movements can be more frequent and forceful. </p>
<h2>Faster, higher, stronger</h2>
<p>Research has shown that pure caffeine can help endurance athletes <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-014-0257-8">run faster</a> and <a href="http://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/7/7/5219/htm">cycle for longer</a>. It can help footballers to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3279366/">sprint more often and over greater distances</a>, and basketball players to <a href="http://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/9/9/1033/htm">jump higher</a>. It can help <a href="http://online.liebertpub.com/doi/abs/10.1089/jcr.2012.0019?journalCode=jcr">tennis players</a> and <a href="https://journals.lww.com/acsm-msse/fulltext/2016/01000/Effect_of_Caffeine_on_Golf_Performance_and_Fatigue.18.aspx">golfers</a> to hit the ball with greater accuracy. And it can help <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2876999/pdf/1550-2783-7-18.pdf">weightlifters lift more weight</a>.</p>
<p>The evidence for caffeine’s effects on sprinting is more mixed. Limited improvements <a href="http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4663/4/3/45">have been found</a> for events lasting under three minutes. But for races of around ten seconds,
caffeine can improve peak <a href="https://jissn.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1550-2783-12-S1-P57">power output, speed, and strength</a>.</p>
<p>An increasing number of studies have also shown that coffee can be used as an alternative to caffeine to <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0059561">improve cycling</a> and <a href="https://journals.humankinetics.com/doi/abs/10.1123/ijspp.2017-0456?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori%3Arid%3Acrossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%3Dpubmed&">competitive running</a> performance, and produce similar results similar to pure caffeine. In fact, coffee may even be more effective at <a href="https://journals.lww.com/nsca-jscr/Abstract/2016/10000/Effect_of_Coffee_and_Caffeine_Ingestion_on.27.aspx">improving resistance exercise than caffeine alone</a>. Similarly, drinking <a href="https://jissn.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1550-2783-10-1">energy drinks</a> containing caffeine before exercise can improve mental focus, alertness, anaerobic performance and endurance performance.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/207825/original/file-20180226-120971-lly7xa.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/207825/original/file-20180226-120971-lly7xa.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=330&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207825/original/file-20180226-120971-lly7xa.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=330&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207825/original/file-20180226-120971-lly7xa.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=330&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207825/original/file-20180226-120971-lly7xa.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207825/original/file-20180226-120971-lly7xa.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207825/original/file-20180226-120971-lly7xa.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Total weight lifted when performing back squats to failure.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://journals.lww.com/nsca-jscr/Abstract/2016/10000/Effect_of_Coffee_and_Caffeine_Ingestion_on.27.aspx">Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But drinking coffee isn’t like taking a measured dose of caffeine. The amount of stimulant in a cup, and so how it affects you, will depend on the blend of coffee and how it is brewed. Studies have shown consuming either <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0059561">0.15g</a> or <a href="https://journals.humankinetics.com/doi/abs/10.1123/ijspp.2017-0456?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori%3Arid%3Acrossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%3Dpubmed">0.09g</a> of caffeinated coffee per kilogram of body weight can improve performance. So a dessert spoon of coffee granules rather than a traditional teaspoon is probably best. </p>
<p>It’s also worth bearing in mind that each piece of research shows caffeine improves athletic performance of a group of people as a whole. But we also know that <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5752738/pdf/40279_2017_Article_776.pdf">genetic factors</a> have a big influence on our responses to caffeine and not everyone reacts in the same way. This means consuming caffeine won’t necessarily improve your performance.</p>
<h2>Potential downsides</h2>
<p>In fact, you could end up feeling nauseated and jittery at a time when, if you are competing, you are already feeling anxious. And, as caffeine’s effects can linger for up to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK223808/">five hours</a>, taking it too late in the day could disrupt your sleep, which is a big factor in health and fitness in general. This means it’s important to practice with caffeine during training sessions or friendly fixtures before using it for an important event. </p>
<p>Some <a href="http://www.mysportscience.com/single-post/2017/06/18/Do-you-need-to-refrain-from-coffee-to-get-the-maximal-effect-of-caffeine">have also suggested</a> that you should abstain from caffeine in order to enjoy a better effect on your performance when you consume it for exercise. But maintaining your normal intake will prevent any <a href="https://theconversation.com/caffeine-withdrawal-drives-need-for-more-but-are-we-addicts-17380">possible withdrawal symptoms</a> and still provide benefits if caffeine is taken before exercise. Its effects peak between <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4898153/pdf/ictx-54-308.pdf">30 and 75 minutes after ingestion</a>.</p>
<p>Finally, it’s a a commonly held belief that caffeine is a diuretic that will lead to dehydration because it makes you produce more urine. But a <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0084154">number of studies</a> have shown that this isn’t the case with moderate amounts of coffee, cola or any other caffeinated beverage, which help keep you hydrated like any other drink.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/92366/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Neil Clarke receives funding from The Institute for Scientific Information on Coffee. </span></em></p>Drinking coffee before exercising could make you run faster and lift heavier - if you’ve the right genes.Neil Clarke, Principal Lecturer in Sport and Exercise Science at Coventry University, Coventry UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/830932017-11-08T03:21:36Z2017-11-08T03:21:36ZHealth Check: which sports supplements actually work?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192571/original/file-20171031-18693-1w66512.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">With so many products on the market, it's hard to know which supplements are scientifically proven to work.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://c1.staticflickr.com/6/5296/5463228242_231f5264c7_b.jpg">David van der Mark/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Whether your goal is to increase strength, decrease body fat or improve overall performance, adding supplements to your daily regimen can give you that extra edge. But with thousands of products on the market, choosing the ones that are right for you can be overwhelming.</p>
<p>That said, here are some of the more popular supplements on the market today, separated into three categories:</p>
<ol>
<li>Green – their effectiveness is well supported by scientific evidence and they are considered safe to use</li>
<li>Yellow – there is somewhat inconclusive evidence for their effectiveness, but they are still considered safe</li>
<li>Red – there is minimal research to support the claims of effectiveness, but ingredients are generally well tolerated unless taken in too-large doses.</li>
</ol>
<h2>Green</h2>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192587/original/file-20171031-18735-18ia0ng.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192587/original/file-20171031-18735-18ia0ng.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192587/original/file-20171031-18735-18ia0ng.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192587/original/file-20171031-18735-18ia0ng.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192587/original/file-20171031-18735-18ia0ng.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192587/original/file-20171031-18735-18ia0ng.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192587/original/file-20171031-18735-18ia0ng.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192587/original/file-20171031-18735-18ia0ng.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">These supplements are well supported by evidence and safe to use.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192574/original/file-20171031-18704-fz21ex.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192574/original/file-20171031-18704-fz21ex.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=784&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192574/original/file-20171031-18704-fz21ex.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=784&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192574/original/file-20171031-18704-fz21ex.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=784&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192574/original/file-20171031-18704-fz21ex.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=985&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192574/original/file-20171031-18704-fz21ex.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=985&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192574/original/file-20171031-18704-fz21ex.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=985&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Creatine is a natural substance our body uses to produce energy.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/blonyx/24746368121">Blonyx/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong>Creatine monohydrate</strong> has been around for decades as a supplement, and there are literally hundreds of published studies supporting its <a href="https://jissn.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12970-017-0173-z">benefits and safety</a>. Creatine is a natural substance our body uses to produce energy. The body turns creatine into phosphocreatine, which is stored in the muscles. </p>
<p>Creatine supplementation works by increasing its availability in the muscle. This helps to maintain energy during high-intensity exercise such as lifting weights, circuit workouts and interval runs. Increasing the availability of phosphocreatine may also help speed up recovery between sets.</p>
<p>Long-term creatine supplementation appears to enhance the quality of resistance training, generally leading to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12701815">5-15% greater gains</a> in strength and performance.</p>
<p>Creatine can also be beneficial for endurance athletes. US research found when athletes took creatine five days before a typical <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrate_loading">carb-loading protocol</a> (a strategy for maximising energy storage), glycogen levels in their bodies <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11445755">increased by 53%</a>. Glycogen is essential for long-term energy storage in the muscles. </p>
<p>Because of the strong relationship between high glycogen stores and performance during prolonged exercise, creatine could be quite beneficial in endurance activities.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192591/original/file-20171031-18725-1gn7gc7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192591/original/file-20171031-18725-1gn7gc7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192591/original/file-20171031-18725-1gn7gc7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1104&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192591/original/file-20171031-18725-1gn7gc7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1104&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192591/original/file-20171031-18725-1gn7gc7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1104&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192591/original/file-20171031-18725-1gn7gc7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1387&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192591/original/file-20171031-18725-1gn7gc7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1387&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192591/original/file-20171031-18725-1gn7gc7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1387&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Fast-digesting proteins, like whey, are optimal after a workout.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/fdaphotos/20153946616">The US Food and Drug Administration/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong>Whey protein</strong> is a fast-digesting protein, and can help improve your muscles’ ability to recover and adapt after strenuous exercise. </p>
<p>Proteins are made up of amino acids and are responsible for many different functions in the body, as well as being an important source of energy. A review in the <a href="http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/96/6/1454">American Journal of Clinical Nutrition</a> showed that supplementing with protein during resistance training can lead to significantly greater increases in muscle mass and strength when compared to resistance training without a dietary protein.</p>
<p>You can certainly meet your daily protein needs through wholefoods alone, but nothing beats the convenience of a ready-to-drink protein source, like whey protein powder, to jump-start the process of muscle building and repair.</p>
<p>In fact, consumption of whey protein has been found to stimulate muscle protein synthesis to a greater degree than other proteins like <a href="http://acaiwhey.com.br/site/artigos/5.pdf">casein</a> and <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/07315724.2013.793580">soy</a>.</p>
<h2>Yellow</h2>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192593/original/file-20171031-18725-3io8ih.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192593/original/file-20171031-18725-3io8ih.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192593/original/file-20171031-18725-3io8ih.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192593/original/file-20171031-18725-3io8ih.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192593/original/file-20171031-18725-3io8ih.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192593/original/file-20171031-18725-3io8ih.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192593/original/file-20171031-18725-3io8ih.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192593/original/file-20171031-18725-3io8ih.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">There is inconclusive evidence for the effectiveness of these supplements, but they are considered safe to use.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192594/original/file-20171031-18689-zyd68b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192594/original/file-20171031-18689-zyd68b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192594/original/file-20171031-18689-zyd68b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192594/original/file-20171031-18689-zyd68b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192594/original/file-20171031-18689-zyd68b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192594/original/file-20171031-18689-zyd68b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192594/original/file-20171031-18689-zyd68b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192594/original/file-20171031-18689-zyd68b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">There are claims BCAAs can improve muscle mass and help reduce fatigue.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://c1.staticflickr.com/1/717/22353684370_845ae68730.jpg">Superfit asia/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong>BCAAs</strong> are branched-chain amino acids, which include the amino acids leucine, isoleucine and valine. These are among the nine essential amino acids (the building blocks of proteins) not made naturally in the body. Instead, these need to be supplied through the diet. </p>
<p>They’ve become quite popular over recent years due to claims they can <a href="https://www.bodybuilding.com/fun/bcaas-the-many-benefits-of-amino-acids.html">increase muscle protein synthesis</a> and suppress protein breakdown. It has also been suggested they can help reduce fatigue during prolonged exercise by reducing the amount of serotonin produced in the brain.</p>
<p>Despite limited research showing that acute supplementation with BCAAs may <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5461297/">improve protein synthesis</a> after a bout of resistance training, there isn’t a whole lot of evidence that this actually leads to <a href="https://jissn.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12970-017-0184-9">greater muscle mass</a> in the long run. They have, however, been shown to reduce delayed onset of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20087302">muscle soreness</a> following intense exercise.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192603/original/file-20171031-18738-6ek3qp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192603/original/file-20171031-18738-6ek3qp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192603/original/file-20171031-18738-6ek3qp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=802&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192603/original/file-20171031-18738-6ek3qp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=802&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192603/original/file-20171031-18738-6ek3qp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=802&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192603/original/file-20171031-18738-6ek3qp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1008&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192603/original/file-20171031-18738-6ek3qp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1008&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192603/original/file-20171031-18738-6ek3qp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1008&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Fish oil can help muscle recovery after exercise.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.elitevitaminzone.com.au/buy/triple-strength-fish-oil-by-carusos-150-caps/TRIP150?gclid=EAIaIQobChMIpZWry6Ka1wIVlAgqCh1RsgqyEAYYByABEgJkN_D_BwE">Screen shot</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong>Fish oils</strong> are an excellent source of omega-3 fatty acids, key players in the muscle recovery process. Intense resistance training can cause microscopic tears in your muscle fibres, leading to muscle damage and inflammation. While some inflammation is desirable, too much can delay recovery.</p>
<p>Research suggests omega-3 fatty acids may help reduce <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19451765">muscle soreness</a> after exercise and speed up the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3737804/">recovery process</a>, getting you ready for your next session with the weights.</p>
<h2>Red</h2>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192912/original/file-20171101-19876-60jegm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192912/original/file-20171101-19876-60jegm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192912/original/file-20171101-19876-60jegm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192912/original/file-20171101-19876-60jegm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192912/original/file-20171101-19876-60jegm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192912/original/file-20171101-19876-60jegm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192912/original/file-20171101-19876-60jegm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192912/original/file-20171101-19876-60jegm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">There is minimal research to support the effectiveness of these supplements.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192602/original/file-20171031-18711-ocsl81.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192602/original/file-20171031-18711-ocsl81.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192602/original/file-20171031-18711-ocsl81.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1147&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192602/original/file-20171031-18711-ocsl81.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1147&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192602/original/file-20171031-18711-ocsl81.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1147&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192602/original/file-20171031-18711-ocsl81.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1442&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192602/original/file-20171031-18711-ocsl81.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1442&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192602/original/file-20171031-18711-ocsl81.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1442&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The majority of studies examining effects of testosterone boosters have produced underwhelming results.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://testosteroneboosteradvice.com/six-star-testosterone-booster/six-star-testosterone-booster-5/">Screen shot</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong>Testosterone boosters</strong> are a class of herbal supplements that claim to <a href="https://www.bodybuilding.com/fun/do-testosterone-boosters-really-work.html">naturally increase your testosterone levels</a>. By directly increasing testosterone, or by inhibiting hormones responsible for converting testosterone to oestrogen (the female hormone), these supplements are designed to help you build bigger, stronger muscles.</p>
<p>Some commonly used ingredients, like <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24074738">D-aspartic acid</a> (which increases natural testosterone production), <a href="https://jissn.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1550-2783-7-34">fenugreek</a> (which enhances creatine uptake) and <a href="https://www.asep.org/asep/asep/BrillaV2.PDF">ZMA</a> (a formula of zinc, magnesium and vitamin B6 used to help achieve a more restful sleep) have been shown to increase testosterone levels and lean body mass. But the <a href="http://digitalcommons.wku.edu/ijesab/vol2/iss1/13/">majority of studies</a> <a href="https://jissn.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1550-2783-1-2-12">examining the effects</a> of testosterone boosters have produced <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24074738">underwhelming results</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192604/original/file-20171031-18704-1wk9u5m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192604/original/file-20171031-18704-1wk9u5m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192604/original/file-20171031-18704-1wk9u5m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=926&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192604/original/file-20171031-18704-1wk9u5m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=926&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192604/original/file-20171031-18704-1wk9u5m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=926&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192604/original/file-20171031-18704-1wk9u5m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1163&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192604/original/file-20171031-18704-1wk9u5m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1163&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192604/original/file-20171031-18704-1wk9u5m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1163&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Glutamine is one of the most overhyped supplements on the market.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.gnc.com/l-glutamine/350319.html?cgid=l-glutamine">Screen shot</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong>Glutamine</strong> is one of the most overhyped supplements on the market. Claims it can boost <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9624643">your immune system</a> or <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9650740">reduce muscle soreness</a> are not well supported in the literature. Yet it’s still <a href="https://www.bodybuilding.com/fun/glutamine.htm">recommended to many</a>, especially those in the bodybuilding community. </p>
<p>Glutamine is the most abundant amino acid in your body. It’s critical for numerous processes, including transporting nitrogen in a non-toxic form from the muscle to the liver. But because your body can already make enough glutamine to support these processes, supplementation is not necessary and a waste of your money.</p>
<p>While the research on glutamine supplementation in healthy individuals is less than promising, it may be useful in certain scenarios, such as periods of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12352035">critical illness</a>. For patients <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11533310">undergoing surgery</a>, or for those who have experienced <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14530749">extensive burn injuries</a>, glutamine supplementation has been shown to reduce infection rates and shorten hospital stay. </p>
<p>Glutamine and ingredients used in testosterone booster products are generally well tolerated when taken as intended or directed.</p>
<p>Remember, though, before you make any changes to your diet and supplement plan, or if you have any underlying health conditions, make sure to consult your physician.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/83093/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Krissy Kendall does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Here are some of the more popular sports supplements on the market today, separated into categories based on how effective and safe research shows they are.Krissy Kendall, Lecturer of Exercise and Sports Science, Edith Cowan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/642222016-08-22T14:40:43Z2016-08-22T14:40:43ZFive myths about lower back pain<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134953/original/image-20160822-18718-k1ld93.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-82676332/stock-photo-a-female-doctor-is-pointing-on-a-bone-in-the-spine.html?src=Iz4MiTB3IloWg1GGs_zUaQ-5-14">wavebreakmedia/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Lower back pain is the greatest source of global disability, ahead of nearly 300 other conditions, leading to huge levels of healthcare costs and suffering. And the effects go far beyond pain, weakness and stiffness – they also have a huge impact the <a href="https://theconversation.com/back-pain-the-spiralling-effects-of-a-problem-no-one-can-see-25564">social and family lives of sufferers</a>.</p>
<p>Many people with lower back pain don’t manage it well because of wrong advice – and a lot of unhelpful myths about what back pain is and what you should do about it. Healthcare professionals all over the world speak to patients who think, for example, that back pain can damage their backs. This is not always the case. The weight of evidence shows that many assumptions made about lower back pain are wrong and, what’s more, could be harmful. Below are some of the most common misconceptions.</p>
<h2>1. Moving will make my back pain worse</h2>
<p>Do not fear twisting and bending. It is essential to keep moving. Muscles that are in spasm, due to pain, relax when gently moved and stretched. Gradually increase how much you are doing, and <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17498879">stay on the move</a>.</p>
<h2>2. Avoid exercise (especially weight training)</h2>
<p>Back pain should not stop you enjoying exercise or regular activities. In fact, studies have found that continuing with these <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17498879">can help</a> you get better sooner – including weight training. All exercise is safe provided you gradually build up intensity and do not immediately <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2904582">return to previous levels of exercise</a> after an acute episode of pain.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134965/original/image-20160822-18737-1sqciqt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134965/original/image-20160822-18737-1sqciqt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134965/original/image-20160822-18737-1sqciqt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134965/original/image-20160822-18737-1sqciqt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134965/original/image-20160822-18737-1sqciqt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134965/original/image-20160822-18737-1sqciqt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134965/original/image-20160822-18737-1sqciqt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Don’t stop exercising.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-217321294/stock-photo-senior-male-tennis-player-with-back-pain-on-court.html?src=Iz4MiTB3IloWg1GGs_zUaQ-3-45">bikeriderlondon/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>3. A scan will show exactly what is wrong</h2>
<p>There is a <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23982421">poor correlation</a> between findings on a scan and sources of pain. Most adults without back pain will have changes in the anatomy of their spine that are visible age-related adaptations that don’t cause any problems (they are the spinal equivalent of skin wrinkles, visible but not a source of pain). Finding a feature on a spine scan that is strongly related to pain or a serious threat to health is <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24674892">exceptionally rare</a> (less than 1%).</p>
<h2>4. Pain equals damage</h2>
<p>This was an established view, but more recent research has changed our thinking. Level of pain has very little relationship to damage to the spine and more to do with your unconscious and conscious interpretation of the level of threat the pain represents to the sufferer. Cultural influences, work, stress, past experience and duration of symptoms have a stronger relationship with pain than the number of <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26498979">normal age-related changes</a> you have on your scan.</p>
<h2>5. Heavy school bags cause back pain</h2>
<p>Heavy school bags are safe. There is no established link between heavy school bags and back pain, but interestingly there is a link with the development of back pain and the child or parent <a href="http://bit.ly/2btV6Ww">perceiving that the bag will cause problems</a>.</p>
<p>Having episodes of back pain is <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24315140">so common</a> that it is abnormal not to have some back pain at some time in your life. Because it is so common, a lot of everyday things, including slouching, twisting, carrying heavy things and exercise, are wrongly blamed for causing or worsening the problem.</p>
<p>Having an episode of spinal pain is a normal event in life and while <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24315140">most episodes are brief</a> it is useful to see a healthcare professional for guidance on aiding recovery on occasion. </p>
<p>And it is much better to heed good advice, rather than myths, for a speedier recovery.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/64222/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chris McCarthy does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>You may think you know what causes lower back pain, but you’re probably wrong.Chris McCarthy, Fellow, Manchester Metropolitan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/627942016-07-29T09:37:08Z2016-07-29T09:37:08ZAthletes, you’re doing weight training all wrong<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/132021/original/image-20160726-7061-rxq1cj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/cat.mhtml?lang=en&language=en&ref_site=photo&search_source=search_form&version=llv1&anyorall=all&safesearch=1&use_local_boost=1&autocomplete_id=&search_tracking_id=EmL8JKThd8dIPotkjN6srA&searchterm=field%20events&show_color_wheel=1&orient=&commercial_ok=&media_type=images&search_cat=&searchtermx=&photographer_name=&people_gender=&people_age=&people_ethnicity=&people_number=&color=&page=1&inline=103375553">Stefan Schurr/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>To become stronger and develop more muscle, you must lift heavier weights over relatively few repetitions. At least, that has been the received wisdom among professional athletes. However, a new body of evidence suggests that it may be wrong.</p>
<p>Researchers at McMaster University in Canada found that the weight of your weights doesn’t matter, as long as you continue lifting to the point of exhaustion. </p>
<p>For their <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27174923">study</a>, they recruited 49 healthy young men and randomly allocated them to one of two groups. Over a 12-week period, one group lifted lighter weights over high repetitions while the other lifted heavier weights over lower repetitions. Both groups were instructed to continue these lifts to the point of exhaustion. </p>
<p>The researchers took muscle samples and found gains in muscle mass and muscle fibre size were almost identical between the two groups. They concluded that as both groups lifted to exhaustion most of the muscle fibres would have been activated (neuromuscular recruitment) and this is what caused equal strength gains. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/132154/original/image-20160727-5666-1gmastn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/132154/original/image-20160727-5666-1gmastn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/132154/original/image-20160727-5666-1gmastn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/132154/original/image-20160727-5666-1gmastn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/132154/original/image-20160727-5666-1gmastn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/132154/original/image-20160727-5666-1gmastn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/132154/original/image-20160727-5666-1gmastn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Can’t weight? You can achieve the same results with light or heavy loads.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/cat.mhtml?lang=en&language=en&ref_site=photo&search_source=search_form&version=llv1&anyorall=all&safesearch=1&use_local_boost=1&autocomplete_id=&search_tracking_id=fWp0iiroDeUOzgZlzFZaoA&searchterm=light%20dumbbells&show_color_wheel=1&orient=&commercial_ok=&media_type=images&search_cat=&searchtermx=&photographer_name=&people_gender=&people_age=&people_ethnicity=&people_number=&color=&page=1&inline=274761038">Lenka Horavova/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>These findings are important for athletic performance as many track and field athletes need to develop power to run faster or throw further. As power is a combination of muscle strength and contraction speed, both of these aspects need to be developed to get the best performance improvement. The former is mostly addressed in the gym, and the latter is achieved by generating force as quickly as possible on the sports field or the gym. So, lighter weights allow for faster contractions and are thus a better strategy than lifting heavier weights more slowly. </p>
<p>Traditional techniques of strength training can be a problem for athletes because of something called <a href="http://www.lww.com/Product/9781451100846">force-velocity relationship</a> whereby heavier weights can only be lifted slowly whereas lighter weights can be lifted much more quickly. So when an athlete trains their muscles for strength they are inadvertently training them to contract more slowly. This is an issue because optimal athletic performance often needs fast muscle contraction or power.</p>
<p>The McMaster study is important because it means that athletes can become stronger by lifting weights at speeds similar to those used in track or field performance. This theory has been discussed recently by the authors in <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-bigger-isnt-always-better-in-the-world-of-muscle-building-47870">an article</a> examining the effect of different training regimes on single muscle fibres. The muscle fibres of power lifters, although smaller, contracted with more force, relative to muscle size than those of body builders. This result <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26388513">probably occurred</a> as result of differing velocities when the two groups performed their training lifts. </p>
<p>Given that the extent of neuromuscular recruitment has been proposed as one of the key drivers for increasing strength it is important to examine this while the athletes lift the weights. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24995719">We have measured muscle activation</a> on ten international-level track and field athletes, who performed explosive Olympic-style lifts. </p>
<p>In one session the athletes used a heavy load (as used in traditional strength training). In another session they used light weights (as would be used for traditional power training). And, in another session, they used a moderate weight. </p>
<p>Power declined by the end of the final heavy weight set, whereas the athletes were able to maintain it while lifting the light and moderate weights. However, muscle activation had increased for both heavy and moderate weights when it remained the same for the light weights. So the moderate weight enabled relatively higher neuromuscular recruitment at a faster lifting speed, but without fatigue.</p>
<p>The timing of an athlete’s gym session for strength gains are critical as doing resistance exercise to the point of exhaustion can lead to strength decreases and increased muscle soreness that lasts for several days. An athlete arriving for a track session, following strength training, with sore muscles may not achieve the desired outcome for the session and they might increase their risk of injury.</p>
<h2>Avoiding the fatigue effect</h2>
<p>We then wanted to examine this <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26308090">fatigue effect</a> 24 hours after the weight session in a group of ten elite track and field athletes. In this study, we used a similar Olympic-style lifting session and our results demonstrated fatigue immediately after the heavy weight session, but not after the light weight session. This means that using heavy weights is not only suboptimal for training power, but also induces fatigue, which lasts at least 24 hours. </p>
<p>These findings suggest that strength and conditioning coaches of elite sprint track and field athletes need to seriously consider the value of traditional strength training methods. </p>
<p>The McMaster study shows us that equivalent gains in strength and muscle mass can be made from lighter weights. Our work shows that there may be an advantage to power produced and muscular activation from lifting light to moderate loads. The problem is, that to achieve long-term strength and muscle gains from lifting lighter weights, the weights must be lifted to exhaustion. </p>
<p>Lifting to the point of exhaustion should probably be avoided for the reasons stated previously. So while it is unclear if moderate loads lifted explosively and not to exhaustion could lead to the same strength and muscle gains long-term as traditional training, what we know is that athletes don’t need to lift heavy weights all the time to achieve strength gain.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/62794/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Angus Hunter receives funding from UK Sport and sportscotland</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Works for Northumbria University. He receives funding from the English Institute of Sport and GSK Human Performance Lab. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lee Hamilton does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>New studies show that athletes don’t need to lift heavy weights to gain power.Angus Hunter, Reader in Exercise Physiology, University of StirlingGlyn Howatson, Professor of Human & Applied Physiology, Northumbria University, NewcastleLee Hamilton, Lecturer in Sport, Health and Exercise Science, University of StirlingLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/478702015-09-22T13:59:21Z2015-09-22T13:59:21ZWhy bigger isn’t always better in the world of muscle building<p>The huge muscles sculpted by bodybuilders, action movie stars and other serious gym-goers can make them look like comic-book superheroes. And we tend to equate big muscles with being strong and powerful. But <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1113/EP085267/abstract">new research</a> has found that – at a cellular level – the large, defined muscles seen on bodybuilders don’t fare well against those of power athletes (such as weight lifters or sprinters, whose sport requires high forces produced quickly) or even men who don’t train at all.</p>
<p>The research, published in Experimental Physiology, was carried out on individual muscle cells taken from a group of volunteers comprising 12 bodybuilders, six power athletes and 14 control subjects (average men, physically active but not performing weight training). The researchers, led by Hans Degens of Manchester Metropolitan University, stimulated the cells and assessed the size and speed of the force produced from the resulting isometric contractions (contracting while staying the same length). By measuring the size of the muscle cell, they were able to calculate what is known as the specific force, the force produced for a defined area or unit of muscle. The higher the specific force, the better quality the muscle.</p>
<p>The study authors found that although the individual fibres of the bodybuilders’ muscle cells were considerably larger than those of the control group, they also had a lower specific force. This suggests that their muscles were of a poorer quality than those of the controls. The power athletes, who also used resistance training but lifted lighter weights more quickly, had similar quality muscles to the controls but were able to produce the force more quickly, meaning their muscles were more powerful. </p>
<h2>Weighing up the findings</h2>
<p>Although the authors have done a fantastic job on this study, the findings need to be put in context. Our skeletal muscle fibres do not function in isolation but as part of a wider body system. Weight lifting can increase the size of skeletal muscles but it can also improve the function of supporting <a href="http://physrev.physiology.org/content/84/2/649">connective tissues</a> and <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25809076">blood vessels</a> and the ability to engage the <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/453338?access_num=453338&link_type=MED&dopt=Abstract">nervous system</a> to use more of the available muscle.</p>
<p>This means a lower specific force at a microscopic level does not necessarily equal a poorer quality muscle or impaired function at a whole body level. As such, we shouldn’t be surprised that former bodybuilders have been able to <a href="https://www.t-nation.com/training/bodybuilder-breaks-world-squat-record">dominate strength competitions</a> while retaining much of their bulk.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/95682/original/image-20150922-16679-1s5ol0v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/95682/original/image-20150922-16679-1s5ol0v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=359&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/95682/original/image-20150922-16679-1s5ol0v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=359&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/95682/original/image-20150922-16679-1s5ol0v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=359&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/95682/original/image-20150922-16679-1s5ol0v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/95682/original/image-20150922-16679-1s5ol0v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/95682/original/image-20150922-16679-1s5ol0v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Smaller in size but not in power: a weight lifting athlete.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/singapore2010/4900251141/">Flickr/Singapore 2010 Youth Olympic Games</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Physiologists have known for decades that a strong but imperfect and <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19026016">complex relationship</a> exists between the size of a muscle and the force it can produce. Generally, the bigger the muscle, the more force it can produce. However, <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1859378/?page=1">some studies</a> have noted that larger muscles do not have an equivalently large improvement in the specific force.</p>
<p>This means that as the muscle gets bigger there is not an equal increase in the quality of the muscle. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7199447">This is thought</a> to be due to changes in muscle architecture or to a dilution of the proteins that do the work of muscle contraction. <a href="http://ajpendo.physiology.org/content/281/6/E1172.full.pdf+html?">Similar results</a> occur when muscle size is enhanced with increasing doses of anabolic steroids or testosterone.</p>
<h2>Quality over quantity</h2>
<p>It seems like there is an optimal size for a muscle, above which increases in size do not necessarily lead to the same relative improvements in strength. The new study shows that this relationship exists at the microscopic, cellular level of muscle. It also means that neither the size of the muscle nor an individual muscle cell can be used to accurately predict its strength. However, bodybuilders are usually extremely genetically gifted athletes who spend hours every day eating and training for muscle growth. It’s unlikely the average gym goer would ever reach the muscle fibre sizes that would lead to this dilution in force. </p>
<p>The situation is different for power athletes, who train with weights in a very <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=CczZAgAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR1&dq=training+power+athletes+compared+to+bodybuilders&ots=kx1Agya8e2&sig=6twPUOA_XJpIUdo1Cpo6gnPvb6c#v=onepage&q=training%20power%20athletes%20compared%20to%20bodybuilders&f=false">different way to bodybuilders</a>. While bodybuilders train to grow their muscles to their genetic potential with the help of diet and sometimes drugs, power athletes try to maximise their strength at a specific body weight. The differences in training strategies combined with a constant need to maintain weight within a given category probably prevent the power athletes from growing their muscles to the sizes seen in bodybuilders.</p>
<p>In a great example of the strength differences between a strength-focused athlete and a bodybuilder, the former world record holder for the squat, Fred Hatfield, was able to lift over 200lbs (90kg) more than bodybuilder Tom Platz in a <a href="http://ifitnessnh.com/blog/?p=977">competitive “squat-off”</a>, despite having visually much less impressive legs.</p>
<p>These kind of anecdotal reports, along with the recent research, do make bodybuilders seem like paper tigers of the weight lifting world. However, they are still incredibly strong by average standards and have the capacity to become world-record holders. When it comes to a muscle’s response to weight lifting, size might not be everything, but it’s not a bad guide.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/47870/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lee Hamilton has received funding from the Society for Endocrinology, Insulin Dependent Diabetes Trust and ACSM to investigate aspects of muscle metabolism and function. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Angus Hunter does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>New research shows bodybuilders’ muscle quality is lower than that of people who don’t train at all - but size is still a pretty good guide to strength.Lee Hamilton, Lecturer in Sport, Health and Exercise Science, University of StirlingAngus Hunter, Senior lecturer in exercise physiology, University of StirlingLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/446822015-07-23T04:20:58Z2015-07-23T04:20:58ZChildren exercising is a necessity for development, but there are limits<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/89354/original/image-20150722-1442-1mis1f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">To grow into healthy adults, children need lots of exercise. The best kind is when they are playing freely – even better when it is with their parents.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Play, or what scientists like to call informal physical activity, serves an extremely important role in the physical, social and cognitive or intellectual <a href="http://www.ornes.nl/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/Play-in-children-s-development-health-and-well-being-feb-2012.pdf%20Pg11">development</a> of children.</p>
<p>Play is so important to the optimal development of a child that it has been recognised by the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights as a right. It is through <a href="http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/119/1/182.full">play</a> that children at a very early age engage and interact with the world around them. </p>
<p>That is why children should be encouraged to take part in active play or unstructured physical activity as often as possible. </p>
<h2>Children are playing less</h2>
<p>The association between exercise/physical activity and health is well <a href="http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/PDF/rr/rr4606.pdf">documented</a>. Globally, <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK201497/">research</a> shows a trend in which children are increasingly becoming less active. This has led to a rise in lifestyle diseases, known as hypokinetic diseases, in children. </p>
<p>Some of these traits, such as atherosclerosis, hypertension and <a href="http://reference.sabinet.co.za/webx/access/electronic_journals/mp_safp/mp_safp_v54_n2_a27.pdf">obesity</a> are shown to track into adulthood. <a href="http://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/media/en/gsfs_obesity.pdf">Statistics</a> from the World Health Organisation show that Africa has the fastest growing rates of overweight and obese people.</p>
<p>There are various factors that have contributed to the trend of lower levels of physical activity.</p>
<p>One of the biggest contributing factors is that children often prefer to use their free time engaging in sedentary activities such as computer, handheld and console games, or watching television. Frequently, they would choose these type of activities ahead of playing sport outside.</p>
<h2>What’s optimal</h2>
<p>The National Association for Sport and Physical Education <a href="http://www.playgroundprofessionals.com/encyclopedia/n/national-association-sport-and-physical-education">recommends</a> that pre-school children should get at least two hours of physical activity per day. This should be divided between structured physical activity and unstructured free-play settings.</p>
<p>To get maximum benefit out of exercise, certain principles should be followed. For example, the overload <a href="http://sportsmedicine.about.com/od/glossary/g/Overload_def.htm">principle</a> suggests that to achieve progress and get fitter an individual has to do more than they are accustomed to.</p>
<p>But there is no single activity recommended for children. Rather, they should take part in a variety of outdoor and sporting activities without specialising in one code of sport too early. </p>
<p>For most sports, intense training to the exclusion of others should be delayed until adolescence. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3658407/">Intense</a> training and exercising in children can lead to injuries, psychological stress, burn out and quitting sports at a young age. All of which is counter-productive in creating a life-long commitment to being physically active and following a healthy lifestyle.</p>
<h2>And what about weights?</h2>
<p>For years, <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3445252/">resistance training</a> in children was frowned on due to safety and efficacy concerns. Resistance or weight training is a type of exercise that works to primarily increase muscle strength and endurance by doing repetitive exercise with weights, weight machines or some other form of resistance. </p>
<p>There were concerns that resistance training may negatively affect a child’s <a href="https://www.healthychildren.org/English/healthy-living/fitness/Pages/Weight-Training-Risk-of-Injury.aspx">growth</a> by damaging their bone growth plates. These concerns are unwarranted as they are not supported by scientific research. But it is essential that children’s resistance training <a href="http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/abs/10.1139/H08-020#.Va1FR7cw_IU">programmes</a> are individualised due to the fact that children mature at slightly different rates.</p>
<p>Current research <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.2165/00007256-199622030-00004#page-1">literature</a> supports and encourages the use of supervised and appropriate resistance training in children. The benefits are numerous and are not limited to increasing muscle strength and endurance. These include:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Strengthening bones by positively influencing bone mineral density;</p></li>
<li><p>Better body composition by increasing muscle component and decreasing fat; and</p></li>
<li><p>A significant decrease in the <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.2165/00007256-199622030-00004#page-1">risk</a> of injuries in sports and recreational activities. </p></li>
</ul>
<h2>Kids copy their parents</h2>
<p>Most children are naturally physically active, and need opportunities to be active and to learn skills. It has been <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Judith_Prochaska/publication/12521182_A_review_of_correlates_of_physical_activity_of_children_and_adolescents/links/0fcfd509495ae32123000000.pdf">shown</a> that they are more likely to engage in moderately vigorous physical activity in unstructured play where they are free to interact with their peers.</p>
<p>They are also influenced by their parents. Parent behaviours, attitudes, parenting styles and practices have a profound <a href="http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2458/11/876">influence</a> on children’s health behaviour. Part of the solution is for parents to be models of the behaviour they wish their children to follow.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/44682/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kim Nolte does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Globally, evidence points to children becoming less active because they would rather play computer games than be outdoors.Kim Nolte, Lecturer, Department of Physiology, University of PretoriaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/443272015-07-07T18:45:10Z2015-07-07T18:45:10ZTaking gym steroids can affect your learning and memory<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/87497/original/image-20150706-1012-1q0js8z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">What was I lifting again?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-194099144/stock-photo-powerlifter-with-strong-arms-lifting-weights.html?src=5qYYnVLCixaT0KNLL6hFAA-1-0">Weights by Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Although much is known about the physical and psychiatric effects of anabolic steroid abuse, very little is known about their putative impact upon learning and memory. In a new study <a href="http://benthamopen.com/contents/pdf/TOPJ/TOPJ-9-1.pdf">published in The Open Psychiatry Journal</a>, we wanted to find out if users reported any difference from using Anabolic-androgenic steroids, or AAS. Our findings suggest that the drug can affect recollection in long-term users. </p>
<p>Anabolic-androgenic steroids are synthetic compounds which resemble testosterone and promote lean body mass and muscle growth. Since the mid-twentieth century, they have been used by elite athletes and bodybuilders to trim body fat and increase muscle size in order to gain the edge over their rivals. But they are have now become <a href="https://theconversation.com/anabolic-steroid-use-is-not-just-about-bodybuilding-29180">much more widespread</a> within non-competitive recreational sports circles and are also often prescribed for medical conditions such as delayed puberty and for muscle-wasting diseases such as AIDS and cancer.</p>
<p>AAS are typically taken orally or injected directly into the muscles. Doses can be as high as 100 times greater than those normally prescribed medically. In some specialist gym user groups – such as bodybuilders and weightlifters – as many as 38% may take AAS. The abuse of AAS brings with it a range of potential <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18599224">physical side effects</a>, including skin lesions, oedema (where an excess of watery fluid collects in the body cavities or tissues), kidney and liver damage, heart problems, high blood pressure and cardiovascular disease. A number of <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16356691">psychiatric effects</a> have also been reported, from mild irritation and agitation, depression, and increased aggression and violence – so-called “roid rage” – towards others. The types and degree of problems experienced may differ depending upon what types of steroids are being abused, their pattern of abuse, the amount taken and the length of abuse. </p>
<h2>Mind as well as body</h2>
<p>In the first study of its kind in 2013, psychiatrist Harrison Pope and colleagues <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0376871612004498">discovered that</a> long-term AAS users performed significantly worse on visuospatial memory task where they had to remember a collection a visual patterns that they were previously shown, compared with non-users. Pope explained the real-world implications by stating that problems in visuospatial memory might correspond to problems with finding a specific location, such as someone’s address or the location of a specific room in a building. </p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/87503/original/image-20150706-1008-8yybs3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/87503/original/image-20150706-1008-8yybs3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/87503/original/image-20150706-1008-8yybs3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/87503/original/image-20150706-1008-8yybs3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/87503/original/image-20150706-1008-8yybs3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/87503/original/image-20150706-1008-8yybs3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/87503/original/image-20150706-1008-8yybs3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Prospective memory.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Note by Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For our study we examined whether the long-term use of AAS within a sporting context might affect everyday memory. We assessed almost 100 male regular gym users aged 18-30 in an online survey; half of whom used AAS and half of whom did not. As a relatively young group in our study, the participants reported using AAS regularly for an average of about four years (up to eight years) with doses. Each participant completed three memory-related questionnaires. The first measured retrospective memory – the recall of past memories or previous facts, for example the name of your favourite soap star. A second measured prospective memory – the process of carry out a planned activity at future point in time, for example remembering to post a birthday card or to take an important medication on time. Finally, a third questionnaire measured executive function – processes that help an individual pay attention, coordinate information and plan and execute tasks. </p>
<p>Significant failures in any or all of these domains could compromise everyday functioning. Our findings revealed that AAS users reported 28% more forgetting in terms of retrospective memory, 39% more forgetting in terms of prospective memory and reported 32% more problems in their executive function. The findings suggest that use of AAS has a significant detrimental impact on an individual’s everyday memory and ability to remember. </p>
<p>Such deficits could affect many spheres of life, including interpersonal, occupational, educational and health-related aspects, given the ubiquitous nature of everyday remembering. Of course, these findings need further verification before any firm conclusions can be reached given that self-reports can be subject to a range of biases, for example some people may think their memory is poor and respond accordingly, while some think it is better than perhaps it is. The next step would be to look at more objective measures and to show why the use of AAS affects memory and learning and what impact steroid abuse has on the brain and its cognitive functions.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/44327/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tom Heffernan does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The physical impact of anabolic steroids are well known but there are also mental effects.Tom Heffernan, Programme Leader in Psychology with Criminology, Northumbria University, NewcastleLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/351132014-12-08T05:59:21Z2014-12-08T05:59:21ZGrannies get physical: how bodybuilding may hold the key to a major ageing problem<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/66405/original/image-20141205-8636-1o6ueej.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Take the strain.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/zanthia/12559719874/in/photolist-dYDztz-mb5m5q-jY5ysa-77XGzc-4Jw5o6-g8qAXS-e4raaW-fH6Ph-HZE2q-49qQ6-5NJx7r-7i1ev7-3yjeZZ-4Th99-6MUCzs-oykbfG-cWzreC-k8RR9o-jdzB6-aBzRb3-2ucE28-dJfAWQ-ack1Um-3Nh2iX-6zZbT8-85vyQU-41Xxu6-7MPe4X-7dNx9J-7MTatq-6c6j58-GegbS-pXuzyn-aqYwvB-4fdWhG-5ms878-7fpw6k-ht5VXC-pkgLv8-ijvuXU-Q6gpV-9c3Nfe-jsAb5-abej5Y-4191na-mtYRPv-88gJ3-ATDA-4zDCFX-9qNDQC">Chris Zielecki</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>People have used bodybuilding to improve their physical performance for at least 1,500 years. The first recorded example was the sixth-century wrestler, <a href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/383062/Milo-of-Croton">Milo of Croton</a>, in southern Italy. Milo reportedly carried out his daily exercises with a calf on his back. As the calf grew into a full sized ox, so too did Milo’s legendary strength. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/66407/original/image-20141205-8658-15e3wjo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/66407/original/image-20141205-8658-15e3wjo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/66407/original/image-20141205-8658-15e3wjo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=839&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/66407/original/image-20141205-8658-15e3wjo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=839&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/66407/original/image-20141205-8658-15e3wjo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=839&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/66407/original/image-20141205-8658-15e3wjo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1055&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/66407/original/image-20141205-8658-15e3wjo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1055&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/66407/original/image-20141205-8658-15e3wjo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1055&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Milo, original muscle man.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/zanthia/12559719874/in/photolist-dYDztz-mb5m5q-jY5ysa-77XGzc-4Jw5o6-g8qAXS-e4raaW-fH6Ph-HZE2q-49qQ6-5NJx7r-7i1ev7-3yjeZZ-4Th99-6MUCzs-oykbfG-cWzreC-k8RR9o-jdzB6-aBzRb3-2ucE28-dJfAWQ-ack1Um-3Nh2iX-6zZbT8-85vyQU-41Xxu6-7MPe4X-7dNx9J-7MTatq-6c6j58-GegbS-pXuzyn-aqYwvB-4fdWhG-5ms878-7fpw6k-ht5VXC-pkgLv8-ijvuXU-Q6gpV-9c3Nfe-jsAb5-abej5Y-4191na-mtYRPv-88gJ3-ATDA-4zDCFX-9qNDQC">Wikimedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
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<p>In the 1940s this concept of what has come to be known as progressive resistance exercise was developed more scientifically by US Army physician <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22592167">Thomas DeLorme</a> to assist the recovery of injured service men and polio sufferers. It is a simple idea: lift a weight you can manage for a set routine and when after numerous training sessions it becomes too light, increase the weight. You repeat the process over and over and it leads to substantially improved strength. This is because the muscle adapts by growing to deal with heavier loads. DeLorme applied these principles to his own physical training and is said to have been formidably strong. </p>
<h2>Our little protein factories</h2>
<p>Thanks to these insights, in modern-day bodybuilding we now have a very good idea of how to improve muscle mass and strength. Muscle growth with progressive resistance exercise is a good example of how adaptable our skeletal muscle is. Part of the mechanism by which muscle grows is through a process called protein synthesis. Muscle grows by increasing the rate at which proteins are made, since muscle is made from protein. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/66408/original/image-20141205-8655-bv16rr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/66408/original/image-20141205-8655-bv16rr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/66408/original/image-20141205-8655-bv16rr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/66408/original/image-20141205-8655-bv16rr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/66408/original/image-20141205-8655-bv16rr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/66408/original/image-20141205-8655-bv16rr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/66408/original/image-20141205-8655-bv16rr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/66408/original/image-20141205-8655-bv16rr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">So macho!</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/cat.mhtml?lang=en&language=en&ref_site=photo&search_source=search_form&version=llv1&anyorall=all&safesearch=1&use_local_boost=1&searchterm=bodybuilder&show_color_wheel=1&orient=&commercial_ok=&media_type=images&search_cat=&searchtermx=&photographer_name=&people_gender=&people_age=&people_ethnicity=&people_number=&color=&page=1&inline=234981475">Kiselev Andrey Valerevich</a></span>
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<p>Protein synthesis also responds to eating dietary protein. And when protein is consumed following resistance exercise, muscle production is enhanced even further. <a href="http://jap.physiology.org/content/106/5/1692">What’s more</a>, muscles that have been subjected to resistance exercises increase their protein synthesis rates more than non-exercised muscles after each meal for at least the next 48 hours. </p>
<p>Not only is this insight useful for bodybuilders, it also tells us something useful about muscle wasting. We know that slow wasting conditions such as <a href="http://www.webmd.com/healthy-aging/sarcopenia-with-aging">sarcopenia</a>, where muscle mass progressively diminishes with age, are <a href="http://journals.lww.com/co-clinicalnutrition/pages/articleviewer.aspx?year=2012&issue=01000&article=00010&type=abstract">due to</a> the impaired ability of muscle to increase protein production in response to feeding or loading. In effect, the muscle’s protein-building machinery becomes resistant to growth stimuli. This causes the protein, and hence the muscle, to be lost, which leads to reduced muscle function. </p>
<p>This is important because muscle loss with age is associated with impaired physical function and loss of independence. This is particularly true if it is combined with the muscle wasting that people experience if they are immobilised after injuries or surgery. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9302893">For example</a>, around 50% of women over the age of 65 who break a hip never walk again. The cause? Loss of muscle mass associated with the injury and the ensuing bed rest. </p>
<p>Sarcopenia is also associated with an increased risk of falling. <a href="http://jech.bmj.com/content/57/9/740.long">A review</a> of the cost of treating fall-related injuries in 1999 showed that falls in the over-60s cost the UK government close to a £1bn a year (more than £1.5bn in today’s money). There is therefore a huge public interest in developing safe and effective strategies to prevent muscle wasting. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/66410/original/image-20141205-8667-34m0wu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/66410/original/image-20141205-8667-34m0wu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/66410/original/image-20141205-8667-34m0wu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=355&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/66410/original/image-20141205-8667-34m0wu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=355&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/66410/original/image-20141205-8667-34m0wu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=355&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/66410/original/image-20141205-8667-34m0wu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/66410/original/image-20141205-8667-34m0wu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/66410/original/image-20141205-8667-34m0wu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Muscle wasting is worst when ageing and injury combine.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/mayoclinic/7351848916/in/photolist-ccE9xN-7jPtLB-7jPxRD-7jPx7M-7jPA7r-7jPzLM-7jPAbg-7jPuyX-7jPAgz-5Y2kh2-7jTnMs-7jTDi7-7jTqfC-7jTpPb-7jToX3-7jPwvz-7hNNTV-7jTu5G-5cEoHE-5TrHnZ-7jPBU6-7jTutG-7jPAs2-7jTFf3-7jPM3K-7jPB3x-7jPDmg-7jTFNd-7jPCnB-7jPCte-7jPJjR-7jTv2s-7jTxwf-5cA7ec-7jTygj-7jHgZs-7jHgkN-7jTDUh-7jPMbR-7jTyAq-7jTEbm-7jPL9F-7jPM6n-7jTF8J-7jTDqy-7jPK44-7jHxUo-7jHzPh-7jHseE-7jDFyc">Wikimedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<h2>The research race</h2>
<p>We have been aware of this link between muscle wasting and protein synthesis impairment for a long time. You don’t see many old people in the gym lifting weights, but that is exactly what they should be doing to try and offset these effects. </p>
<p>For the vast majority of abstainers, researchers have been looking for potential drug treatments in this area for more than 30 years. And for about the last 15 they have been employing biochemistry techniques in human studies to try and understand the molecular signals that tell the muscle to grow. </p>
<p>These molecular signals act like the foreman on a building site. They read the conditions by sensing whether there is sufficient building materials and manpower to build and whether there has been a change in demand on the existing muscle. They then relay that information into an appropriate growth response to meet the demands placed on the system by initiating or stopping muscle protein synthesis. </p>
<p>The question is which molecules are doing this foreman’s job, which has proved far harder to ascertain than initially might have been hoped. The combined efforts of researchers these past few years have pointed to the likelihood that the culprit is a molecule called p70S6K1. Various teams are now looking at how it potentially leads to more muscle protein being produced, including my own. </p>
<p>One reason why it has taken a long time for anyone to fully explain what happens is because it is hard to measure how this molecule functions in human skeletal muscle. This makes it harder to determine its role in making muscles grow. We <a href="http://jap.physiology.org/content/110/2/561">have optomised</a> a simple, cost-effective and accurate technique to solve this measuring difficulty. We have already been putting it through human trials, and hope to have a definitive answer in the next five to ten years. </p>
<p>While others take different approaches, the race is on to determine whether p70S6K1 will be a good drug target to treat muscle wasting. After that, it might take another couple of decades to develop commercial drugs. Needless to say, solving the riddle of muscle wasting is not a quick process. But if science finally triumphs here, it will be a great example of how the answers to problems can come from the most unlikely of sources. For now though, the best advice is to take the lead from bodybuilding and undertake a programme of progressive resistance exercise while ensuring you consume adequate amounts of protein.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/35113/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lee holds funding from the Insulin-dependant Diabetes Trust, the Society for Endocrinology and the American College of Sports Medicine.</span></em></p>People have used bodybuilding to improve their physical performance for at least 1,500 years. The first recorded example was the sixth-century wrestler, Milo of Croton, in southern Italy. Milo reportedly…Lee Hamilton, Lecturer in Sport, Health and Exercise Science, University of StirlingLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.