tag:theconversation.com,2011:/id/topics/women-in-sport-5864/articlesWomen in sport – The Conversation2024-03-11T17:18:43Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2252302024-03-11T17:18:43Z2024-03-11T17:18:43ZWomen in Formula One: how the sport is trying to redress its longstanding lack of support for female drivers and staff<p>In the high-speed world of Formula One, women’s presence has been increasing at a snail’s pace, both on and off the track. While the sport has seen some remarkable female drivers, managers and engineers over the years, their visibility has often been sporadic and overshadowed by the dominance of men.</p>
<p>As F1 continues to evolve, there is a growing awareness of the need for greater gender equality and visibility within the sport. This is not just a matter of improving fairness, but a <a href="https://theconversation.com/formula-ones-women-problem-is-bad-for-business-53317">missed business opportunity</a>. A larger presence of women in F1, particularly at the wheel, would attract new fans and sponsors, and inspire more women to pursue a motorsport career – in turn offering a broader supply of engineers, executives and drivers.</p>
<p>Historically, women in F1 have faced significant barriers to entry, and then more once they are in the sport. Only <a href="https://racingnews365.com/woman-in-f1">five female racing drivers</a> have entered world championship grands prix – of whom just two qualified and actually raced.</p>
<h2>Too many false starts</h2>
<p>The first woman to compete in an F1 grand prix was Italy’s <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/observer/osm/story/0,,1720870,00.html">Maria Teresa de Filippis</a>. She participated in five races in 1958 and 1959, qualifying for three. Her best race finish was tenth. Another Italian, Lella Lombardi, took part in 17 grands prix between 1974 and 1976. She remains the only woman to score a world championship point – well, half a point – after finishing sixth in the 1975 Spanish Grand Prix in a rain-shortened race.</p>
<p>In 1976, <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/formula-1/2019/05/18/meet-divina-galica-fearless-british-f1-driver-proved-women-can/">British Olympic ski racer Divina Galica</a> switched sports and tried to secure a spot in the British Grand Prix. This marked the only time more than one female driver (Lombardi and Galica) has participated in qualifying for a grand prix – unfortunately, both failed to make the race grid.</p>
<p>Four years later, South African <a href="https://www.motorsportmagazine.com/database/drivers/desire-wilson/">Desiré Wilson</a> also tried to qualify for the British Grand Prix, and again fell short. But the same year, she achieved another milestone by becoming the only woman to clinch victory in any type of F1 race, triumphing at Brands Hatch in the British Formula One Championship.</p>
<p>The most recent female driver to take part in the F1 world championship was Italy’s <a href="https://www.motorsportmagazine.com/articles/opinions/30-years-after-giovanna-amati-were-no-closer-to-another-female-f1-driver/">Giovanna Amati</a>, who, at the start of the 1992 season, joined the British Brabham team. However, she encountered difficulties in qualifying and was unable to secure a spot in any of the three races she entered, before being replaced by male drivers.</p>
<p>After that, a further two decades would pass before <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/motor-racing/british-grand-prix-2014-susie-wolff-the-first-woman-to-take-part-in-a-formula-one-race-weekend-in-22-years-9584247.html">Britain’s Susie Wolff</a> became the most recent female driver to participate in F1 during the 2014 season, but only in some practice sessions.</p>
<h2>Investment in female drivers</h2>
<p>Beyond the driver’s seat, women have held <a href="https://www.espn.co.uk/f1/story/_/id/31038834/the-women-power-formula-one-engineers-mechanics-directors-their-role-changing-man-world">various leading roles in F1</a>. Most notably, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2012/oct/11/sauber-monisha-kaltenborn-f1">Monisha Kaltenborn</a> served as team principal for Swiss team Sauber in 2012 until 2017, and <a href="https://www.the-race.com/formula-1/claire-williams-is-back-at-williams-but-not-the-f1-team/">Claire Williams</a> was deputy team principal of Williams Racing from 2013-2020.</p>
<p>Female engineers and technicians can also play crucial roles in the development and performance of F1 cars. For example, <a href="https://www.redbull.com/gb-en/hannah-schmitz-oracle-red-bull-racing-strategist">Hannah Schmitz</a> is the trailblazing principal strategy engineer of current F1 world champion, Max Verstappen.</p>
<p>The public image of women within the sport has certainly changed over time. The so-called “grid girls” – women tasked with parading on the starting grid during race weekends, purely for promotional purposes – <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/f1/formula-1-f1-grid-girls-banned-get-rid-women-grand-prix-darts-ban-pdc-walk-on-eddie-hearn-a8187161.html">were banned by Liberty Media</a>, the current F1 commercial rights holder, at the start of the 2018 season. Liberty stated that the practice did not resonate with its brand values, and was considered at odds with modern societal norms – particularly as the sport is increasingly targeting family and female audiences.</p>
<p>But despite some remarkable improvements, women remain underrepresented in F1, with few opportunities to showcase their talents on the track or in leadership positions. In 2023, <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/josephwolkin/2023/10/04/red-bull-racing-highlights-female-engineers-in-formula-1/?sh=44b4668b24b0">women made up 13%</a> of people working for Mercedes and 6% for Red Bull – two of the sport’s leading teams. Overall that season, F1’s <a href="https://www.formula1.com/content/dam/fom-website/manual/Misc/GenderPay/F1GenderPayGapReport2023.pdf">gender pay gap report</a> found that women represented 31% of the sport’s staff. </p>
<p>Several factors contribute to this gender disparity, including societal stereotypes, lack of access to resources and opportunities, and an inferior number of women studying engineering and related technical subjects. </p>
<p>However, research suggests the absence of successful female drivers <a href="https://www.topgear.com/car-news/motorsport/no-reason-why-women-cant-compete-f1-says-major-study">isn’t due to biological differences</a>. Concerns regarding strength, size and weight differences, while relevant in some sports where men and women compete separately, are less significant in F1, and can even be advantageous. Being smaller and lighter is important for drivers, as it leaves engineers more adjustable ballast to reach the minimum car weight allowed. </p>
<p>More crucial is the need for excellent cognitive abilities to maintain focus during races, something women are not short of. If given proper training, women possess the same potential as men to excel as F1 drivers.</p>
<h2>Societal biases</h2>
<p>The lack of women in the driver seat is shaped <a href="https://sportsgazette.co.uk/the-idea-that-women-cant-be-as-good-as-a-man-at-driving-a-formula-one-car-is-purely-socially-constructed-dr-paolo-aversa-about/">by statistics and societal biases</a>. The path to becoming a professional driver typically begins with karting at a very young age, around four or five, necessitating continuous training and financial backing from sponsors. </p>
<p>However, few families encourage young girls to pursue driving at such an early age, and young girls are also exposed to fewer female racing champions that can inspire them. Consequently, there are significantly fewer girls engaged early enough in professional racing compared with boys, diminishing the likelihood of discovering the next major F1 talent among them.</p>
<p>Several initiatives have been established to address gender inequality within the sport. The <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/blog/2023/jun/25/trailblazing-w-series-has-created-opportunities-for-women-in-motor-sport">W Series</a>, launched in 2019, offered financial support, training and exposure to create a pathway for women to reach F1. But it <a href="https://jalopnik.com/f1-academy-is-thriving-where-w-series-failed-1850962490">went into administration in 2022</a> due to lack of funding, popularity, and the structure to guarantee successful rookies could move up the ladder. </p>
<p>In 2022, the <a href="https://www.f1academy.com/">F1 Academy</a> marked a new effort to increase diversity in the sport. By being directly endorsed and supported by F1, its teams and governing body the FIA (Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile), the F1 Academy aims to identify and develop talented individuals from underrepresented groups including women through mentoring, training and access to resources, creating a clear and structured pathaway towards major series and F1.</p>
<p>But the prospect of more women racing in F1 still looks some way off. True gender parity in the sport will only be achieved through the sustained effort and commitment of all its stakeholders, including teams, sponsors and governing bodies. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536131/original/file-20230706-17-460x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536131/original/file-20230706-17-460x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536131/original/file-20230706-17-460x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536131/original/file-20230706-17-460x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536131/original/file-20230706-17-460x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536131/original/file-20230706-17-460x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536131/original/file-20230706-17-460x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paolo Aversa does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Only five female racing drivers have ever entered a world championship grand prix – of whom just two qualified and raced.Paolo Aversa, Professor of Strategy, King's College LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2251992024-03-07T17:23:54Z2024-03-07T17:23:54ZCopa 71: how the first women’s World Cup was erased from footballing history<p>The young Gail Emms, who would later become world badminton champion, was great at sport. At school, she once proudly gave a detailed presentation about how her mother, Janice, had played football for England in a World Cup in the early 1970s. Her teachers enjoyed the story but thought Gail was fantasising. There was no official record of any such event taking place. </p>
<p>However, Janice Emms did indeed play for an England football team in Mexico City in 1971 – and in front of a crowd of 90,000 at that. The women and girls concerned hid their involvement because football’s world governing body, Fifa, disapproved, and England’s Football Association (FA) sought to ban those who had participated in this “unsanctioned” tournament. </p>
<p>The players involved seldom talked about Mexico later, even among themselves. But those who had been there would never forget it.</p>
<p>Copa 71, a new documentary film about this long-forgotten landmark tournament, lists US soccer star Alex Morgan and tennis legends Serena and Venus Williams as executive producers. It premiered recently at the British Film Institute and, to some acclaim, at the Toronto International Film Festival. </p>
<p>Released on March 8, it interviews some of those involved and emerges at a moment when the women’s game is experiencing unprecedented commercial and popular success. The Women’s World Cup is now a major money-spinner and a <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/football/2023/aug/04/womens-world-cup-2023-hailed-as-most-successful-in-history-at-halfway-point">global TV event</a>, and Fifa has even <a href="https://www.fifa.com/tournaments/womens/womensworldcup/australia-new-zealand2023/news/bareman-women-will-play-vital-role-in-football-s-future">embraced</a> women’s football as the “future” of the game. Times have changed.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/tXx5usO4v2E?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The extraordinary story of the 1971 Women’s Football World Cup.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>‘British Independents’</h2>
<p>In the early 1970s, Italian drinks company Martini Rosso identified untapped commercial and marketing potential in women’s football. It argued for a privately funded international tournament in Mexico in 1971 – promising to pay for the kit, travel and accommodation of any Europeans willing to be involved. </p>
<p>Six countries took part, including four from Europe. In England, there was little point engaging with the FA on such matters: women’s football had been <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/football/2022/jun/13/how-the-fa-banned-womens-football-in-1921-and-tried-to-justify-it">banned</a> there for 50 years, and it was barely on the national agenda again. So, a Mr Harry Batt from Luton was contacted instead. </p>
<p>Early women footballers remember Batt fondly as a chain-smoking, rather sweary bus driver in his sixties. He and his wife, June, had started up the Chiltern Valley Ladies football club in 1969. An unlikely moderniser, Batt had recognised the demand among young women in his area for a chance to play, and built a successful and competitive regional club. </p>
<p>So, when the man from Martini Rosso came calling and asked Batt if he could put a squad together to represent England in Mexico, he jumped at the chance. Batt’s scratch team of so-called “British Independents” ranged in age from the 13-year-old Leah Caleb to a handful of more mature women players. Parental approval was needed for some squad members even to travel.</p>
<p>Did Batt really know what he was doing? His inexperienced and youthful team had only ever performed in charity matches or on uneven park pitches in front of a smattering of dogs, friends and family members. Children played alongside adults because of the paucity of women players; there was nowhere decent even for female players to change. </p>
<p>In Mexico City, this patchwork 14-player squad – by now re-labelled as England – played between daft pink-and-white goalposts in some of the largest stadia in the world, in front of enormous and enthusiastic crowds. The England women suffered injuries and lost their matches, but respect for them abroad grew.</p>
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<span class="caption">In 1971, Mexico City’s Estadio Azteca was the world’s largest football stadium, hosting 112,000 fans for the women’s final.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1971_Women%27s_World_Cup#/media/File:Mexico_stadium_1986.jpg">Karl Oppolzer/Wikipedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
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<h2>Disappearing from view</h2>
<p>And Batt’s reward for all this promoting of women and girls’ football in the international spotlight? A rebuff from Fifa and a lifetime ban from the FA. Thanks for nothing.</p>
<p>The New York Times had <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1971/06/27/archives/soccer-goes-sexy-south-of-border-womens-world-cup-aimed-at-the-2.html">billed</a> the Mexico tournament as “Soccer Goes Sexy South of Border”, with women’s football depicted as “a mixture between a sports event and a beauty contest … the shorts will be as close as possible to hot pants”. </p>
<p>But in fact, these international women footballers appear to have been as revered in Mexico as were men players. Some 112,000 fans watched Denmark defeat Mexico 3–0 in the final. Autograph hunters and TV presenters followed every step of the visiting England team. </p>
<p>After this sort of adulation, coming home was a real let-down. Mexico ‘71 had barely registered in England.</p>
<p>It took the dinosaurs at the FA another decade, under protest, to take the <a href="https://www.englandfootball.com/england/womens-senior-team/Legacy/History">women’s game</a> in-house, and a blundering Fifa 20 years to organise the first official Women’s World Cup, in <a href="https://www.fifa.com/tournaments/womens/womensworldcup/chinapr1991">China</a>. So many wasted years.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225199/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>John Williams does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Thousands of fans packed out stadiums for the 1971 women’s World Cup, but it has been virtually erased from history.John Williams, Associate Professor of Sociology, University of LeicesterLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2138402023-10-05T16:44:51Z2023-10-05T16:44:51ZThe FIFA Women’s World Cup is closing its gap with the men’s tournament<iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/the-fifa-womens-world-cup-is-closing-its-gap-with-the-mens-tournament" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Few events capture the global imagination the way the FIFA World Cup does. The tournament is more than just a series of soccer matches; it’s a cultural phenomenon that transcends borders, languages and social categories. </p>
<p>However, there has been a glaring disparity between the men’s and women’s World Cups regarding viewership, financial investment and media coverage.</p>
<p>The men’s World Cup has a long and storied history <a href="https://www.britannica.com/sports/World-Cup-football">dating back to its inception in 1930</a>. Over the years, it has grown exponentially regarding viewership and financial investment. The tournament <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/soccer-legend-maradona-cheering-lionel-messi-heaven-argentina-fans-sin-rcna61657">has been a platform for legendary players</a> like Pelé, Diego Maradona and Lionel Messi to showcase their talents on the world stage. </p>
<p>In contrast, the women’s World Cup was <a href="https://www.fifa.com/tournaments/womens/womensworldcup/chinapr1991">launched by FIFA much later, in 1991</a>. Despite its relatively short history, the tournament has made significant strides, with players like Mia Hamm, Christine Sinclair, Megan Rapinoe, Abby Wambach and Marta Vieira da Silva becoming household names.</p>
<h2>Rapid growth, unequal playing conditions</h2>
<p>The growth of the FIFA Women’s World Cup reveals a compelling narrative about the rapid progress of women’s soccer. The men’s World Cup grew from 18 to 64 matches, with a total attendance increasing from nearly <a href="https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/rajkumarpandey02/fifa-world-cup-attendance-19302022/">590,500 in 1930</a> to about <a href="https://publications.fifa.com/en/annual-report-2022/tournaments-and-events/fifa-world-cup-quatar-2022/fifa-world-cup-qatar-2022-in-numbers/">3.4 million in 2022</a>. </p>
<p>Similarly, the total attendance for the women’s World Cup surged from approximately <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1999/06/19/sports/women-s-world-cup-all-is-ready-and-the-stands-are-full.html">510,000 in 1991</a> to <a href="https://www.bbc.com/sport/football/66517612">nearly two million in 2023</a>.</p>
<p>Starting 61 years later than the Men’s World Cup, the women’s tournament <a href="https://www.ctvnews.ca/sports/fifa-says-women-s-world-cup-ticket-sales-surpass-1-68-million-1.6501777">expanded from 26 to 64 matches</a> in just 32 years, catching up with the men’s format. </p>
<p>Regarding average attendance, the women’s World Cup has almost doubled <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/sports/soccer/from-humble-beginnings-the-fifa-women-s-world-cup-1.1030918">from around 19,600</a> to <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/272800/average-number-of-spectatators-at-the-fifa-womens-world-cup/">nearly 30,900</a> in 32 years, while the men’s average attendance increased from about <a href="https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/rajkumarpandey02/fifa-world-cup-attendance-19302022/">32,800 to almost 53,200 over 93 years</a>. These trends suggest the women’s World Cup is not only catching up to the men’s World Cup, but is doing so at a much faster rate. </p>
<p>If this rapid growth continues, the women’s World Cup could match or surpass the men’s in total and average attendance in the coming decades.</p>
<h2>Numerous challenges</h2>
<p>The women’s World Cup has faced numerous challenges, including fewer teams, shorter matches and <a href="https://www.sportsnet.ca/soccer/fifa-will-allow-natural-grass-fields-2023-womens-wc/">artificial turf compared to the men’s natural grass</a>. Financial and media disparities persist. The <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2019/06/07/the-2019-womens-world-cup-prize-money-is-30-million.html">2019 women’s World Cup had a prize pool of US$30 million</a> — a fraction of the US$400 million allocated for the 2018 men’s World Cup. </p>
<p>Although the 2023 women’s event has seen a significant increase in prize money to US$110 million, it still <a href="https://www.reuters.com/sports/soccer/success-womens-world-cup-cant-hide-financial-gap-with-men-2023-08-21/">pales in comparison to the US$440 million for the 2022 men’s World Cup</a>.</p>
<p>This financial imbalance extends beyond the players to the tournament itself, with the <a href="https://time.com/6303306/womens-world-cup-sponsorship-revenue/">men’s World Cup attracting more high-profile sponsors</a>. As a result, female athletes receive less <a href="https://europeanleagues.com/wp-content/uploads/Laura-McCallums-dissertation-Gender-inequality-in-the-football-industry.pdf">professional recognition and fewer resources than the men do</a>.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/fifa-womens-world-cup-professional-women-athletes-are-still-fighting-for-equitable-sponsorship-209781">FIFA Women’s World Cup: Professional women athletes are still fighting for equitable sponsorship</a>
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<p>Media coverage for the women’s World Cup is improving, closing the gap with the men’s tournament. <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/alanaglass/2019/10/21/fifa-womens-world-cup-breaks-viewership-records/?sh=47431fc11884">The 2019</a> <a href="https://www.bbc.com/sport/football/66517612">and 2023</a> editions set new viewership records. </p>
<p>Media coverage of the FIFA Women’s World Cup not only <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/13684302221075691">changes normative expectations about what women can achieve</a> in sports but also serves as a platform for creating female role models and breaking long-standing gender stereotypes. This heightened visibility positively influences public beliefs about women’s capabilities in traditionally male-dominated fields. </p>
<p>For example, <a href="https://theathletic.com/4176907/2022/05/19/fifa-appoints-three-female-referees-for-world-cup-for-first-time-in-competition-history/">FIFA’s appointment of three women referees and three women assistant referees in 2022</a> serves as a sign of changing employment opportunities. As a result, these shifts in perception may affect income disparities and career advancement for women.</p>
<h2>Gender parity in world soccer</h2>
<p>Despite the ongoing inequalities, the skill level between men’s and women’s soccer is comparable. For instance, <a href="https://ca.sports.yahoo.com/news/brazils-marta-becomes-alltime-world-cup-goal-scorer-with-17-211518392.html/">Brazilian forward Marta set a milestone by scoring 17 goals in a World Cup competition</a>, surpassing Miroslav Klose’s previous record of 16 goals in 2019. </p>
<p>The range of goals scored by the <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/268922/leading-scorers-at-the-fifa-world-cup-since-1930/">Top 10 men</a> <a href="https://www.sportingnews.com/ca/soccer/news/womens-world-cup-2023-top-goal-scorer-golden-boot-rankings/de5r0qcuakrkkggmzt29kn1t">and women</a> players is similar, suggesting a comparable level of competition and skill.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A chart listing the top scorers of men and women's FIFA world cups" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/551884/original/file-20231003-23-i8ithx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/551884/original/file-20231003-23-i8ithx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=561&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/551884/original/file-20231003-23-i8ithx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=561&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/551884/original/file-20231003-23-i8ithx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=561&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/551884/original/file-20231003-23-i8ithx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=704&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/551884/original/file-20231003-23-i8ithx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=704&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/551884/original/file-20231003-23-i8ithx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=704&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Top goal scorers in men’s and women’s FIFA World Cups. The range of goals scored by men and women players is similar, suggesting a comparable level of skill in both sexes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(FIFA and ESPN)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The women’s World Cup has come a long way, but the road to gender equality remains long and fraught. Still, the trajectory is clear: with rising viewership, burgeoning sponsorships and an ever-expanding talent pool, the future is not just promising — it’s luminous. </p>
<p>With an unprecedented two million fans flooding the stadiums in 2023, it’s clear the world is finally recognizing the extraordinary skill and electrifying excitement that women bring to soccer. Milestones like the <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2021.634696">2023 expansion to 32 teams and standardizing match duration</a> indicate progress as well. </p>
<p>But this is no time for complacency. Equity isn’t merely about filling stadiums or equalizing prize money; it’s a battle against entrenched stereotypes that have stifled women’s sports for far too long. </p>
<p>We’re at a pivotal moment, and the time for action is now. Governments, sporting bodies and organizations must keep investing in women’s soccer to champion these phenomenal athletes and make tuning into the women’s World Cup as second nature as watching the men’s tournament. Soccer is more than a game; it’s a movement shaping the future — one we all have a vested interest in.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/213840/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Clare Ardern previously received funding from the Australian National Health & Medical Research Council and the Swedish Research Council for Sport Science. She is Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy and JOSPT Open, which are published by Movement Science Media.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Karim Khan is the Scientific Director for the CIHR institution of Musculoskeletal Health and Arthritis. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sabeena Jalal does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The Women’s World Cup is emerging from the shadow of its male counterpart, breaking attendance records and drawing a global audience.This surge in popularity is a win for gender equality.Sabeena Jalal, Senior Researcher, Department of Family Practice, University of British ColumbiaClare Ardern, Assistant Professor in Physiotherapy, University of British ColumbiaKarim Khan, Professor, Department of Family Practice and the School of Kinesiology, University of British ColumbiaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2105222023-08-22T21:14:07Z2023-08-22T21:14:07ZUnpacking the invisible, gendered labour of women coaches<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543098/original/file-20230816-19-muhqw9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C172%2C5373%2C3186&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Emotional labour is not recognized, nor valued enough, in coaching.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/unpacking-the-invisible-gendered-labour-of-women-coaches" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Despite <a href="https://sirc.ca/blog/next-steps-in-the-safe-sport-journey/">a positive shift</a> in sport culture towards prioritizing <a href="https://coach.ca/mental-health-hub">athletes’ mental health and well-being</a>, the crucial work of coaches in supporting athletes — and the resulting emotional toll — remains taken for granted.</p>
<p>Referred to as <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-emotional-labour-and-how-do-we-get-it-wrong-185773">emotional labour</a>, this often-overlooked part of coaching requires coaches to manage their emotions in order to influence or mediate the emotions of their athletes.</p>
<p>This situation is particularly pronounced for women coaches, who are consistently striving to establish themselves in a <a href="https://access.portico.org/stable?au=pgk5szzh4t">male-dominated space</a> driven by <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315668017-29/issues-maltreatment-high-performance-athlete-development-gretchen-kerr-ashley-stirling">competition and mental toughness</a>.</p>
<h2>Gendered division of labour</h2>
<p>There is <a href="https://yorkspace.library.yorku.ca/server/api/core/bitstreams/0b7a6aa1-3594-4d47-8402-b239803606d1/content">preliminary evidence from sport scholars of a gendered division of labour</a> among coaches at Canadian universities. This divide affects expectations about the types of work men and women coaches engage in and how their performance is evaluated.</p>
<p>Research findings also indicate that athletes place greater expectations on women coaches to provide <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/wspaj.2018-0011">a higher degree of emotional understanding</a> than they do on men coaches. Men coaches are also praised for the same emotionally supportive behaviour women coaches are expected to provide.</p>
<p>The gendered assumption that women have an innate capacity and responsibility to care for people is even embedded within <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/canadian-heritage/services/sport-policies-acts-regulations/policy-actively-engaged-women-girls.html">Canada’s federal gender equity policy</a>. It reads:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“The leadership, skills and perspectives of women are lost to the sport system at a time when, because of the ongoing identified need to build human resource capacity, the system can least afford to do without their involvement.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Implicitly and explicitly, <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Improving-Gender-Equity-in-Sports-Coaching/Norman/p/book/9781032049120">women coaches are expected to prioritize others, and be nurturing and supportive</a> — all while being measured against a male coaching standard that expects self-sufficiency, and demanding and assertive behaviour.</p>
<h2>Emotional labour</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520272941/the-managed-heart">Women typically engage in more emotional labour</a> than men in both their professional lives and at home. This is because women are often socialized from a young age to develop emotional skills and manage their expressions and feelings.</p>
<p>This trend also extends into the world of coaching. Our preliminary research with nine Canadian women intercollegiate coaches revealed that all used emotional labour to navigate displays of emotions typically associated with both masculinity (e.g., courage, confidence, authority) and femininity (e.g., empathy, compassion, positivity). </p>
<p>The coaches received negative backlash when they failed to meet either set of gendered expectations, placing them in a double-bind and leading to emotional exhaustion and burnout.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A woman coach in a black, long-sleeved shirt speaks to a group of young girls wearing red pinnies" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543097/original/file-20230816-29-udslzt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543097/original/file-20230816-29-udslzt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543097/original/file-20230816-29-udslzt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543097/original/file-20230816-29-udslzt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543097/original/file-20230816-29-udslzt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543097/original/file-20230816-29-udslzt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543097/original/file-20230816-29-udslzt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Athletes place greater expectations on women coaches to provide a higher degree of emotional understanding than they do on men coaches.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>One coach said: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“There’s very low tolerance for meanness … they won’t take that from a woman, but they’ll take a lot of it from the men. And they’ll just call that, ‘well, he’s just, you know, he expects a lot from us,’ or ‘he’s demanding’ or ‘he’s a tough coach,’ but it’s really hard for women to get away with it.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The coaches also said they were required to engage in emotional labour to create supportive spaces, meet their athletes’ needs and build relationships with many stakeholders. </p>
<p>One coach said that as a woman, she was expected to “take care of all the motherly stuff and like nurture the athletes if they cry … or be the positive push.”</p>
<h2>Invisible, gendered labour</h2>
<p>All the coaches we spoke to said they considered emotional labour to be work. One coach said: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“I’m not resentful at all of that labour, and I’m not unwilling to do it. But I would never deny the toll it takes or the amount of work that it is.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The coaches said that while university administrators idealized athlete-centred culture, they felt their labour for fostering such a culture was largely undervalued. </p>
<p>When one coach advocated for a raise and demonstrated the additional work she did to support student-athletes, she was told: “don’t go above and beyond, just do as much as you get paid.”</p>
<p>Another coach recounted that, during a staff meeting, all the coaches were told they were on one-year contracts because “they wanted to keep the coaches competitive.” Such examples demonstrate how the emphasis on competition impacts how coaches’ work is measured and evaluated, while ignoring the emotional burden coaches assume.</p>
<p>One coach spoke about the stress of this impact:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“I was lying to myself to be like, oh, like mental health is really important to me. But meanwhile, I’m only worried about the mental health of my athletes and my coaches … I’ll get to mine when I get, if I get a chance. And then I wasn’t getting a chance at all.”</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Broadening the definition of coach’s work</h2>
<p>By acknowledging gendered biases and stereotypes that impact women coaches’ working realities and the standards they are held to, we may be able to advance gender equity in the coaching field.</p>
<p>The emotional realities experienced by women coaches are impacting their ability to thrive in a sport culture that doesn’t recognize or support key parts of their work.</p>
<p>Emotional labour is currently not recognized, nor valued enough, in coaching to be included in job descriptions or job evaluations, making it largely invisible work.</p>
<p>A crucial next step towards gender equity in coaching is broadening the definition of coaching to acknowledge its emotional realities. Doing this will ultimately <a href="https://sirc.ca/blog/next-steps-in-the-safe-sport-journey/">enrich the sport experience for all involved</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/210522/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The emotional realities experienced by women coaches are adversely impacting their ability to thrive in a culture that doesn’t recognize or support key parts of their work.Jesse Porter, Research Assistant, Faculty of Applied Health Sciences, Brock UniversityKirsty Spence, Associate Dean, Teaching and Undergraduate Studies, Brock UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2105282023-08-01T22:27:03Z2023-08-01T22:27:03ZWomen’s World Cup: The epidemic of ACL tears in female soccer players is about more than just biology<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540285/original/file-20230731-25-w0j3d7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3418%2C2279&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Canada forward Janine Beckie watches after attempting a shot during the first half of a SheBelieves Cup women's soccer match against the United States, Feb. 16, 2023, in Orlando, Fla.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Phelan M. Ebenhack)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/womens-world-cup-the-epidemic-of-acl-tears-in-female-soccer-players-is-about-more-than-just-biology" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Over <a href="https://twitter.com/aclwfc/status/1680694763547230208">25 of the world’s top female soccer players</a> are missing the 2023 FIFA Women’s World Cup because of ACL tears, <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/sports/soccer/womens-world-cup-acl-injuries-1.6904291">including Canada’s Janine Beckie</a>.</p>
<p>Female athletes are <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2022-106099">two to eight times more likely to tear their anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) compared to males</a>, and their odds of returning to sport within five years are 25 per cent lower. If we trust the research, we should brace ourselves for two to three ACL tears during the World Cup itself.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two blonde soccer players fight for a ball, one wearing light blue and jumping into the left shoulder of one wearing red and black" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540576/original/file-20230801-22-9l0og9.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540576/original/file-20230801-22-9l0og9.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540576/original/file-20230801-22-9l0og9.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540576/original/file-20230801-22-9l0og9.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540576/original/file-20230801-22-9l0og9.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540576/original/file-20230801-22-9l0og9.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540576/original/file-20230801-22-9l0og9.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ellie Carpenter of Australia and Jordyn Huitema of Canada vie for the ball during Group B soccer action at the FIFA Women’s World Cup in Melbourne, Australia, July 31, 2023.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(THE CANADIAN PRESS/Scott Barbour)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Greater awareness of the ACL epidemic in women’s soccer is shedding light on gender disparities in sport and highlighting the need for immediate action to create a more equitable playing field.</p>
<h2>Dreaded aftermath of the ACL tear</h2>
<p>The ACL is a thick band of connective tissue found in the middle of the knee joint. It plays a vital role in controlling knee joint motion and telling the brain about knee position. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="A medical diagram shows the location of the ACL, a ligament behind the knee cap that can tear during quick changes of direction" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540549/original/file-20230801-16682-emuheh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540549/original/file-20230801-16682-emuheh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540549/original/file-20230801-16682-emuheh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540549/original/file-20230801-16682-emuheh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540549/original/file-20230801-16682-emuheh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540549/original/file-20230801-16682-emuheh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540549/original/file-20230801-16682-emuheh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">ACL tears are dreaded due to their long recovery time and potential for reinjury.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>ACL tears typically happen with movements that involve pivoting and quick changes of direction like pressing or tackling. People usually feel or hear a pop when they tear their ACL and experience significant joint swelling within a couple of hours.</p>
<p>For athletes, the treatment of an ACL tear involves physical therapy, exercise or surgery, where the ACL is reconstructed using a piece of tendon harvested from the quadricep or hamstring muscles. <a href="https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/56/24/1445">Under ideal conditions, recovery from an ACL tear takes nine to 12 months</a>.</p>
<p>Unfortunately, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/23259671231169199">30 per cent of female athletes who tear their ACL do not return to sport</a>, and even if they do, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/2325967117724196">15 per cent experience a re-tear</a>. Even after treatment and returning to sport, people that tear their ACL are <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2022-105496">six times more likely to develop early onset osteoarthritis</a>, a degenerative joint disease characterized by pain and loss of function.</p>
<h2>Greater risk for female athletes</h2>
<p>While past research has focused on differences in anatomy, biomechanics and monthly hormonal cycles, these <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2020-103173">biological factors do not paint a complete picture</a> of why female athletes tear their ACL more than their male counterparts.</p>
<p>The environments in which female athletes learn and play sport also contribute to the risk. The gender stereotypes that permeate sport often undervalue females’ athletic abilities, which can lead to fewer and inferior opportunities and resources. For example, at the 2021 NCAA March Madness, male athletes had access to a full gym, while female athletes were provided with a <a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/CMkRJ2LswFp/">few light dumbbells and yoga mats</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A Black woman wearing a two-piece black workout set focuses as she pulls up a barbell" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540517/original/file-20230801-18-1847vx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540517/original/file-20230801-18-1847vx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540517/original/file-20230801-18-1847vx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540517/original/file-20230801-18-1847vx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540517/original/file-20230801-18-1847vx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540517/original/file-20230801-18-1847vx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540517/original/file-20230801-18-1847vx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Gender stereotypes discourage women and girls from weight training, despite its protective benefits against ACL tears.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Girls and women with muscular and bulky body types are seen by some as unattractive, which can also impact access and enthusiasm for weight training. This gender stereotyping is a problem because <a href="https://doi.org/10.4085/1062-6050-99-16">weight training is important for preventing ACL tears</a>.</p>
<p>The rapid professionalization of women’s soccer has also led to higher physical demands on female players and an increased risk of injury. However, the sporting environment hasn’t kept up, lacking resources, facilities and coaching tailored to meet the needs of female athletes. </p>
<p>Shorter, condensed seasons with match congestion combined with limited strength training programs — and in some cases limited access to skilled coaches and medical teams — further contributes to the ACL problem. </p>
<h2>Addressing the epidemic</h2>
<p>Solving this problem requires every member of the soccer community. To begin with, investing more resources and expertise into women’s soccer is crucial. This means a national professional league, pay and resource equity, investment in long-term welfare and prioritizing training opportunities for female coaches, trainers and medical staff.</p>
<p>There is also an urgent need to fund research focused on female health, injury prevention and long-term health. This research should be conducted collaboratively with players, coaches and sport federations so that everyone has an invested interest in acting on the findings.</p>
<p>We know that <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2019-101587">injury prevention warm-up programs can reduce the number of ACL tears</a> and despite <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2019/may/03/women-taking-pill-less-likely-suffer-acl-injury-study-finds">flashy misleading headlines</a> there is no evidence that <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2022-106519">contraceptives decrease the risk</a>. Every single female athlete who plays soccer, from the grassroots to professional levels, needs this knowledge so they can make informed decisions.</p>
<p>To foster lasting change and promote the health and success of female soccer players, we must confront the gender inequities that have long persisted in the sport. By showcasing the talents of female athletes in media, we can challenge gender stereotypes, demonstrate that female athletes are not lesser than their male counterparts and create more opportunities for growth. </p>
<p>Only through collective effort and a commitment to addressing all the root causes of ACL injuries in female athletes can we build a future where all athletes have an equal chance to excel in the beautiful game.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/210528/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jackie Whittaker receives funding from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, the Arthritis Society, and Michael Smith Health Research BC. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christina Le received funding from the Arthritis Society and Canadian MSK Rehab Research Network.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Linda Truong receives funding from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research. </span></em></p>Gender disparities in sport extend to injuries too. Female soccer players are at greater risk for ACL tears than males and it is clear immediate action is needed to address the non-biological factors for the injury.Jackie Whittaker, Associate Professor, Department of Physical Therapy, Faculty of Medicine, University of British ColumbiaChristina Le, Physiotherapist and Researcher, University of AlbertaLinda Truong, PhD Candidate, Rehabilitation Sciences, University of British ColumbiaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1981212023-02-23T17:01:56Z2023-02-23T17:01:56ZFemale football players are at much higher risk of career-ending ACL injuries – the science on why<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511687/original/file-20230222-14-qsup2l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=74%2C33%2C5463%2C3637&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Beth Mead dribbling the ball v Germany in the Women European Championship Final 2022.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/wembley-stadium-london-2022-july-31-2256994873">photographyjp/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Women’s football is riding high. Not only are fans celebrating the success of the England team at the <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/64718305">Arnold Clark Cup</a> and Euro 2022, but this year will see the Fifa Women’s World Cup kick off in July.</p>
<p>The popularity of the women’s game has led to <a href="https://www.sportengland.org/news/childrens-activity-levels-recover-pre-pandemic-levels">more girls than ever</a> before <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2022/dec/08/100000-more-girls-playing-football-in-england-as-activity-levels-rebound">playing the sport</a>. But alongside this has been a <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/64032536">rise in knee injuries</a>, in particular to the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) in female players. </p>
<p>The ACL is a ligament in the knee that provides stability. If injured the knee can be susceptible to giving way, especially during sports. This injury often requires surgery and prolonged periods of rehabilitation. Even then, not all will return to the same level of play, so it’s an especially devastating injury for athletes. </p>
<p>A spate of high profile ACL injuries in women’s football including Beth Mead, awarded BBC Sports Personality of the Year, Alexia Putellas winner of the international football award the Ballon d’Or – along with <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/64032536">25% of the 2022 nominees</a> – has resulted in calls for <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/football/2022/dec/22/spoty-winner-beth-mead-calls-for-more-research-into-womens-acl-injuries">further research</a> to understand the factors associated with ACL injury and the disparity in injury rates between men and women.</p>
<h2>What we know so far</h2>
<p>It has long been known that females are <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18063176/">around three times more likely</a> to suffer ACL injury compared with men. One study <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18063176/">estimates that a female athlete has a one in twenty</a> chance of an ACL injury every year, but it’s still not clear exactly why.</p>
<p>While some ACL injuries come from direct contact with an opponent, <a href="https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/49/22/1452.short">most are non-contact</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10875418/">resulting from</a> sudden deceleration, jump landings or changing direction. So many sports including basketball, netball and rugby also pose a high risk of ACL injury. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511681/original/file-20230222-25-2is72z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A diagram showing an ACL injury." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511681/original/file-20230222-25-2is72z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511681/original/file-20230222-25-2is72z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=266&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511681/original/file-20230222-25-2is72z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=266&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511681/original/file-20230222-25-2is72z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=266&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511681/original/file-20230222-25-2is72z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511681/original/file-20230222-25-2is72z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511681/original/file-20230222-25-2is72z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">ACL injury.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/acl-injury-knee-tear-torn-arthroscopy-2162926639">Pepermpron/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>In football, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275592898_Defending_Puts_the_Anterior_Cruciate_Ligament_at_Risk_During_Soccer_A_Gender-Based_Analysis">defending is a particular risk</a> as it involves unanticipated or reactive positions. And increased training and game time among professional women footballers over recent years has resulted in more exposure to these high-risk situations. </p>
<p>It has also been suggested that fatigue could increase the risk of ACL injury – with tired muscles less able to <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-019-01134-5">absorb shock and control movements</a>. But while this link seems logical, ACL injuries do not occur more frequently <a href="https://journals.lww.com/cjsportsmed/Abstract/2021/05000/Time_of_Season_and_Game_Segment_Is_Not_Related_to.13.aspx">later in a game or the season</a>, which you would expect if it was down to fatigued muscles. So could it be down to differences in anatomy between men and women? </p>
<h2>Anatomical differences</h2>
<p>Females have a wider pelvis relative to leg length, which results in <a href="https://www.jospt.org/doi/pdf/10.2519/jospt.2003.33.8.A-1">increased angulation at the knee</a>. <a href="https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/80526156/2002_WBS_The_Female_ACL_Why_is_it_more_prone_to_Injury-libre.pdf?1644417162=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DThe_female_ACL_why_is_it_more_prone_to_i.pdf&Expires=1674834781&Signature=g0ygE8al6wyj4fnwkrUktOTQ1hCUkgVEB44at8JrCKEltflsNL50rjPaAvIaTkNRn8wtvVqlrCt9aAuL3emKg-P0qVYuCm1zl9qZdq7Yxn-q1%7EcgWIt%7EyXCp6lzuNqwzVHv0Kv25VqIDPxVDWHNi4PApepvrHMRNn06ex-hVPX-U8jwwyP4wA9aG-A5Cn8Jh-1QX-MyNxGrMc20xBwZ%7E2e0Eyg3qFSNKqW0nnYLYNC-4-h4uH40Vg83RC46w9KechjV1JCk3FE7G12aLjhMnmoBYx4JUQmkOekoe0nFXkNpnupKs0TRSLMan9IiljpNrTdJNCulpHwlkCeReYGwudQ__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA">The shape of the bones</a> is also different in women in that the ACL passes through a narrower space to attach to the thigh bone, which may make it more susceptible to injury. The actual size of the ACL is also often <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3920910/?_escaped_fragment_=po=5.08685">smaller</a> in females, so may be less able to withstand high forces. </p>
<p>In general, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10352766/">females have looser knee ligaments</a>, which has been shown to increase <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18326833/">the risk of injury</a>. It’s thought that having looser knee ligaments can <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10352766/">diminish joint proprioception</a> – this is a sense of movement and position which is essential to perform movement tasks safely. </p>
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<p>It has also been suggested that women may be more prone to ACL injury at certain times in their <a href="https://injepijournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40621-020-00282-x">menstrual cycle</a>. This is because changing hormones, especially when oestrogen levels are at their highest (around day 12 in a 28-day cycle), can increase the looseness of joints (hypermobility). </p>
<p>While some research shows that oral contraceptives may help to <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/2325967117718781">reduce this risk</a>, more recent evidence suggests that <a href="https://injepijournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40621-020-00282-x">the pill has no protective effect</a>.</p>
<p>Studies also show that women have <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00167-021-06595-8">delays in the activation of hamstrings</a> <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5294945/">tend to overuse their quadriceps</a> when landing from a jump, which increases the force on the ACL. </p>
<p>Reduced strength in the <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0363546507301585?casa_token=uqlxHg-1VfcAAAAA%3AGRrRDiN5EVzIK49-3QU401TiVaRsU3pHR3_zm7zYLdkMl_aUjY-7ceyebfxTW7d6gysFEDZgdAXo">trunk (core) muscles</a> and the <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00167-021-06595-8">hip</a> have also been shown to predict knee injury in females. Research has also found that women tend to land on <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0268003301000195?casa_token=G2xrouDb-bMAAAAA:CG1QJJRggR64S3Iiu7MDl4i6IJ2hGqoySya2NWaxWxTEY5XZmb6grCI_mYLMSKpSdF4ZKNA4Rw">a knee that twists or buckles inwards</a>, which is commonly seen in ACL injuries. </p>
<h2>What can be done?</h2>
<p>There’s no doubt that the increased rate of ACL injury in females isn’t down to any one thing. Indeed, research from 2021 also shows that social and gender roles in sport may increase the risk <a href="https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/bjsports/55/17/984.full.pdf">of ACL injury</a> in females – with women’s football (at both professional and grassroots level) still receiving <a href="https://theconversation.com/womens-football-may-be-growing-in-popularity-but-the-game-is-still-fighting-for-survival-119888">less funding and expertise</a> compared with the men’s game. </p>
<p>Though there is good evidence that improvements can be made through <a href="https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLCGIzmTE4d0jJ8nngB9Szd8uWwuEPD4QD">specific training programmes</a>. It has even been suggested that all female athletes, especially those under 18, should use these programmes to help reduce the risk of <a href="https://www.jospt.org/doi/10.2519/jospt.2018.0303">serious injury</a>. </p>
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<p>One study, for example, found that by doing a series of specific exercises, female athletes could reduce their risk of ACL injury by 50% – with a 67% reduction for <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jor.24043">non-contact ACL injuries</a>. </p>
<p>Although the <a href="http://www.oliverfinlay.com/assets/pdf/mandelbaum%20et%20al%20(2005)%20effectiveness%20of%20a%20neuromuscular%20&%20proprioceptive%20training%20program%20in%20preventing%20anterior%20cruciate%20ligament%20injuries%20in%20female%20athletes.%20%202-year%20follow-up.pdf">research indicates</a> that such interventions may be more effective in <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6592422/">younger players than professional athletes</a>, these programmes do seem to work and are easy to implement, making them cost-effective with little risk. </p>
<p>At the moment, prevention programmes are the most powerful tool we have to reduce injury. So they should be promoted widely and implemented at an early age in all high-risk sports to help stem the catastrophic epidemic of female ACL injuries.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/198121/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>ACL injuries are the most serious kind of knee damage and they are more prevalent in female footballers.Colin Ayre, Lecturer in Physiotherapy, University of BradfordPaul Millington, Assistant Professor of Physiotherapy, University of BradfordStephen Paul Guy, Consultant in Sports Knee Surgery, University of LeedsLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1897982022-09-01T14:36:05Z2022-09-01T14:36:05Z4 lessons from Serena Williams for sportswomen in Africa<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/482288/original/file-20220901-19-rkjqd2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Serena Williams celebrates a win at her final professional tournament, the 2022 US Open.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Frey/TPN/Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>US icon <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Serena-Williams">Serena Williams</a>, considered one of the greatest tennis players of all time, is <a href="https://www.vogue.com/article/serena-williams-retirement-in-her-own-words">retiring</a> from professional tennis. Williams has won 23 grand slam singles titles, more than any <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/280390/female-tennis-players-with-the-most-victories-at-grand-slam-tournaments/">other woman</a> or <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/263034/male-tennis-players-with-the-most-victories-at-grand-slam-tournaments/">man</a> during the professional era, which began in 1968. Coached by her father, she changed the face of the women’s game. In the process, through speaking frankly about her life and career, she became a role model for many black women around the world. Tennis Kenya secretary general and former player Wanjiru Mbugua Karani recently <a href="https://www.bbc.com/sport/africa/62542976">said</a>: “Serena has been the ‘be-all’ for African tennis, and especially for girls in Africa.” We asked Kenyan political sociologist and gender expert Awino Okech what lessons can be learned for African women in sports when reflecting on Williams’ career.</em></p>
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<h2>1. Public investment in sport pays off</h2>
<p>The story of Serena Williams and her sister <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Venus-Williams">Venus Williams</a>, a fellow star player, is not one of privilege. Serena’s success was initially nurtured at an old public tennis court in her neighbourhood. Her father gathered resources where he could find them to skill his daughters when he saw potential in tennis. </p>
<p>Across sections of Africa, we see the <a href="https://www.landportal.org/blog-post/2021/02/hands-our-playground-securing-land-rights-kenyan-schools">public divestment</a> in sports through land grabs with public parks converted into office buildings and apartments, thus limiting space for recreation and sports. Secondly, the privatisation of sporting facilities limits public access as people have to pay to use them. Thirdly, the under-resourcing of public schools results in limited, if any, investment in sporting facilities. The result is a class divide that writes out most young Africans from sporting opportunities. African governments need to make greater investments in public sports facilities and programmes targeting girls particularly in contexts where sports is not viewed as a viable career option.</p>
<h2>2. Racism in sport must be eliminated</h2>
<p>Serena and Venus Williams’ importance to world tennis lies in their being outliers in a sport that has been historically dominated by white women and men. Consequently, Serena’s iconic stature as a tennis star has been coloured by the gender and racial dynamics that have shaped her treatment in the sport. She was subjected to descriptions around her masculinity, aggression, and her power as a player. These are broader racialised tropes that link <a href="https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/opendemocracyuk/feral-savages-post-riot-labelling-of-british-blacks/">Black people to savagery</a> and whiteness to evolved humanity. In the visual and verbal descriptions of Serena in the public media, we saw the use of historically <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2018/09/11/long-history-behind-racist-attacks-serena-williams/">racialised tropes</a> of the angry Black woman and animalistic caricatures by the media and social media users. This was intended to diminish her capabilities through psychological warfare. </p>
<p>Anti-Black <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/6/18/euros-afcon-players-faced-racist-homophobic-abuse-online">racism in sport</a> has been the subject of public debates and investigations. <a href="https://digitalhub.fifa.com/m/58e4c303ca2197f5/original/FIFA-Threat-Matrix-Report.pdf">One study</a> revealed that Black football players who missed penalties were the most abused players in the Euro 2020 championship final stage. </p>
<p>In Serena’s case, these experiences sit at the intersection of gender and race. All women share the experience of sexism – from pay disparities to the lack of attention to women’s sports compared to men’s. However, the combination of race and gender doubles the battle that Serena Williams and other international athletes like South African sprinting champion <a href="https://catalystjournal.org/index.php/catalyst/article/view/28800/21401">Caster Semenya</a> must contend with. Serena <a href="https://www.dailysabah.com/sports/tennis/underpaid-undervalued-serena-williams-highlights-racism-in-tennis">took a stand</a>. She <a href="https://www.insider.com/venus-serena-williams-indian-wells-boycott-before-naomi-osaka-incident-2022-3">withdrew from and boycotted</a> events such as the BNP Paribas Open in California because of racial slurs from the crowd.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/tennis-star-ons-jabeur-is-tunisias-minister-of-happiness-186638">Tennis star Ons Jabeur is Tunisia's "minister of happiness"</a>
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<p>The race problem in sports – which becomes visible through online abuse, spectator behaviour and overall sports management – is reflective of a broader problem. The anti-Black character of racism experienced by Serena will not be solved by more representation of Black women but by a systemic reckoning that challenges how race and gender disparities are entrenched in the DNA of competitive sport.</p>
<h2>3. We need to talk about mental health in women’s sport</h2>
<p>Sexism and racism accompanied by the intense public scrutiny in competitive sport have drawn attention to the critical question of mental health. We are now witnessing a generation of younger athletes such as Japanese tennis star <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/tennis/57310701">Naomi Osaka</a> and US gymnastics champion <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/07/simone-biles-olympics-mental-health-athletes/#:%7E:text=United%20States%20gymnast%20Simone%20Biles,up%20about%20their%20mental%20health.">Simone Biles</a> taking a stand. They have at times chosen mental wellbeing over participating in high pressured competitions. Serena Williams has played an important role in creating the space for a tennis player like Osaka to speak out. </p>
<p>These acts of courage take place in an environment in which a discussion on mental wellbeing is construed as weakness. They focus attention on a neglected area in sports, the need for a holistic health system that supports the pressure cooker environment of elite sports. The <a href="https://www.k24tv.co.ke/lifestyle/conjestina-achiengs-son-66357/#:%7E:text=Conjestina%20was%20diagnosed%20with%20schizoaffective,to%20others%20and%20perceives%20reality.">case</a> of Kenyan middleweight boxer Conjestina Achieng, the first African woman to hold an international boxing title, is illustrative. Achieng, who was diagnosed with mental illness, has been failed by a broader public health system. One that allocates too few resources to training mental health experts and providing specialist services in public hospitals. </p>
<p>The limited options available for athletes in the global south points to the destruction of public health systems <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7223727/">due to privatisation</a>. In Kenya, for example, failed public healthcare is a legacy of policies promoting <a href="https://idl-bnc-idrc.dspacedirect.org/bitstream/handle/10625/25742/IDL-25742.pdf">historical inequality</a> which continue under <a href="https://dawnnet.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/DAWN-DP-25_MEDICAL-EQUIPMENT-LEASING-IN-KENYA_NEO-COLONIAL-GLOBAL-FINANCE-AND-MISPLACED-HEALTH-PRIORITIES.pdf">the veneer of</a> public private partnerships. A conversation about mental health in sports is fundamentally a public policy discussion about economic investment in health systems.</p>
<h2>4. Sportswomen deserve a more secure future</h2>
<p>Serena’s exit from tennis is accompanied by a financial exit strategy – <a href="https://www.serenaventures.com">Serena Ventures</a>, a venture capital firm. The financial security built of decades of success in a sport does not translate in the same way in contexts shaped by vast economic disparities. Serena’s context shows what needs to change. </p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/caster-semenya-the-legal-and-ethical-issues-that-should-concern-us-all-117636">Caster Semenya: the legal and ethical issues that should concern us all</a>
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<p>In Kenya, coupled with the pressures of competitive sport, women athletes are also dealing with the silence around intimate partner violence in the sports fraternity – highlighted by the murders of athletes <a href="https://www.africanews.com/2021/10/15/husband-arrested-in-killing-of-olympic-runner-agnes-tirop/">Agnes Tirop</a> and <a href="https://www.africanews.com/2022/04/20/another-female-athlete-killed-in-kenya/">Damaris Muthee</a>. </p>
<p>There are three interlocked issues here. The first is the absence of strong financial advice and support to athletes over the course of their careers. The second is the vast societal inequalities that create undue pressure on young athletes who come into money to support their families financially. Finally, the combination of class and gender demands that femicide and intimate partner violence are taken as seriously by sports associations as they do anti-doping campaigns.</p>
<p>Serena Williams’ journey of excellence and fortitude also shines a light on the negative outcomes that sit at the intersection of race, gender and class in sports specifically and society generally. As we hail the “Greatest of All Time”, African governments must take heed of the structural shifts required in our sports arena.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/189798/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Awino Okech does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>She blazed a trail for Black women athletes – despite the challenges they face in sport and society.Awino Okech, Associate professor in political sociology, SOAS, University of LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1658472021-08-11T14:58:00Z2021-08-11T14:58:00ZBlack women athletes ruptured destructive and limiting beliefs at the Tokyo Olympics<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/415500/original/file-20210810-23-p7m73b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=31%2C10%2C6894%2C4599&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Japan's Naomi Osaka lights the cauldron during the opening ceremony in the Olympic Stadium at the 2020 Summer Olympics.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Natacha Pisarenko) </span></span></figcaption></figure><p>As the 2020 Tokyo Olympics approached, fans around the world struggled to balance their excitement with a general uneasiness surrounding the Games. These included <a href="https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/culture-news/olympics-opening-ceremony-creative-director-fired-holocaust-joke-1200587/">high-profile firings</a>, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/06/03/world/asia/japan-tokyo-olympics-volunteers-covid.html">volunteers quitting</a>, <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/7/21/olympics-face-heat-from-broiling-tokyo-summer">abnormally high temperatures</a>, <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/health/tokyo-olympic-village-unvaccinated-1.6109907">low vaccination rates</a> as well as a declared <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2021/07/08/asia/japan-state-of-emergency-olympics-intl-hnk/index.html">state of emergency</a> amidst surging COVID-19 cases.</p>
<p>While there were many engaging story lines and developments worth following over the last 14 days, the prominence of Black women was hard to ignore. </p>
<p>From the outset of the Games’ opening ceremony, where Naomi Osaka <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/olympics/2021/07/23/naomi-osaka-olympic-cauldron-opening-ceremonies/">lit the Olympic cauldron</a>, it quickly became evident that Black women would be of central importance to the games and stories that followed. </p>
<h2>Black women’s participation in sport</h2>
<p>Coming off a tumultuous exit from the <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/tennis/2021/06/17/naomi-osaka-withdraws-wimbledon-play-tokyo-olympics/7592502002/">French Open and Wimbledon</a>, Osaka gleefully stated that lighting the cauldron was her <a href="https://twitter.com/naomiosaka/status/1418602684580438019">biggest athletic achievement</a> to date. </p>
<p>Osaka, of Haitian and Japanese descent, was <a href="https://www.huffpost.com/entry/naomi-osaka-olympic-cauldron_n_60fadcc9e4b00c1de0a12350">the first tennis player to ever light the Olympic cauldron</a>. Despite her <a href="https://www.france24.com/en/sport/20210727-japan-s-naomi-osaka-knocked-out-of-olympics-tennis-in-third-round">early exit in the Olympic tennis</a> tournament, she had already won. </p>
<p>Too often, Black women’s participation in sport is <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2021/07/06/us/black-women-athletes-treatment-olympics-spt/index.html">questioned</a>, <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/sports/olympics/summer/trackandfield/namibian-teens-stoke-new-olympic-testosterone-controversy-1.6126829">negated</a> or <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/sports/tennis/canadian-tennis-player-francoise-abanda-blames-racism-for-low-profile-1.4666176">simply</a> <a href="https://www.powerplays.news/p/racisms-central-role-in-wnba-coverage">unnoticed</a>.</p>
<p>Common depictions of Black women athletes are often <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0163443720960919">racist and misogynist</a>. Praise for Black women atheletes is often accompanied with what feminist scholar Moya Bailey <a href="https://nyupress.org/9781479865109/misogynoir-transformed/">refers to as <em>misogynoir</em>, the ways anti-Black and misogynistic representation shape broader ideas about Black women</a>. </p>
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<img alt="Woman stands wearing silver medal making an X above her forehead" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/415504/original/file-20210810-13-1rigm1x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/415504/original/file-20210810-13-1rigm1x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/415504/original/file-20210810-13-1rigm1x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/415504/original/file-20210810-13-1rigm1x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/415504/original/file-20210810-13-1rigm1x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/415504/original/file-20210810-13-1rigm1x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/415504/original/file-20210810-13-1rigm1x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Raven Saunders of the United States poses with her silver medal she earned in women’s shot put making an X with her arms.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Francisco Seco)</span></span>
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<h2>Sacrificing mental health</h2>
<p>Gymnastics typically account for the <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/maddieberg/2016/08/04/gymnastics-track-and-swimming-will-win-ratings-gold-in-rio/?sh=22fe02925f11">highest TV ratings</a> for women’s sport at the Olympics. The competition was marketed around African American <a href="https://usagym.org/pages/athletes/athleteListDetail.html?id=164887">Simone Biles</a>, the global superstar who is a 32-time Olympic and world medallist.</p>
<p>Biles shocked the world this year by pulling out of the all-around team gymnastics competition. A slew of <a href="https://sports.yahoo.com/piers-morgan-goes-simone-biles-131431421.html">demeaning “takes”</a> then flooded both <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bmmjltfWfe0">news and social media</a>.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/simone-biles-and-naomi-osaka-put-the-focus-on-the-importance-of-mental-performance-for-olympic-athletes-165219">Simone Biles and Naomi Osaka put the focus on the importance of mental performance for Olympic athletes</a>
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<p>According to sociologist Delia D. Douglas, Black athletes — especially Black women — <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0021934711410880">must show graciousness, gratefulness, obedience, adhere to respectability politics and live up impossible standards</a>, including sacrificing their mental health. </p>
<p>Black women often challenge these narratives and in doing so are (not so) quiet champions for a variety of <a href="https://www.tsn.ca/female-athletes-take-a-central-role-in-u-s-election-through-political-activism-1.1546900">social justice issues both in and outside of sport</a>. As the Black feminist <a href="https://americanstudies.yale.edu/sites/default/files/files/Keyword%20Coalition_Readings.pdf">Combahee River Collective</a> reminds us, “the only people who care enough about Black women to work consistently for our liberation are Black women.”</p>
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<img alt="Simone Biles smiles excitedly wearing a unitard" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/415501/original/file-20210810-25-1x3a47i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/415501/original/file-20210810-25-1x3a47i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/415501/original/file-20210810-25-1x3a47i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/415501/original/file-20210810-25-1x3a47i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/415501/original/file-20210810-25-1x3a47i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/415501/original/file-20210810-25-1x3a47i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/415501/original/file-20210810-25-1x3a47i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Simone Biles smiles as Tang Xijing of China embraces teammate Guan Chenchen after she won the gold medal on the balance beam during the artistic gymnastics women’s apparatus final at the Tokyo Olympics.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Natacha Pisarenko)</span></span>
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<p>Following her withdrawal from the team competition, Biles then dropped out of additional events, leaving the beam her only remaining competition. The world <a href="https://www.golfdigest.com/story/simone-biles-team-usa-womens-gymnastics-silver-medal-tokyo-olympics">debated</a>, <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2021/07/simone-biles-doesnt-need-to-look-invincible/619606/">scorned</a> and <a href="https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/story/2021-07-27/simone-biles-celebrity-reactions-support">applauded her efforts</a> yet once again, a Black woman cleaved open the conversation about the mental health of athletes. </p>
<h2>Black women at the Olympics</h2>
<p>As the competition carried on, athletes, celebrities and politicians <a href="https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/story/2021-07-27/simone-biles-celebrity-reactions-support">came out in support</a> of Biles and her decision. This compassion started to shift the seemingly impenetrable narrative that a gold medal is the only success worth celebrating at an Olympic competition. </p>
<p>Biles’s journey at the Olympics was framed as an act of rebellion against sporting federations, including the International Olympic Committee (IOC) which was recently held accountable for the mistreatment of athletes. Athletes are no longer remaining silent about overly <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/olympics/2021/06/30/nursing-moms-babies-tokyo-olympics/">restrictive rules</a> including those that limit sociopolitical expression.</p>
<p>African American athlete Raven Saunders deserves credit and celebration over her silver medal in shot put. Rule 50, which states that “<a href="https://www.teenvogue.com/story/olympics-rule-50-protest">every kind of demonstration or propaganda, whether political, religious, or racial, in the Olympic areas, is forbidden</a>”, was visibly contested by Saunders when she raised her two arms in the air to form an X on the podium. She stated that her medal represented where the “<a href="https://www.cbc.ca/sports/olympics/summer/trackandfield/raven-saunders-podium-gesture-tokyo-olympics-1.6126142">oppressed meet</a>.” </p>
<p>Saunders went on to say that the IOC will “<a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/8079122/raven-saunders-gesture-olympics/">never take her silver away</a>.” Hammer throw teammate Gwen Berry <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2021/08/03/sport/gwen-berry-fist-social-justice-tokyo-spt-intl/index.html">raised a fist in protest</a> of the investigation the IOC opened after Saunders’ noncompliance, which was since put on hold <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/olympics/2021/08/03/raven-saunders-shot-put-silver-tokyo-olympics-mother-dies/5475666001/">after the death of her mother</a>.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-power-of-no-simone-biles-naomi-osaka-and-black-womens-resistance-165318">The power of no: Simone Biles, Naomi Osaka and Black women's resistance</a>
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<p>In addition to increasing empathy for Black women and their intersectional plights, there was also a recognition of the athletic feats of Black women especially in sports historically dominated by white women.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.si.com/olympics/2021/08/04/tamyra-mensah-stock-becomes-first-united-states-black-woman-win-gold-wrestling">U.S. wrestler Tamyra Mensah-Stock</a> became the first Black woman to win gold in freestyle wrestling. Dutch runner Sifan Hassan <a href="https://apnews.com/article/2020-tokyo-olympics-track-and-field-sifan-hassan-sports-europe-7251c910cfad05dfacd504c9f810ca52">defied all odds</a> by winning her 1,500-metre heat, despite falling at the beginning of the final lap. Hassan went on to win gold in the 5,000 metres, bronze in the 1,500 metres and gold in the 10,000 metres.</p>
<p>In athletics’ most popular event, Jamaicans <a href="https://www.reuters.com/lifestyle/sports/athletics-thompson-herah-leads-jamaican-sweep-womens-100m-2021-07-31/">Elaine Thompson-Herah, Shelly-Ann Fraser-Pryce and Shericka Jackson</a> placed first, second and third respectively in the 100-metre sprint. </p>
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<img alt="Woman wearing unitard runs holding baton" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/415503/original/file-20210810-23-18bb3q5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/415503/original/file-20210810-23-18bb3q5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/415503/original/file-20210810-23-18bb3q5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/415503/original/file-20210810-23-18bb3q5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/415503/original/file-20210810-23-18bb3q5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/415503/original/file-20210810-23-18bb3q5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/415503/original/file-20210810-23-18bb3q5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Allyson Felix of the United States runs in the women’s 4 x 400-meter relay at the Tokyo Olympics.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/David J. Phillip)</span></span>
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<p>Sprinter Allyson Felix, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/22/opinion/allyson-felix-pregnancy-nike.html">champion of Black maternal health</a>, now dons the title of the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2021/aug/07/allyson-felix-usa-olympic-record-track-most-medals-carl-lewis">most decorated track and field athlete</a> in history. Her bronze medal performance in the 400-metre event signalled a win for motherhood, donning <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-08-06/track-star-allyson-felix-wins-olympic-medal-in-her-own-shoe-line">her newly designed shoe</a>, after her sponsorship <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/22/opinion/allyson-felix-pregnancy-nike.html">was slashed by Nike after becoming pregnant</a>.</p>
<p>Namibian runners were <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/sports/opinion-case-of-namibian-runners-further-exposes-half-baked-testosterone-regulation-1.6092033">wrongly denied</a> entry into the Olympic 400-metre competition by the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) due to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2012.725488">sexist, antiquated rules that regulate only women’s testosterone levels</a> — they were subsequently allowed to compete in the 200 metres. Christine Mboama captured silver, while Beatrice Masillingi finished fifth. </p>
<p>The IOC and IAAF might have unfairly felt a bit of <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2021/aug/04/sebastian-coe-claims-chrstine-mboma-tokyo-olympics-200m-silver-medal-shows-testosterone-rules-are-working">vindication</a> from this result, and the fight against sex and gender testing that overwhelmingly discriminates against Black and racialized women is consistently <a href="https://vimeo.com/386468558/a9c5f66487">being challenged and led by Black women</a>.</p>
<h2>Beyond the finish line</h2>
<p>Black women were once again trailblazers in Tokyo, shouldering the burden of contesting archaic and unfair rules and lack of accommodations. The Games may be over, but the legacy of the Black women athletes will be the rupture of destructive and limiting beliefs. </p>
<p>This legacy has the potential to permeate long after the medal ceremonies and homecoming celebrations. Compounded with COVID-19, athlete health is beginning to take precedence over any hardware or harmful narratives about pushing through injury, racial trauma or mental health issues. </p>
<p>We must thank the athletes, and particularly Black women, who continue to take risks, sacrifice and endure the pain and emotional turmoil of being game changers in racist and misogynist sport systems. Flourishing, experiencing joy and being supported remain conditional for Black women athletes — these athletes managed to shine brighter than gold, triumphing on their own terms.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/165847/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Braeden McKenzie receives funding from Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) and Sport Canada. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span><a href="mailto:janelle.joseph@utoronto.ca">janelle.joseph@utoronto.ca</a> receives funding from Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council, Sport Canada, and University of Toronto through the Connaught New Researcher Award and School of Cities Anti-Black Racism/Black Lives Fund. She is affiliated with the Black Canadian Coaches Association as the Director of Research. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sabrina Razack does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Black women played a central role in the 2021 Olympic Games. And that role was more than just resistance and resilience.Sabrina Razack, Sessional Instructor, Kinesiology & Physical Education, University of TorontoBraeden McKenzie, PhD Candidate; Reseach Assistant @ the IDEAS lab, University of TorontoJanelle Joseph, Assistant Professor, Critical Studies of Race & Indigeneity, University of TorontoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1652802021-08-02T14:03:35Z2021-08-02T14:03:35ZThe Tokyo Olympics are billed as the first gender equal Games, but women still lack opportunities in sport<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/414154/original/file-20210802-20-12sal0l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3091%2C1920&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The German gymnastics team at the Tokyo Olympics wore full-legged unitards that went down to their ankles, eschewing the traditional bikini cut that ends high on the hip. The athletes said they were trying to combat the sexualization of young women and girls in their sport, which is trying to recover from a decades-long sexual abuse scandal.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Gregory Bull) </span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The International Olympic Committee has called the Tokyo Olympics the <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/sports/olympics/summer/tokyo-2020-equal-gender-participation-1.6110907">most gender equal Games</a> off all time, with women comprising a record-breaking 49 per cent of participants. </p>
<p>This near gender parity is long overdue. By adding 18 new events and establishing equal number of spots for men and women in every sport except baseball and softball, the IOC was able to reach this goal. There is also a higher number of <a href="https://www.si.com/olympics/2021/07/31/mixed-gender-events-olympics-swimming-track-golf">mixed-gender competitions</a>. </p>
<p>Several countries, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/22/sports/olympics/olympics-athletes-gender.html">including Australia, Britain, Canada and China</a>, have sent teams to Tokyo with more women than men. Team selection is based on an athlete’s prior achievements and chances to win a medal. For a country like Canada, women dominated the medal haul in the first week of competition, <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-women-are-owning-the-podium-for-canada-at-the-tokyo-olympics-165213">taking 13 medals</a> before a male athlete made it to the podium. </p>
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<p>But aside from increasing the opportunity for women to compete at the Olympics, the Tokyo Olympic and Paralympic Games are still lacking gender equality in other areas.</p>
<h2>Gender equality gaps in sport</h2>
<p>In an example of how women’s bodies are still heavily policed in sport, Paralympian Olivia Breen was recently told by the International Paralympic Committee that <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/20/sports/olympics/paralympian-olivia-breen-shorts.html">her uniform was too revealing</a>.</p>
<p>While not an Olympic sport, the recent fining of the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/20/sports/norway-beach-handball-team.html">Norwegian beach handball team</a> for wearing shorts instead of the typical bikini uniform has sparked a global conversation about the sexualization of female athletes, and even <a href="https://www.espn.com/olympics/story/_/id/31889339/pop-singer-pink-supports-norwegian-women-beach-handball-team-protest-fines-very-sexist-uniform-rules">drew the attention and support of singer Pink</a>.</p>
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<p>In their own statement to protest the sexualization of their sport, the German gymnastics team wore <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2021/07/26/sport/tokyo-germany-unitard-intl-scli-spt/index.html">full-body unitards</a> instead of the usual high-cut leotards. It was a decision made by the gymnasts themselves, one that was fully supported by their coaches; possibly because of a recent scandal.</p>
<p>Beyond uniforms, we have seen women have to fight for their right to participate in the Games after <a href="https://www.sportsnet.ca/olympics/article/canadian-boxer-mandy-bujold-wins-olympic-appeal/">giving birth</a> and fight to bring the babies they were <a href="https://www.sportsnet.ca/basketball/article/gauchers-breastfeeding-exception-quest-equity-issue-larger-sports/">breastfeeding</a> to the Games. American Olympian Allyson Felix is stepping up to help <a href="https://www.today.com/parents/allyson-felix-giving-olympic-moms-money-childcare-t225225">pay for childcare expenses</a> for women athletes so they can participate. </p>
<p>We have also seen the Olympics become an unsafe space for women: an intricate plan involving <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/31/sports/olympics/us-fencing-pink-masks.html">separate planes and accommodations</a> was constructed to allow a member of the U.S. fencing team accused of sexual impropriety against other athletes to participate in Tokyo. </p>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-tokyo-olympics-will-be-the-games-of-all-mothers-163862">The Tokyo Olympics will be the Games of all mothers</a>
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<h2><strong>Equal participation does not mean equity</strong></h2>
<p>Despite equality in athlete numbers, the IOC has not made a similar push for gender parity within its own organization. Women within the IOC occupy only a third of the executive boards and <a href="https://www.givemesport.com/1523011-womens-sports-huge-inequality-exposed-on-international-sports-federation-boards">only 37.5 per cent of committee positions</a>. </p>
<p>The International Paralympic Committee faces similar issues, with only 25 per cent board positions held by women. Neither organization has had a woman as president. Many of the international federations that govern each sport has equally dismal gender equity issues at the governing level.</p>
<p>Research shows us that having gender diversity in organizations is not only a moral imperative, but also enables better <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-diversity-makes-us-smarter/">thinking and problem-solving</a>, greater <a href="https://sloanreview.mit.edu/article/gender-diversity-at-the-board-level-can-mean-innovation-success/">innovation</a> and <a href="https://library.pcw.gov.ph/sites/default/files/does%20female%20representation%20in%20top%20management.pdf">better performance</a>.</p>
<p>When it comes to sport organizations, recent research has shown that having women on boards provides <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/345482961_Women_representation_in_the_boardroom_of_Canadian_sport_governing_bodies_structural_and_financial_characteristics_of_three_organizational_clusters">better financial performance</a>.</p>
<h2>Unequal media coverage</h2>
<p><a href="https://journals-sagepub-com.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/doi/full/10.1177/2167479519863652">Media coverage</a> of women athletes is a long-standing issue. A recent example that has come under scrutiny is when an <a href="https://www.reuters.com/lifestyle/sports/swimming-ecstatic-aussie-coach-goes-viral-with-medal-worthy-celebrations-2021-07-26/">Australian swim coach’s</a> celebration received more media attention than the Olympic champion herself. </p>
<p>In an important sign of change, the NBC coverage in the United States has covered women more than men, <a href="https://fiveringtv.com/2021/07/26/tokyo-olympics-primetime-report-day-3-nbc-devotes-more-coverage-to-women-by-a-more-than-2-to-1-margin-women-now-lead-total-coverage-after-three-days/">almost 2-1</a>, possibly because they are winning more medals.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Thompson-Herah reacts with joy with her arms outstretched while her teammates cross the finish line in the background." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/414153/original/file-20210802-18-1w9p3mb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/414153/original/file-20210802-18-1w9p3mb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414153/original/file-20210802-18-1w9p3mb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414153/original/file-20210802-18-1w9p3mb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414153/original/file-20210802-18-1w9p3mb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414153/original/file-20210802-18-1w9p3mb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414153/original/file-20210802-18-1w9p3mb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Elaine Thompson-Herah of Jamaica reacts as she crosses the finish line to win the women’s 100-metres final at the 2020 Summer Olympics. Jamaica swept the medals in the 100 metres.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Matthias Schrader)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Historically, gender equity programs have benefited primarily <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/janicegassam/2020/03/07/gender-equity-is-useless-without-racial-equity/?sh=4ab680307b4f">white women</a>. Gender equity cannot be addressed without addressing racial equity, especially because for countries like Canada, <a href="https://www.dlsph.utoronto.ca/2017/05/11/olympic-athletes-disproportionately-white-and-privately-educated-compared-to-general-population/">Olympic athletes are disproportionately white</a>.</p>
<p>Many past initiatives have failed to address either issue. One popular way that we have seen is “fixing women” and not the <a href="https://hbr.org/2020/03/whats-really-holding-women-back?utm_campaign=hbr&utm_medium=social&utm_source=twitter">structural sexism</a> that exists in organizations. To truly move ahead we need to focus on structural changes and to stop holding underrepresented groups hostage to stereotypes.</p>
<p>Sport researchers have <a href="https://womenandsport.ca/resources/research-insights/the-pandemic-impact-on-girls-in-sport/">long advocated for increased participation</a> of girls and women in sport. In most countries, women and girls are <a href="https://sportforlife.ca/women-and-girls/">still vastly underrepresented</a> in sport and physical activity.</p>
<p>So while we are cheering on the Olympians during these Games, let’s also be looking for ways to create real systemic change to effect true equity in sport - this is the true gold medal goal.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/165280/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ann Pegoraro receives funding from Sport Canada. She is a co-director of E-Alliance, Canada's new Gender Equity in Sport Research Hub</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Felix Arndt does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The Tokyo Olympic Games are being called the most gender-equal Games ever — but does that label hold up under scrutiny?Ann Pegoraro, Lang Chair in Sport Management, Lang School of Business and Economics, University of GuelphFelix Arndt, John F. Wood Chair in Entrepreneurship, University of GuelphLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1652132021-07-29T17:40:10Z2021-07-29T17:40:10ZWhy women are owning the podium for Canada at the Tokyo Olympics<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/413902/original/file-20210730-15-15u6fv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C34%2C5758%2C3375&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Canada’s Lisa Roman, Kasia Gruchalla-Wesierski, Christine Roper, Andrea Proske, Susanne Grainger, Madison Mailey, Sydney Payne, Avalon Wasteneys and Kristen Kit celebrate on the podium after winning the gold medal in women’s eight rowing competition at the Tokyo Olympics.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Adrian Wyld </span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 175px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/why-women-are-owning-the-podium-for-canada-at-the-tokyo-olympics" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Margaret Mac Neil. Kylie Masse. The women’s softball team. Maude Charron. The women’s 4x100-metre freestyle swimming team. Jennifer Abel and Mélissa Citrini-Beaulieu. Jessica Klimkait. Catherine Beauchemin-Pinard. Caileigh Filmer and Hillary Janssens. Penny Oleksiak. The women’s eight rowing crew.</p>
<p>Canadian women are owning the podium at the Tokyo Olympics. But why?</p>
<p>One week into the Tokyo Olympics, Canada has won 11 medals — all by women. Swimmer Penny Oleksiak became Canada’s most decorated Summer Olympian when she won a silver and bronze in the pool this week to go along with a gold, two silvers and a bronze from the 2016 Rio Games.</p>
<p>Part of the story of the success by the Canadian women could be gender parity — Tokyo 2020 has been lauded as <a href="https://olympics.com/tokyo-2020/en/news/tokyo-2020-first-ever-gender-balanced-games-record-number-of-competitors-para">the first gender-balanced Olympic Games in history</a>. Yet Canadian women also outperformed our men at Rio 2016 where they returned with 16 of 22 medals. Things have been more balanced in other recent Summer and Winter Olympics.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Woman holding a bouquet of flowers beams from behind a medical face mask." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/413632/original/file-20210728-13-1fmd6om.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/413632/original/file-20210728-13-1fmd6om.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413632/original/file-20210728-13-1fmd6om.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413632/original/file-20210728-13-1fmd6om.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413632/original/file-20210728-13-1fmd6om.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413632/original/file-20210728-13-1fmd6om.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413632/original/file-20210728-13-1fmd6om.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Penny Oleksiak became the most decorated Canadian summer Olympian of all time with her bronze medal win in the women’s 200-meter freestyle.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Martin Meissner)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Only three Canadians have won four Olympic golds — women again: hockey legends Caroline Oulette, Jayna Hefford and Hayley Wickenheiser. A total medal count puts Cindy Klassen, Clara Hughes and now Oleksiak at the top, with six each.</p>
<p>The emergence of Oleksiak, Wickenheiser, Klassen, Hughes and others, like soccer superstar Christine Sinclair, as household names speaks to the cultural impact of elite women’s sport in Canada. This is a good thing — for many reasons.</p>
<h2>Why we need this boost</h2>
<p>A 2020 Canadian Women in Sport <a href="https://womenandsport.ca/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Canadian-Women-Sport_The-Rally-Report.pdf">report found</a> that one in three girls will leave sport by age 16 compared to one in 10 boys. A 2021 <a href="https://womenandsport.ca/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/COVID-Alert-final-English-July-2021.pdf">followup report</a> lays bare yet another devastating gut punch to women’s well-being: one in four girls are not committed to return to sport post-pandemic. That means an additional 350,000 girls sitting on the sidelines. Seeing Canadian female athletes shine at the Olympics provides a much-needed morale boost.</p>
<p>Media coverage in Canada is rightly celebrating this female athlete success. The absence of male medallists — so far — while not a desirable outcome in itself, gives both young girls and boys the chance to <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17430437.2014.997581">be inspired by female role models</a> succeeding at the highest level of sport.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Woman standing behind weightlifting barbell covers the lower half of her face, looking overcome with emotion." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/413635/original/file-20210728-27-x6677z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/413635/original/file-20210728-27-x6677z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413635/original/file-20210728-27-x6677z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413635/original/file-20210728-27-x6677z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413635/original/file-20210728-27-x6677z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413635/original/file-20210728-27-x6677z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413635/original/file-20210728-27-x6677z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Maude Charron won Canada’s second gold medal at the Tokyo Games in the women’s 64-kilogram weightlifting competition.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Luca Bruno)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>What’s more, changing male perceptions of traditional gender roles <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2017-11235-001">could save lives</a>, according to a 2017 European study. Given a <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10896-011-9375-3">startling 2017 finding</a> that unsupported female empowerment could actually increase rates of domestic violence, transforming boys and men into allies is vital. It may prove to play a key role in ending the so-called “<a href="https://www.unwomen.org/en/news/in-focus/in-focus-gender-equality-in-covid-19-response/violence-against-women-during-covid-19">shadow pandemic</a>” of domestic violence that has raged throughout COVID-19 lockdowns.</p>
<h2>Sport is good – really good – for health</h2>
<p>Sport can provide mental and physical health benefits, social connection, confidence and leadership skills. It’s a big problem that <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ian-Janssen/publication/322295083_Physical_activity_of_Canadian_children_and_youth_2007_to_2015/links/5a5f5ab7aca27273524361a5/Physical-activity-of-Canadian-children-and-youth-2007-to-2015.pdf">only seven per cent of Canadian youth</a> are meeting national physical activity guidelines for health. Olympic inspiration can change that. </p>
<p>I should know. As a sedentary teenager in New Brunswick, I turned on the small TV in the convenience store where I worked and watched the Olympics for the first time. I saw rowing legends Silken Laumann, Marnie McBean and Kathleen Heddle winning medals for Canada.</p>
<p>It was the first time I made the connection between the exceptional performances I saw on TV with the rowers I watched drift serenely by each morning on the vast expanse that is the Saint John River. I suddenly realized Canadians were really good at this. Soon after, I joined a learn-to-row program and my own Olympic journey began.</p>
<p>In other words — you have to see it to be it.</p>
<h2>Why we must go further</h2>
<p>Women are finding their voices, now more than ever. We see it in the realization of gender parity for the first time at an Olympic Games, in the <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/sports/olympics/summer/gymnastics/gymnastics-germany-unitards-sexualization-1.6116621">German Olympic gymnastics</a> and <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/sports/norway-shorts-instead-of-bikini-handball-fine-1.6110921">Norwegian national beach handball</a> teams speaking out against hypersexualization by refusing to wear “regulation” uniforms in the face of financial sanctions, and in new mothers refusing to be separated from their nursing infants to attend the Olympics or standing up to skeptical sponsors who cut their funding.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Woman in full unitard doing a split jump in midair." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/413636/original/file-20210728-19-13t2r04.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/413636/original/file-20210728-19-13t2r04.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413636/original/file-20210728-19-13t2r04.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413636/original/file-20210728-19-13t2r04.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413636/original/file-20210728-19-13t2r04.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413636/original/file-20210728-19-13t2r04.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413636/original/file-20210728-19-13t2r04.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The German gymnastics team wore full-legged unitards that went down to their ankles, eschewing the traditional bikini cut that ends high on the hip. The athletes said they were trying to combat the sexualization of young women and girls in their sport, which is trying to recover from a decades-long sexual abuse scandal.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Gregory Bull, File)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These are all positive signs of a broader cultural shift in our collective perceptions of women in sport and society. Despite these major strides — equal representation, autonomy of clothing choice, freedom to have a family and compete — women remain underfunded and underrepresented in sport policy, sport science <a href="https://sportsmedicine-open.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40798-019-0224-x">and sport medicine</a>.</p>
<p>With so many women in the limelight like never before, it’s time for policy-makers, clinicians, sport scientists and researchers to step up and meet the challenge of not only keeping our Canadian women on the podium, but ensuring that all Canadian athletes are fairly reflected in sport policy, science and medicine. </p>
<p>The tension is building — and it’s good. Canadian women are defying the rules of age, motherhood and funding. Now it’s time we ensure women enjoy the same fundamental supports as men in every way.</p>
<p>Soak it in. Celebrate it. Promote it. Lifting up Canadian women’s success in sport bodes well not only for our future generations of athletes, but for our nation as a whole.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/165213/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jane Thornton receives funding as a Canada Research Chair in Injury Prevention and Physical Activity for Health. She receives an honorarium as Editor of the British Journal of Sports Medicine.</span></em></p>Canadian women’s success at the Tokyo Games bodes well not only for our future generations of athletes, but for our nation as a whole.Jane Thornton, Clinician Scientist, Canada Research Chair in Injury Prevention and Physical Activity for Health, Sport Medicine Physician, Schulich School of Medicine & Dentistry, Western UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1618832021-07-25T19:57:04Z2021-07-25T19:57:04Z‘Girls please stay in the kitchen’ — as skateboarding debuts at the Olympics, beware of the lurking misogyny<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412578/original/file-20210722-25-cil5nl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Keith Birmingham/AP/AAP</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Skateboarding will make its Olympic debut this year at the Tokyo Games. </p>
<p>The women’s and men’s competitions will both involve park and street events. In each, athletes perform optional skill sets within a time limit and are judged based on the combined difficulty and execution shown, similar to diving or gymnastics. </p>
<p>Skateboarding has been included <a href="https://olympics.com/en/sports/skateboarding/">at Tokyo</a> for the first time as part of a bid to make the games “more youthful, more urban [and] include more women”.</p>
<p>But gender equality in sports is not as simple as just scheduling a women’s competition. </p>
<p>My research suggests female athletes in Tokyo are likely to cop sexist abuse online, especially if they are competing in traditionally male events. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/alt-goes-mainstream-how-surfing-skateboarding-bmx-and-sport-climbing-became-olympic-events-164158">Alt goes mainstream: how surfing, skateboarding, BMX and sport climbing became Olympic events</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>My research</h2>
<p>In my recently published <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/eprint/XA3MGPJWNHQXHGA6ZAQD/full">research</a>, I examined nearly 4,000 comments posted to YouTube about women’s skateboarding competitions. The comments were collected from 14 competition live streams, from 2017 to the end of 2019. The competitions selected were high-profile skateboarding events with large prizes. </p>
<p>Given that YouTube comments can be added, edited or removed at any time, all comments were extracted at the beginning of the study to create a stable data set.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/PpDJVGx0yqE?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">How Olympic skateboarding works.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>‘Welcome to womanhoodsville’</h2>
<p>Of the comments examined, 17% of those made on street skating competitions contained misogyny or abuse. While <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/16138171.2018.1452870">recent studies</a> have found sportswomen to be individual targets of online abuse, I also found frequent gender discrimination targeting women skaters collectively. This was often expressed through gendered gate-keeping of both skateboarding and sport. </p>
<blockquote>
<p>Girls, please stay in the kitchen.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Many comments used aggressive language that dehumanised and sexualised women.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Give the bitches armor [sic] so they don’t skate like pussies.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>There were also frequent anti-feminist sentiments posted, suggesting women were being granted a free ride for the sake of equality. </p>
<blockquote>
<p>Welcome to womanhoodsville, where you get 1000x the attention with a 1000th of the effort.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Interestingly — and disturbingly — some of the abusive comments we observed seemed to suggest women’s inclusion comes at the cost of men. </p>
<blockquote>
<p>These hoe’s [sic] should be greatful [sic] that men did all the work so they can just go around doing flatground kickflips and missing 5050s for $20,000.</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Dude culture</h2>
<p>Despite women’s sustained participation, skateboarding has long been perceived as a “dude” culture. The new TV series <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2020/apr/29/betty-review-hbo-female-skateboarders-freewheeling-comedy">Betty</a>, based on its actors’ real-life experiences, highlights the macho monopolisation of skate spaces. As creator Crystal Moselle <a href="https://www.npr.org/2021/06/19/1008304555/hbos-betty-highlights-the-lives-of-women-skateboarders-during-the-pandemic">explains</a>: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>[…] skateboarding for so long has been set up as a male sport. So even just, like, going to the store to set up a board is intimidating. It’s a lot of intimidation.</p>
</blockquote>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A woman competes in a pre-Olympic skateboarding competition." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412579/original/file-20210722-13-1jbjsvp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412579/original/file-20210722-13-1jbjsvp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412579/original/file-20210722-13-1jbjsvp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412579/original/file-20210722-13-1jbjsvp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412579/original/file-20210722-13-1jbjsvp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412579/original/file-20210722-13-1jbjsvp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412579/original/file-20210722-13-1jbjsvp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Women have had to fight to be included in elite skateboarding events.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Riccardo Antimiani /EPA/AAP</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Women have also had to fight for competitive opportunities, including the sport’s “<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/nov/12/billie-jean-king-tennis-equality-battle-of-the-sexes">Billie Jean King moment</a>”, when women threatened to boycott the 2005 X Games to gain better access to practice time, coverage and prize money. </p>
<p>Meanwhile, some major skate events have only recently included <a href="https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/dew-tour-adds-womens-skateboard-street-and-park-competitions-to-its-summer-event-300639546.html">full women’s programs</a> in the course of becoming Olympic qualifying competitions.</p>
<h2>Beyond skateboarding</h2>
<p>This is not just a skateboarding problem, unfortunately. There is a wider problem with misogyny in sport. The uninhibited online abuse we observed is similar to the explosion of sexist commentary that occurred around the formation of the women’s AFL league. </p>
<p>In 2019, <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-03-20/tayla-harris-felt-sexually-abused-aflw-photo-trolls-seven/10919008">trolls</a> flocked to an image of AFL player Tayla Harris kicking a football. The following year, the Herald Sun <a href="https://www.heraldsun.com.au/sport/afl/aflw/the-herald-sun-explains-its-decision-to-close-comments-on-afl-womens-stories/news-story/8a07790b3de1e21eba7b2325ea7a0371">attributed</a> their decision to close comments on their coverage to “constant trolling, harassment and disgraceful commentary”.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1107933757976117249"}"></div></p>
<p>And of course, sadly, it’s not just athletes — women working in sports journalism <a href="https://www.genvic.org.au/media-releases/the-horrendous-online-abuse-a-female-sports-journalist-received-highlights-dangers-of-media-that-must-change/">face this, too</a>. This year, American sports writer Julie DiCaro published a book, <a href="https://www.chicagomag.com/chicago-magazine/april-2021/julie-dicaro-sidelined/">Sidelined</a>, about the online vitriol experienced by women working in the field. </p>
<h2>Online abuse is everywhere</h2>
<p>Since this research was undertaken, the vilest comments have been slowly removed from the streams. But this is not enough — online abuse of women is <a href="https://www.plan.org.au/media-centre/social-media-new-frontier-for-gendered-violence-as/">ubiquitous</a>. </p>
<p>And while moderation can remove comments calling women skaters “a bunch of broken dishwashers” or a viewer’s bucket list of sexual acts they’d like an athlete to perform, it can’t change attitudes to women’s participation.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-tokyo-olympics-are-supposed-to-be-a-landmark-in-gender-equality-are-the-games-really-a-win-for-women-164234">The Tokyo Olympics are supposed to be a 'landmark in gender equality' — are the Games really a win for women?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Abusive, sexist language posted on online spaces where the sport is now consumed by global audiences may also shape perceptions of skateboarding as neither inclusive nor safe for women. And this occurs at a moment when women skaters are poised to become more visible than ever, providing opportunity to inspire further growth at the grassroots level.</p>
<p>My research is yet another example of how social media can reveal the deep entrenchment of misogyny in a society where women are still seen as interlopers and threats to certain areas of public life.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/161883/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brigid McCarthy does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Skateboarding will make its Olympic debut in Tokyo but research shows female athletes are likely to cop abuse online when the competition starts.Brigid McCarthy, Lecturer in Journalism, La Trobe UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1649462021-07-25T19:56:03Z2021-07-25T19:56:03ZUniform discontent: how women athletes are taking control of their sporting outfits<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412795/original/file-20210723-27-1rkz9h1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Georgios Kefalas/EPA/AAP</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Women’s dress codes in sport are determined by “traditions” that are both outdated and gendered. Their outfits have long tried to reconcile notions of “femininity” with those of “athleticism”, but this process has turned women into objects to be admired rather than being valued for their sporting skills.</p>
<p>However, there is recent rebellion in the ranks. Slowly, female athletes are pushing back on outdated uniform regulations and demanding that athleticism be prioritised over aesthetics. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/most-expensive-greatest-gender-parity-most-sports-tokyo-olympics-by-the-numbers-164491">Most expensive, greatest gender parity, most sports: Tokyo Olympics by the numbers</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>A long history of discomfort</h2>
<p>Where now the emphasis seems to be on revealing women’s bodies, the opposite was once the case. In the 19th century, when upper-middle-class women were eventually permitted to engage in games such as lawn tennis, their attire was suitably “feminine”, modest and <a href="https://time.com/5667447/tennis-clothes-history/">designed to attract a potential husband</a> rather than enhance their athleticism. Without doubt, their corsets and full-length dresses would have severely restricted their capacity to lunge and leap across the court in the way that today’s female tennis players do.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412785/original/file-20210723-13-6n8ush.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412785/original/file-20210723-13-6n8ush.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412785/original/file-20210723-13-6n8ush.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412785/original/file-20210723-13-6n8ush.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412785/original/file-20210723-13-6n8ush.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=497&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412785/original/file-20210723-13-6n8ush.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=497&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412785/original/file-20210723-13-6n8ush.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=497&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In 1908, the Danish gymnastics team sported some new ‘leotards’ – athletic attire has come a long way since.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.olympicleotards.com/leotard-history/">www.olympicleotards.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>By the turn of the 20th century, physical education began to contribute to the reform of female clothing for physical activities. The <a href="https://scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1011&context=umpress_wtg">gymslip and tunic</a> released the body from restraining garments such as corsets and bodices.</p>
<p>While this might seem progressive, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gymslip">the barrel shape of the new uniform</a> carefully concealed young women’s bodies. Any signs of developing sexuality were effectively camouflaged, preserving their modesty for future maternal roles in society. </p>
<h2>Women still battling conventions</h2>
<p>Sportswomen of today are still navigating dress code conventions, but they are beginning to openly oppose them. Just this month, the <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-07-21/norway-beach-handball-team-fined-over-uniform-breach/100310398">Norwegian women’s beach handball team was fined</a> for “improper clothing” during the European Championships in Bulgaria. This was because they were playing in shorts, as opposed to the required skimpy bikini bottoms, which should be “a close fit and cut on an upward angle toward the top of the leg” and have a maximum side width of 10cm, according to the <a href="https://www.ihf.info/sites/default/files/2019-05/0_09%20-%20Rules%20of%20the%20Game%20%28Beach%20Handball%29_GB.pdf">2014 International Handball Federation regulations</a>.</p>
<p>The men’s beach handball teams have always been permitted to wear shorts. After unsuccessfully petitioning to replace the bikini bottoms with shorts, the Norwegian women’s team <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fLfQO9ZgQqo">took matters into their own hands</a> when they reached the bronze medal game against Spain. Despite being threatened with a fine or disqualification by the European Handball Federation, they opted to make a statement and wear thigh-length elastic shorts. </p>
<p>This resulted in a team fine of 1,500 euros (A$2,393). The Norwegian federation has agreed to pay the fine on behalf of the players in a show of support. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/fLfQO9ZgQqo?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>There were similar dress code protests by female athletes at the European Artistic Gymnastics Championships in Switzerland this year. German gymnasts decided to take a stand against their sexualisation, donning full-body suits. It all began with <a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/CN7hwjGFLLR/">Sarah Voss’s performance</a>, which was promptly followed by two of her teammates.</p>
<p>The decision to cover their entire body was a premeditated one. It received full support from the German federation (DTB), which advised that female athletes should always feel comfortable in their apparel. </p>
<p>The full-body suit, although rarely seen in women’s competitive gymnastics (unless there are religious reasons for wearing it), actually complies with the International Gymnastics Federation (FIG) <a href="https://eugymnastics.files.wordpress.com/2017/04/cop_wag_2017-2020_ici-e1.pdf">rules</a>. Competitors are allowed to wear a “unitard (one-piece leotard with full-length legs – hip to ankle)”, as long as it is “of elegant design”.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/Zn4u54SAAuk?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>Flexibility is therefore apparent in some female sporting dress codes, but certainly not in all. Voss and her team embraced the opportunity to compete as elite athletes in a uniform that best complemented their physical prowess.</p>
<p>Their right to choose what they wore no doubt helped them feel more at ease when performing. It should be noted that gymnastics has been a sport riddled with <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2018/jan/26/larry-nassar-abuse-gymnasts-scandal-culture">abuse scandals</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-tokyo-olympics-are-supposed-to-be-a-landmark-in-gender-equality-are-the-games-really-a-win-for-women-164234">The Tokyo Olympics are supposed to be a 'landmark in gender equality' — are the Games really a win for women?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Changing the focus to sporting prowess</h2>
<p>Both the handball and gymnastics examples highlight how women, as insiders within the institution of sport, are beginning to challenge how their bodies are presented and policed by sport federations. </p>
<p>This paves the way for more sportswomen to oppose dress codes that are based on archaic ideas of what women should look like, often through the eyes of men.</p>
<p>Although women’s sporting performances have been historically hampered and sexualised, sportswomen are finally calling the shots in terms of how their bodies are regulated through what they wear. </p>
<p>Perhaps now we can focus on their athleticism and contribution to sport.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/164946/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rachael Jefferson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Women’s elite sporting uniforms have long tried to balance ideas of “femininity” with athleticism – not always with success. But now women are increasingly taking control of their uniforms.Rachael Jefferson, Lecturer in human movement studies (health and PE), Creative Arts, Charles Sturt UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1642342021-07-15T19:26:40Z2021-07-15T19:26:40ZThe Tokyo Olympics are supposed to be a ‘landmark in gender equality’ — are the Games really a win for women?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411357/original/file-20210715-17-124myvp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Daisuke Tomita/AP</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you believe the <a href="https://olympics.com/tokyo-2020/en/news/tokyo-2020-first-ever-gender-balanced-games-record-number-of-competitors-para">hype</a> from the International Olympic Committee, the Tokyo 2020 Olympics will be a “landmark in gender equality” and the “first gender-balanced games in history”. </p>
<p>The Olympics do not have a good track record when it comes to gender equality. At the end of the 19th century, when it was founded, the modern Olympic movement deliberately excluded women. Games patriarch Baron Pierre de Coubertin <a href="https://www.sbs.com.au/topics/zela/article/2016/05/03/women-olympic-games-uninteresting-unaesthetic-incorrect">argued</a> an Olympiad with women would be: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>impractical, uninteresting, unaesthetic and improper. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>With the postponed 2020 Tokyo Games due to start next Friday, what advances can we celebrate? And what still needs to change?</p>
<h2>We have come a long way</h2>
<p>The Tokyo Games will feature the most female athletes at an Olympics, with <a href="https://olympics.com/tokyo-2020/en/news/ioc-sends-extremely-strong-message-that-gender-balance-is-a-reality-at-the-olymp">48.8% of competitors</a> set to be women. </p>
<p>Noting this is actually shy of 50%, this is <a href="https://olympics.com/ioc/news/women-gaining-ground-on-the-field-of-play-and-at-the-top-table">nonetheless up</a> from 45% at the 2016 Rio Games and 44.2% at London 2012. At the <a href="https://www.paralympic.org/news/record-number-female-competitors-tokyo-2020-paralympic-games">Tokyo Paralympic Games</a>, 40.5% of athletes will be women, compared to 38.6% at Rio. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Australian women's softball team train in Japan." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411358/original/file-20210715-13-1t3yf5j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411358/original/file-20210715-13-1t3yf5j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411358/original/file-20210715-13-1t3yf5j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411358/original/file-20210715-13-1t3yf5j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411358/original/file-20210715-13-1t3yf5j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411358/original/file-20210715-13-1t3yf5j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411358/original/file-20210715-13-1t3yf5j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Almost 49% of competitors in Tokyo will be women.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kyodo News/AP/AAP</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>To put this into a historical context, at the first modern games in Athens in 1896, women were <a href="https://www.sbs.com.au/topics/zela/article/2016/05/03/women-olympic-games-uninteresting-unaesthetic-incorrect">banned</a> from competing (although there are reports at leaset one woman ran the marathon). </p>
<p>At the 1900 Paris Olympics, women were allowed to compete, but they were <a href="https://olympics.com/ioc/news/women-gaining-ground-on-the-field-of-play-and-at-the-top-table">only 22</a> out of 997 competitors. Women were also restricted to a select number of five “ladies” events: tennis, sailing, croquet, equestrian and golf.</p>
<h2>From croquet to skateboarding</h2>
<p>Much has changed over the past 121 years. The IOC has <a href="https://www.bbc.com/sport/olympics/40226990">billed</a> Tokyo as a “step forward” for gender equality in terms of the range of events on offer. </p>
<p>Women will compete in more than 300 events, and there are new mixed-gender offerings in athletics, swimming, table tennis and triathlon. This includes mixed medley relays on the track and in the pool. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/hidden-women-of-history-kyniska-the-first-female-olympian-123909">Hidden women of history: Kyniska, the first female Olympian</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Women will also compete in events that were previously only open to men. This includes the 1,500m freestyle (previously 800m was the longest swimming event for women). There are also extra women’s events in boxing, canoe, rowing and shooting. Meanwhile, women will compete alongside men in new sports at the games, including skateboarding, surfing, sportclimbing and karate. </p>
<p>All countries are expected to have at least one female and one male athlete in their teams, and all Olympic teams are encouraged to have one female and one male athlete carry their country’s flag at the opening ceremony.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Australian co-flag bearer, Cate Campbell." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411361/original/file-20210715-27-wze1oo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411361/original/file-20210715-27-wze1oo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411361/original/file-20210715-27-wze1oo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411361/original/file-20210715-27-wze1oo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411361/original/file-20210715-27-wze1oo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411361/original/file-20210715-27-wze1oo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411361/original/file-20210715-27-wze1oo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Four-time Olympian Cate Campbell will be an Australian flag bearer in Toyko, alongside basketballer Patty Mills.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Delly Carr/ Australian Olympic Committee/ AAP</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Importantly, women’s events will also be given more visibility — and taken more seriously — in terms of what is shown when it is shown and promoted on Olympic broadcasts. In the past, many sports finished their Olympic timetables with men’s events. This practice is <a href="https://www.csrwire.com/press_releases/719716-barbara-slater-women-entering-sports-industry-have-role-models-now">set to change</a> at Tokyo.</p>
<p>According to the IOC: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>there will be more women’s team gold medal events on the last weekend than men’s, while the order of play has been changed so that women’s competitions have the same prominence.</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Overcoming de Coubertin’s gender legacy</h2>
<p>In 1996, the IOC <a href="https://stillmed.olympic.org/media/Document%20Library/OlympicOrg/Factsheets-Reference-Documents/Women-in-the-Olympic-Movement/Factsheet-Women-in-the-Olympic-Movement.pdf#_ga=2.196242796.1387851327.1545035637-2118090758.1543323217">amended</a> the <a href="https://olympics.com/ioc/olympic-charter">Olympic Charter</a>, making one of the IOC’s roles to:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>encourage and support the promotion of women in sport at all levels and in all structures, with a view to implementing the principle of equality of men and women.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Since then, there have been numerous initiatives to achieve this goal, such as <a href="https://stillmed.olympic.org/media/Document%20Library/OlympicOrg/News/2018/03/IOC-Gender-Equality-Review-Project-Recommendations-Overview-March-2018.pdf">last year’s</a> Gender Equality Review Project, which made 25 recommendations including:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>ensure full gender equality in athlete quotas and medal events from the 2024 Summer Games and the 2026 Winter Games onwards</p></li>
<li><p>ensure competition uniforms reflect the technical requirements of the sport and do not have any unjustifiable differences</p></li>
<li><p>ensure the competition formats related to distances, duration of competition segments, number of rounds, etc., between women and men are as equal as possible.</p></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/sex-testing-at-the-olympics-should-be-abolished-once-and-for-all-132956">Sex testing at the Olympics should be abolished once and for all</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Who is in charge?</h2>
<p>Women also make up <a href="https://olympics.com/ioc/news/ioc-statement-on-gender-equality-in-the-olympic-movement">significant proportions</a> of the IOC organisation, but the numbers remain low at the leadership level. For example: </p>
<ul>
<li><p>IOC membership (recruited by the IOC itself) is 37.5% female</p></li>
<li><p>the IOC executive board is 33.3% female</p></li>
<li><p>women account for 47.8% of the members of the IOC’s commissions, which advise the organisation on specific issues, such as ethics, science and athletes</p></li>
<li><p>more than half (53%) of the IOC’s administrative employees are female.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Some Olympic leaders also have a long way to go in terms of the way they view women and women in sport administration. In February this year, the head of the Tokyo Olympic Organising Committee, Yoshiro Mori, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2021/feb/12/tokyo-olympics-chief-resigns-over-sexist-comments">resigned</a> after complaining to a Japanese Olympic Committee meeting that women <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-olympics-2020-mori-quotes-idUSKBN2AB0C5">talk too much</a>. </p>
<blockquote>
<p>If we increase the number of female board members, we have to make sure their speaking time is restricted somewhat, they have difficulty finishing, which is annoying.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Tokyo’s creative director, <a href="https://apnews.com/article/tokyo-celebrity-coronavirus-pandemic-japan-olympic-games-5c0f6ce3f828e7ef0b0b2f6008e6a581">Hiroshi Sasaki</a>, (who had charge of the opening and closing ceremonies) also resigned in March for suggesting a female performer could be an “Olympig”. </p>
<h2>Aesthetics over athleticism</h2>
<p>Apart from sexist attitudes, we also know that women in sport face sexist reporting. And this will be an issue to keep a close eye on in Toyko. </p>
<p>A Cambridge University <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/elt/blog/2016/08/26/sexist-olympics-ever-language-research-team-investigates/">media analysis</a> of the 2016 Rio Games found men dominated reporting, women’s aesthetics rather than athleticism were too often the focus of the discussion and women’s sport and achievements were infantilised or trivilaised.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="The Japanese women's football team at training." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411356/original/file-20210715-25-1grf0ez.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411356/original/file-20210715-25-1grf0ez.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=443&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411356/original/file-20210715-25-1grf0ez.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=443&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411356/original/file-20210715-25-1grf0ez.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=443&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411356/original/file-20210715-25-1grf0ez.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=557&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411356/original/file-20210715-25-1grf0ez.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=557&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411356/original/file-20210715-25-1grf0ez.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=557&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Female athletes are more likely to have their age or marital status included in reports about their sporting performances.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kyodo News/AP/AAP</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-08-17/rio-2016-social-media-goes-after-sexist-coverage/7760352">example</a>, a women’s judo bout was described as a “catfight”, while American shooting bronze medallist, Corey Codgell, was initially referred to as the wife of US NFL player, Mitch Unrein.</p>
<p>Further, gender terms were more often used as qualifiers for women, such as, “female golfers”, as opposed to men, who were simply golfers. Age and marital status are also more likely to be included for women. </p>
<h2>‘Unceasing scandals’</h2>
<p>We also know women face abuse and harassment in sport. Last month, The New York Times <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/06/16/sports/olympics/how-much-is-a-little-girl-worth.html">reported on</a> “unceasing scandals in global sports”. </p>
<p>Since Rio, there have been horrifying investigations into the treatment of gymnasts in both the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2018/jan/26/larry-nassar-abuse-gymnasts-scandal-culture">United States</a> and <a href="https://www.sbs.com.au/news/compliance-punishment-and-restriction-commission-uncovers-culture-of-abuse-in-australian-gymnastics">Australia</a>. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1402777387146768385"}"></div></p>
<p>Investigations have also uncovered abuse of women and children in basketball in Mali, soccer in Afghanistan and water polo in California. And two-time Australian Olympic medallist <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/sport/swimming/swimming-australia-to-be-hit-with-fresh-misconduct-complaints-20210624-p5840j.html">Madeline Groves</a> withdrew from the Olympic swimming trials in June citing “misogynistic perverts in the sport”.</p>
<p>In all, there is a lot to be hopeful about in Toyko. But as important as statistics around representation and events are, clearly much more needs to change before the Games can truly be described as equitable.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/164234/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Tokyo will feature the most female athletes ever at an Olympics. But the Games do not have a good track record when it comes to gender equality.Michelle O'Shea, Senior Lecturer, School of Business, Western Sydney UniversitySarah Duffy, Senior Lecturer, School of Business, Western Sydney UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1643052021-07-11T09:42:11Z2021-07-11T09:42:11Z‘The stars aligned’: Ash Barty’s Wimbledon win is an historic moment for Indigenous people and women in sport<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410687/original/file-20210711-19-16qjzk5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=179%2C15%2C3189%2C2119&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Neil Hall/EPA/AAP</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Over the weekend in London, the stars aligned in the most remarkable way. On the 50th anniversary of Evonne Goolagong Cawley’s first Wimbledon win, <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-07-11/ash-barty-karolina-pliskova-wimbledon-womens-final-wrap/100283404">Ashleigh Barty claimed</a> her first Wimbledon title. </p>
<blockquote>
<p>I just hope I made Evonne proud. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>The 25-year old becomes just the second Indigenous women to win Wimbledon and breaks a long drought for Australia at what is widely regarded as the most prestigious tennis tournament in the world. </p>
<p>To put it in context, Australia hasn’t won a singles title at the All England Club since 2002, when Lleyton Hewitt became the men’s champion. The last time an Australian woman took out the title was over 40 years ago, when Goolagong Cawley won her second title in 1980 (this time also becoming the <a href="https://www.theage.com.au/sport/tennis/from-the-archives-1980-goolagong-cawley-s-second-wimbledon-crown-this-time-as-a-mum-20210708-p5884j.html">first mother</a> to win Wimbledon in 66 years). </p>
<p>But the win is also an historic moment for First Nations people and for Australian women in sport. It presents an opportunity to both celebrate and learn from this achievement. </p>
<h2>Barty breaks the mould</h2>
<p>Barty’s success is a particularly significant one for First Nations Australians. She is one of only a handful of Indigenous women who are both sporting champions and household names — such as Goolagong Cawley, Cathy Freeman and fellow Olympic medallists Nova Peris and Sam Riley. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1413887119932657665"}"></div></p>
<p>Australia has always seemed to struggle with celebrating Indigenous sporting success, particularly when it happens overseas. Achievements like Patty Mills’ <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-06-16/mills-scores-17-as-spurs-win-nba-championship/5526698">magic 17 points</a> to help secure the 2014 NBA championship for the San Antonio Spurs, Chad Reed’s <a href="https://www.ma.org.au/the-one-and-only-chad-reed/">legendary status in motocross</a> and Jesse Williams’ 2014 <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-02-03/williams-wins-super-bowl-ring/5235644">Super Bowl ring</a> have largely flown under the radar. </p>
<p>But Barty breaks this mould. She has long cited her Indigenous heritage and <a href="https://www.mamamia.com.au/ash-barty-indigenous/">relationship</a> with Goolagong Cawley as an inspiration. Yes, it is Barty’s tennis success that has made her famous. But it is her grace negotiating Australia’s uneasiness with its past and present relationship with our Indigenous peoples that makes her a true champion. </p>
<p>Her victory also followed by a <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2021/jun/03/french-open-world-no-1-ash-barty-retires-tennis-tournament-with-hip-injury-magda-linette">significant hip injury</a> in June. Although seeded number one for the tournament, even those in Barty’s camp were nervous about her chances. </p>
<p>Barty said, </p>
<blockquote>
<p>The stars aligned for me over the past fortnight. It’s incredible that it happened to fall on the 50th anniversary of Evonne’s [Goolagong Cawley] first title here too.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>As First Nations people would say “the Old People” — her Ancestors — had intervened.</p>
<h2>A NAIDOC week victory</h2>
<p>Apart from the parallels with Goolagong Cawley’s win, the timing is also special as it comes at the end of <a href="https://theconversation.com/although-we-didnt-produce-these-problems-we-suffer-them-3-ways-you-can-help-in-naidocs-call-to-heal-country-163362">NAIDOC week</a>. This year’s theme has been “Heal Country”. As Indigenous people continue to be <a href="https://theconversation.com/included-but-still-marginalised-indigenous-voices-still-missing-in-media-stories-on-indigenous-affairs-163426">marginalised</a> in so many areas of Australian life, Barty’s success is all the more a powerful testament to her strength and talent.</p>
<p>We know there are high barriers to Indigenous women participating in sport and exercise, at both grassroots and elite levels. These include racism and the high costs of participating. A <a href="https://theconversation.com/sport-can-be-an-important-part-of-aboriginal-culture-for-women-but-many-barriers-remain-120418">frequently cited statistic </a>(based on 2012 data) is about 23% of Indigenous women were physically active or played sport in the past 12 months, compared to 67% of non-Indigenous women. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Queensland Firebirds netball player, Jemma Mi Mi" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410688/original/file-20210711-70541-1spgydo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410688/original/file-20210711-70541-1spgydo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410688/original/file-20210711-70541-1spgydo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410688/original/file-20210711-70541-1spgydo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410688/original/file-20210711-70541-1spgydo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410688/original/file-20210711-70541-1spgydo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410688/original/file-20210711-70541-1spgydo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Jemma Mi Mi is the Super Netball league’s only Indigenous player.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Albert Perez/AAP</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Even in sports with high Indigenous participation, such as netball (where about <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2020/sep/29/netball-australia-commits-to-improvements-in-indigenous-space">4% of participants</a> are Indigenous), this still hasn’t flowed through to the professional level. There have only ever been two Indigenous players to represent the national team — and <a href="https://diamonds.netball.com.au/player/sharon-finnan-white-oam">none since 2000</a>.</p>
<p>Last year, Queensland Firebirds midcourter Jemma Mi Mi, a proud Wakka Wakka woman, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2020/sep/22/super-netball-queensland-firebirds-jemma-mi-mi-indigenous-round">sat on the bench</a> during Super Netball’s Indigenous round. Netball Australia says it is working to improve the culture but <a href="https://www.sbs.com.au/nitv/article/2020/09/29/criticism-prompts-netball-australia-commit-improvements-indigenous-players">change is slow</a>. </p>
<h2>Sexism and Australian sport</h2>
<p>Sport is a significant part of our <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17430437.2011.603553?casa_token=rCT6-enkoLoAAAAA%3AaA7fDYy2k9_suaSz3BKPSRNDRet46B-zSEDXdv78QHFWmUuglIo-hlt_ZbAyohex0a4RHh-w77s">national identity</a>, and we have a deep love for our sporting heroes. Yet for women in sport, we know the road is harder than for men. It wasn’t that long ago that champion race horse Black Caviar was named Australian <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/sport/racing/pearson-snubbed-as-newspaper-names-horse-as-sportswoman-of-the-year-20121223-2btac.html">sportswoman of the year</a> by the Daily Telegraph.</p>
<p>In my <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1755458620300207">recent research</a> with female AFL players, women talked of their gratitude for being included in the sport at a professional level. This is despite low pay and the high pressures and workloads. As I argued, this attitude is a double-edged sword for professional sportswomen, as it can make them vulnerable to exploitation. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/sport-can-be-an-important-part-of-aboriginal-culture-for-women-but-many-barriers-remain-120418">Sport can be an important part of Aboriginal culture for women – but many barriers remain</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Looking at professional elite athletes in Australia, the top earners are predominantly men. For example, in the 2019 AFR <a href="https://www.afr.com/wealth/people/australia-s-top-sports-earners-revealed-20190725-p52as9">sports rich list</a>, Barty ranked eight and was the only woman in the top 20. A top seven rich list <a href="https://www.foxsports.com.au/what-the-fox/australian-sporting-rich-list-tim-cahill-rises-through-the-ranks-with-lucrative-shanghai-deal/news-story/94f28616f48968b2f0a81b6ebdd767f5?device=DESKTOP&editiondata=none&fromakamai=true&pt=none&wpa=BB44D82C3D7223D393F2AE47579FB5EA6791ABE4">compiled by Fox Sports</a> in June 2021 only featured men. </p>
<p>We also know that women in sport also cop <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-toxic-and-dehumanising-culture-how-australian-gymnastics-needs-to-reform-in-wake-of-damning-report-160197">abuse</a>, <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17430437.2020.1777101?journalCode=fcss20">sexism</a> and <a href="https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/jcsp/13/2/article-p177.xml">harassment</a> — as well as discrimination in terms of how <a href="https://theconversation.com/sing-when-youre-women-why-its-time-to-take-female-sports-fans-seriously-80915">seriously</a> their involvement is taken. </p>
<h2>Uneven playing field</h2>
<p>So while we celebrate #YesAsh and enjoy the #BartyParty, we must also be honest about the realities for women in sport, and in particular for Indigenous women in sport. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/although-we-didnt-produce-these-problems-we-suffer-them-3-ways-you-can-help-in-naidocs-call-to-heal-country-163362">'Although we didn’t produce these problems, we suffer them': 3 ways you can help in NAIDOC's call to Heal Country</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>For those of us who have enjoyed the pride and excitement of Barty’s win, let’s pledge to work harder on removing structural barriers to participation at grassroots and elite levels. It is time to acknowledge how uneven Australian sporting fields can be.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/164305/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Adele Pavlidis receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marcus Woolombi Waters does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>As Barty emulates Evonne Goolagong Cawley’s achievement in 1971, it’s an opportunity to celebrate and to learn.Adele Pavlidis, Researcher in Sociology, Griffith UniversityMarcus Woolombi Waters, Lecturer, School of Humanities, Griffith UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1505892020-11-30T17:24:38Z2020-11-30T17:24:38ZWorld Rugby’s ban on trans players has nothing to do with so-called ‘fairness’<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371158/original/file-20201124-23-10dtbl3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C12%2C1350%2C923&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The decision by World Rugby to ban trans players from participating in women's events is another setback for transgender athletes.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Jonathan Hayward</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The attack on gender-diverse women in sports has gained prominent support by the recent decision from World Rugby to <a href="https://www.world.rugby/news/591776/world-rugby-approves-updated-transgender-participation-guidelines">ban transgender women from international women’s competition</a>.</p>
<p>The ban perpetuates the harmful gender policing that has plagued women’s sport for more than a century. By limiting trans women’s participation in elite level rugby, World Rugby is sending the inaccurate and discriminatory message that trans women do not belong in women’s rugby — and that trans women are not women.</p>
<p>Academics around the world <a href="https://www.outsports.com/2020/9/8/21422320/rugby-trans-ban-scientists-academics-world-rugby-letter-transgender-athletes">have condemned World Rugby’s decision</a>. National bodies like <a href="https://www.usa.rugby/2020/10/usa-rugby-response-to-updated-world-rugby-transgender-athlete-policy/">USA Rugby</a> and <a href="https://rugby.ca/en/news/2020/09/rugby-canada-provides-update-on-feedback-to-proposed-transgender-guidelines">Rugby Canada</a> have said they would ignore the ban in domestic competitions.</p>
<p>Other respected sports bodies, like the <a href="https://cces.ca/sites/default/files/content/docs/pdf/cces-transinclusionpolicyguidance-e.pdf">Canadian Centre for Ethics in Sport</a> and <a href="https://womenandsport.ca/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Position-Statement-%E2%80%93-Trans-Inclusion-in-Sport_Canadian-Women-Sport.pdf">Canadian Women and Sport</a>, have promoted policies that are more inclusive for trans athletes.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1314630838206820355"}"></div></p>
<h2>Justifying the ban</h2>
<p>World Rugby says the ban is necessary for fairness. It claims, based on its own working group’s findings, that there is a 20 to 30 per cent greater risk of injury when a female player is tackled by someone who has gone through male puberty. <a href="https://nationalpost.com/opinion/barbara-kay-transgender-sports-policies-have-thrown-fair-play-out-the-window">Socially conservative columnists</a> and others with little genuine interest in women’s sport quickly piled on, raging that the ban is necessary to protect “biological female athletes” from “natal males.”</p>
<p>While fairness is essential to sport at every level, the World Rugby ban constitutes another sorry example of the weaponization of “fairness” as a way to preserve sports for those already privileged to enjoy them.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/world-rugbys-proposed-ban-on-trans-athletes-is-wrong-history-shows-inclusion-is-possible-145540">World Rugby's proposed ban on trans athletes is wrong. History shows inclusion is possible</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>In the 19th century, <a href="https://hillnotes.ca/2018/06/21/indigenous-peoples-and-sport-in-canada/">Indigenous athletes were barred from amateur sport in Canada</a> on the racist grounds that as “noble savages” they had unfair natural advantages. In the mid-20th century, outstanding female athletes from the Soviet Union were <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1258/jrsm.2008.080086">ridiculed on the bogus claims that they were really men in disguise</a>.</p>
<p>In recent years, similar attacks have been made against intersex women from the Global South whose appearance or body chemistry do not conform with the preferred “feminine” white European body type. <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2020/sep/08/caster-semenya-loses-appeal-against-world-athletics-testosterone-rules">World Athletics has successfully barred Caster Semanya, the South African double Olympic champion</a>, from her preferred track events (400m, 800m, 1500m) on the grounds that she possesses too much natural testosterone.</p>
<h2>Human rights ignored by international sport</h2>
<p>While trans athletes are protected by human rights legislation in countries like Canada, appeals to human rights hold little sway in international sport. As <a href="https://ilga.org/first-un-resolution-rights-intersex-persons-women-sport">the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights recently documented</a>, international sports bodies claim “the autonomy of sport” to stand outside the international regime of human rights.</p>
<p>The problem with World Rugby’s approach to fairness is that it uses one arbitrary marker (male puberty) as the focus of fairness — ignoring the many other factors (very different genetic pools, class, cultural and political backgrounds, economies and environmental conditions) that advantage some athletes over others and some teams and countries over others.</p>
<p>While women athletes around the world fight for greater resources, compensation and recognition relative to the men in their sports, international governing bodies focus on creating new categories of exclusion in women’s sport.</p>
<p>Trans women are women. Inclusion requires that all women be fully welcomed at every level of sports. Against those who fear that their inclusion will end the historic division of sports into male and female categories — thereby destroying the gains that women have made in sports in recent years — we point out that trans women live their lives as women and are passionately supportive of women’s sport. This means sharing the unequal and unfair conditions in which women participate in sport globally.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Athlete Caster Semanya crosses the finish line after winning an 800-metre race." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371159/original/file-20201124-13-1oawf0h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371159/original/file-20201124-13-1oawf0h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371159/original/file-20201124-13-1oawf0h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371159/original/file-20201124-13-1oawf0h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371159/original/file-20201124-13-1oawf0h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371159/original/file-20201124-13-1oawf0h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371159/original/file-20201124-13-1oawf0h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Olympic champion Caster Semanya has been banned from competing in some international track events over concerns she has too much natural testosterone.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Petr David Josek)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Does the fact that some trans women may have gone through male puberty give them an automatic advantage? <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(19)32764-3">There is no clear evidence</a> this is the case.</p>
<p>While there is a significant difference between the best performances by men as a group and women as a group in the measurable sports, those averages do not mean that every male competitor enjoys such advantage. The ranges of men’s and women’s abilities and performances overlap tremendously and are influenced by social and cultural factors in addition to physical characteristics.</p>
<h2>Defining what’s ‘unfair’</h2>
<p>When a trans or gender-diverse woman is successful, those who label her participation as “unfair” neglect to mention that there are cisgender athletes with superior height, speed and strength, as well as cisgender athletes who have benefited from better resources, training and more opportunities to participate.</p>
<p>World Rugby relies on prejudices and anecdotes to determine who meets the definition of “woman” for the purposes of participation in elite level rugby — not rigorous, scientific study.</p>
<p>It is instructive that one of World Rugby’s defenders, the U.K.-based <a href="https://fairplayforwomen.com/worldrugby/">Fair Play for Women</a> — whose very name weaponizes the idea of fairness — acknowledges there is no scientific evidence to back its claims. Nonetheless, it calls for continued discrimination, saying that “rules shouldn’t be changed without evidence.” It exemplifies how distorted concerns about fairness are used to justify exclusion.</p>
<p>One of the themes of the <a href="https://tokyo2020.org/en/paralympics/games/diversity-inclusion-para/">Tokyo 2020 Olympics is “Diversity and Inclusion”</a>: “Celebrating the differences of individuals (and) accepting and respecting people regardless of age, ethnicity, nationality, gender, sexual orientation, religious beliefs or intellectual or physical impairment.”</p>
<p>The world of sport has a long way to go to achieve full inclusivity. But ending the discrimination and attacks against trans women in women’s sport — especially those attacks dressed up in the name of “fairness” — would be a big step in the right direction.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/150589/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>If “fairness” is why trans players have been banned by World Rugby, then sport bodies need to realize many athletes have an unfair advantage because of issues like class and cultural backgrounds.Michele K. Donnelly, Assistant professor, Department of Sport Management, Brock UniversityBruce Kidd, Professor of Kinesiology, University of TorontoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1376972020-05-11T05:12:54Z2020-05-11T05:12:54ZAs sport resumes after lockdown, it’s time to level the playing field for women and girls<p>Sports representatives are <a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/sport/416116/bosses-lay-out-inequalities-in-women-s-sports-at-epidemic-response-committee">calling on New Zealand’s government</a> not to return to normal when the nation begins to ease restrictions from Thursday this week. Instead, they argue, it is time to create a more even playing field by addressing chronic underfunding for women’s sports.</p>
<p>The Epidemic Response Committee <a href="https://www.stuff.co.nz/sport/300006903/live-sports-focus-for-epidemic-response-committee">focused on sports</a> in one of its hearings last week and several sporting bodies argued that women’s sports will struggle to rebuild without substantial <a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/sport/416116/bosses-lay-out-inequalities-in-women-s-sports-at-epidemic-response-committee">targeted financial support</a>.</p>
<p>Netball NZ chief executive Jennie Wylie told the committee her sport has more than 350,000 players, many from under-privileged groups, and the recovery period presents an chance to prioritise equal access and support. </p>
<blockquote>
<p>Getting sports up and running as soon as it’s safe will play a vital role in New Zealand’s economic and social recovery. Because sport is rebuilding in so many capacities, the time is right to create equality […] and New Zealanders should not squander the change to address the systemic inequities across sport. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Our research focus is on sport management and leadership, and on equity in sports and active recreation for girls and women. We have welcomed the momentum for achieving gender equity in sports before the coronavirus pandemic, and believe women should now be at the forefront of planning as we rebuild. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-war-on-women-coaches-116643">The war on women coaches</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Designing sport for equity</h2>
<p>Before the pandemic, corporate sponsorship for women’s sport <a href="https://www.nielsen.com/us/en/insights/report/2018/the-rise-of-womens-sports/">increased by 47%</a> between 2013 and 2017, and investment in women’s professional leagues <a href="https://www.newsroom.co.nz/lockerroom/2019/08/15/754187/busting-the-myth-no-one-watches-womens-sport">increased girls’ participation</a> at the grassroots level. </p>
<p>Viewership for women’s sports was rising around the globe, including a <a href="https://sportsarefromvenus.com/2019/07/12/tv-ratings-wnba-fan-attendance-still-lacking/">64% rise in TV ratings</a> for the 2019 Women’s National Basketball Association season and a <a href="https://www.si.com/soccer/2019/10/18/womens-world-cup-tv-viewers-fifa-record-uswnt">record 1.12 billion viewers</a> for the women’s soccer World Cup final. </p>
<p>The coronavirus pandemic has changed the landscape, and international sports organisations are also concerned about its <a href="https://apple.news/AIRrFOUK9Tj21DT7hmCfR8A">impact on women’s sport</a>. </p>
<p>But as sports resume, this offers a chance for decision makers to change dominant narratives and structures away from the male-dominated model. Those working in women’s sports have always <a href="https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/jsm/17/4/article-p347.xml">done the hard work</a> — built, marketed and run our sports teams and programs - with limited funding and resources. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/organization/our-insights/women-in-the-workplace">Data indicate</a> <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/hrm.21838">more women</a> and people with diverse backgrounds on boards and in leadership positions contribute to <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/19406940.2013.825874">better decisions and outcomes</a> on all measures.</p>
<p>Diversity of thought is critical to rebuilding sports. It requires different models of collective leadership and a rethink of success going beyond winning and profit margins. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/toxic-sport-cultures-are-damaging-female-athletes-health-but-we-can-do-better-128376">Toxic sport cultures are damaging female athletes' health, but we can do better</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>There’s more to sport than coming first</h2>
<p>A sports management <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/e/9781315542775">model</a> developed in 2017 includes social, cultural and environmental benefits of sports – such as working with under-served communities to <a href="https://scholar.google.co.nz/scholar?q=social+benefits+of+sport&hl=en&as_sdt=0&as_vis=1&oi=scholart">improve team and leadership skills</a> – alongside a traditional focus on investment return. It also adds a focus on the United Nations’ <a href="https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/">Sustainable Development Goals</a>.</p>
<p>We believe girls and women have a <a href="https://www.sporthumanrights.org/en/resources/sport-solidarity-why-local-sport-is-critical-to-the-covid-19-response">basic human right to physical activity</a> and the UN’s development goals provide a framework for equity in sport. They <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-019-0352-9">clearly state</a> that social inclusion means gender equality, human rights and the reduction of inequalities. </p>
<p>Sport can play an important role in sustainable development and <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-sport-for-development-and-peace-can-transform-the-lives-of-youth-126151">contribute to peace</a> because it <a href="http://www.un.org/wcm/content/site/sport/home/sport/sportandsdgs">promotes tolerance and respect</a> and the empowerment of women and young people.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-importance-of-sports-in-recovery-from-trauma-lessons-from-and-for-christchurch-114368">The importance of sports in recovery from trauma:
lessons from and for Christchurch</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>To achieve long-term sustainable and ethical outcomes for sports organisations, structural change designed for equity is critical, from the grassroots to the top level. There are some examples of progress, where girls and women are <a href="https://www.onboardskate.org.nz/girls-only-programmes">challenging the norms</a> of traditionally masculine sports such as skate boarding. </p>
<p>We also need to explore alternative funding models to minimise reliance on broadcasting revenue and gambling returns. COVID-19 lockdown has <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-challenges-and-benefits-of-outdoor-recreation-during-nzs-coronavirus-lockdown-134892">shown us</a> that physical activity is critical to health and well-being. It should be funded by government and commercial partners committed to equity. </p>
<p>As the coronavirus was spreading globally, in March 2020, <a href="https://www.unwomen.org/en">UN Women</a> joined with the International Olympic Committee to launch the <a href="https://www.unwomen.org/-/media/headquarters/attachments/sections/news%20and%20events/stories/2020/sport-generationequality.pdf?la=en&vs=1815">Sports for Generation Equality Initiative</a> to accelerate progress on making gender equality a reality.</p>
<p>Emerging from a pandemic should not be a return to the status quo, and this includes access to participation and competition in sports and physical activity. When sport resumes, we must regain momentum to truly advance gender equity for all girls and women. To do anything else wastes an unprecedented opportunity.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/137697/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sarah Leberman has in the past received funding from Ako Aotearoa and New Zealand Racing Board for contracted research. She is affiliated with Women in Sport Aotearoa. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sally Shaw has received funding from Sport New Zealand, the New Zealand Racing Board, and Ako Aotearoa. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nicole M. LaVoi does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Sports have been out of action during the coronavirus lockdown, but the recovery period is a chance to redefine sporting success beyond winning and profit margins.Sarah Leberman, Professor of Leadership, Massey UniversityNicole M. LaVoi, Senior Lecturer of Social and Behavioral Sciences of Physical Activity, University of MinnesotaSally Shaw, Associate Professor, University of OtagoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1329042020-03-04T13:40:09Z2020-03-04T13:40:09ZThe history of women’s cricket – from England’s greens to the world stage<p>I have the good fortune right now to be in Australia, where the seventh edition of the Women’s T20 World Cup is currently being played. Already, we’ve seen record crowds - <a href="https://www.icc-cricket.com/media-releases/1624276">13,432 people watched the opening match</a> in Sydney - and the buzz is incredible. </p>
<p>I’ve spent the past decade researching the history of the women’s game, and recently <a href="https://www.peterlang.com/view/title/66583">published the definitive history of the sport in England</a>. Few might know it, but women’s cricket has been played for just as long as men’s.</p>
<p>It all began on village greens in <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/only-in-britain/first-recorded-womens-cricket-match/0">England in the 18th century</a>. The first recorded match was played in 1745, between the women of two Surrey villages, Bramley and <a href="https://www.hambledoncricketclub.co.uk/history/">Hambledon</a> (one of the most famous of all early cricket grounds), with the teams distinguished by the colour of their hair ribbons.</p>
<p>From a thrown-together game to an organised pursuit, in 1887 one of the first women’s clubs, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/sports/cricket-sport/Test-matches#ref402753">the White Heather Club</a>, was formed by ladies of the Yorkshire aristocracy. </p>
<p>But the major turning point in the history of women’s cricket came with the formation of the first governing body.</p>
<p>The first world war emboldened women in a number of ways – and many women’s sporting organisations were formed in the years after 1918. Cricket’s moment came in October 1926 when a group of female hockey players travelled to Colwall in Herefordshire for a few days of play. Marjorie Pollard, <a href="https://journals.openedition.org/rfcb/1770#ftn14">who wrote Cricket for Women and Girls</a> (1934), remembered:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>After play was over we sat in the Park Hotel at Colwall … and discussed how cricket could become real for us – no longer to be an elusive thing, that one played half afraid of ridicule. We pondered, mused, talked.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Born from this was the <a href="http://www.womenscrickethistory.org/">Women’s Cricket Association</a> – “to provide facilities for and bring together those women and girls who previously have had little opportunity of playing cricket after leaving school”. Clubs and county associations were formed, matches were played – and a decade later there were 105 women’s clubs affiliated to the WCA.</p>
<h2>Global growth</h2>
<p>By 1934, the appeal of women’s cricket had stretched across oceans where associations had been formed in Australia and New Zealand. This global reach signalled it was time for women to play internationally. So an England team set sail for Australia, where across the <a href="https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/_/id/17564/england-women-tour-of-australia-1934-35">1934/35 Australian cricket season</a> they played in three Test matches – of which they won two.</p>
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<p>International cricket continued to be played whenever the women could afford the travel, and in 1958 it was agreed that an <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l2DnHC3ie9AC&pg=PA70&lpg=PA70&dq=1958+it+was+agreed+that+an+International+Women%E2%80%99s+Cricket+Council&source=bl&ots=P5lBQMRYAi&sig=ACfU3U3hAdlxnmsSJbNNOWM-KdCLB_mAFg&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiA8Nj4y_7nAhVUTcAKHdJOBF4Q6AEwDHoECAwQAQ#v=onepage&q=1958%20it%20was%20agreed%20that%20an%20International%20Women%E2%80%99s%20Cricket%20Council&f=false">International Women’s Cricket Council</a> should be formed. </p>
<p>The council’s purpose was to promote further international tours, as well as providing “a liaison between countries for discussions on any question appertaining to the game”. The founding members were England, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and Holland. Its membership gradually expanded as women’s associations were set up in India (1973), the West Indies (1973), Ireland (1982), Denmark (1983), Pakistan (1997) and Sri Lanka (1997).</p>
<h2>The Women’s World Cup</h2>
<p>The first Women’s World Cup was the product of a <a href="https://www.espncricinfo.com/wisdenalmanack/content/story/1143049.html">chance conversation between the then England captain Rachael Heyhoe-Flint</a> and millionaire businessman Jack Hayward. Staged in 1973, Hayward stumped up £40,000 to cover the costs and seven teams - England, an English youth team, Australia, New Zealand, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago and an International XI (made up of players from all participating countries) - took part. </p>
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<p>The tournament was such a roaring success that <a href="https://www.lords.org/">the MCC</a>, which had refused to host the 1973 final, agreed to let women play at Lords – the “Home of Cricket” – for the first time. On August 1976 4, led out by Heyhoe-Flint, England met Australia there and won the historic one day international (ODI) by eight wickets. </p>
<p>The lack of money and resources in the women’s game had always been a barrier, so in the 1990s a closer relationship was sought with the men’s. In 1992, New Zealand became the first Test-playing nation to merge its men’s and women’s cricketing set-ups – England followed in 1998. In 2005 the International Women’s Cricket Council (IWCC) agreed to hand over control of the global women’s game to the male-run International Cricket Council (ICC), and all remaining women’s national associations were absorbed by their male counterparts.</p>
<p>For its entire history, the women’s game had been an amateur pursuit, played simply for love of the game. But linking up with the men allowed more money to flow into women’s cricket. In May 2014, the ECB made history by introducing the first professional contracts for women, awarding these to 18 of England’s top players. </p>
<p>There are now professional contracts in place in all T20 World Cup competing nations – including Thailand, who have played in the competition for the first time this year.</p>
<h2>The rise of T20</h2>
<p>“T20” - a shorter version, with each side having 20 overs to score as many runs as possible - was first played professionally in 2003, and has proved an excellent vehicle for the advancement of the women’s game. </p>
<p>In 2009 the ICC staged the first-ever T20 World Cup for female cricketers (known originally as the World Twenty20). It was held in England at the same time as the men’s tournament. The semi-finals and finals were “double-headers” with the women’s matches directly before the men’s, which helped the women’s teams secure bigger crowds and more media coverage.</p>
<p>Over time, the profile of women’s cricket grew so much it no longer needed to piggyback on the men. The 2018 World T20 in the Caribbean was the <a href="https://www.icc-cricket.com/media-releases/601973">first to be staged as a standalone</a> tournament, and the current World Cup in Australia is taking place seven months ahead of the men’s tournament, enabling the women to have the spotlight all to themselves.</p>
<p>The last 50-over Women’s World Cup in 2017 (ODI) was watched by more than <a href="https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/_/id/28741622/women-t20-world-cup">180 million fans</a>, and every one of the 30,000 seats at the final at Lord’s - which was won by England - was filled. The organisers of the current World Cup are hoping to do better, and <a href="https://www.icc-cricket.com/media-releases/1634006">fill Melbourne Cricket Ground</a>, with its 95,000 capacity, for the final. If this is achieved, they would break the record for the <a href="https://www.fifa.com/womensworldcup/news/fifa-women-world-cup-usa-1999-502003">biggest crowd</a> at a women’s sporting event - currently, 90,185, set during the 1999 FIFA Women’s World Cup Final in California.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/132904/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rafaelle Nicholson is a member of the Liberal Democrats. </span></em></p>Women have been playing cricket as long as men have. However, getting to the 2020 Twenty20 World Cup has involved a lot more fundraising and organisingRafaelle Nicholson, Bournemouth UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1204632019-08-06T16:08:46Z2019-08-06T16:08:46ZHow big brands could solve the gender pay gap in sport<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/286443/original/file-20190731-186797-13vr48x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3738%2C2618&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The U.S. women's soccer team celebrates with the trophy after winning the World Cup final. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Alessandra Tarantino)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Once upon a time, a team of phenomenal female athletes won a championship in spectacular fashion. Their victory received significant media attention, inspired a generation and motivated a mass uptick in sport participation. The accomplishment was widely celebrated and pundits labelled it a pivotal moment in sport history. </p>
<p>This blip in the news cycle then wrapped up. The superstar athletes returned to their regular lives, and the rest of the world returned to its regularly scheduled sports programming.</p>
<p>This was 20 years ago when Brandi Chastain famously led the <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2019/05/31/football/usa-1999-womens-world-cup-victory-brandi-chastain-mia-hamm-wwc-spt-intl/index.html">United States to a World Cup victory in 1999</a>. </p>
<p>We’re experiencing a similar afterglow today following the grand accomplishment of another <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/soccer/the-us-women-didnt-wait-for-their-moment-they-demanded-it-and-thats-what-real-power-is/2019/07/07/d723460c-a0db-11e9-b732-41a79c2551bf_story.html">extraordinary team of sportswomen</a>. </p>
<p>It’s the same warmth of inspiration that now predictably follows all mega sporting events that feature female athletes at their best. </p>
<h2>What have we learned?</h2>
<p>Highlighting exceptional athletic feats with the right mix of hype and media coverage sparks interest in women’s sport. FIFA estimates this year’s Women’s World Cup drew more than <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-48882465">a billion viewers</a>. Television records were broken around the world. The round of 16 match between Brazil and France garnered an audience of almost 59 million people, making it the most viewed women’s soccer match of all time. </p>
<p>In response to the massive outpouring of support for the women’s tournament, FIFA president Gianni Infantino got positive media attention for announcing that the 2023 Women’s World Cup would expand from 24 to 32 teams and <a href="https://www.bbc.com/sport/football/48885876">double the tournament’s total prize money to US$60 million</a>.</p>
<p>Context is key though. The 2022 Men’s World Cup has earmarked <a href="https://equalizersoccer.com/2019/07/07/fifa-doubles-commitment-but-is-it-enough/">$440 million</a> in prize money, not including the bonuses provided by national federations. This amounts to, at minimum, a $380 million pay gap between FIFA’s men’s and women’s championships. </p>
<p>When it comes to pay inequity, that’s just the tip of the iceberg. </p>
<p>The most recent <a href="https://int.nyt.com/data/documenthelper/653-us-womens-soccer-complaint/f9367608e2eaf10873f4/optimized/full.pdf#page=1">U.S. Women’s National Team lawsuit</a> crunched the numbers to illustrate the alleged pay discrimination within the United States Soccer Federation. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/286321/original/file-20190730-186801-19dxff8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=781%2C187%2C4124%2C2471&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/286321/original/file-20190730-186801-19dxff8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=410&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/286321/original/file-20190730-186801-19dxff8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=410&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/286321/original/file-20190730-186801-19dxff8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=410&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/286321/original/file-20190730-186801-19dxff8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/286321/original/file-20190730-186801-19dxff8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/286321/original/file-20190730-186801-19dxff8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">The U.S. women’s soccer team celebrates at a parade in its honour in New York City following its World Cup victory.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Richard Drew)</span></span>
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<p>The calculations show that if a woman were to play in and win 20 national team matches, she would earn US$99,000 — just 38 per cent of the US$263,320 that a man would receive for the same feat. </p>
<p>In 2014, the federation provided the men’s national team with performance bonuses totalling US$5,375,000 for losing in the round of 16. In 2015, the women’s national team received US$1,725,000 for winning the entire tournament. </p>
<p>Critics often argue the gender pay gap in sport is simple math — men’s sports bring in greater revenue, therefore, male athletes earn more lucrative salaries. </p>
<p>This argument dramatically oversimplifies the issue and fails to take into consideration the environmental and cultural factors that so powerfully hinder earning potential in women’s sport. </p>
<p>Inequities exist around playing, training and travel conditions. There is disproportionate investment in long-term player development, lopsided promotional budgets and severely limited merchandising opportunities. The U.S. <a href="https://int.nyt.com/data/documenthelper/653-us-womens-soccer-complaint/f9367608e2eaf10873f4/optimized/full.pdf#page=1">women’s team lawsuit</a> specifically argues that inferior marketing budgets are routinely coupled with reduced ticket prices and used as tactics to “manufacture revenue depression,” which can be “used as pretext for lower compensation.”</p>
<p>All of these factors must be taken into account when considering compensation structure — something the <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/u-s-soccer-says-womens-team-has-been-paid-more-than-mens-team-11564440487">U.S. Soccer Federation’s recent pay analysis</a> failed to do. Male-versus-female compensation is not an apples-to-apples comparison. Women in sport are consistently asked to accomplish more with less.</p>
<h2>Where do we go from here?</h2>
<p>Some might wonder why an organization would do anything not directly related to profit maximization. The answer is simple — institutionalized practices are often taken for granted, widely accepted and resistant to change, and there are few more institutionalized practices than male hegemony in sport.</p>
<p>The good news? One of the tenets of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/institutional-theory">institutional theory</a> suggests that organizations look to their environment for clues to understand appropriate courses of action. Sport federations are historically slow to adapt to
change, but big corporate brands have the flexibility to be more nimble. While <a href="https://www.womeninsport.org/about-us/sponsorship-media/">women’s sports now account for just 0.4 per cent of sport sponsorship spending</a>, we’re beginning to see some evidence that suggests a potential sea change.</p>
<p>Notably, Budweiser announced it would become the first official beer sponsor of the U.S. National Women’s Soccer League on the heels of the women’s victory. Their #WontStopWatching tagline implied a deeper understanding of the issues at hand and how they might be able to best leverage their power to affect change.</p>
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<p>Procter and Gamble, an official sponsor of U.S. Soccer, urged the governing body to “be on the right side of history” in a full-page ad <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/14/sports/soccer/uswnt-equal-pay-ad.html">in the <em>New York Times</em></a> while simultaneously announcing a US$529,000 donation in support of closing the gender pay gap. </p>
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<p><a href="https://www.fastcompany.com/90357577/visas-new-deal-with-u-s-soccer-could-be-a-game-changer-for-womens-sports">Visa recently mandated</a> that 50 per cent of its official sponsorship go towards the women’s team in its new deal with U.S. Soccer.</p>
<p>Luna Bar announced it would make up the difference between the women’s and men’s World Cup roster bonuses by paying out US$31,250 to each of the 23 players on the U.S. women’s team.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1113116467988434945"}"></div></p>
<p><a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/2019/06/27/womens-world-cup-ratings-record-audiences-thrill-broadcasters/?utm_term=.37e5aa849551">FOX Sports</a> sold out ad space for the Women’s World Cup tournament, <a href="http://www.sportspromedia.com/news/womens-world-cup-final-fox-ad-spots-uswnt-netherlands">nearly tripling expected revenue</a>. </p>
<p>And <a href="https://www.huffingtonpost.ca/entry/nike-highest-selling-soccer-jersey-us-womens-team_l_5d1a3927e4b07f6ca581ab86">Nike’s U.S. women’s national team jersey</a> became the company’s all time highest-selling soccer jersey, men’s or women’s. It unveiled an inspirational ad following the American victory. </p>
<p>Just imagine if a company like this also used its clout to demand equal pay.</p>
<p>The business model in sport is changing. These brands have not suddenly become more philanthropic. They’ve realized the market potential of women’s sport and have their finger on the pulse of a broader cultural turning point. </p>
<p>The fact is, brands have the power to be incredibly influential allies in this quest for change. And there is power in numbers. If more brands were to realize the full weight of their influence in the sporting sphere and demand gender equality in sport, we would collectively be able to put a much deeper crack in that glass ceiling.</p>
<p>[ <em>Like what you’ve read? Want more?</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/ca/newsletters?utm_source=TCCA&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=likethis">Sign up for The Conversation’s daily newsletter</a>. ]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/120463/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Katie Lebel does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Women’s sports have been stuck in a boom-and-bust cycle for the past 20 years. It’s time to start a new narrative.Katie Lebel, Assistant Professor, Ted Rogers School of Management, Toronto Metropolitan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1164482019-05-09T20:07:52Z2019-05-09T20:07:52ZTen ethical flaws in the Caster Semenya decision on intersex in sport<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/273417/original/file-20190508-183103-1eva5jd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Caster Semenya is legally female, was from birth raised as female and identifies as a female.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/ciamabue/7968832970/in/photolist-d9bmpU-6WYxJP-gbWqNq-faB1Ei-d2L35o-QYHomP-aciLfF-X6bjAG-27BHwNd-doMJTN-cT2bCb-RNztaz-cTaov7-74mBHV-cUT2rq-dXYK7q-cRCJDY-cQ9hZQ-RoFRBk-24xxRw2-8RuT7h-cUSVzh-dyUu74-dyUuRP-o4j6Zs-d6XYyN-74qwom-cUT6A5-d6XYpL-dyZXuN-6Rdv6M-d6XYw5-a9coyA-6YGtw4-dyZZsS-dyUuyt-d6XYdN-dyUuKK-25Xb6zb-dyZXsq-dyUuWM-25Xb5Zd-dyZXKL-dyZY9s-dyZXvw-dyZYfL-dyZXES-dyUtKa-dyZXq7-dyZXLW">Jon Connell on flickr </a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>This essay is part of our occasional series <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/zoom-out-51632">Zoom Out</a>, where authors explore key ideas in science and technology in the broader context of society and humanity.</em></p>
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<p>Middle-distance runner Caster Semenya will need to take hormone-lowering agents, or have surgery, if she wishes to continue her career in her chosen athletic events.</p>
<p>The Court of Arbitration in Sport (<a href="https://www.tas-cas.org/en/index.html">CAS</a>) <a href="https://www.tas-cas.org/en/general-information/news-detail/article/semenya-asa-and-iaaf-executive-summary.html">decided last week</a> to uphold a rule requiring athletes with certain forms of what they call “disorders of sex development” (DSD) – more commonly called “intersex” conditions – to lower their testosterone levels in order to still be eligible to compete as women in certain elite races. </p>
<p>The case was brought to CAS by Semenya, as <a href="https://theconversation.com/caster-semenyas-impossible-situation-testosterone-gets-special-scrutiny-but-doesnt-necessarily-make-her-faster-116407">she argued discrimination</a> linked to a 2018 decision preventing some women, including herself, from competing in some female events. </p>
<p>This ruling is flawed. On the basis of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20702382">science and ethical reasoning</a>, there are ten reasons CAS’s decision does not stand up. </p>
<p>But first let’s take a quick look at the biology involved.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/caster-semenya-how-much-testosterone-is-too-much-for-a-female-athlete-116391">Caster Semenya: how much testosterone is too much for a female athlete?</a>
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<p><a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/athletics/48128682">Semenya underwent medical testing in 2009</a>: at the time she was told it was a doping test. The results are confidential, but it has been widely reported that she does have an intersex condition. It seems reasonable to assume she has XY chromosomes, as she is covered by the CAS ruling. Her testosterone levels have not been disclosed, but since the ruling applies to her, they must almost certainly be in what they classify as the “male range”.</p>
<p>According to CAS, the DSD regulations require athletes who want to compete in some female events, who have XY chromosomes and in whom testosterone has a biological effect to reduce their natural testosterone levels to an agreed concentration (below 5 nmol/L). </p>
<p>In women referred to as “46 XY DSD” – the most common intersex condition among female athletes – the presence of a Y chromosome causes the development of testes. These do not descend from the abdomen but do produce testosterone. However the receptors for testosterone are abnormal, with the result that the individual develops as female with a vagina, but no ovaries or uterus. Circulating testosterone may have no biological effect in the case of complete androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS), or some effect in partial AIS.</p>
<p>Now let’s consider what’s wrong with the ruling. </p>
<h2>1. It confuses sex with gender</h2>
<p>Sex refers to biology, and gender refers to social role or self-identification. In sport, the definition of male and female used to be based solely on sex. <a href="https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/39/10/695.info">This was assessed anatomically in the 1960s</a>, then by biological tests such as the presence of a structure called a “Barr body” in cells (found only in genetic females), or the gene for testicular development. </p>
<p>Sex determination was abandoned in the 1990s in favour of gender. From the 2000 Sydney Olympics forwards, <a href="https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/39/10/695.info">there were no tests of gender other than self-identification</a>. </p>
<p>Caster Semenya’s gender is uncontroversially female. She is legally female, was from birth raised as female and identifies as a female. So, on the current definition, Semenya is a female. Indeed, there has been no question of her gender.</p>
<p>Sex determination itself is not simple, with chromosomal, gonadal (presence of ovaries or testes), or secondary sex characteristics (physical) all possible definitions that would include or exclude different groups. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-makes-you-a-man-or-a-woman-geneticist-jenny-graves-explains-102983">What makes you a man or a woman? Geneticist Jenny Graves explains</a>
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<p>The CAS decision relates to “XY females with disorders of sexual development.” XY denotes the male sex chromosomes. This reverts back to the old biological categories. Behind this ruling is the view that Semenya is really a man competing in the women’s category. This view is embodied beautifully in an article entitled “<a href="https://quillette.com/2019/05/03/a-victory-for-female-athletes-everywhere/">A victory for female athletes everywhere</a>.” </p>
<p>But Semenya is a female by the rules used by the International Association of Athletics Federations (<a href="https://www.iaaf.org/home">IAAF</a>) – so she should be allowed to compete to the best of her potential in her category.</p>
<p>An alternative is to retreat to the old sex-based definition based on the presence of a Y chromosome. But that carries its own questions on definitions, and also comes at great political and individual cost. It would imply that Semenya is a male with a disorder of sexual development. </p>
<h2>2. It discriminates against some forms of hyperandrogenism</h2>
<p>Hyperandrogenism is a term used to describe high levels of testosterone. </p>
<p>But the CAS decision does not cover all forms of hyperandrogenism. It only refers to women who have XY chromosomes, such as <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/androgen-insensitivity-syndrome/">partial androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS)</a>. </p>
<p>It does not cover a condition called <a href="https://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/diseases/1467/congenital-adrenal-hyperplasia">congenital adrenal hyperplasia</a>, which can cause elevated levels of testosterone in women with XX chromosomes. </p>
<p>The implication is that XX females are real women, while those with XY chromosomes are not. </p>
<h2>3. It’s based on inadequate science</h2>
<p>The significant problem in partial AIS is that although testosterone is elevated in the blood, the receptors for testosterone do not respond to the hormone in the usual way. That is why these individuals have typical external female physical characteristics. </p>
<p>While the testosterone may have some impact on how the body works, it is impossible to quantify how much effect it is having. For example, the difference testosterone makes between males and females in all events is estimated to be <a href="https://sportsscientists.com/2019/05/on-dsds-the-theory-of-testosterone-performance-the-cas-ruling-on-caster-semenya/">up to 12% (all other items being equal)</a>. But Semenya’s best time is only <a href="https://shows.pippa.io/the-science-of-sport-podcast/episodes/the-caster-semenya-decision-explained">2% faster than her competitors</a>. It is not possible to determine how much of this 2% is due to testosterone, and how much due to other factors about her as an athlete, or her psychology.</p>
<p>The study on which the current decision is based contains only correlations and is flawed in several ways, with a call for its <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s40318-019-00143-w">retraction on scientific grounds</a>. It is a single study, conducted by the IAAF and the full data have not been released for independent replication. The sole ground for the claim that Semenya derives “material androgenizing effect” (that is, biological impact) appears to be the “statistical over-representation of female athletes with 46 XY DSD” in the relevant events, as documented in this single, poorly conducted study.</p>
<p>Even if Semenya’s times were to drop after the reduction of testosterone, this could be a side-effect of the drugs used to reduce testosterone, or a function of reductions in mental or physical functions which are themselves legitimate entitlements of the athlete. </p>
<p>Her body has grown up in the presence of a certain level of testosterone of uncertain function. Our bodies are complex, and still poorly understood. A change of this kind may lead to unexpected results. Some of these reductions in functions may be unjust. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/testosterone-why-defining-a-normal-level-is-hard-to-do-113587">Testosterone: why defining a 'normal' level is hard to do</a>
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<p>No one has given a complete description of the role of testosterone in someone like Semenya, nor how much it ought to be reduced to achieve a supposedly fair outcome. The comparisons are only with XX chromosome women, who have a very different physiology and normal functioning testosterone receptors. </p>
<p>Put simply, a level of 5 nMol/L testosterone is meaningless in Semenya’s case because the receptors are not responding in the usual way. It does not achieve a “<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20702382">level hormonal playing field</a>”. </p>
<p>This is an example of “decimal point science smokescreen.” There is the impression of much greater confidence and sensitivity than the science warrants by appealing to figures with multiple decimal points. The science around testosterone in intersex conditions is poorly understood, let alone as it applies to individuals. This is a level chosen for convenience, not a level that will negate any perceived advantage, but go no further.</p>
<h2>4. It’s inconsistent with values of sport and human rights</h2>
<p>The self-professed values of sport include the <a href="https://www.wada-ama.org/sites/default/files/resources/files/wada_ethicspanel_setofnorms_oct2017_en.pdf">development of one’s own talent</a> . </p>
<p>Yet Semenya is asked to cobble her natural potential as a female competitor. She must take risky biological interventions to reduce her performance. </p>
<p>The United Nations Human Rights Council has stated that the regulations <a href="https://theconversation.com/its-not-clear-where-human-rights-fit-in-the-legal-ruling-on-athlete-caster-semenya-116417">contravene human rights</a> “including the right to equality and non-discrimination […] and full respect for the dignity, bodily integrity and bodily autonomy of the person”. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/its-not-clear-where-human-rights-fit-in-the-legal-ruling-on-athlete-caster-semenya-116417">It's not clear where human rights fit in the legal ruling on athlete Caster Semenya</a>
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<h2>5. It’s inconsistent with treatment of other athletes</h2>
<p>Other women with disorders resulting in higher than expected levels of testosterone, such as congenital adrenal hyperplasia, are not required to reduce their biological advantage.</p>
<p>Competitors with genetic mutations causing increases in red blood cell mass, and who experience enhanced oxygen-carrying capacity as a result, are not required to reduce their biological levels. </p>
<p>The Finnish skier Eero Mäntyranta had a genetic mutation that boosted his red blood cell count by 25-50% (he produced more blood hormone erythropoetin, or EPO). He and won several Olympic medals with this <a href="https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/bjsports/37/3/192.full.pdf">natural form of doping</a>. </p>
<h2>6. It’s unjust</h2>
<p>The decision is unjust in several ways. </p>
<p>Firstly, it was the IAAF which moved from sex to gender definition of female in 1990s. Semenya has entered competition, trained and competed fairly under the rules. To change them now will be undermine her capacity to compete, work and live, after a lifetime of investment. </p>
<p>If the rules are to be changed, they should not affect athletes who agreed to the current rules, but future athletes. There should be a “grandmother clause” for current athletes, like Semenya or else they are unfairly burdened by the bungles of the IAAF. Even if these rules could be considered justified, they should apply to future athletes as soon as possible after puberty.</p>
<p>Secondly, justice is about giving priority to the worst off in our society – but this ruling adds disadvantage to the worst off. Those with intersex conditions are already stigmatised, discriminated against, in many cases cannot bear children even if they want to. They are the socially disadvantaged. This ruling adds further discrimination and disadvantage.</p>
<p>Thirdly, it sets back integration of intersex people, by stigmatising and marginalising them. We have told them: be yourself, society will accept you. But this sends the message: you are really male, we don’t accept you, you should be castrated.</p>
<h2>7. It is an inappropriate reaction to fear of a ‘slippery slope’</h2>
<p>At the heart of this decision is the fear of displacement of cisgender women on the podia by increasing debate over transgender athletes. <a href="https://quillette.com/2019/05/03/a-victory-for-female-athletes-everywhere/">The concern is</a> that if “XY females” are allowed to compete in the female category, formerly male transgender females will follow and rob cisgender women of their medals. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-does-it-mean-to-be-cisgender-103159">Explainer: what does it mean to be 'cisgender'?</a>
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<p>This is a separate issue. Transgender athletes have normal testosterone receptors and would have grown up in the presence of male levels of testosterone acting on normal receptors. Intersex athletes have not grown up in this way and are typically raised as female.</p>
<p>The perceived problem of transgender domination of female sports can be dealt with by separate rules that do not disadvantage existing intersex athletes, though they will raise contentious issues of their own. </p>
<h2>8. It is disproportionate and unreasonable</h2>
<p>All methods of reducing testosterone involve some risk. For example, the administration of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2960241">high-dose birth control medication</a> involves risk of clots, including fatal lung clots. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-choose-the-right-contraceptive-pill-for-you-87614">How to choose the right contraceptive pill for you</a>
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<p>These interventions interfere with a normally functioning organism for highly uncertain benefits to other people. This is disproportionate and unreasonable.</p>
<h2>9. It can’t be implemented</h2>
<p>The World Medical Association has advised doctors <a href="https://www.wma.net/news-post/wma-reiterates-advice-to-physicians-not-to-implement-iaaf-rules-on-classifying-women-athletes/">not to administer</a> testosterone-lowering interventions, describing the regulation as “<a href="https://www.wma.net/news-post/wma-urges-physicians-not-to-implement-iaaf-rules-on-classifying-women-athletes/">contrary to international medical ethics and human rights standards</a>”. </p>
<p>Their use would be “off label” and is for purposes other than the athlete’s health. The rules involve “strict liability” which means the athlete is responsible for any failure to comply, even if unintentional and outside of the athlete’s control.</p>
<h2>10. There are fairer, safer alternatives</h2>
<p>I have argued athletes <a href="https://www.bmj.com/content/347/bmj.f6150">should be able take performance-enhancing substances</a> within the normal physiological range. This would mean cisgender female athletes could take testosterone up to 5 nMol/L. This would reduce any advantage Semenya may have.</p>
<p>It would also deal with the problem that <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-014-0247-x">up to 40%</a> of elite athletes are currently doping anyway. Semenya received the <a href="https://www.olympic.org/london-2012/athletics/800m-women">London 2012 800m gold medal</a> after the <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-doping-russia-savinova/savinova-stripped-of-london-games-800m-gold-for-doping-idUSKBN15P1EO">original winner was disqualified for doping</a>. It is highly likely that some of her current competitors are also doping.</p>
<p>No doubt part of the resistance to allowing Semenya to “naturally dope” is that it will encourage other athletes to engage in doping. But they already are, and a better approach to “de-enhancing” Semenya is to <a href="https://www.bmj.com/content/347/bmj.f6150">regulate and monitor the enhancement of other athletes</a>. </p>
<h2>Spectacular fail</h2>
<p>Rarely does a public policy fail so spectacularly on so many ethical grounds. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.tas-cas.org/fileadmin/user_upload/Media_Release_Semenya_ASA_IAAF_decision.pdf">CAS acknowledged</a> that its decision constituted discrimination: </p>
<p>“The panel found that the DSD Regulations are discriminatory but the majority of the panel found that, on the basis of the evidence submitted by the parties, such discrimination is a necessary, reasonable and proportionate means of achieving the IAAF’s aim of preserving the integrity of female athletics in the restricted events.”</p>
<p>The UNHRC <a href="https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/LTD/G19/072/46/PDF/G1907246.pdf?OpenElement">has refuted this claim of proportionality</a>: “there is no clear relationship of proportionality between the aim of the regulations and the proposed measures and their impact”.</p>
<p>This ruling is neither necessary, reasonable nor proportionate. It is simply unjust discrimination.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/caster-semenyas-impossible-situation-testosterone-gets-special-scrutiny-but-doesnt-necessarily-make-her-faster-116407">Caster Semenya's impossible situation: Testosterone gets special scrutiny but doesn't necessarily make her faster</a>
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<p><em>Thanks to Michelle Telfer and Ken Pang for comments</em></p>
<p><em>This article builds on arguments presented in the paper <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20702382">Time to re-evaluate gender segregation in athletics?</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/116448/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Julian Savulescu receives funding from Uehiro Foundation on Ethics and Education and the Wellcome Trust. </span></em></p>Athlete Caster Semenya will need to take hormone-lowering agents, or have surgery, if she wishes to continue her career in her chosen events. But the decision to ban her is flawed on many grounds.Julian Savulescu, Visiting Professor in Biomedical Ethics, Murdoch Children's Research Institute; Distinguished Visiting Professor in Law, University of Melbourne; Uehiro Chair in Practical Ethics, University of OxfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1164952019-05-03T21:02:27Z2019-05-03T21:02:27ZThe demonization of Caster Semenya continues<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/272567/original/file-20190503-103068-1hdwfh2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C270%2C5472%2C3366&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">South Africa's Caster Semenya in the moments before the women's 800-meter final during the Diamond League athletics event in Doha, Qatar on May 3. The world champion easily won the race, but her future remains in doubt.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Kamran Jebreili)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Caster Semenya, one of the world’s greatest female middle-distance runners, may be forced to quit the event she has dominated for a decade. After easily winning the 800-metre race at an international meet in Doha on May 3, the South African athlete was defiant in saying she won’t comply with new restrictions that will be placed on her at future competitions.</p>
<p>“No man, or any other human, can stop me from running,” she said after the race, her first — and possibly last — competition since a controversial ruling by the supreme court of international sport.</p>
<p>Her defiant words were in reaction to <a href="https://www.tas-cas.org/fileadmin/user_upload/Media_Release_Semenya_ASA_IAAF_decision.pdf">a horrible ruling by the Court of Arbitration for Sport</a>, which denied an appeal by Semenya against the policy of track and field’s international governing body.</p>
<p>The International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) had previously ruled that female athletes like Semenya who have naturally high levels of testosterone must now take hormone-suppressing drugs to compete in any event between 400 metres and one mile. (There are five such events at the international level.) The court decision means the IAAF rules go into effect May 8.</p>
<p>The IAAF policy is based on bad science, flies in the face of best practice in policy making, overrides human rights and will cause tremendous anxiety and even harm among the female athletes in the world, particularly those in the Global South.</p>
<h2>Rules could cause harm</h2>
<p>Even the Court of Arbitration for Sport cautions that there are serious problems with the IAAF policy, including the potential for harmful side effects that hormonal treatment could cause for the athletes who must now take the medication to compete.</p>
<p>The Canadian Centre for Ethics in Sports, which directs Canada’s anti-doping program, the Canadian Association for the Advancement of Women and Sports and AthletesCAN, the association of Canadian national team athletes, <a href="https://cces.ca/news/cces-caaws-and-athletescan-very-concerned-cas-ruling-iaafs-eligibility-regulations-female">have condemned the decision</a>. Athletics Canada has said <a href="https://athletics.ca/athletics-canada-statement-on-iaaf-female-eligibility-regulations/">it won’t implement the policy in Canada</a>.</p>
<p>Before the judgment was rendered, independent experts for the UN Human Rights group <a href="https://www.ohchr.org/_layouts/15/WopiFrame.aspx?sourcedoc=/Documents/Issues/Health/Letter_IAAF_Sept2018.pdf&action=default&DefaultItemOpen=1">wrote the IAAF urging it to cancel the policy</a>. But some track and field athletes came out to support the policy, insisting that <a href="https://www.insidethegames.biz/articles/1077368/isinbayeva-backs-iaaf-and-says-female-athletes-with-high-testosterone-have-colossal-advantage">female athletes with high levels of testosterone have a “colossal” advantage</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/272569/original/file-20190503-103063-1nba6ah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/272569/original/file-20190503-103063-1nba6ah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/272569/original/file-20190503-103063-1nba6ah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/272569/original/file-20190503-103063-1nba6ah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/272569/original/file-20190503-103063-1nba6ah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=518&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/272569/original/file-20190503-103063-1nba6ah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=518&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/272569/original/file-20190503-103063-1nba6ah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=518&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Semenya flexes her muscles after winning the gold medal in the women’s 800-metre at the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Frank Gunn</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Why has Semenya been so demonized?</p>
<p>As a professor of kinesiology and physical education who competed in athletics at the 1964 Olympics, it’s my view the explanation is to be found in a misunderstanding of natural testosterone, a narrow misreading of the Olympic values, the distrust engendered by almost century of sex testing in international sports and a failure of leadership on the part of the IAAF.</p>
<p>Synthetic testosterone is justly banned from Canadian and international sports (except for approved therapeutic purposes). If taken carefully, at the time of hard training, it can enable significant strength and speed gains and reduce the risk of injury.</p>
<h2>Not a reliable measure</h2>
<p>But natural testosterone is not the same thing. It may aid performance, but it may not. <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/348/6237/858.full">As Yale University researcher Katrina Karkazis has argued</a>, there is no predictable relationship between natural testosterone and improved performance. Even in the same person, testosterone levels can change over time, depending on a range of factors. It’s not a reliable measure, and it will be very difficult, if not impossible, to monitor without frequent, invasive testing. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1123940731150917639"}"></div></p>
<p>Then there’s the ethical question. On what basis do you exclude athletes because of who they are? Natural testosterone is a human condition. When I used to urge athletes against doping, I often said “play with your own chemicals.” Now the IAAF is banning female athletes who play with their own chemicals. The Court of Arbitration for Sport emphasized that Semenya was not cheating, and that she should be admired for her athleticism and courage.</p>
<p>High natural testosterone occurs from a genetic mutation, not unlike the <a href="https://www.propublica.org/article/muscular-dystrophy-patient-olympic-medalist-same-genetic-mutation">hundreds of other genetic mutations that confer advantage in sports</a>, such as exceptional height, reach and ability to draw oxygen into the blood stream. Virtually every top athlete has at least one of these inherent advantages. The Olympic spirit is to rejoice in the diversity of humankind.</p>
<h2>Fairness? Let’s address these issues</h2>
<p>If the concern is really the fairness of condition, those who fear Semenya should address the huge international differences in personal and national income, the most consistent factor determining athletic performance because of the advantages it can buy in better training facilities, nutrition, coaching, medical assistance and so on.</p>
<p>Why is no effort made to balance out these other factors? Would Canadians who support the IAAF against Semenya like it if they were required to train under the same conditions as their competitors from the Global South? Of course not. </p>
<p>Sadly, Semenya has not been the first highly successful female athlete to be accused of masculine qualities and to face banning from sports. In fact, from the very beginning of high-level women’s sport, <a href="https://slate.com/technology/2019/05/caster-semenya-testosterone-gender-appeal-ruling.html">the best athletes have been so vilified.</a></p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/fOGXvBAmTsY?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Kathrine Switzer, the first woman to compete in the Boston Marathon in 1967, was told women were too delicate to run long distances.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Sex testing started decades ago</h2>
<p>In the 1930s, the men who controlled sports claimed that such women were “abnormal” and introduced “gender verification” to police them. In the 1960s, when women from the Soviet Union and the newly independent nations of the Global South, many of whom didn’t look like western women, began to win many of the medals, the test was made universal.</p>
<p>Every female athlete I know can recount the stress of “gender verification” and hundreds suffered from the stigma of false positives. <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/sports/gender-testing-at-olympics-abolished-at-last/article25459571/">Worldwide opposition led to the abolition of the universal sex test in 1999</a>, but the very same people who administered it tried again when Semenya raced onto the scene. The legacy of this history continues to pit women against women and poison the sport.</p>
<p>What’s most troubling is the way the IAAF leadership has aggressively campaigned for this test. Instead of standing up for Semenya, admiring her and conducting an educational campaign to clarify the issues, IAAF president Sebastian Coe has made it his personal crusade to chase her from the sport. </p>
<p>But history is on Semenya’s side. As the Court of Arbitration for Sport’s decision acknowledges, there are so many problems with the IAAF policy that no doubt another legal challenge will be mounted before long. </p>
<p>Let’s hope that the next time, gender policing in sports will be abolished once and for all. And let’s hope that more track and field athletes will recognize the justice of Semenya’s cause and support her.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/116495/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bruce Kidd does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The great South African runner Caster Semenya may have competed in her last 800-metre race. She has been demonized for more than a decade, like many other female athletes before her.Bruce Kidd, Professor of Kinesiology, University of TorontoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1148022019-04-03T21:46:10Z2019-04-03T21:46:10ZThe death of the CWHL presents a new opportunity for women’s professional hockey<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/267363/original/file-20190403-177190-7g9qm8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Markham Thunder players celebrate winning the 2018 Clarkson Cup final as champions of the Canadian Women's Hockey League. The CWHL has announced it will cease operations. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Chris Donovan</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The sudden announcement by <a href="https://thehockeynews.com/news/article/the-cwhl-will-cease-operations-as-the-result-of-economically-unsustainable-business-model">the Canadian Women’s Hockey League (CWHL) that it was ceasing operations</a> has generated controversy and confusion. But as an academic who researches sport organizations, I have a different take — the CWHL closure opens the door for new and innovative women’s professional hockey opportunities.</p>
<p>On the surface, this ordeal reads as a tale of two leagues – <a href="http://www.thecwhl.com/">one non-profit, the CWHL</a>, and <a href="https://www.nwhl.zone/">one for-profit, the National Women’s Hockey League (NWHL)</a>. </p>
<p>When the CWHL announced it was shutting down, the <a href="http://www.thecwhl.com/the-canadian-womens-hockey-league-to-discontinue-operations">league’s board of directors stated</a> “the business model has proven to be economically unsustainable.” Many fans and media took this to mean the non-profit model won’t work and the only option is the NWHL’s for-profit approach.</p>
<p>But this is a shortsighted view.</p>
<h2>Closure is a catalyst for change</h2>
<p>The closure of the CWHL is a catalyst for other key stakeholders to enter the scene — which has happened many times in the past for men’s professional hockey, where leagues have come and gone.</p>
<p>As my <a href="http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk3/ftp04/NQ60350.pdf">early doctoral research shows</a>, many different stakeholders — including players, hockey federations, government and industry officials — have influenced the development of hockey over time.</p>
<p>The Canadian Amateur Hockey Association, created in 1914, initially resisted popular pressure to allow pay-to-play leagues to emerge. But as players opted for independent leagues that paid them, the CAHA loosened its regulations and accommodated a degree of professionalism while at the same time overseeing the development of hockey in the country.</p>
<p>This shift opened the market to hockey boosters and entrepreneurs, some of whom owned rinks and needed to have an attractive product in order to entice customers.</p>
<p>Money-making activity was fast and furious. Leagues came (<a href="https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/national-hockey-league-nhl-opens-its-first-season">the National Hockey League started in 1917</a>) and went (the professional <a href="http://www.virtualmuseum.ca/edu/ViewLoitLo.do;jsessionid=822A77858AF0F67DAFC2DA3FB62A818F?method=preview&lang=EN&id=6379">National Hockey Association lasted from 1909-18</a>).</p>
<h2>Rivalry between leagues</h2>
<p>In his account of the emergence of the NHL, academic <a href="https://utorontopress.com/ca/lords-of-the-rinks-3">John Wong</a> says separate camps jockeyed for position and profit as commercial hockey gained public interest. This is no different than the interplay — or as some note, <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/sports/hockey/womens-hockey-leagues-in-trademark-dispute-over-rights-to-nwhl/article29779490/">the business rivalry</a> — between the CWHL and NWHL that has unfolded since 2015, when the U.S.-based NWHL formed.</p>
<p>Women’s hockey also attracted economic interests during the early part of the 20th century. In his review of American women’s hockey in the First World War era, <a href="https://vc.bridgew.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1004&context=history_fac">Andrew Holman</a> notes that sports entrepreneurs sought new ways to sell the game, and as a result, women’s hockey was positioned as a commercial venture. The key point Holman makes about this historic time, though, is the rise and fall of the women’s game, including its professional form. It is important to note the CWHL story has happened before.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.uoguelph.ca/arts/history/news/j-andrew-ross-new-book-national-hockey-league">In his examination of hockey capital and the sports industry</a>, historian Andrew Ross notes the complex men’s professional hockey landscape has included single-ownership leagues. He points out the NHL was once an unincorporated, non-profit organization.</p>
<h2>Not a new model</h2>
<p>The key lesson, then, is to recognize the CWHL model was not new and that this approach, as well as others, has existed and failed in the past. More importantly, these models, and the individuals that spearheaded them, pave the way for new and viable professional women’s hockey approaches to emerge.</p>
<p>Which brings us to the next phase of the story.</p>
<p>In my work on the <a href="http://whforum.ru/en/about/world-hockey-forum-2016/prezentation#stevens">global development of women’s hockey,</a> I note there is no one “best” model, and that each country must develop at its own pace through a method that best suits its unique hockey system. The same is true for a professional women’s hockey league.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/267368/original/file-20190403-177187-1otu78h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/267368/original/file-20190403-177187-1otu78h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/267368/original/file-20190403-177187-1otu78h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/267368/original/file-20190403-177187-1otu78h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/267368/original/file-20190403-177187-1otu78h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/267368/original/file-20190403-177187-1otu78h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/267368/original/file-20190403-177187-1otu78h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In this 1973 photo, NHL star Gordie Howe checks out the new look for his sons, Marty and Mark, after they signed to play with the Houston Aeros of World Hockey Association team. The WHA folded after 1979 and some of its teams were absorbed by the NHL.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Ed Kolenovsky)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>However, the CWHL’s shutdown created a vacuum. Just over 48 hours after the CWHL released news of its decision to close, the <a href="https://www.ctvnews.ca/sports/u-s-based-nwhl-oks-plan-to-expand-to-canada-after-cwhl-folds-1.4362449">NWHL’s board announced</a> an investment plan to establish two teams in Canada, and that it received a financial sponsor commitment from the NHL. And so, in a similar fashion to how the NHL and <a href="https://thehockeywriters.com/the-wha-a-look-back-40-years-later/">World Hockey Association</a>, a rival men’s professional hockey league that existed from 1972-79, merged, one league shuts down while the others acquires some of its franchises and moves on as the lone commercial player in the female game.</p>
<p>Looking back to 2015 when the NWHL was formed, it’s interesting to reflect upon the CWHL’s response. The <a href="https://sports.vice.com/en_ca/article/bmqwq3/what-does-the-launch-of-the-nwhl-mean-for-the-cwhl">CWHL commissioner at the time, Brenda Andress, commented</a> that the NWHL model was wrong and “that for us, it’s about sound operational and financial foundations first because we want to ensure the viability of the long term.”</p>
<p>During its 12 years of operation, the CWHL took this approach and in so doing, shaped the professional women’s hockey landscape. It’s now time for the next stage.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/114802/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Julie Stevens does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>When the Canadian Women’s Hockey League announced it was folding, it was seen as a setback for women’s hockey. But history suggests the death of one hockey league leads to new opportunities.Julie Stevens, Associate Professor, Sport Management and Director, Centre for Sport Capacity, Brock UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1072232018-11-22T11:11:14Z2018-11-22T11:11:14ZSusanna Dinnage: Premier League gets first female chief executive, but sport remains a man’s world<p>The sporting world was taken by surprise recently after a woman was named the <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/football/2018/11/14/susanna-dinnage-premier-leagues-new-chief-executive/">new chief executive</a> of the English Premier League. Susanna Dinnage, made her name in broadcasting rather than the world of football, but is now the most powerful woman in English professional sport. </p>
<p>The Premier League’s appointment of Dinnage is in sharp contrast to the English Football Association, which has long been criticised for its apparent apathy towards the inclusion and progression of <a href="https://www.express.co.uk/sport/football/492267/Greg-Dyke-White-and-male-FA-must-change">women</a>. Heather Rabbatts, who trained as a barrister but made her name as the youngest local authority chief executive was the first, and still sole, woman to be appointed to the FA board – and that was as recently as 2012. Similarly, both the English Cricket Board and the English Rugby Union have <a href="https://atthematch.com/article/how-can-sport-increase-female-representation-at-boardroom-level">only two female board members</a>.</p>
<p>It would be easy to see Dinnage’s leadership of arguably the world’s most successful sporting brand as a sign that women’s representation at the highest levels of sport governance is finally improving – after many years of male dominance. But it’s important to be wary of making assumptions of widespread, inevitable progress on the basis of one isolated example.</p>
<h2>Bridging the gap</h2>
<p>Of course, needing more women at the top is not just something that is unique to the sporting world. The City has come under <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/3cc5b322-1191-11e8-8cb6-b9ccc4c4dbbb">similar pressure</a> to increase the representation of women at boardroom level. Only six FTSE 100 companies <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/business/0/female-bosses-ftse-100/">have a female CEO</a>. And yet, the target for female FTSE 350 board members is still <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/ac1449b8-79f7-11e8-bc55-50daf11b720d">only 30% by 2020</a>. </p>
<p>In 2017, it was found that 33 out of 68 sport national governing bodies <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2017/mar/08/women-in-sport-fa-rfu-ecb-boardroom-diversity">were not meeting that same target</a>. So Dinnage’s appointment at the helm of the world’s most watched sporting league is most definitely welcome.</p>
<p>Dinnage has more than 20 years’ experience of <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/football/2018/11/14/susanna-dinnage-premier-leagues-new-chief-executive/">negotiating broadcast deals</a>. She appears to have the credentials to serve the Premier League well – at a time when it will be able to broker new partnership deals. This includes partnerships with digital providers Amazon and DAZN – who are challenging broadcasting stalwart Sky TV for its monopolisation of football’s television audience.</p>
<p>But having the necessary experience and credentials does not necessarily guarantee women’s progression in the male-dominated sport industry. <a href="https://www.shu.ac.uk/about-us/our-people/staff-profiles/beth-fielding-lloyd">Our current research</a> demonstrates how football is commonly a bastion for male dominance and privilege – at all levels – and despite the professionalisation of the women’s game, it is commonly <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/17430437.2018.1548612">resistant</a> to changes that may threaten that dominance. </p>
<p>We found that, after 155 years, the Football Association still relies on a <a href="http://www.thefa.com/about-football-association/who-we-are/fa-committees">complicated structure of committees and boards</a> – many with life memberships – which in our research was compared to a labyrinth of “old boys networks”. This labyrinth serves to make it difficult to understand where the responsibility for gender equality in football governance lies and has excluded women with relevant experience from contributing to the development of the sport. </p>
<h2>Wanted: a level playing field</h2>
<p>It is also a fallacy to assume that increasing opportunities for women to play sport professionally will <a href="https://atthematch.com/article/how-can-sport-increase-female-representation-at-boardroom-level">inevitably</a> lead to women “emerging” in sport governance. </p>
<p>Within English Cricket, for example, <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/23750472.2017.1386123">research</a> has shown that decision making positions typically remain within the men’s game. This means that attitudes towards the inclusion of women are superficial at best.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/246713/original/file-20181121-161627-18s6e0w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/246713/original/file-20181121-161627-18s6e0w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/246713/original/file-20181121-161627-18s6e0w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/246713/original/file-20181121-161627-18s6e0w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/246713/original/file-20181121-161627-18s6e0w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/246713/original/file-20181121-161627-18s6e0w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/246713/original/file-20181121-161627-18s6e0w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In cricket, the development of the women’s game has been limited because it has been left to ‘compete’ for resources with the existing, well-established and male-dominated clubs.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Dinnage now has the opportunity to <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/46205500">tackle the challenges</a> the Premier League currently faces – such as pressure from elite clubs arguing for a greater share of overseas television rights and contentions that they should be contributing more funding to the grasroots – while embracing opportunities to strengthen its position as, arguably, the world’s leading sport brand. </p>
<p>However, while the appointment of Dinnage is welcome, leadership in the sport industry is far from being a level playing field. And as yet, despite more women working in elite sport, there is no real evidence that there has been a widespread shift in sport culture.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/107223/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Beth Fielding-Lloyd does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Research shows sport is commonly a bastion for male dominance and privilege.Beth Fielding-Lloyd, Principal Lecturer in Sport Studies, Sheffield Hallam UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/986192018-07-02T20:10:55Z2018-07-02T20:10:55ZTrust Me, I’m An Expert: What is sport worth?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/223943/original/file-20180620-126531-1gn0d94.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Alvaro Mendoza/Unsplash</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Even if you’re no great sports fan, you may have noticed a lot of it around lately. There were the Winter Olympics and the Commonwealth Games, and now we’re halfway through the 2018 FIFA World Cup. What isn’t always so obvious is the money and the diplomatic power plays lingering just below the surface of every big sporting meet. But a growing body of academic research is examining those elements and their complex interplay. </p>
<p>So today we’re talking about sports: its dollar value, who gets to participate in it, and why countries spend billions of dollars to strut their stuff on the international stage. </p>
<p>Here’s a taste of what’s in today’s episode:</p>
<h2>Sports diplomacy</h2>
<p>Barbara Keys, sports historian from the University of Melbourne, explains the lofty moral claims of international sporting events, and how they often contrast with the muddy realities of global politics. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/one-likely-winner-of-the-world-cup-putin-98215">One likely winner of the World Cup? Putin</a>
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<h2>World Cup branding</h2>
<p>Every four years, companies get a massive opportunity to sponsor the FIFA World Cup and reach billions of consumers around the world. Recent scandals at football’s governing body, FIFA, however, have tarnished its brand and caused some Western companies to distance themselves from the world’s most popular sporting event. </p>
<p>Marketing professors Con Stavros at RMIT and Andrew Hughes at Australian National University discuss how brands are taking a different approach at this year’s World Cup, and why there’s so much Chinese signage visible in Russia’s stadiums.</p>
<h2>Come on, you girl barrackers!</h2>
<p>And finally, let’s take a moment to appreciate loud, passionate women in Australia’s sporting scene. Women’s AFL is not an aberration of a male-centred sport, but an extension of women’s long participation as enthusiastic supporters.</p>
<p>Matthew Klugman, a sports historian from Victoria University, told The Conversation that men haven’t created a space in footy for women – women have always been there. </p>
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<p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-stereotypes-of-sexy-women-fans-persist-at-the-world-cup-98303">Why stereotypes of sexy women fans persist at the World Cup</a>
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<h2>Additional audio</h2>
<p>Kindergarten by Unkle Ho, from <a href="https://www.elefanttraks.com/">Elefant Traks</a></p>
<p><a href="http://freemusicarchive.org/music/Podington_Bear/Said_Lion_To_Lamb_Box_Set_Disc_3/Stages_Of_Awakening">Stages Of Awakening</a> by Podington Bear, from Free Music Archive</p>
<p><a href="http://freemusicarchive.org/music/Podington_Bear/Said_Lion_To_Lamb_Box_Set_Disc_3/You_Wasted_My_Time_When_I_Was_Timewasting">You Wasted My Time When I Was Timewasting</a> by Podington Bear, from Free Music Archive</p>
<p><a href="http://freemusicarchive.org/music/Podington_Bear/Meet_Podington_Bear_Box_Set_Disc_1/10_Kid_Is_Frangin">Kid Is Frangin</a> by Podington Bear, from Free Music Archive</p>
<p><a href="http://freemusicarchive.org/music/Eaters/Simian_Samba/Eaters_-_Simian_Samba_-_12_Josimar">Josimar</a> by Eaters, from Free Music Archive</p>
<p><a href="http://freemusicarchive.org/music/Eaters/Simian_Samba/Eaters_-_Simian_Samba_-_15_Zaire_54">Zaire ‘54</a> by Eaters, from Free Music Archive</p>
<p><a href="http://freemusicarchive.org/music/Scott_Joplin/Frog_Legs_Ragtime_Era_Favorites/Scott_Joplin_-_08_-_Pine_Apple_Rag_1908_piano_roll">Pine Apple Rag</a> by Scott Joplin, from Free Music Archive</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/98619/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
As we reach the World Cup's halfway point, we're asking: what is sport worth? On today's episode, we explore the money and diplomatic power plays lingering behind the scenes of every big tournament.Madeleine De Gabriele, Deputy Editor: Energy + EnvironmentPhoebe Roth, Editorial InternJustin Bergman, International Affairs EditorLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/924282018-03-14T18:57:30Z2018-03-14T18:57:30ZTo achieve more equity in the tech industry, we must reframe diversity<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/210219/original/file-20180314-131594-1bz8h2c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Companies should listen to both male and female employees on this issue and pay attention to any backlash.</span> </figcaption></figure><p>There is a lot of fear among men in the tech industry about speaking out and trying to overcome <a href="https://www.aauw.org/research/solving-the-equation/">declining female participation</a> and <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/13/upshot/steve-jurvetson-quits-venture-capital-firm-amid-sexual-harassment-inquiry.html">sexual harassment</a>, according to my <a href="https://roanokeresearch.wordpress.com/about">ongoing research</a>.</p>
<p>Diversity in tech is a highly emotional, highly complex issue. My research suggests we need to reframe the issue to make it easier to discuss. Understanding biases as not anyone’s fault helped the participants in our study become advocates for reform in the tech industry.</p>
<p>We interviewed male software engineers in one Silicon Valley company with about 1700 employees. The engineers who would talk about the problem of diversity in their industry raised common themes of problematic corporate cultures – and a fear of going against those publicly. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/more-women-are-becoming-game-developers-but-theres-a-long-way-to-go-79843">More women are becoming game developers, but there's a long way to go</a>
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<p>Women’s participation in the American technology industry <a href="https://www.aauw.org/research/solving-the-equation/">has dropped</a> from 35% in 1990 to 26% in 2013. </p>
<p>There is a <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170809220001/https://diversitymemo-static.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/Googles-Ideological-Echo-Chamber.pdf">stereotype</a> that women are leaving the tech industry because they don’t like programming, desire more social interaction, or are not “biologically fit”. </p>
<p>But <a href="https://www.aauw.org/research/solving-the-equation/">research shows</a> that women are being driven out of the industry due to a lack of opportunities or mentoring, pay inequity or hostile colleagues. <a href="https://www.aauw.org/research/solving-the-equation/">Many women</a> leave to start their own companies. </p>
<p>The hostile environment in the tech industry not only has negative impacts on the women themselves, but companies are also missing out. <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.5172/impp.2013.15.2.149">Studies</a> show that more diverse teams are more productive and <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/ecge.12016">innovative</a>. </p>
<h2>What men in the technology industry think</h2>
<p>Our study found that engineers feared speaking up when they recognise <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com.au/google-memo-urs-holzle-diversity-2018-1?r=US&IR=T">poor behaviour among their male colleagues</a>. </p>
<p>Our participants feared being labelled soft and being excluded by male peers. Male camaraderie and solidarity were important among all of our participants.</p>
<p>The men in our study fear they could lose leadership roles, promotions and <a href="https://www.theverge.com/2018/1/12/16882270/google-diversity-hiring-executives-cory-altheide">even their jobs</a> should they be too vocal in attempting to level the playing field.</p>
<p>Together with the huge decline in female participation in the technology industry, this shows that diversity training itself <a href="http://time.com/5118035/diversity-training-infuriates-men-fails-women/">seems to be failing</a>. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/gender-inequality-is-alive-and-kicking-in-technology-92539">Gender inequality is alive and kicking in technology</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<p><a href="http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674368309">Researchers</a> have shown that even when our biases are pointed out, half of us will cling to our long-held perceptions. We intuitively feel our perceptions to be accurate and no amount of training will shake our faith. </p>
<p>Built into our cognitive neural paths, our <a href="https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/todd_rogers/files/political_extremism.pdf">unconscious thinking and our use of language reinforce our biases</a>.</p>
<p>As philosopher George Lakoff <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books?id=PKkXDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA227&lpg=PA227&dq=George+Lakoff+and+diversity&source=bl&ots=_Jplt4fYqQ&sig=LheRGEx7ESmsiXK4-E1LdApJoQE&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiEsJDqks3ZAhUDa7wKHe6JCAcQ6AEIbjAI#v=onepage&q=George%20Lakoff%20and%20diversity&f=false">has pointed out</a>, we must change the way we think and talk about diversity. We must find a new vocabulary and a new way of thinking about inclusion. </p>
<p>Some of our participants suggested that we “lighten up”‘ in our diversity training. </p>
<blockquote>
<p>Though it is a serious topic, when possible use humour. Drama and role play has worked in workshops I’ve attended.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>But there is no silver bullet, and no one-size-training-fits-all approach to increasing diversity in the tech industry. There is also very little research on the problem from a male point of view. This means we are largely missing the perspective of one side of the equation.</p>
<p>Companies should listen to both male and female employees on this issue and pay attention to any backlash. For some, diversity and inclusion will be a bitter pill and we must listen to those who resist, but it is imperative that we find ways to assist those men who are advocates for diversity. </p>
<p>Men must overcome their fear of publicly supporting change. We must sell the economic and innovative value of diverse corporations and we must put policies in place to support those changes. Without diversifying our talent pool, how will corporations grow technical talent?</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/92428/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Patricia Baum Salgado does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Research has found Silicon Valley engineers feared speaking up when they recognise poor behaviour among their male colleagues.Patricia Baum Salgado, Fellow at the Institute for Social Innovation, Fielding Graduate University Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/767482017-07-28T14:05:55Z2017-07-28T14:05:55ZSportswomen still face sexism, but feminism can help achieve a level playing field<p>Female athletes and leaders are undeniably more visible and increasingly successful in sport – putting in <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-31627312">incredible performances</a> both <a href="http://bleacherreport.com/articles/2658615-team-gbs-hockey-success-at-rio-2016-has-helped-redefine-british-sport%5D">on and off the field</a>. But these achievements still occur in a male defined sport sector – where female stars have to tackle marginalisation and sexualisation of their sporting performance and leadership skills. </p>
<p>Recent research also suggests that coverage of women’s sports has actually <a href="http://www.excellesports.com/news/womens-sports-coverage-sexist/">become more sexist</a> over the past four years – making it clear that in the current age, <a href="https://www.waterstones.com/book/everyday-sexism/laura-bates/9781471149207">everyday sexism</a> characterises the culture of sport. </p>
<p>Elite sportswomen who gain public visibility and acceptance <a href="https://www.infona.pl/resource/bwmeta1.element.springer-doi-10_1007-S11199-015-0497-6">tend to embody a femininity</a> that appeals to white, male heterosexual audiences (and TV producers). This means that women and girls can be subjects of unparalleled achievements in sport, but at the same time, they will be looked at as sex objects – and often applauded for their commitment to heterosexual domestic mothering roles. </p>
<p>Take Jessica Ennis-Hill, undoubtedly one of the world-leading heptathletes of all time, yet reports and pictures claiming her “golden girl” status are based more on her looks, model poses and domestic relationships than her <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/home/you/article-3559174/Jessica-Ennis-Hill-mother-Alison-support-other.html">athletic achievements</a>. </p>
<p>In surfing, women have increased recognition by the <a href="http://www.worldsurfleague.com/">World Surf League</a> via media coverage of women’s events and <a href="http://www.surfline.com/surf-news/the-english-surfing-federation-recently-joined-the-wsl-in-the-effort-to-offer-equal-pay-for-male-and-female-co_135052">increased prize money</a>. Yet imagery of the female surfer is still highly <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1329878X1515500112">sexualised and objectified</a>. Professional female surfers highlight that the <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-04-15/female-surfers-call-for-end-to-sexist-culture-in-sport/7329932">industry is sexist and sponsors ignore surf talent</a> in favour of model looks. Many struggle to find sponsorship and report <a href="http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9780230523173_15">feeling pressured</a> to “show their arse” rather than “kick arse”. </p>
<p>Alana Blanchard, for example, remains the <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-04-15/female-surfers-call-for-end-to-sexist-culture-in-sport/7329932">highest-paid female surfer</a> via sponsorship and endorsements. She is a darling of social media and <a href="http://stabmag.com/style/surfings-social-media-leaders-in-september/">tops polls</a> for being the “most popular athlete”, or “best photo” among male and female surfers. But she did not make it into the world top 30 in 2016.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/BM9xgeZDsL_/?taken-by=alanarblanchard\u0026hl=en","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<p>Female athletes, including the boxer Nicola Adams, have <a href="http://www.yorkshirepost.co.uk/news/boxing-champion-nicola-adams-on-the-fight-for-equality-in-sport-1-8310911">highlighted the fight</a> for sporting equality. Adams has called for boxing to have more female ambassadors – like herself. Casey Stoney, a footballer who plays for Liverpool in the English FA Super League has also spoken about the difficulty of being female and being a sports star. She has openly identified the <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/28316160">struggle in coming out</a> and being a mother in sport. Meanwhile Heather Rabbatts – the FA’s first female non-executive director and board member – has been <a href="http://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/profiles/heather-rabbatts-many-women-would-love-a-role-in-sport-but-our-culture-stops-them-8646205.html">vocal about the restricted professional roles</a> for women in the male culture of sport.</p>
<h2>A man’s world</h2>
<p>So it’s good news then that some governments and international organisations are beginning to address the inequalities that female coaches and administrators face in sport. The recent <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/final-report-of-the-governments-women-and-sport-advisory-board">UK Government’s Women and Sport Report</a> also recognises the scale of the problem. </p>
<p>The International Olympic Committee has additionally claimed that the “real” problem for gender equality in sport is not simply fewer numbers of female athletes and events, but the <a href="https://www.olympic.org/news/ioc-steps-it-up-for-gender-equality-on-international-women-s-day">lack of women in leadership and decision-making</a> roles more generally. </p>
<p>In our forthcoming book, we highlight how <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/project/The-Handbook-of-Feminisms-in-Sport-Leisure-and-Physical-Education">every sporting era is characterised by gender regulation</a>, discrimination, sexism and misogyny. Yet throughout history, feminist work has helped to challenge the sexualisation of female athletes – helping to open up the sporting world for females, while at the same time <a href="https://www.womenssportsfoundation.org">transforming gender-related rights</a> and athlete welfare. </p>
<p>It is in this way that men and women across the sporting sector can continue to help to challenge and change the everyday sexism in the culture of elite sport. This is something that is vitally important – because, for women, pathways to power are invariably littered with reminders that sport is still very much a man’s world.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/76748/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Louise Mansfield works for Brunel University London and receives funding from UK research councils,
government organisations and charities. She is affiliated with the Leisure Studies Association, the International Sociology of Sport Association and the North American Society for the Sociology of Sport.
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Belinda Wheaton works for The University of Waikato, NZ. She receives funding from UK and NZ research councils, and charities. She is affiliated with the Leisure Studies Association, the International Sociology of Sport Association and the North American Society for the Sociology of Sport.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jayne Caudwell works for Bournemouth University. She receives, occasionally, external funding including government-funded, foundation or research council grants. She is affiliated with Leisure Studies Association, Amnesty International, the Labour Party and the University and College Union, </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rebecca Watson works for Leeds Beckett University. She receives, occasionally, external funding including government-funded, foundation or research council grants. She is affiliated with Leisure Studies Association and the University and College Union. </span></em></p>The reality of life as a female sports star.Louise Mansfield, Senior Lecturer in Sport, Health and Social Sciences, Brunel University LondonBelinda Wheaton, Associate Professor in Sport and Leisure Studies, University of WaikatoJayne Caudwell, Associate Professor Leisure Cultures, Bournemouth UniversityRebecca Watson, Reader in Sport and Leisure and Studies, Leeds Beckett UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.