tag:theconversation.com,2011:/institutions/australian-council-for-educational-research-971/articlesAustralian Council for Educational Research2023-12-05T10:01:35Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2188142023-12-05T10:01:35Z2023-12-05T10:01:35ZAustralian teenagers record steady results in international tests, but about half are not meeting proficiency standards<p>Australian high school students have achieved steady results in a new round of international tests. </p>
<p>The latest Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) results, <a href="https://www.acer.org/au/pisa?utm_source=acer%20homepage&utm_medium=web&utm_campaign=feature%20box">released on Tuesday night</a>, show 15-year-olds have recorded similar results to 2015 and 2018 in mathematics, science and reading. </p>
<p>But when looked at over the past 20 years, Australian students’ performance has dropped significantly. PISA also shows about one in eight Australian students is a “high performer”, while one in every four or five is a “low performer”. </p>
<h2>What is PISA?</h2>
<p>PISA is an international test of 15-year-olds’ knowledge and skills as they near the end of compulsory education.</p>
<p>It looks at maths, science and reading. In 2022, for the first time, it also assessed creative thinking. The creative thinking results will be released in 2024. </p>
<p>Since 2000, PISA has been conducted every three years but the assessment planned for 2021 was postponed until 2022 because of COVID. About 690,000 students across 81 countries participated in the test. Almost 13,500 students from 743 schools did the test in Australia. </p>
<p>Students complete a computer-based test and a background questionnaire. In the test, students are presented with stimulus material, such as a brief text, sometimes accompanied by a table, graph or diagram, and a series of questions. Students have to select the correct response or provide a written response, ranging from a word or a number, to an explanation. </p>
<p>In the questionnaire, students are asked about their family background, school life and attitudes about learning.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australias-year-4-students-have-not-lost-ground-on-reading-despite-pandemic-disruptions-205644">Australia’s Year 4 students have not lost ground on reading, despite pandemic disruptions</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Why is PISA important?</h2>
<p>While other national and international assessments (such as NAPLAN) assess what students have learned in school, PISA assesses how students apply what they have learned to real-world situations.</p>
<p>It is also one of three international assessments in which Australia participates, along with the <a href="https://www.acer.org/au/pirls">Progress in International Reading Literacy Study</a> (PIRLS), which looks at Year 4 students’ reading comprehension skills, and <a href="https://www.acer.org/au/timss">Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study</a> (TIMSS), which covers maths and science in Year 4 and Year 8.</p>
<h2>How did Australia go?</h2>
<p>The PISA 2022 results show Australia was equal tenth in maths, and equal ninth in science and reading.</p>
<p>Australian students’ performance in maths and reading has not changed significantly over the past seven years, and their performance in science has not changed significantly over four years. </p>
<p>However, Australian students’ performance has declined significantly since PISA results were first reported. There has been a decrease of 37 points in maths, 20 points in science and 30 points in reading. </p>
<p>The test does not tell us the reasons for this drop. Other countries whose performance in maths, reading and science have also declined significantly include Canada, Finland, Greece, New Zealand and Sweden.</p>
<h2>Other countries drop</h2>
<p>Australia’s standing compared with other countries has improved since the last PISA test because the performance of other countries has declined. </p>
<p>In maths, 11 countries (Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, Ireland, the Netherlands, Poland, Slovenia, Sweden and the United Kingdom) that outperformed Australia in 2018 are now on par with Australia. We are now outperforming six countries that were on par with Australia in 2018 (France, Iceland, Italy, New Zealand, Portugal and the Slovak Republic). </p>
<p>In Australia, male students performed significantly higher in maths (with an average score of 493 compared to the female average of 481). Female students performed significantly higher in reading (with an average of 509 compared to the male average of 487). Male and female students performed at similar levels for science. </p>
<p>Students from higher socioeconomic backgrounds performed significantly higher than students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds and students in major cities performed significantly higher than students in regional or remote areas.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Australia sits around tenth in maths compared to OECD countries." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/562902/original/file-20231201-17-oxq3f0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/562902/original/file-20231201-17-oxq3f0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562902/original/file-20231201-17-oxq3f0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562902/original/file-20231201-17-oxq3f0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562902/original/file-20231201-17-oxq3f0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562902/original/file-20231201-17-oxq3f0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562902/original/file-20231201-17-oxq3f0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Australia sits around tenth in maths compared to OECD countries. The Conversation.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.oecd.org/pisa/">OECD, PISA</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What about high and low performers?</h2>
<p>About one in every eight Australian students is a “high performer” according to the test. This means they show high levels of skills and knowledge in reading, mathematics and science.</p>
<p>In reading and science, about one in every five of Australian students is a low performer, showing limited skills and knowledge in the relevant subject area, while in maths one in every four students is a low performer.</p>
<p>More than half of Australian students attained the (Australian-set) <a href="https://acara.edu.au/reporting/measurement-framework-for-schooling-in-australia">National Proficient Standard</a>. This meet this, students must “demonstrate more than elementary skills expected at that year level”. In maths, 51% attained the proficient standard, 58% attained it for science and 57% for reading.</p>
<p>Between 2018 and 2022 there was no significant change in the proportion of students who attained the National Proficient Standard. But there has been a significant decline since PISA results were first reported. This includes a 16 percentage point drop in mathematics, nine percentage points in science and 12 percentage points in reading.</p>
<p><iframe id="wssbJ" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/wssbJ/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>Next steps</h2>
<p>While it is encouraging to see Australia’s results remain steady, we need to look at the bigger picture.</p>
<p>This includes a long-term decline in results and the reality that a significant proportion of students still aren’t meeting national standards.</p>
<p>Clearly, we are failing some of our 15-year-old students – because they lack basic literacy and numeracy skills and the ability to apply them to real-world situations.</p>
<p>To move forward, we need to ask how our education system can lift their performance. We also cannot forget our high performers – how can our education system support them to extend their learning further?</p>
<p>PISA not only provides us with an opportunity to compare how Australia’s education system fares against other countries. We can also to look at high-performing countries and learn how their curriculum and teaching practices could improve the education of young Australians on the cusp of adulthood.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/yes-australias-pisa-test-results-may-be-slipping-but-new-findings-show-most-students-didnt-try-very-hard-172050">Yes, Australia's PISA test results may be slipping, but new findings show most students didn't try very hard</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/218814/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lisa De Bortoli does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The latest Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) show Australian 15-year-olds have recorded similar results to 2015 and 2018 in maths, science and reading.Lisa De Bortoli, Senior Research Fellow, Australian Council for Educational ResearchLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2076162023-06-27T20:07:17Z2023-06-27T20:07:17Z‘It makes me nervous’: how to help your child prepare for high school<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532604/original/file-20230619-17-l44kho.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=6%2C9%2C2038%2C1348&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Suleman Mukhtar/Pexels</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>As the school year hits the half-way mark, many Year 6 students and their families will be starting to think more about the move to high school next year. </p>
<p>Moving to secondary school is a big change for young people. In addition to hearing stories – good and bad – on the school grapevine, students today also see stories via platforms like YouTube and TikTok. These may or may not be helpful or reflect what their experience will be like.</p>
<p>To discover the actual challenges Australian students face, in 2021, the Australian Council for Educational Research conducted a <a href="https://research.acer.edu.au/well_being/18/">series of student forums</a> with 444 year 6 to 8 students at 15 schools around Australia in New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia and Western Australia.</p>
<h2>Students do feel excited</h2>
<p>In the forums, students talked about their experiences of moving to high school, their main challenges, as well as potential solutions. We also had conversations on what they felt they needed to know about the move to secondary school. </p>
<p>When asked about their feelings about high school, the responses were mixed. More than 30% said “happy”, “excited” or “confident”. But 25% replied “fear” and 13% said “uncertainty”. </p>
<h2>But they are also worried</h2>
<p>When asked to explain their fears and uncertainties, 44% of students said academic work. This included concerns around both the difficulty level and amount of academic work in secondary school, as well as increased expectations on students’ performance. As one student told us: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>Everyone says that there is lots more homework in high school.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>About 30% of respondents also said the new school environment was a concern. This included familiarising themselves with a new campus, finding their way around and the culture of a new school. For example, learning “how things are done at this school” as well as the rules for each classroom. As another student said: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>It makes me nervous, knowing that I might get lost.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>And 21% said social aspects worried them. This included making new friends, keeping in touch with old friends, as well as the complexities of managing the usual ebb and flow of friendships and interactions at school. One respondent explained: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>I feel nervous because there will be new people.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Students also discussed self-management. This included getting up on time, managing public transport, changing to and from sports uniforms, making sure they were prepared for class (having done the homework and brought the correct materials), as well as general time management to fit everything in. Another student told us: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>In primary school I had heaps of time. I used to play hockey every weekend. Now I don’t.</p>
</blockquote>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A young girl examines school materials on her bed." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532607/original/file-20230619-17-tl07qb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532607/original/file-20230619-17-tl07qb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532607/original/file-20230619-17-tl07qb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532607/original/file-20230619-17-tl07qb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532607/original/file-20230619-17-tl07qb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532607/original/file-20230619-17-tl07qb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532607/original/file-20230619-17-tl07qb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some students said they were worried about being prepared for classes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Mart Production/Pexels</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What students want</h2>
<p>The key message from students was that they wanted independence in their school transition. Students said they wanted some help with the move, because, of course, it was new territory. But they strongly felt that once they had guidance, they were old enough to take care of the challenges themselves.</p>
<p>As some students told us, “take deep breaths in and out when scared”, “the Year 8s have helped me a lot”, “make one friend at a time”, and “just be yourself”.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/talking-with-your-teen-about-high-school-helps-them-open-up-about-big-and-little-things-in-their-lives-189171">Talking with your teen about high school helps them open up about big (and little) things in their lives</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How parents and carers can help</h2>
<p>So, how can adults help, while allowing for plenty of independence? The starting point is simply to engage with your young person: ask questions about their move to high school, share your experiences and identify the details of what your young person wants and needs to know.</p>
<p>Here are some practical things parents and carers can do:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>share helpful family stories about change (moving schools, new job, new lifestyle), particularly where there are examples of feeling nervous, making mistakes, and asking for help.</p></li>
<li><p>practice travelling to the new school together during the holidays, so students feel confident doing it on their own when the school year begins.</p></li>
<li><p>look at the high school’s website and social media pages together to see what sort of information you can find. Follow up with the school if you or your child have questions.</p></li>
<li><p>check in with your new school about what orientation activities might be planned. And talk to your existing school: do they have any transition activities?</p></li>
<li><p>importantly, talk with your young person about how they and their classmates are feeling about the move to secondary school. What are their challenges? What could help?</p></li>
</ul>
<p>There are more examples of how to help in non-profit organisation Life Ed’s <a href="https://guidetothrive.lifeed.org.au/support-for-parents-carers">Guide to Thrive</a>. Their examples and resources build directly from the research above. </p>
<h2>The big picture</h2>
<p>The bigger picture is change and uncertainty is a fact of life. Transitioning from primary to high school is an opportunity for young people to learn skills for managing change they can use again in their future.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/year-1-and-year-8-can-be-surprisingly-tough-transitions-if-your-child-is-struggling-they-are-not-alone-200356">Year 1 and Year 8 can be surprisingly tough transitions (if your child is struggling, they are not alone)</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207616/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The student forums research referred to in this article was funded via Life Ed, a not-for-profit organisation, from the Australian government's 'Being Healthy Being Active' grant. This grant also funded the extension of the research into practical advice and resources for the classroom and home, from which the article draws examples.</span></em></p>In a series of research forums young people talked about their fears around going to high school. And what kind of support they want.Shani Sniedze, Research Fellow, Australian Council for Educational ResearchLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2056442023-05-16T10:57:52Z2023-05-16T10:57:52ZAustralia’s Year 4 students have not lost ground on reading, despite pandemic disruptions<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526371/original/file-20230516-23-s3vsmi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5184%2C3422&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australia’s Year 4 students have not lost ground on their reading skills, despite all the disruptions to schooling during the pandemic. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.acer.org/au/pirls/key-findings">major international test has found</a> about 80% of students have “more than elementary” skills in reading comprehension. This is the same result Australian students recorded in the <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/australias-reading-levels-improve-significantly-but-only-for-the-top-readers-20171205-gzytr2.html">last round of PIRLS testing in 2016</a>.</p>
<p>But reading performance among students from disadvantaged backgrounds and rural areas still tends to be lower than among other students. </p>
<p>What do the PIRLS results tell us? And how can we improve reading skills?</p>
<h2>Why is PIRLS important?</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www.acer.org/au/pirls">Progress in International Reading Literacy Study</a> – PIRLS for short – is an international assessment of Year 4 students’ reading comprehension skills. It is one of three international assessments Australia participates in, along with the <a href="https://www.acer.org/au/timss">Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS)</a>, which covers maths and science in Year 4 and Year 8, and the <a href="https://www.acer.org/au/pisa">Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA)</a>, which assesses reading, mathematics and science in 15-year-olds. </p>
<p>These assessments involve a nationally representative, random selection of schools and students. The results provide an overview of how different groups of students are performing in these key areas of learning, both within and between countries. </p>
<p>Unlike NAPLAN, these assessments are not designed to report on individual students’ performance.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A teacher works with young students on a reading task." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526382/original/file-20230516-23-nv7ksc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526382/original/file-20230516-23-nv7ksc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526382/original/file-20230516-23-nv7ksc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526382/original/file-20230516-23-nv7ksc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526382/original/file-20230516-23-nv7ksc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526382/original/file-20230516-23-nv7ksc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526382/original/file-20230516-23-nv7ksc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The PIRLS study is one of three major international tests Australia participates in.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What does PIRLS measure?</h2>
<p>PIRLS has been conducted about every five years since 2001, and Australia has taken part since 2011. It focuses on Year 4 students because many students at this level are moving on from learning to read and are now reading to learn.</p>
<p>In other words, they are now fairly comfortable with the mechanics of reading, and more of their learning will require them to interact with text – whether searching the internet for information about a certain country or discussing the experiences of a lead character in a novel.</p>
<p>The Year 4 students who participate in PIRLS each read two texts – either two narrative texts, like a short story; two non-fiction texts, like a short article; or one of each.</p>
<p>They then answer a set of questions about the content, style and purpose of those texts. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/research-shows-the-importance-of-parents-reading-with-children-even-after-children-can-read-82756">Research shows the importance of parents reading with children – even after children can read</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How did Australia go?</h2>
<p>The 2021 PIRLS assessment was conducted in the midst of the COVID pandemic, which saw interruptions to normal schooling in many participating countries, including Australia.</p>
<p>In Australia, 281 schools and 5,487 students were involved.</p>
<p>Australia’s average score was 540 points. This was statistically similar to Australia’s average score in 2016 (544 points) and higher than the average score in 2011 (527 points).</p>
<p>The 2021 result is also significantly higher than the average scores of 28 other countries, including Germany, New Zealand and France. </p>
<p>Australia scored lower than average scores for six other countries: Singapore, Hong Kong and England (who tested in English) as well as Russia, Finland and Poland. </p>
<p>Twenty-one countries, including usually strong performers like Russia and Finland, <a href="https://timss.bc.edu/pirls2021/index.html">recorded significant drops</a> in their average score since 2016.</p>
<h2>Meeting the ‘proficient standard’</h2>
<p>Australian students also held their ground when it came to the proportion who met the <a href="https://acara.edu.au/docs/default-source/default-document-library/measurement-framework-2020-amended-may-12-2022.pdf?sfvrsn=4ddc4c07_0">Australian “proficient standard”</a> for reading. This involves students demonstrating “more than elementary skills expected at that year level”.</p>
<p>About <a href="https://www.acer.org/au/pirls/key-findings">80% of Australian students</a> met or exceeded the proficient standard in 2021, as they did in 2016. Students at this level can make straightforward inferences, interpret reasons for characters’ feelings or actions, and provide information about central ideas within texts. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A young girls reads on a towel on the grass." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526383/original/file-20230516-19-cr44y0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526383/original/file-20230516-19-cr44y0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=417&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526383/original/file-20230516-19-cr44y0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=417&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526383/original/file-20230516-19-cr44y0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=417&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526383/original/file-20230516-19-cr44y0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=524&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526383/original/file-20230516-19-cr44y0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=524&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526383/original/file-20230516-19-cr44y0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=524&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Students who say they enjoy reading tend to perform better in the PIRLS testing.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Skylar Zilka/Unsplash</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>We still have 20% of students behind</h2>
<p>At the same time, this means we still have about 20% of students who do not meet the proficient standard, compared to just one in ten in the highest performing countries, such as Singapore, Hong Kong and Russia. </p>
<p>These figures increase if students are from an equity group. </p>
<p>For example, 42% of students in remote schools, 40% of First Nations students and 31% of students in disadvantaged schools did not meet the proficient standard. </p>
<h2>How can we improve?</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://timssandpirls.bc.edu/pirls2016/international-results/pirls/summary/">PIRLS study</a> highlights behaviours, attitudes and strategies that seem to be associated with higher scores on the reading assessment.</p>
<p>Students <a href="https://research.acer.edu.au/pirls/7/">who tell us</a> they enjoy reading, are confident readers or are engaged during their reading lessons tend to perform at higher levels than young people who do not enjoy reading, aren’t confident or aren’t engaged during their reading lessons. </p>
<p>Students in classrooms where teachers report students are tired, disruptive, uninterested or don’t have the prerequisite skills or knowledge they need tend to score lower than students in classes that aren’t impacted by these factors.</p>
<p>And students in schools where principals tell us most students have early literacy skills (like knowing letters or reading short words) before starting school tend to score higher, on average, than students in schools where fewer students have early literacy skills when they start school.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-that-voice-in-your-head-when-you-read-203379">What is that voice in your head when you read?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Australia’s achievement in PIRLS 2021 is a good result in the context of the pandemic and a testament to our teachers’ dedication and professionalism.</p>
<p>Ultimately, though, every child deserves the chance to become a competent reader. Early support for students who find reading challenging is essential to prevent them falling behind in other learning areas, and if we hope to see improvement on future national and international assessments.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/205644/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kylie Hillman is affiliated with the Australian Council for Educational Research, who are the National Project Managers for PIRLS. The report is released on behalf of the Australia, state and territory governments, however the views expressed in this article are those of the author.</span></em></p>A major international test has found about 80% of students have “more than elementary” skills in reading comprehension. This is the same result Australian students recorded in 2016.Kylie Hillman, Senior Research Fellow, Australian Council for Educational ResearchLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1680732021-09-20T00:01:15Z2021-09-20T00:01:15ZAustralian students say they understand global issues, but few are learning another language compared to the OECD average<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421479/original/file-20210916-19-bm4ilg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/world-map-globalization-cartography-global-planet-440775508">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>More Australian 15 year olds feel they are familiar with global issues such as climate change, migration, causes of poverty and equality between men and women than the OECD average.</p>
<p>But only 8% of Australian students say they are learning two or more foreign languages, compared to 50% of students across OECD countries.</p>
<p>These are some of the results of the OECD’s 2018 Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), which included efforts to <a href="https://research.acer.edu.au/ozpisa/53/">measure students’ global competence</a>. It gathered the perceptions of students, teachers and school principals on whether 15 year olds have the skills, knowledge and attributes to thrive in global contexts.</p>
<h2>How students were tested</h2>
<p>Teachers and students filled out a questionnaire on students’ awareness of global issues and cultures, skills (both cognitive and social) and attitudes, which covered all four dimensions of global competence. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421464/original/file-20210916-28-uiua5b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Four dimensions of global competencies:" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421464/original/file-20210916-28-uiua5b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421464/original/file-20210916-28-uiua5b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421464/original/file-20210916-28-uiua5b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421464/original/file-20210916-28-uiua5b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421464/original/file-20210916-28-uiua5b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=664&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421464/original/file-20210916-28-uiua5b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=664&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421464/original/file-20210916-28-uiua5b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=664&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Four dimensions of global competencies: examine local, global and intercultural issues; understand and appreciate the perspectives and world views of others; engage in open, appropriate and effective interactions across cultures; take action for collective well-being and sustainable development.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Screenshot/ACER</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For instance, student awareness of global issues was measured by asking students to indicate how informed they felt they were about: </p>
<ul>
<li><p>climate change and global warming</p></li>
<li><p>global health (e.g. epidemics)</p></li>
<li><p>migration (movement of people)</p></li>
<li><p>international conflicts</p></li>
<li><p>hunger or malnutrition in different parts of the world</p></li>
<li><p>causes of poverty</p></li>
<li><p>equality between men and women in different parts of the world.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Students were asked to respond on a four-point scale: I have never heard of this; I have heard about this but I would not be able to explain what it is really about; I know something about this and could explain the general issue; and I am familiar with this and I would be able to explain this well.</p>
<h2>Australian students well versed on global issues</h2>
<p>On the whole, the data is reassuring. On almost all measures, Australian students were above the OECD average. This included awareness of global issues, respect for people from other cultures, positive attitudes towards immigrants and a greater sense of global mindedness.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421465/original/file-20210916-19-w17skz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421465/original/file-20210916-19-w17skz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421465/original/file-20210916-19-w17skz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=349&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421465/original/file-20210916-19-w17skz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=349&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421465/original/file-20210916-19-w17skz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=349&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421465/original/file-20210916-19-w17skz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=438&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421465/original/file-20210916-19-w17skz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=438&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421465/original/file-20210916-19-w17skz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=438&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Percentage of students who know about or are very familiar with topics of global significance, such as climate change and international conflicts.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Screenshot/ACER</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This reflects Australian students’ access to global news, and their ability to interact with people from different cultures.</p>
<p>Around two-thirds of Australian students reported having contact with people from other countries in their family, at school and in their circle of friends. Almost half of Australian students reported having contact with people from other countries in their neighbourhood.</p>
<p>Beyond this, Australian students reported more opportunities to participate in intercultural learning practices and to engage in global competence learning activities than the OECD average. These include learning about different cultures at school and learning about the histories of diverse cultural groups that live in our, and other, countries.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/5-australian-books-that-can-help-young-people-understand-their-place-in-the-world-127712">5 Australian books that can help young people understand their place in the world</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>But further improvements can be made. Australian students were consistently outperformed by peers in Canada and Singapore in the global competence stakes. </p>
<p>For instance, only 43% of students said “I am often invited by my teachers to give my personal opinion about international news”, which was lower than students in Singapore, Canada, Korea, Poland, Hong Kong (China), Germany and across the OECD.</p>
<p>Male students lagged behind female students, other than for their self-efficacy in explaining global issues. This included asking how students believed they would perform on their own in areas such as discussing the different reasons people become refugees. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421472/original/file-20210916-23-1f437mw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421472/original/file-20210916-23-1f437mw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421472/original/file-20210916-23-1f437mw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=410&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421472/original/file-20210916-23-1f437mw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=410&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421472/original/file-20210916-23-1f437mw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=410&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421472/original/file-20210916-23-1f437mw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=515&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421472/original/file-20210916-23-1f437mw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=515&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421472/original/file-20210916-23-1f437mw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=515&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Percentage of students who think they can perform tasks, such as explaining how carbon-dioxide emissions affect climate change, easily or with some effort.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Screenshot/ACER</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Students in Tasmania, in regional areas and those born in Australia trailed their more globally-empowered counterparts. This could partly reflect different concentrations of cultural diversity in different parts of Australia.</p>
<h2>Australian students aren’t choosing to learn languages</h2>
<p>Despite the positives, the data indicate some clear areas of concern. Australian students reported a greater awareness of intercultural communication than their OECD peers. While being aware of intercultural communication is certainly useful, being able to communicate with people from different countries in their own languages is even better. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, in comparison to their OECD peers, a mere 12% of whom do not learn a foreign language, 64% of 15-year-old Australian students reported language learning was not part of their lives. </p>
<p>This is disheartening. Learning a foreign language is hard. It teaches valuable lessons about vulnerability, compassion for those who struggle to be understood and differences in cultural norms. </p>
<p>Language learning has been shown to enhance cognitive abilities and support improved <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10643-005-0015-5">reading and maths achievement</a>. To achieve mastery, language learning requires determination and resilience — attributes students will need to thrive as adults.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/thinking-of-taking-a-language-in-year-11-and-12-heres-what-you-need-to-know-164080">Thinking of taking a language in year 11 and 12? Here's what you need to know</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Australian students also reported a low level of interest in learning about other cultures: how people live in different countries, their traditions and how others see the world. </p>
<p>Additionally, just over a third of Australian students felt learning more about the religions of the world was important, compared with half of Singaporean students and significantly higher proportions of students in countries such as New Zealand and Canada. Religious understanding enhances <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/politics-and-religion/article/abs/learning-about-world-religions-in-modesto-california-the-promise-of-teaching-tolerance-in-public-schools/7100BF9AE9174E2DEE64A439EBA9BB8A">tolerance, peace and mutual respect</a> at home and abroad, so this finding is a concern.</p>
<p>Language learning in Australia is patchy across school and states. Some states have <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-your-kid-studying-a-second-language-at-school-how-much-they-learn-will-depend-on-where-you-live-155219">no language policy at all</a>. This needs to change. A key focus should be on ensuring that adequately trained and knowledgeable language teachers are available in all schools.</p>
<p>If Australia is to fulfil its potential on the global stage, particularly in the Asia-Pacific, our students need to gain the skills to equip them to thrive in a world characterised by cultural intermingling. As <a href="https://wwnorton.com/books/9780393329339">Kwame Anthony Appiah eloquently suggests</a>, “conversations across boundaries can be delightful, or just vexing: what they mainly are, though, is inevitable”.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/168073/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The data reported here was collected by ACER, who were funded by the Department for Education, Skills and Employment to coordinate Australia's participation in PISA 2025. </span></em></p>Only 8% of Australian students said they were learning two or more foreign languages in 2018, compared to 50% of students across OECD countries.Sarah Richardson, Research Director, Surveys and International Assessments, Australian Council for Educational ResearchLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1658212021-08-10T03:43:24Z2021-08-10T03:43:24Z‘I was astonished at how quickly they made gains’: online tutoring helps struggling students catch up<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/415341/original/file-20210810-15-18oiup3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5750%2C3821&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/hispanic-teen-girl-school-college-student-1738498550">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>One-on-one online tutoring for disadvantaged students has proved highly effective in helping them overcome their struggles with literacy and numeracy. The Smith Family, the national children’s education charity, recently completed a small pilot of the program, Catch-Up Learning, for students from financially disadvantaged backgrounds. Most made <a href="https://www.thesmithfamily.com.au/-/media/files/research/catch-up-learning/catch-up-learning-research-report-final-low-res.pdf?la=en&hash=3C936AAFFA287C6774DB4E59464AABBE">above-expected progress</a> in assessments of their literacy and numeracy by the end of the program.</p>
<p>About 100 children who participated in the program had one-on-one tutoring, with a qualified teacher, up to three times a week for 20 weeks. Being online, the tutoring could be done in the child’s home at a time that suited the family. </p>
<p>The participants were students in years 4, 5, 7 or 8 who were struggling with literacy and numeracy skills. One in five were of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander backgrounds. Two in five had a health and disability issue.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/one-quarter-of-australian-11-12-year-olds-dont-have-the-literacy-and-numeracy-skills-they-need-148912">One quarter of Australian 11-12 year olds don't have the literacy and numeracy skills they need</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The program was informed by strong evidence from analysis by the UK’s <a href="https://educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk/evidence-summaries/teaching-learning-toolkit/">Education Endowment Foundation</a> that one-on-one tutoring with a trained teacher is very effective in helping learners catch up. It’s particularly helpful for younger learners who are behind their peers in primary school, and for reading and maths skills. </p>
<h2>What did the program achieve?</h2>
<p>Program attendance was high, including over the summer holidays – an extraordinary achievement given how prized those holidays are! Students were highly engaged and many increased their love of learning over the course of the program. This contributed to the strong improvements in literacy and numeracy they achieved.</p>
<p>Students were <a href="https://www.thesmithfamily.com.au/-/media/files/research/catch-up-learning/catch-up-learning-research-report-final-low-res.pdf?la=en&hash=3C936AAFFA287C6774DB4E59464AABBE">assessed</a> before and after the program. Skills growth was measured, taking into account the length of time the program ran. </p>
<p>The results were highly promising: 86% of students made above-expected progress in literacy or numeracy. Two in five achieved above-expected progress in both subjects. By the end of the program, six in ten students had achieved literacy levels equivalent to or stronger than their year-level peers. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1424855040548872194"}"></div></p>
<p>Insights from the tutors confirm a range of positive changes for students. One tutor of a year 5 student <a href="https://www.thesmithfamily.com.au/-/media/files/research/catch-up-learning/catch-up-learning-research-report-final-low-res.pdf?la=en&hash=3C936AAFFA287C6774DB4E59464AABBE">said</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“[He] is excited to tell me how well he did in a particular lesson […] His attitude toward learning has improved so much as he learnt more during
the sessions and became confident in school as a result.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Another <a href="https://www.thesmithfamily.com.au/-/media/files/research/catch-up-learning/catch-up-learning-research-report-final-low-res.pdf?la=en&hash=3C936AAFFA287C6774DB4E59464AABBE">said</a> of their year 4 student:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“I was astonished at how quickly they made gains in literacy […] their reading galloped from struggling with basic texts to being able to read nine out of 10 words.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Catch-Up Learning confirms what parents and teachers across Australia know – with the right support at the right time, all children can develop a love of learning and in turn develop key literacy and numeracy skills. The Smith Family will use the evaluation to refine the program and move to a second stage pilot with more students. </p>
<p>It is also hoped these findings resonate with education departments and schools during times when students are unable to attend school.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/victoria-and-nsw-are-funding-extra-tutors-to-help-struggling-students-heres-what-parents-need-to-know-about-the-schemes-153450">Victoria and NSW are funding extra tutors to help struggling students. Here's what parents need to know about the schemes</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The program is not, however, a panacea for all the educational challenges faced by many students experiencing financial disadvantage. Participants were on average three years behind their peers in numeracy at the start of the program. Unsurprisingly, despite their significant progress over the 20 weeks, they didn’t make up this large gap. There is more to be done.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Young boy prepares to write as he talks with someone on his laptop" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/415346/original/file-20210810-19-1foxb2n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/415346/original/file-20210810-19-1foxb2n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/415346/original/file-20210810-19-1foxb2n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/415346/original/file-20210810-19-1foxb2n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/415346/original/file-20210810-19-1foxb2n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/415346/original/file-20210810-19-1foxb2n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/415346/original/file-20210810-19-1foxb2n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Giving students the skills they need to re-engage with learning is an essential step in catching up with their peers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/happy-gen-z-school-kid-headphones-2002131674">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why does this skills gap matter?</h2>
<p>In our technology-rich 21st century, strong literacy and numeracy skills are prerequisites for Australians to find a job, access services, participate in e-commerce and keep connected.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/yes-adult-literacy-should-be-improved-but-governments-can-make-their-messages-easier-to-read-right-now-164621">Yes, adult literacy should be improved. But governments can make their messages easier to read right now</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Unfortunately, <a href="https://www.vu.edu.au/sites/default/files/educational-opportunity-in-australia-2020.pdf">research</a> shows a clear and persistent relationship in Australia between socioeconomic background and students’ educational outcomes.
Foundations for success in literacy and numeracy are laid early on. </p>
<p>Childhood maths skills are predictive of later learning and achievement. Children who enjoy reading, read more. This, in turn, helps them to become strong readers. The converse is also true – poor readers lose motivation, tend to read less, and this leads them to falling further behind.</p>
<p>Data from international assessments show significant numbers of Australian children are not meeting important literacy and numeracy benchmarks. In the latest Trends in International Maths and Science Study (<a href="https://www.acer.org/au/timss">TIMSS</a>), less than half (48%) of Australia’s year 4 students from low socioeconomic backgrounds achieved or exceeded the national proficiency standard in numeracy, compared to 82% of those from high socioeconomic backgrounds.</p>
<p>Similarly, the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (<a href="https://www.acer.org/au/pirls">PIRLS</a>) shows 57% of year 4 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students met the national proficiency standard, compared to 83% of non-Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/1-in-4-australian-year-8s-have-teachers-unqualified-in-maths-this-hits-disadvantaged-schools-even-harder-161100">1 in 4 Australian year 8s have teachers unqualified in maths — this hits disadvantaged schools even harder</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>These gaps have persisted despite the efforts of students, parents, teachers and schools over many years. They’re also pre-COVID gaps, with <a href="https://grattan.edu.au/report/covid-catch-up/">concerns</a> that remote learning <a href="https://www.vu.edu.au/sites/default/files/impact-of-learning-from-home-federal-government-brief-mitchell-institute.pdf">may have widened them</a>. These children are in danger of not being able to participate economically and socially in our community. </p>
<h2>Australia must invest in catching up</h2>
<p>We can and must do better. These skills gaps aren’t inevitable. </p>
<p>The Catch-Up Learning program confirms international evidence of the value of tutoring for helping children who are behind in literacy and numeracy. But through its innovations – using online technology so tutoring takes place in the student’s home, with their carer’s engagement a key component – it has gone further. These innovations contributed to the outcomes achieved.</p>
<p>So Catch-Up Learning is helping to build the evidence base of how young Australians can be supported to achieve educationally. Australia should seize the opportunity to build on this work.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/165821/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sue Thomson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The evidence clearly shows one-on-one tutoring improves disadvantaged students’ skills. An Australian pilot program has now shown the benefits of online tutoring that supports students in their homes.Sue Thomson, Deputy CEO (Research), Australian Council for Educational ResearchLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1611002021-05-24T21:16:33Z2021-05-24T21:16:33Z1 in 4 Australian year 8s have teachers unqualified in maths — this hits disadvantaged schools even harder<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/402276/original/file-20210524-19-10vv69l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/close-students-writing-reading-exam-answer-1062306728">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Almost one in four (23%) Australian year 8 students were being taught maths in 2018 by teachers whose major qualification was in a field other than maths, <a href="https://research.acer.edu.au/timss_2019/4/">new analysis</a> reveals. </p>
<p>Internationally, on average, just one in ten year 8 equivalent students are taught maths by such teachers. </p>
<p>The analysis of Australia’s participation in the 2019 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) — an international assessment — was released today by the Australian Council for Educational Research (ACER). </p>
<p>The above figures have remained much the same since the 2015 <a href="https://research.acer.edu.au/timss_2015/2/">TIMSS data</a> collection.</p>
<p>When qualified teachers are assigned to teach subjects and year levels they have not studied at a tertiary level, this is known as out-of-field teaching. TIMSS also shows a large achievement difference between students taught by expert teachers and students taught by out-of-field teachers. </p>
<p>However, socioeconomic status has a large impact on student achievement, and TIMSS also shows more disadvantaged students are being taught by non-expert teachers.So, there may be a cumulative effect — with both teacher expertise and disadvantage playing a role in results.</p>
<h2>Students with expert maths teachers score higher</h2>
<p>TIMSS summarises achievement on the test on a scale with a mean of 500 and standard deviation of 100. In TIMSS 2019, Australian students achieved an overall average of 516 points in maths. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-lifts-to-be-among-top-ten-countries-in-maths-and-science-150275">Australia lifts to be among top ten countries in maths and science</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Students with expert teachers in maths, with specialist teacher training, scored significantly higher in maths in the TIMSS test than any other group. </p>
<p>Those taught by teachers with strong subject matter knowledge and pedagogical training in subjects other than maths scored next highest. </p>
<p>They all performed at a higher level than students taught by teachers with neither the subject-matter knowledge nor the pedagogical knowledge in maths. </p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/402024/original/file-20210520-13-29wjao.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Chart showing percentages of students and their average maths score corresponding to type of major of their teacher" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/402024/original/file-20210520-13-29wjao.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/402024/original/file-20210520-13-29wjao.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/402024/original/file-20210520-13-29wjao.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/402024/original/file-20210520-13-29wjao.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/402024/original/file-20210520-13-29wjao.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/402024/original/file-20210520-13-29wjao.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/402024/original/file-20210520-13-29wjao.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Percentages of Australian students (Year 8) by the type of major of mathematics teachers and corresponding average mathematics scores.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://research.acer.edu.au/timss_2019/4/">Data: ACER</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>–</p>
<p>It’s important to note, however, the scores of students in this point-of-time assessment are not the simple result of the one teacher surveyed for TIMSS. They are a cumulative result of eight years of schooling. </p>
<p>One of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/educational-disadvantage-is-a-huge-problem-in-australia-we-cant-just-carry-on-the-same-74530">largest effects on student achievement</a> is socioeconomic advantage and disadvantage.</p>
<h2>Disadvantaged students bearing the brunt</h2>
<p>Overall, 46% of year 8 students were taught maths by teachers with a major in both maths and maths education, while 23% were taught by out-of-field teachers. </p>
<p>However, while there is a general shortage of qualified maths teachers, it affects some students more than others. </p>
<p>Principals of the schools selected for TIMSS also reported on the socioeconomic composition of their schools. They were asked to indicate the percentages of students who came from economically affluent homes and from economically disadvantaged homes. </p>
<p>These responses were used to create three categories of school socioeconomic composition: more affluent, more disadvantaged and neither. </p>
<p>The TIMSS data show disadvantaged students are bearing the brunt of maths teacher shortages.</p>
<p>In more affluent schools, out-of-field teachers taught just 16% of students. More qualified maths teachers taught 54% of these students. </p>
<p>In contrast, in more disadvantaged schools, out-of-field teachers taught 28% of students. More qualified maths teachers taught just 31% of students.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Chart showing percentages of maths teachers by type of major in affluent and disadvantaged schools" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/402029/original/file-20210520-19-1jaw42v.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/402029/original/file-20210520-19-1jaw42v.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/402029/original/file-20210520-19-1jaw42v.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/402029/original/file-20210520-19-1jaw42v.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/402029/original/file-20210520-19-1jaw42v.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/402029/original/file-20210520-19-1jaw42v.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/402029/original/file-20210520-19-1jaw42v.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://research.acer.edu.au/timss_2019/4/">Data: ACER</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>The average maths score for more affluent schools was 558 points, compared to 474 points for more disadvantaged schools. </p>
<p>A proportion of the achievement gap between students taught by out-of-field teachers and those taught by more qualified maths teachers must therefore be related to disadvantage. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australian-schools-are-becoming-more-segregated-this-threatens-student-outcomes-155455">Australian schools are becoming more segregated. This threatens student outcomes</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Many students in the disadvantaged secondary schools also would have attended disadvantaged primary schools, so may have had many years of more poorly resourced teaching.</p>
<h2>Out-of-field teachers in Australia</h2>
<p>According to the <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/%7E/media/Estimates/Live/eet_ctte/estimates/sup_1213/answers/EW0743_13_Attachment_A.ashx">National School Improvement Tool</a> (among many other documents on effective teachers and schools), highly effective schools have “teachers … [who] are experts in the fields in which they teach, [and] have high levels of confidence in teaching in those fields”. </p>
<p>Yet <a href="https://amsi.org.au/media/AMSI-Occasional-Paper-Out-of-Field-Maths-Teaching.pdf">analysis</a> from the Australian Mathematical Sciences Institute (AMSI) has warned that 76% of students will be taught by an out-of-field maths teacher at least once, and 35% of students twice, in the first four years of high school. Worryingly, 8% will be taught by out-of-field teachers for all four years.</p>
<p>Many out-of-field teachers have been teaching in that subject area for several years. <a href="https://research.acer.edu.au/policyinsights/6/">Analysis</a> of the 2013 Staff in Australia’s Schools survey showed out-of-field maths teachers had been teaching the subject to years 7-10 for an average total of 7.4 years. </p>
<p>While TIMSS data on years of teaching were not specific to maths teaching, it did show out-of-field teachers tended to have fewer years of teaching overall under their belt. Out-of-field teachers had 10.9 years on average compared to 16.3 years for the most qualified maths teachers.</p>
<h2>How can we support out-of-field teachers?</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://amsi.org.au/media/AMSI-Occasional-Paper-Out-of-Field-Maths-Teaching.pdf">AMSI analysis</a> suggests Australia will not be able to train enough new maths teachers in the short to medium term. So we need other alternatives. </p>
<p>One of these is to support out-of-field teachers by providing targeted forms of professional development. To do this requires an understanding of where weaknesses lie. </p>
<p>Some teachers might have the maths skills required but not enough understanding of maths teaching methods and practices. Other teachers might have the pedagogical background but weaker maths skills. Each group requires different professional development opportunities. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/fixing-the-shortage-of-specialist-science-and-maths-teachers-will-be-hard-not-impossible-99651">Fixing the shortage of specialist science and maths teachers will be hard, not impossible</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The TIMSS data show three-quarters of Australia’s out-of-field teachers reported needing professional development in maths content, compared to around half of the more qualified teachers. </p>
<p>And around 70% of all teachers said they need professional development in maths pedagogy and instruction, as well as assessment. </p>
<p>Initiatives like the federal government’s <a href="https://ministers.dese.gov.au/tehan/strengthening-maths-teaching-australian-schools">$9.5 million investment</a> in high-quality mathematics and numeracy professional learning and resources is an important step in supporting out-of-field and in-field maths teachers alike to improve mathematics education, but it must be targeted.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/161100/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sue Thomson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Students with expert maths teachers scored significantly higher on an international maths test than any other group. But a student’s level of advantage also affects assessment scores.Sue Thomson, Deputy CEO (Research), Australian Council for Educational ResearchLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1555492021-02-18T04:05:32Z2021-02-18T04:05:32ZWhy the curriculum should be based on students’ readiness, not their age<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/384907/original/file-20210218-17-17ekukj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/back-school-education-concept-girl-kids-1478660396">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>I handed down the <a href="https://nswcurriculumreview.nesa.nsw.edu.au/home/siteAreaContent/524abec1-f0f9-4ffd-9e01-2cc89432ad52">final report</a> of a two-year review of the New South Wales school curriculum in June 2020. One of the review’s key recommendations was to introduce what I called “untimed syllabuses”. This is where students who need more time for their learning are given it, and those ready to move on to the next stage are able to do so. </p>
<p>The NSW government has <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/schools-will-trial-untimed-syllabuses-before-ambitious-statewide-reform-20210216-p572v7.html">agreed to trial</a> this recommendation over the coming years.</p>
<p>I made this recommendation in response to a problem teachers had identified. They explained the current curriculum lacks flexibility. It expects every student of the same age to learn the same things at the same time. This sounds fair, and it might be if all students began the school year ready for the year’s curriculum.</p>
<p>In reality, as the <a href="https://www.dese.gov.au/uncategorised/resources/through-growth-achievement-report-review-achieve-educational-excellence-australian-schools">Gonski report</a> observed, evidence from <a href="https://www.nap.edu.au/">testing programs</a> shows the most advanced students in each year of school are about five to six years ahead of the least advanced students. Instead of beginning on the same starting line, students begin each school year widely spread on the running track. </p>
<p>Despite this, they are all judged against the same finish line: the year-level curriculum expectations.</p>
<h2>Some students are behind, others ahead</h2>
<p>The differences we see in students’ performances mean many students begin each school year one, two or three years behind average for their year group and struggle. At the end of each year, they are required to move to the next curriculum, often not having mastered the content of the current curriculum. </p>
<p>For some, the year-level curriculum becomes increasingly beyond their reach and they fall further behind each year. The low grades they receive fail to reveal the progress they are making and reinforce their belief they are poor learners.</p>
<p>By 15 years of age, according to the OECD’s Programme for International Student Assessment (<a href="https://research.acer.edu.au/ozpisa/34/">PISA</a>), one in five Australian students has failed to achieve even a minimally acceptable level of reading or maths. Another one in five has failed to achieve a “<a href="https://www.nap.edu.au/results-and-reports/how-to-interpret/standards">proficient</a>” standard (that is, a challenging but reasonable expectation) in these basics. Many of these students have struggled with year-level curricula throughout their schooling. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/aussie-students-are-a-year-behind-students-10-years-ago-in-science-maths-and-reading-127013">Aussie students are a year behind students 10 years ago in science, maths and reading</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Worse, the students most affected are those also disadvantaged by their socioeconomic circumstances.</p>
<p>At the same time, some more advanced students, who are ready for more challenging material, are prevented from advancing to the next curriculum until the allotted time has elapsed.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/384915/original/file-20210218-21-13lmmkw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Students on a starting line on a race track." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/384915/original/file-20210218-21-13lmmkw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/384915/original/file-20210218-21-13lmmkw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/384915/original/file-20210218-21-13lmmkw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/384915/original/file-20210218-21-13lmmkw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/384915/original/file-20210218-21-13lmmkw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=544&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/384915/original/file-20210218-21-13lmmkw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=544&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/384915/original/file-20210218-21-13lmmkw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=544&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Not all students start the school year on the same starting line.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/students-boy-get-set-leaving-starting-571351051">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This is not an observation about teachers; they do the best job they can to meet the needs of individual students. But teachers work within the constraints of a timed, lock-step and sometimes crowded curriculum that expects them to deliver the same content to everybody.</p>
<h2>A 21st century approach</h2>
<p>The 21st century requires a more flexible and personalised approach. Learners of the future will learn anywhere at any time, progressing at their own rates, often with the support of technology. In this world, there will be no place for determining what individuals are ready to learn from their age.</p>
<p>My proposal is for a curriculum consisting of a sequence of levels through which every student progresses, but not necessarily at the same pace. This provides teachers with a frame of reference for establishing where individuals are in their learning and ensuring every student is taught and challenged at their current level.</p>
<p>Under this proposal, schools would continue to be organised into year groups and students in each year group normally would work in mixed-ability classes. The difference is that students in the same year group could be working at different curriculum levels.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1275206896031416321"}"></div></p>
<p>This is not the same as streaming. When students are assigned permanently to different instructional groups, they usually become “locked in” to those groups, with the result that ceilings are set on how far some students can progress. Under my proposal, every student progresses over time through the same sequence of curriculum levels.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/could-academic-streaming-in-new-zealand-schools-be-on-the-way-out-the-evidence-suggests-it-should-be-145617">Could academic streaming in New Zealand schools be on the way out? The evidence suggests it should be</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Rather than simply judging all students against the same finish line, this approach recognises and rewards the progress individuals make over the course of a year, regardless of their starting points. Every student is expected to make excellent progress every year.</p>
<h2>Is this backed by research?</h2>
<p>It has long been established — including through the work of American psychologist <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1968-35017-000">David Ausubel</a> and Soviet psychologist <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books/about/Mind_in_Society.html?id=RxjjUefze_oC&redir_esc=y">Lev Vygotsky</a> — that the way to maximise learning is to stretch or challenge learners in a way that is appropriate to the points they have reached in their learning.</p>
<p>Students do not learn effectively when given material for which they are not ready or material well within their comfort zones. However, this is the experience of many students in our schools.</p>
<p>A number of countries have recognised the importance of providing every student will well-targeted learning challenges. Some, such as high-performing <a href="https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/lessons-from-pisa-for-the-united-states/finland-slow-and-steady-reformfor-consistently-high-results_9789264096660-6-en">Finland</a> and Estonia have dedicated teachers or small-group teaching for students who slip behind in their learning. Others, such as <a href="https://education.gov.scot/education-scotland/scottish-education-system/policy-for-scottish-education/policy-drivers/cfe-building-from-the-statement-appendix-incl-btc1-5/what-is-curriculum-for-excellence">Scotland</a> and <a href="https://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/wales-news/the-donaldson-report-an-at-a-glance-guide-8713671">Wales</a>, have restructured their curricula into levels or “steps” through which all students progress. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/estonia-didnt-deliver-its-pisa-results-on-the-cheap-and-neither-will-australia-128455">Estonia didn't deliver its PISA results on the cheap, and neither will Australia</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/ditching-unworkable-fantasy-cooked-up-by-out-of-touch-academics-a-win-for-students-and-teachers-20210215-p572k1.html">Arguments</a> against my proposed approach sometimes claim it is “fair” to hold all students to the same age-based expectations. But fairness is not achieved by treating all students equally — it depends on recognising individual differences and meeting each student’s current learning needs.</p>
<p>It is also often argued the best way to improve performance is to hold all students to the same standards. But this is what is currently done in Australian schools, with no evidence of improvement in either <a href="https://theconversation.com/naplan-results-reveal-little-change-in-literacy-and-numeracy-performance-here-are-some-key-takeaway-findings-70208">NAPLAN</a> or <a href="https://theconversation.com/aussie-students-are-a-year-behind-students-10-years-ago-in-science-maths-and-reading-127013">PISA</a>. The best way to lift standards is to ensure every student is presented with appropriately challenging material. </p>
<p>My review recognised that restructuring the school curriculum would be a major undertaking that would require time to test and get right. As many teachers observed, increased curriculum flexibility is essential if every student is to learn successfully and achieve their potential.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/155549/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The Australian Council for Educational Research was funded to undertake the review of the NSW school curriculum.</span></em></p>The NSW curriculum review recommends students be assigned tasks based on their ability, rather than their age. This approach recognises the progress individuals make over the course of a year.Geoff Masters, CEO, Australian Council for Educational ResearchLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1502622020-12-16T03:32:42Z2020-12-16T03:32:42ZJump, split or make to the next 10: strategies to teach maths have changed since you were at school<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/375248/original/file-20201215-15-1lh0rut.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/portrait-african-girl-writing-solution-sums-1078335890">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>I’m sure most people can remember trying to master a certain maths rule or procedure in primary or secondary school.</p>
<p>My elderly mother has a story about a time her father was helping her with arithmetic homework. She remembers getting upset because her father did not do it “the school way”. I suspect her father was able to do the calculation mentally rather than the school way, which was to use the vertical algorithm.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/375289/original/file-20201216-19-1saklzv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/375289/original/file-20201216-19-1saklzv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=166&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375289/original/file-20201216-19-1saklzv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=166&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375289/original/file-20201216-19-1saklzv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=166&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375289/original/file-20201216-19-1saklzv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=208&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375289/original/file-20201216-19-1saklzv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=208&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375289/original/file-20201216-19-1saklzv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=208&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Students are expected to add the numbers in the ones (right) column first, before adding the numbers in the tens (left) column. The task becomes more difficult when the total of the ones column is more than 10 — as you then have to “trade” ten ones for one ten.</p>
<p>Students who give the answer as 713 rather than the correct answer of 83 may well have started with the tens column first. Or they may have written 13 in the ones column rather than trading ten ones for one ten.</p>
<p>The formal school algorithms are still used for larger numbers and decimals but we encourage students to use whichever strategy they prefer for two-digit addition. </p>
<p>The trouble with teaching rules is many students then struggle to remember when to apply the rule because they don’t understand how or why the rule works. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/weapons-of-maths-destruction-are-calculators-killing-our-ability-to-work-it-out-in-our-head-44900">Weapons of maths destruction: are calculators killing our ability to work it out in our head?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The <a href="https://australiancurriculum.edu.au/f-10-curriculum/mathematics/">Australian Curriculum: Mathematics</a> states that by the end of year 2, students will “perform simple addition and subtraction calculations using a range of strategies”. By the end of year 4, they will “identify and explain strategies for finding unknown quantities in number sentences”. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1143666051793788928"}"></div></p>
<p>We want children to remember how to do these equations in their head, rather than relying on writing down the process. Here are three strategies schools use to teach children how to add and subtract two-digit numbers.</p>
<h2>1. Split strategy</h2>
<p>This is sometimes called the decomposition, partitioning or partial-sums strategy. </p>
<p>You can add or subtract the tens separately to the ones (or units). For example, using the split strategy to add 46 + 23, you would:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>split each number (decompose) into tens and ones: 46 + 23 = 40 + 6 + 20 + 3</p></li>
<li><p>rearrange the tens and ones: 40 + 20 + 6 + 3</p></li>
<li><p>add the tens and then the ones 60 + 9 = 69</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Using the split strategy for addition such as 37 + 65 would be similar, but there would be an extra step:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>split or decompose the numbers into tens and ones: 30 + 7 + 60 + 5</p></li>
<li><p>rearrange the tens and ones: 30 + 60 + 7 + 5</p></li>
<li><p>add the tens and then the ones: 90 + 12 </p></li>
<li><p>split 12 (10 + 2) to give: 90 + 10 + 2 = 100 + 2 = 102</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Many students find the split strategy more difficult for subtraction than addition. This is because there are more steps if performing this strategy mentally. </p>
<p>For a subtraction such as 69 – 46, you would:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>split or decompose each number into tens and ones: 60 + 9 – (40 + 6)</p></li>
<li><p>remove bracket: 60 + 9 – 40 – 6</p></li>
<li><p>rearrange tens and ones: (60 – 40) + (9 – 6)</p></li>
<li><p>subtract the tens, then the ones: 20 + 3 = 23</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Students often make mistakes in the third step. Successful students may say: “I take 40 from 60, then 6 from 9”. Unsuccessful students will say “I take 40 from 60 then add 6 and 9”. </p>
<p>Students who use this strategy successfully are showing they understand place value (the value of each digit in a number) and their knowledge of maths rules needed for algebra. </p>
<h2>2. Jump strategy</h2>
<p>This is sometimes called the sequencing or cumulative sums strategy. The actual steps taken depend on the confidence and ability of the students. </p>
<p>Some students add increments of tens or ones, while others add or subtract multiples of tens then ones. </p>
<p>For example, adding 46 + 23 using the jump strategy might look like this:</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/375290/original/file-20201216-13-1odomar.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/375290/original/file-20201216-13-1odomar.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=158&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375290/original/file-20201216-13-1odomar.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=158&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375290/original/file-20201216-13-1odomar.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=158&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375290/original/file-20201216-13-1odomar.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=199&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375290/original/file-20201216-13-1odomar.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=199&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375290/original/file-20201216-13-1odomar.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=199&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<ul>
<li><p>add two lots of ten to 46: 46 + 10 = 56, then 56 + 10 = 66</p></li>
<li><p>add the remaining 3: 66 + 3 = 69 </p></li>
</ul>
<p>or </p>
<ul>
<li><p>add 20 to 46 which becomes 66</p></li>
<li><p>add the remaining 3: 66 + 3 = 69</p></li>
</ul>
<p>The two versions of this strategy can be shown using an empty number line. Using a blank or empty number line allows student to record their thinking and for teachers to analyse their thinking and determine the strategy they have attempted to use.</p>
<p>Subtracting 69 – 46 with the jump strategy could be done by:</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/375291/original/file-20201216-19-n4muyw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/375291/original/file-20201216-19-n4muyw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=149&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375291/original/file-20201216-19-n4muyw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=149&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375291/original/file-20201216-19-n4muyw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=149&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375291/original/file-20201216-19-n4muyw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=187&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375291/original/file-20201216-19-n4muyw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=187&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375291/original/file-20201216-19-n4muyw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=187&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<ul>
<li><p>subtracting four lots of ten (40) from 69: 69 – 10 = 59; 59 – 10 = 49; 49 – 10 = 39; 39 – 10 = 29 </p></li>
<li><p>then finally subtracting the remaining 6: 29 – 6 = 23 </p></li>
</ul>
<p>or</p>
<ul>
<li><p>subtract 40: 69 – 40 = 29 </p></li>
<li><p>then subtract 6: 29 – 6 = 23</p></li>
</ul>
<h2>3. ‘Make to the next ten’ strategy</h2>
<p>This is sometimes called the compensation or shortcut strategy. It involves adjusting one number to make the task easier to solve. </p>
<p>The “make to the next ten” strategy builds on the “friends of ten” strategy. </p>
<p>Many students in the first years of primary school create all the combinations of two single digit numbers that give a total of ten. </p>
<blockquote>
<p>9 + 1, 8 + 2, 7 + 3, 6 + 4, 5 + 5 … </p>
</blockquote>
<p>These are sometimes called the rainbow facts as the children create rainbows as they connect two numbers together. For instance, 9 may be on one end of a rainbow colour and 1 on the other. </p>
<p>By combining the numbers in this way teachers hope students will realise the answer for 9 + 1 is the same as 1 + 9.</p>
<p>In the “make to the next ten” strategy, you add or subtract a number larger than the number given (such as the next multiple of ten) and then readjust the number by subtracting what was added or adding what was subtracted.</p>
<p>In the diagrams the relationships are indicated by the use of arrows. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/375301/original/file-20201216-21-1lvy5ai.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/375301/original/file-20201216-21-1lvy5ai.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=156&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375301/original/file-20201216-21-1lvy5ai.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=156&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375301/original/file-20201216-21-1lvy5ai.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=156&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375301/original/file-20201216-21-1lvy5ai.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=196&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375301/original/file-20201216-21-1lvy5ai.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=196&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375301/original/file-20201216-21-1lvy5ai.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=196&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>So, to add 37 + 65, you would</p>
<ul>
<li><p>add 3 to 37 to give 40. </p></li>
<li><p>subtract 3 from 65 to get 62</p></li>
<li><p>this becomes: 40 + 62 = 102.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>If subtracting 102 – 65, you would:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>subtract 2 from 102 to make 100</p></li>
<li><p>subtract 2 from 65 to maintain the balance</p></li>
<li><p>this becomes 100 – 63 = 37.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Many students using this strategy incorrectly add 2 to 65 instead of subtracting 2.</p>
<h2>Why these strategies?</h2>
<p>Students would have been using all these strategies, or some forms of them, in their head for generations. But for many years, the expectation was that students use the formal written algorithm rather than their own mental strategies. </p>
<p>The introduction of the empty or blank number line allowed students to record their mental strategies, which allowed teachers and parents to see them. Naming these strategies has allowed teachers and students to discuss possible strategies using a common vocabulary.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/kids-prefer-maths-when-you-let-them-figure-out-the-answer-for-themselves-44016">Kids prefer maths when you let them figure out the answer for themselves</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Rather than teach rules and procedures, we now need to encourage students to explain their strategies using both concrete materials and diagrams to demonstrate their knowledge of addition and subtraction.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/150262/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cath Pearn is affiliated with both the Australian Council for Educational Research and the Melbourne Graduate School of Education, The University of Melbourne. </span></em></p>For years you may have been adding and subtracting numbers in your head in a certain way, but these strategies were never formally taught at school. Now they are, and they all have names.Cath Pearn, Senior Research Fellow, Australian Council for Educational ResearchLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1502752020-12-08T09:02:34Z2020-12-08T09:02:34ZAustralia lifts to be among top ten countries in maths and science<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/373484/original/file-20201208-19-t5es3d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/genius-girl-red-glasses-near-blackboard-178739876">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Results from the longest running large-scale international assessment of maths and science show <a href="https://research.acer.edu.au/timss_2019/1/">Australia has significantly improved</a> in Year 8 maths and science, and Year 4 science.</p>
<p>More than 580,000 students from 64 countries participated in the latest Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (<a href="https://timssandpirls.bc.edu/timss2019/index.html">TIMSS</a>). This includes 14,950 Australian students from 571 Australian schools. </p>
<p><strong>In Year 8 maths</strong>, Australia came in equal seventh place in the 2019 assessment cycle (up from equal 13th in 2015), along with a number of countries including Ireland, the United States and England. We came behind Chinese Taipei (Taiwan), Korea, Japan, Hong Kong and Ireland. </p>
<p><strong>In Year 8 science</strong>, Australia also came in equal seventh (up from equal 15th in 2015) along with countries such as Lithuania, Ireland and the US. We were behind Singapore, Chinese Taipei, Japan, Korea, Russia and Finland. </p>
<p><strong>In Year 4 science</strong>, Australia came equal ninth (up from equal 18th in 2015) along with countries including the US, England, Hong Kong and Ireland. Australia was behind Singapore, Korea, Russia, Japan, Chinese Taipei, Finland, Latvia and Norway.</p>
<p><strong>In Year 4 maths</strong>, however, achievement has not changed since 2007. Australia was outperformed by 22 countries in 2019, similar to 2015. It came equal 23rd along with countries such as Germany, Poland and Canada; and behind Singapore, the US, England and Ireland.</p>
<hr>
<p><iframe id="YJ45D" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/YJ45D/4/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<hr>
<h2>Not just the rankings</h2>
<p>This is the seventh time the TIMSS test has been administered. Along with completing tests in maths and science, Year 4 and 8 students involved in TIMSS answer questionnaires on their background and experiences in learning maths and science at school.</p>
<p>Participating in TIMSS allows Australia to measure its progress towards national educational goals, which in 2019 included the Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians (now the Mparntwe Education Declaration). </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-hasnt-performed-well-at-maths-and-science-recently-were-about-to-find-out-if-weve-improved-150274">Australia hasn't performed well at maths and science recently. We're about to find out if we've improved</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>In Year 4 maths, Australian students achieved an average score of 516 points. Singapore’s students scored the highest with 625 points, while England achieved 556, Canada 512 and New Zealand 487 points.</p>
<p>Australia’s average score in Year 8 maths was 517 points. This was compared to the highest score of 616 points for Singapore. Australia’s score was not significantly different to that of the US and England, which both achieved 515 points.</p>
<p>Australia not only improved in Year 8 maths and science, and Year 4 science relative to other countries, but also in an absolute sense. Compared to 2015, Australia’s mean score increased by 12 points in Year 8 maths; 16 points in Year 8 science and nine points in Year 4 science. </p>
<hr>
<p><iframe id="HDb5G" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/HDb5G/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<hr>
<p>The TIMSS intermediate international benchmark is the nationally agreed proficient standard for maths and science achievement, which is 475 score points. In 2019 between 68% and 78% of Australian students achieved the required proficiency benchmark in maths and science at both year levels. In Singapore, more than 90% of students achieved this benchmark in both subject areas at both year levels. </p>
<p>Since 2015, the proportion of Australian students achieving this standard improved by five percentage points in Year 8 science. It did not change significantly in Year 4 maths and science, or Year 8 maths.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/aussie-students-are-a-year-behind-students-10-years-ago-in-science-maths-and-reading-127013">Aussie students are a year behind students 10 years ago in science, maths and reading</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>TIMSS results also provide a measure of Australia’s progress towards the United Nations 2030 Sustainable Development Goal for universal quality education. The TIMSS low international benchmark is an agreed global indicator of minimum proficiency in maths at the end of lower secondary schooling. </p>
<p>In the 2019 study, 90% of Australian Year 8 students achieved this benchmark, which was similar to 2015 and slightly higher than the 2019 international median of 87%. Meanwhile, 98% of students in Singapore and Chinese Taipei, and 99% of students in Japan achieved minimum proficiency in Year 8 maths.</p>
<h2>Differences between groups</h2>
<p>While of course these findings are positive, there are cautions evident when making comparisons among demographic groups.</p>
<p>There was no significant difference between the average performance of Australian girls and boys in Year 8 maths, Year 4 science or Year 8 science. </p>
<p>But boys outperformed girls in Year 4 maths in 27 of the 58 participating countries, including Australia. </p>
<p>The proportion of students who attained the national proficient standard was about the same for boys and girls (69% for girls, 70% for boys). But the proportion of boys who achieved the advanced benchmark (12%) was significantly higher than the proportion of girls (8%) who achieved at this level.</p>
<hr>
<p><iframe id="1TUMm" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/1TUMm/2/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<hr>
<p>While the achievement of First Nations Australian students and other Australian students has converged slightly in Year 4 and Year 8 science since 1995, the gaps are glaringly wide in both subject areas, but particularly in maths. </p>
<p>At Year 4 level in maths, 42% of First Nations students achieved the national proficient standard, compared to 72% of other Australian students. And 25% of First Nations students did not achieve the low benchmark, compared to 8% of other Australian students. </p>
<p>In Year 8 maths, 39% of First Nations students compared to 70% of other Australian students achieved the National Proficient standard, while 29% of First Nations students compared to 8% of other Australian students did not achieve the Low benchmark.</p>
<h2>Student socioeconomic background</h2>
<p>The largest gaps in achievement at school are often those defined by a students’ socioeconomic background. In TIMSS, several measures are used to define socioeconomic background, but the common method for Year 4 and Year 8 is simple but effective. Students are asked to estimate the number of books in their home within five categories. These are then collapsed into three:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>0-10: few books</p></li>
<li><p>11-200: average number of books</p></li>
<li><p>more than 200: many books. </p></li>
</ul>
<p><a href="https://kathyhirshpasek.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/9/2018/04/Pace-et-al.-2017.pdf">Analysis</a> has shown living in a home with many books influences academic achievement (or by implication, having a home environment that values literacy, the acquisition of knowledge and general academic support) in a positive manner.</p>
<p>In Year 4, 17% of students identified as living in a home with many books, and 28% with few books. In Year 8, 20% of students said their home had many books and 31% few books.</p>
<p>The differences between students with many books and those with few books is large at both year levels and for both subject areas. For example:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>in Year 8 maths, 83% of students living in a home with many books achieved the national proficient standard, compared to 48% of those from homes with few books </p></li>
<li><p>in Year 8 science, 90% of students from homes with many books achieved the standard, compared to 52% of those from homes with few books</p></li>
<li><p>in Year 8 maths and science, around 3% of students from homes with many books compared to around 20% of students from homes with few books did not achieve the low benchmark.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Acknowledging the primary underlying factor behind poor achievement is socioeconomic background, and finding ways of redressing the imbalance in opportunities and resources available to these students, will help lift achievement for all Australian students.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/one-quarter-of-australian-11-12-year-olds-dont-have-the-literacy-and-numeracy-skills-they-need-148912">One quarter of Australian 11-12 year olds don't have the literacy and numeracy skills they need</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/150275/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sue Thomson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Results from the world’s longest running large-scale international assessment of maths and science show Australia has significantly improved in Year 8 maths and science, and Year 4 science.Sue Thomson, Deputy CEO (Research), Australian Council for Educational ResearchLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1502742020-12-06T18:54:36Z2020-12-06T18:54:36ZAustralia hasn’t performed well at maths and science recently. We’re about to find out if we’ve improved<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/372972/original/file-20201204-23-vbzt81.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/vector-cartoon-illustratioon-hands-holding-banners-1386828638">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Every four years, the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (<a href="https://www.iea.nl/node/1580">IEA</a>) releases data on how effective countries are in teaching mathematics and science in Years 4 and 8. Called TIMSS, (<a href="https://timssandpirls.bc.edu/timss2019/international-results/">Trends in International Mathematics and Science</a>), the 2019 results will be released tomorrow evening. </p>
<p>This is the seventh time the TIMSS test has been administered. Over the years, the results have attracted considerable attention from <a href="https://www.chiefscientist.gov.au/sites/default/files/2-Science-and-Maths-in-Australian-Secondary-Schools-datasheet-Web.pdf">governments</a> and those <a href="https://www.afr.com/policy/health-and-education/wakeup-call-as-aussie-kids-outgunned-in-maths-by-us-canada-england-20161129-gszla2#ixzz4RRT1WSrr">interested in education</a>.</p>
<p>The first TIMSS test was in 1995. Results from the last cycle, <a href="https://research.acer.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&context=timss_2015">TIMSS 2015</a>, showed the maths and science achievement of Australia’s Years 4 and 8 students had flatlined. But many other countries had improved — including the United States and England. </p>
<h2>What is TIMSS?</h2>
<p>What many are wondering about the results tomorrow include:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>how does Australia’s education system compare internationally – which countries are doing better than we are and which are doing worse?</p></li>
<li><p>how are we doing internally — across states and territories, between girls and boys, or children from different socioeconomic and cultural backgrounds?</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Year 4 and Year 8 students involved in TIMSS complete tests in maths and science. They also answer questionnaires on their background and experiences in learning maths and science at school. </p>
<p>School principals and the students’ maths and science teachers also complete detailed <a href="https://timssandpirls.bc.edu/timss2019/frameworks/framework-chapters/context-questionnaire-framework/">questionnaires</a>. </p>
<p>This information helps to paint a picture of what happens in schools and classrooms and what might influence student learning.</p>
<p>TIMSS is a <a href="https://timssandpirls.bc.edu/timss2019/methods/chapter-3.html">sample assessment</a>. It’s not possible to test every Year 4 or Year 8 student (that would take too long and cost too much). </p>
<p>So a representative random sample is drawn from all schools in each system being tested. One class from each school is then randomly selected to complete the paper-based or online assessment of maths and science. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australian-schools-continue-to-fall-behind-other-countries-in-maths-and-science-69341">Australian schools continue to fall behind other countries in maths and science</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>TIMSS was not designed to provide scores for individual students or schools — students don’t even complete the same test as all of the other students in the room. In TIMSS 2019, for example, there were more than <a href="https://timssandpirls.bc.edu/timss2019/frameworks/framework-chapters/assessment-design/">14 different test forms</a>, covering different parts of the assessment. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/372973/original/file-20201204-17-183vwjn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An illustration of the earth rotating on its axis in relation to the sun." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/372973/original/file-20201204-17-183vwjn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/372973/original/file-20201204-17-183vwjn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/372973/original/file-20201204-17-183vwjn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/372973/original/file-20201204-17-183vwjn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/372973/original/file-20201204-17-183vwjn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=535&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/372973/original/file-20201204-17-183vwjn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=535&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/372973/original/file-20201204-17-183vwjn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=535&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">TIMSS tests maths and science concepts, like the effect of the earth rotating on its axis.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/24-hours-day-night-cycle-diagram-1216358518">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Those test scores are then put together statistically to form an overall picture of achievement.</p>
<p>In Australia, 571 schools and 14,950 students participated in TIMSS 2019.</p>
<h2>What the test looks like</h2>
<p>TIMSS looks at how well Year 4 and Year 8 students have mastered the factual and procedural knowledge taught in school <a href="https://timssandpirls.bc.edu/timss2019/frameworks/">maths and science curricula</a>. </p>
<p>For example, do students know: </p>
<ul>
<li><p>how many legs an insect has </p></li>
<li><p>what causes rust</p></li>
<li><p>what happens when light passes through a prism</p></li>
<li><p>what is the sum of the angles of a triangle </p></li>
<li><p>how to convert ¾ to a decimal</p></li>
<li><p>how to calculate an average. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>Test questions can either be “constructed response” or “multiple-choice”.</p>
<p>For “constructed response” questions, students are asked to give a written response that could be as short as a single word or number, or as long as a couple of sentences. </p>
<p>Here’s an example of a constructed response question from Year 4 mathematics: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>Hanif starts to write a number pattern: 6, 13, 20, 27 …
He adds the same number each time to get the next number.
What is the next number he should write in his pattern? </p>
<p>Answer = 34.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>For multiple-choice questions, students select the correct answer from a selection of pre-written options. Here’s a multiple-choice question from Year 8 science: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>Earth rotates on its axis. What does this cause?</p>
</blockquote>
<ul>
<li><em>A. the seasons</em></li>
<li><em>B. a solar eclipse</em></li>
<li><em>C. day and night</em></li>
<li><em>D. high and low tides</em></li>
</ul>
<blockquote>
<p>Answer = C. day and night.</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>TIMSS is different to other international tests</h2>
<p>TIMSS is not the only international assessment Australia participates in.</p>
<p>In December 2019, results from the <a href="https://www.oecd.org/pisa/">OECD’s PISA</a> (Programme for International Student Assessment) made headlines as Australia’s PISA scores in maths and science were the lowest they had ever been.</p>
<hr>
<p><iframe id="tc-infographic-450" class="tc-infographic" height="400px" src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/infographics/450/1dfde5e7ef453dc463a581efdf72dc01acca6ab5/site/index.html" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<hr>
<p>While both TIMSS and PISA test maths and science, they are very different in terms of <a href="https://www.iea.nl/publications/series-journals/iea-compass-briefs-education-series/september-2020-international-large">who they test and what the test is like</a>. There are three main differences:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>TIMSS tests students in middle primary and lower secondary. PISA tests 15 year olds, who are usually in Years 9, 10 or 11 in Australia and nearing the end of their compulsory schooling in many countries</p></li>
<li><p>TIMSS focuses on how well students have learnt the content of a defined curriculum. PISA focuses on how well students can apply reading, maths, science skills to real-life situations</p></li>
<li><p>TIMSS assessment content is jointly developed by participating countries based on a detailed analysis of national curricula. PISA assessment content is developed by OECD-selected experts based on the skills they think students should have mastered.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Testing at Year 4 and Year 8, rather than at the end of school, allows countries to see how well students are doing early in their education journey and where more effort might be needed. Focusing on a defined curriculum can help find where gaps in a country’s own curriculum might lie.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-pisa-world-education-test-results-are-about-to-drop-is-australia-getting-worse-127011">The PISA world education test results are about to drop. Is Australia getting worse?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>TIMSS also provides a lot of contextual information collected through questionnaires from school principals, teachers and students. The questionnaire examine what is intended to be taught in science and maths (the intended curriculum) and how these things are actually taught (the implemented curriculum). While the assessment describes what students have learned (the attained curriculum).</p>
<p>Together, information from TIMSS can help improve Australia’s maths and science curricula and, ultimately, the educational outcomes of all Australian students.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/150274/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sue Thomson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Data are about to be released on how well countries teach Year 4 and 8 maths and science Results from the last cycle of testing in 2015 showed Australia’s students achievement had flatlined.Sue Thomson, Deputy CEO (Research), Australian Council for Educational ResearchLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1339212020-03-24T22:22:13Z2020-03-24T22:22:13ZUniversities need to train lecturers in online delivery, or they risk students dropping out<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/322461/original/file-20200324-45650-1vpx63w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/brisbaneaustralia-2019-university-queensland-brisbane-1642694173">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Most <a href="https://itnews.com.au/news/online-mass-exodus-how-australian-unis-are-coping-with-the-covid-19-pandemic-539630">Australian universities</a> are moving courses online to prevent the potential spread of COVID-19. This <a href="https://about.uq.edu.au/coronavirus-advice-uq-community">includes lectures</a> and tutorials, <a href="https://students.unimelb.edu.au/student-support/coronavirus/information-for-all-students">which will likely</a> be delivered via the university learning management systems such as Moodle or Blackboard.</p>
<p>Some students believe universities are waiting until the census date (the date students can withdraw from the course without incurring a fee) before the transition, so they are locked into an inferior online experience while paying money for what they believe is a superior mode of teaching.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1240803943057367040"}"></div></p>
<p>When done right, <a href="https://www.eurodl.org/materials/contrib/2007/Jahng_Krug_Zhang.htm">online learning</a> can actually be as effective as face-to-face education. But Australian universities haven’t upskilled their staff to deliver this kind of quality online education.</p>
<p>If Australian universities don’t provide intensive upskilling to lecturers to deliver online classes and support effectively, they might see many students disengaging and dropping out early.</p>
<h2>Why online learning can fail</h2>
<p>Australian universities introduced online degrees more than a decade ago. The hope was, and still is, that online learning would provide access for students who have historically been prevented from completing a higher education because they were unable to attend university in person. </p>
<p>These include students from low socio-economic backgrounds, students with a disability, and regional and remote students.</p>
<p>Completion rates for students studying fully online in many countries are <a href="https://sr.ithaka.org/publications/interactive-learning-online-at-public-universities-evidence-from-randomized-trials">considerably lower</a> than for those studying face-to-face. In Australia, <a href="https://www.ncsehe.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/CathyStone_EQUITY-FELLOWSHIP-FINAL-REPORT.pdf">dropout is at least 20% higher</a> for online students compared with on-campus students and degree completions are 2.5 times lower. </p>
<p>Those most likely to drop out are the very groups access to online learning was meant to reach.</p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.ncsehe.edu.au/publications/opportunity-online-learning-improving-student-access-participation-success-higher-education/">national 2017 study</a> investigated these dropout rates. It found many academic and professional staff at Australian universities perceived online delivery as less important or lower priority than face to face. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1240456458640265223"}"></div></p>
<p>The same report also identified a lack of skill and experience among many academic staff when it came to online course design and online teaching which, in turn, impacted negatively on student learning and engagement. </p>
<p>A 2016 <a href="https://ajet.org.au/index.php/AJET/article/view/2053">study showed</a> a lot of online learning in Australian universities consisted of lecturers simply uploading materials they used in their face-to-face courses to online learning platforms. </p>
<p>Many university teachers have had no experience themselves of online learning and have not been upskilled in online course design and pedagogy.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australian-unis-may-need-to-cut-staff-and-research-if-government-extends-coronavirus-travel-ban-132175">Australian unis may need to cut staff and research if government extends coronavirus travel ban</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Where online students are out of sight and out of mind and lecturers do not have the skills to teach in an online environment it’s the perfect storm for disengagement and dropout.</p>
<h2>When online learning is done right</h2>
<p>Learning management systems such as Moodle are designed to support online learning. These systems effectively organise learning resources, including multimedia resources, that students can easily access. </p>
<p>Students can engage in collaborative activities with their peers and lecturers, through tools such as discussion boards and wikis (a website or database developed collaboratively by a community of users, allowing any user to add and edit content).</p>
<p><a href="https://www.eurodl.org/materials/contrib/2007/Jahng_Krug_Zhang.htm">An analysis of studies</a> conducted between 1995 and 2004 compared achievement for students who had completed online and face-to-face tertiary education courses. It found the results were largely similar. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-coronavirus-outbreak-is-the-biggest-crisis-ever-to-hit-international-education-131138">The coronavirus outbreak is the biggest crisis ever to hit international education</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Students who completed online courses learnt as much as those in face-to-face instruction, achieved as well and were equally satisfied with their overall experience. The key word here is completion. There are higher dropout rates and lower completions across the higher education sector internationally for students who study online. </p>
<p>When online learning is well-designed, conducted in a learning management system and is in the hands of skilled teachers, it offers a comparable learning experience to face-to-face.</p>
<h2>What many uni courses may look like online</h2>
<p>In the current scenario, a lecturer may deliver the same lecture or tutorial via video that they would deliver face to face. They may use online discussion boards or chat rooms to try and replicate small group work in tutorials. </p>
<p>Students may work through course materials on their own and have little connection with each other or their lecturer beyond the real-time video or chat interactions. They may not get the opportunity for the kinds of peer-to-peer and student-lecturer interaction that support engagement and learning.</p>
<p>Research <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/2158244015621777">shows these sorts of practices</a> – which can be more accurately described as “remote learning” rather than “online learning” - promote student disengagement and dropout.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1238109039373856769"}"></div></p>
<h2>So, what can lecturers do to improve learning?</h2>
<p>In the immediate future, university staff moving to online teaching can use some of the following tips to help students stay satisfied and engaged.</p>
<p><strong>1. Communicate with students as much as possible</strong></p>
<ul>
<li><p>get to know your students in the online environment. Ask them to introduce themselves by completing an “about you” page</p></li>
<li><p>students are likely to have many questions. One way to manage this is to set up a Frequently Asked Questions discussion board and ask students to post their question on it. In that way, all students can see the response </p></li>
<li><p>set up a weekly 30 minute live, but also recorded, Q & A session. Students can send in questions for you to respond to or ask you live. This way, students will see you “in person”.</p></li>
</ul>
<p><strong>2. Make sure students know where to get support</strong></p>
<ul>
<li><p>make clear to students where they can access support for the different areas that impact them, such as academic advice and finance. You will need to work closely with student support services to do this</p></li>
<li><p>set up a student support services discussion board in your subject, which student support officers could manage.</p></li>
</ul>
<p><strong>3. Help build your students’ technology skills</strong></p>
<ul>
<li><p>help students who aren’t so sure about the online platform to learn the technological skills they need. It’s not just you who needs upskilling. </p></li>
<li><p>you can ask your student group to self-nominate as online mentors if they have good online skills. It’s a great way to build connections. </p></li>
</ul>
<ol>
<li><strong>Get across the resources</strong> </li>
</ol>
<ul>
<li><p>your students will need to collaborate and share knowledge in new ways now they are not in the same physical space. Use discussion boards and wikis to encourage them to work on collaborative activities. If you don’t know how to do this, ask your learning and teaching specialists at your university. Edinburgh University also has some <a href="https://www.ed.ac.uk/information-services/learning-technology/more/teaching-continuity?fbclid=IwAR2AnoEAXMzT8aBxaxq-nMtsRskHzwnOG63-84ggiyWn6VdKpDe-WADfeJo">helpful resources</a>. Stephen Downes’ <a href="https://docs.google.com/document/d/1ux3lTnUTpzZRuvxE3rAsSQ4Ihub96S8_OYECNh8wv-A/edit#heading=h.fgw09mp7xsa1">creating an online community guide</a> is also helpful</p></li>
<li><p>for course design ideas, Professor Gilly Salmon’s <a href="https://www.gillysalmon.com/carpe-diem.html">carpe diem resources</a> are excellent.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Universities should also move, as quickly as they can, to provide intensive training in online course delivery to their lecturers.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/133921/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Online learning can actually be as effective as when classes are delivered face-to-face. But teachers need training to do this effectively.Pauline Taylor-Guy, Professor, Australian Council for Educational ResearchAnne-Marie Chase, Course coordinator, Australian Council for Educational ResearchLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1270132019-12-03T08:47:35Z2019-12-03T08:47:35ZAussie students are a year behind students 10 years ago in science, maths and reading<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/304631/original/file-20191202-66982-1gwv3yy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The latest OECD PISA results show Australia is doing worse than last time in science and maths.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australian 15-year-old reading scores are way below those of their peers in ten countries – including Singapore, Estonia, Canada, Finland, Ireland, Korea and Poland.</p>
<p>And around 41% of Australian 15 year olds have failed to meet the minimum national standards in reading – up from 31% in 2000.</p>
<p>These are some of the <a href="http://www.acer.edu.au/ozpisa/reports/">results</a> from the OECD’s 2018 Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) released today, which tested the performance of education systems across 79 countries and economies.</p>
<p>Since PISA first assessed reading literacy in 2000, Australia’s mean score has declined by the equivalent of around three-quarters of a year of schooling. </p>
<p>In maths, Australia trailed 23 countries including Singapore, Japan, Korea, Estonia, the Netherlands, Poland, Canada, the United Kingdom and Ireland. And in science, we were behind 12 countries including Singapore, Estonia, Japan, Finland, Canada, Poland and New Zealand. </p>
<p>The latest results put Australia in 11th place in reading – on par with China, Denmark, Germany, Norway, Sweden, the United Kingdom and the United States. </p>
<p>This placement doesn’t sound bad, but compared to the highest performing OECD countries, Australia is about seven months in reading and 12 months in science behind Estonia, and 15 months behind Japan in maths.</p>
<p>In science, maths and reading, Australia’s students today are almost a full year behind those of more than a decade ago.</p>
<h2>Australia’s performance on a downward trajectory</h2>
<p>PISA is a two-hour test to see how well 15-year-old students in (randomly selected) secondary schools across all 36 OECD countries, and 43 other countries or economies, can apply reading, maths and science to real-life situations.</p>
<p>The three assessment domains are rotated every three years, so one domain is the major focus (the major domain). A larger amount of the assessment time is devoted to this domain compared to the other two (the minor domains). This year, reading was the major domain.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/pisa-results-dont-look-good-but-before-we-panic-lets-look-at-what-we-can-learn-from-the-latest-test-69470">PISA results don’t look good, but before we panic let’s look at what we can learn from the latest test</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Australian students did achieve an average of 503 points in reading. The OECD average – the benchmark against which each country’s performance in PISA 2018 can be compared – was 487 points in reading.</p>
<p>The four provinces of China which participated (Beijing, Shanghai, Jiangsu and Zhejiang) had the highest mean reading score of 555 points. Singapore was the highest performing country with an average of 549 points.</p>
<hr>
<p><iframe id="tc-infographic-450" class="tc-infographic" height="400px" src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/infographics/450/1dfde5e7ef453dc463a581efdf72dc01acca6ab5/site/index.html" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<hr>
<p>The results also show 20% of Australian students did not meet the international level of reading proficiency on the PISA performance scale. This is the level the OECD determines a student needs to actively participate in life. In 2000, 12% of Australian students didn’t attain this level in reading.</p>
<p>Australia’s 2018 performance was above the OECD average in science, but it fell to be at the OECD average in maths.</p>
<p>The PISA results show 46% of Australian 15 year olds failed to meet the minimum national standards in mathematics and 42% fell short in science.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-pisa-world-education-test-results-are-about-to-drop-is-australia-getting-worse-127011">The PISA world education test results are about to drop. Is Australia getting worse?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Over the 15 years of measuring maths literacy, Australia’s performance has declined by the equivalent of about one and one-quarter years of schooling. And over the 12 years of measuring science literacy, Australia’s performance has declined by almost one full year of schooling. </p>
<p>Female students across all countries and economies participating in PISA 2018 outperformed male students in reading. In Australia, girls were around the equivalent of one year of schooling ahead of boys.</p>
<h2>How we compare across the nation</h2>
<p>Based on the latest scores, the OECD has labelled Australia as having a “high quality - high equity” education system because scores on both were above the OECD average.</p>
<p>But there was a difference of about three years of schooling in each subject area between students in the highest socioeconomic quarter (advantaged students) and those in the lowest socioeconomic quarter (disadvantaged students).</p>
<p>The OECD labels students who have not reached the <a href="https://www.oecd.org/australia/PISA-2012-low-performers-Australia-ENG.pdf">baseline level of proficiency</a> required to participate fully in modern society as “low performers”.</p>
<p>In reading, one in three disadvantaged students was classed as a “low performer”, compared to just one in ten advantaged students. In maths, the numbers are even more sobering: 37% of disadvantaged students were low performers, compared to 11% of advantaged students. </p>
<hr>
<p><iframe id="4nRvA" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/4nRvA/4/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<hr>
<p>Indigenous students were between two and three years behind their non-Indigenous peers across all areas – with 43% (compared to 18%) classed as low performers in reading, 48% (compared to 21%) in maths and 44% (compared to 18%) in science.</p>
<h2>How we compare internationally</h2>
<p>If excelling by international standards means performing to a standard similar to the Asian powerhouses, we have a great deal of work ahead. </p>
<p>The combined four provinces of China that participated – Beijing, Shanghai, Jiangsu and Zhejiang – while by no means representing China as a whole, represent more than 180 million people, and have an average income well below the OECD average. </p>
<p>Their scores are about one and a half years of schooling higher than Australia in reading, three and a half years higher in maths, and three years higher in science. </p>
<p>Participation in international studies such as PISA enable us to stop and look at how Australia’s education system stacks up against those of other countries – including our trading partners. </p>
<p>These findings show, again, that achievement in reading, maths, and science has been in steady decline for many years. We need to push the pause button and take stock of our curriculum, teaching and assessment methods.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/127013/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sue Thomson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Australian education is still going backwards from where we started in 2000 – new PISA results show.Sue Thomson, Deputy CEO (Research), Australian Council for Educational ResearchLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1270112019-12-01T19:00:31Z2019-12-01T19:00:31ZThe PISA world education test results are about to drop. Is Australia getting worse?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/304356/original/file-20191128-178071-1iu9ca8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">PISA results come out every three years, and there's always a big hoo-ha about it.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The OECD will release the results from PISA (its <a href="https://www.oecd.org/pisa/">Programme for International Student Assessment</a>) 2018 tomorrow evening. This is the seventh time PISA has been administered and the results <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-12-06/australian-school-performance-in-absolute-decline-globally/8098028">usually cause a barrage</a> of attention from governments, and those <a href="https://www.afr.com/policy/health-and-education/gonski-20-a-rebuke-to-20-years-of-education-experts-20180429-h0ze8y">interested in education</a>, for years to come. </p>
<p>What many are wondering about the results tomorrow include</p>
<ul>
<li>where does Australia’s education system sit internationally? </li>
<li>which countries are doing better than we are and which are doing worse? </li>
<li>how are we doing internally – across states and territories, between girls and boys, or children from different socioeconomic and cultural backgrounds?</li>
</ul>
<p>The last PISA 2015 report, published in 2016, <a href="https://research.acer.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1023&context=ozpisa">showed Australia was behind</a> countries such as Singapore, Canada and China in maths and science, and below Singapore, Canada, New Zealand and Ireland in reading.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/pisa-results-dont-look-good-but-before-we-panic-lets-look-at-what-we-can-learn-from-the-latest-test-69470">PISA results don’t look good, but before we panic let’s look at what we can learn from the latest test</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The first PISA test was in 2000. The three assessment domains are rotated every three years, so one domain is the major focus (the major domain). A larger amount of the assessment time is devoted to this domain compared to the other two (the minor domains). </p>
<p>Reading was the major domain in 2000 and 2009, and again in PISA 2018. This means Australia will now have PISA reading results from three different time points. This allows us to investigate trends in average performance (up or down or flat) as well as look at reading in greater detail.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/304357/original/file-20191128-178062-1sgqy9g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/304357/original/file-20191128-178062-1sgqy9g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/304357/original/file-20191128-178062-1sgqy9g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/304357/original/file-20191128-178062-1sgqy9g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/304357/original/file-20191128-178062-1sgqy9g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/304357/original/file-20191128-178062-1sgqy9g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/304357/original/file-20191128-178062-1sgqy9g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The last results showed Australia had been slipping in maths, science and reading since 2012.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The last cycle showed Australia had slipped in each domain since 2012, which means we were getting worse at preparing students for the everyday challenges of adult life. All eyes with be on this report to see whether these declines have been arrested.</p>
<h2>What is PISA?</h2>
<p>PISA is a two-hour test to see how well students in secondary schools across all 36 OECD countries, and 43 other countries or economies, can apply reading, maths, science and other skills to real-life situations. </p>
<p>Rather than focusing on a particular grade or year level, PISA tests 15 year olds – or more specifically, <a href="https://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisaproducts/SAMPLING-IN-PISA.pdf">students</a> who are between 15 years and three months and 16 years and two months at the beginning of the testing period and are enrolled in an educational institution, either full-time or part-time. </p>
<p>This is because, in many of the countries that participated in PISA in the early years, students of this age are usually <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q1I9tuScLUA">nearing the end</a> of their compulsory schooling.</p>
<p>The assessment takes place every three years and students are tested in the three areas each cycle. Assessments areas such as financial and computer literacy, or collaborative problem-solving, change from cycle to cycle. </p>
<hr>
<p><iframe id="tc-infographic-213" class="tc-infographic" height="480" src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/infographics/213/a2ccdae256eb8a9121ad0c97def554c42f850dce/site/index.html" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<hr>
<p>It would be hugely costly and time-consuming to test every 15 year old in the more than 70 participating countries. So a representative random sample of schools is drawn from all schools in each system being tested. Then, a representative sample of students is drawn from within each of those schools. </p>
<p>PISA was not designed to provide scores for individual students or schools – students don’t even complete the same test as the other students in the room. In PISA 2018, for example, there were more than 36 different test forms, covering different parts of the assessment.</p>
<p>In Australia, 740 schools and just over 14,200 students participated in PISA 2018. </p>
<h2>What the test looks like</h2>
<p>There is major difference between PISA and some other international student assessments such as the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (<a href="https://www.acer.org/au/timss">TIMSS</a>). This focuses on how well students have learned the content of a defined curriculum. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-global-education-rankings-dont-reveal-the-whole-picture-72134">Why global education rankings don't reveal the whole picture</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>PISA questions are designed to test students’ applied knowledge in reading, mathematics or science. </p>
<p>For instance, <a href="https://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisa-2015-science-test-questions.htm">a science question</a> (below) in the last cycle concerned bird migration.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Most migratory birds gather in one area and then migrate in large groups rather than individually. This behaviour is a result of evolution. Which of the following is the best scientific explanation for the evolution of this behaviour in most migratory birds?</p>
</blockquote>
<ul>
<li><p><em>birds that migrated individually or in small groups were less likely to survive and have offspring</em></p></li>
<li><p><em>birds that migrated individually or in small groups were more likely to find adequate food</em></p></li>
<li><p><em>flying in large groups allowed other bird species to join the migration</em></p></li>
<li><p><em>flying in large groups allowed each bird to have a better chance of finding a nesting site.</em></p></li>
</ul>
<p>The next question asks students to identify a factor that might make the volunteers’ counts of migrating birds inaccurate, and explain how that will affect the count.</p>
<hr>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/q1I9tuScLUA?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>The type of testing has also changed in line with the way our societies have changed in the two decades PISA has been around. Students now take the assessments using computers, for instance.</p>
<p>The nature of reading has changed too, drastically. In the past, reading was mainly about extracting knowledge from linear texts in established sources. When students did not know the answer to a question, teachers could direct them to look in an encyclopaedia and the answer would be trustworthy.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/reading-progress-is-falling-between-year-5-and-7-especially-for-advantaged-students-5-charts-124634">Reading progress is falling between year 5 and 7, especially for advantaged students: 5 charts</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Today, digital search engines provide students with millions of answers, and it is up to students to figure out what is accurate and what is misleading and potentially dangerous. PISA is <a href="https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/5c07e4f1-en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/5c07e4f1-en&mimeType=text/html">now testing how students navigate</a> multiple-source texts, deal with ambiguity, distinguish between fact, opinion and sensationalism, and triangulate different sources to construct knowledge.</p>
<h2>Why we need PISA</h2>
<p>There are many criticisms of PISA. From the fact the OECD <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/realspin/2017/01/04/are-the-pisa-education-results-rigged/#6278be3c1561">allows some countries</a> to test just regions – like B-S-J-Z (China) – to criticisms of the argument an increase in a country’s PISA scores <a href="https://www.uv.es/RELIEVE/v22n1/RELIEVEv22n1_M15eng.pdf">will result in an increase</a> in that country’s economic wealth.</p>
<p>Despite these criticisms, PISA is robust, and provides an idea of how countries are performing comparative to each other. It provides a birds-eye view of a country’s average student performance, or a state’s average student performance.</p>
<p>This allows us to look deeply and identify groups that might not be performing as well as we hope, or skill areas students aren’t grasping well.</p>
<p><em>And by the way, the answer to the bird question is option one.</em></p>
<p><em>Read the latest PISA results <a href="https://theconversation.com/aussie-students-are-a-year-behind-students-10-years-ago-in-science-maths-and-reading-127013">here</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/127011/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Every three years, the OECD releases its Programme for International Student Assessment results. Last time, Australia’s education system was doing much worse than some other countries. Has it changed?Sue Thomson, Deputy CEO (Research), Australian Council for Educational ResearchKylie Hillman, Senior Research Fellow, Australian Council for Educational ResearchLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1269252019-11-18T19:20:06Z2019-11-18T19:20:06ZReport cards’ report card: showing potential, but with room for improvement<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301881/original/file-20191115-26250-1dj24h6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">One principal estimated report writing costs his school around $90,000 per semester.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australian teachers are in the thick of producing end-of-year reports. In many schools, the report writing process begins several weeks – or even months – before reports are eventually released.</p>
<p>This process has significant costs, including time spent away from teaching.</p>
<p>For the past three years, the Australian Council for Educational Research has <a href="https://www.acer.org/au/cari">been investigating</a> how effective parents, teachers and students consider report cards to be, and whether alternative designs might provide better information about student learning. We have <a href="https://www.acer.org/au/cari">analysed student reports</a> and consulted students, parents, teachers and school leaders from several states.</p>
<p>The final report of our <a href="https://www.acer.org/au/cari">Communicating Student Learning Progress</a> project, out today, shows parents and teachers are dissatisfied with aspects of the way report cards communicate student achievement. For example, parents and teachers generally agree grades, such as the most commonly used A-E, don’t sufficiently show student progress. </p>
<h2>Grades are poor indicators of progress</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/F2019C00086">Australian Education Regulation 2013</a> specifies schools must produce reports that give an accurate and objective assessment of the student’s progress and achievement, including an assessment of the student’s achievement:</p>
<ul>
<li>against any available national standards</li>
<li>relative to the performance of the student’s peers</li>
<li>reported as A, B, C, D or E (or on an equivalent five-point scale) for each subject studied.</li>
</ul>
<p>Our analysis showed that, with few exceptions, Australian schools tend only to report achievement using A-E grades (or similar). Students’ learning progress is less-commonly communicated.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/if-you-want-your-child-to-bring-home-better-grades-stop-yelling-and-try-this-48975">If you want your child to bring home better grades, stop yelling and try this</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Many parents said they wanted information from teachers clearly indicating their child’s growth. Several said they would like to receive “a report that shows growth from the last report” or a report that “includes a line graph of a student’s progress over the year”. </p>
<p>Parents also wanted to better understand the significance of grades in relation to each other and to state or national standards. They wanted to know how grades compare across different classes, teachers, subjects and schools.</p>
<p>One parent said: “I don’t understand the A-E scale”. </p>
<p>Another asked</p>
<blockquote>
<p>What does “Outstanding”, “High”, “Sound”, “Basic”, “Limited” actually mean? Is “Outstanding” best in the class, or operating 12 months ahead of expected level?</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Teachers also told us they were concerned about the inconsistency of standards for grades. One teacher said that at her school</p>
<blockquote>
<p>[…] grades are calculated on the cohort average: a 60% can be a C in one subject/test but a 70% could be a D in another.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Grades alone can also <a href="https://www.teachermagazine.com.au/columnists/geoff-masters/promoting-long-term-learning-progress">mask progress</a> and be demotivating for students. A student who receives a D each report might conclude they are making no progress at all. But they may actually have made more progress than a highly able student who continually receives an A but is not being stretched. </p>
<p>One teacher we spoke with said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>A to E doesn’t focus on growth, and students can sit on a D or E for years and their report doesn’t demonstrate their growth or communicate their effort.</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>The timing is off</h2>
<p>Australia’s education <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/F2019C00086">legislation mandates reports must</a> also be “readily understandable” and received by parents and carers “at least twice a year”. </p>
<p>The majority of teacher comments we analysed generally avoided jargon and communicated in plain language. But parents and students told us they also appreciated comments that were personalised and explained both what a student has, and (crucially) has not yet, been able to demonstrate.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/302103/original/file-20191118-66941-f3un21.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/302103/original/file-20191118-66941-f3un21.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/302103/original/file-20191118-66941-f3un21.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=315&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/302103/original/file-20191118-66941-f3un21.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=315&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/302103/original/file-20191118-66941-f3un21.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=315&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/302103/original/file-20191118-66941-f3un21.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/302103/original/file-20191118-66941-f3un21.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/302103/original/file-20191118-66941-f3un21.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Reports don’t do a good job of communicating growth: how much a student has learnt or how much they need to learn.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>They indicated they wanted comments to outline specific steps the student and parent should take to assist the student to progress. An example of this from a report we analysed is shown below. </p>
<blockquote>
<p>Sarah demonstrated her clear understanding of how to structure an essay through the use of paragraphs, topic and linking sentences, and an introduction and conclusion. She wrote a meaningful and informative essay with strong relevant arguments […] A future goal for Sarah is to include more complex sentences, adding variance in sentence length to better engage the reader.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The timing of reports was an issue for parents too. Those who only received twice-yearly formal reports said they wanted more frequent information about their child’s learning. </p>
<p>Information in half-yearly reports is often outdated and can no longer be acted on, in most cases. </p>
<p>Teachers frequently mentioned that the rush at the end of each semester to finalise assessments and begin writing reports is often out-of-step with the rhythms of their own curriculum and assessment cycles.</p>
<p>One teacher said </p>
<blockquote>
<p>We should not assess the students all at the same time – it’s stressful for students. Different subjects have different assessment blocks and could report when they have information to report on. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Students also expressed feeling overwhelmed at these peak periods of assessment. </p>
<h2>How can we do it better?</h2>
<p>Formal reporting can have significant costs. We asked one principal to calculate the costs associated with report writing at his primary school, which has 14 classes and 345 students. He estimated the total cost per semester, in 2019, was just over A$99,000. </p>
<p>His estimation included actual costs, as well as opportunity costs such as time spent by teachers writing reports before and after school, during lunch breaks, on weekends, and on holidays.</p>
<p>Schools are more often using online student and learning management systems to serve a range of functions. Teachers can use these systems to <a href="https://www.teachermagazine.com.au/articles/continuous-student-reporting-the-next-step">continuously report</a> on student achievement throughout the school year. This provides parents and carers with information closer to each point of assessment, and often at little extra expense. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-talk-to-your-child-about-their-school-report-99640">How to talk to your child about their school report</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>A significant number of teachers we surveyed suggested continuous reporting adds to their workload. But most teachers emphatically agreed continuous reporting is more useful to parents and students than semester reports. </p>
<p>Online continuous reporting has the potential trade-off of a reduced workload at the end of each semester, as semester reports can be generated automatically. </p>
<p>As more and more schools adopt continuous reporting, and place greater emphasis on assessing and reporting learning growth, semester reports as we know them will either become redundant or will need to change. </p>
<p>Our research suggests all forms of communication (semester reports, continuous reporting, parent-teacher interviews, student-led conferences, portfolios) should work together, as a system, to communicate a coherent picture of a child’s achievement and progress.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/126925/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A new report out today shows parents are generally unsatisfied with the way reports cards communicate students’ progress.Hilary Hollingsworth, Principal Research Fellow, Australian Council for Educational ResearchJonathan Heard, Research Fellow, Australian Council for Educational ResearchLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1200762019-07-23T20:02:54Z2019-07-23T20:02:54ZThree charts on: how much Australia spends on all levels of education<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/284457/original/file-20190717-147295-4ilpqv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Spending on education in Australia increased nearly 80% between 2000 and 2015.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australia spent A$111.8 billion on education in 2015, the most recent year for which the full dataset for all levels of education spending is available. A report from the Australian Council for Educational Research (ACER) <a href="https://research.acer.edu.au/policy_analysis_misc/29/">released today</a> shows this was an increase of nearly 80% from 2000 spending.</p>
<p>The federal government contributed A$47.2 billion (42%) of the overall funding. State, territory and local governments spent A$39.1 billion (35%). A further A$25.5 billion (23%) came from private sources.</p>
<p>The ACER report is the first to capture data on education spending at all levels of education – from early childhood to higher education – from all funding sources.</p>
<p>The analysis separates funding into three sources: federal government; state, territory and local governments; and private sources (the latter includes contributions by students in the form of fees, as well as contributions by private businesses and non-profit organisations).</p>
<p>The report also organises spending by education sector and levels, as defined in Australia.</p>
<h2>Spending by education level</h2>
<p>Education funding goes through a range of transfers between the three sources. At different points in the funding cycle, the contributions by government sources are transferred to other funding sources.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/explaining-australias-school-funding-debate-whats-at-stake-100023">Explaining Australia's school funding debate: what's at stake</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>For instance, the federal government transferred A$14 billion of its initial education funding to private sources in 2015, mainly in the form of student loans. It transferred a further A$17.7 billion to state, territory and local governments which then fund schools and other areas of education.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/285085/original/file-20190722-45479-cj8kts.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/285085/original/file-20190722-45479-cj8kts.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/285085/original/file-20190722-45479-cj8kts.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=611&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/285085/original/file-20190722-45479-cj8kts.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=611&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/285085/original/file-20190722-45479-cj8kts.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=611&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/285085/original/file-20190722-45479-cj8kts.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=768&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/285085/original/file-20190722-45479-cj8kts.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=768&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/285085/original/file-20190722-45479-cj8kts.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=768&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>The final distribution of national education spending, after the transfers, was A$15.5 billion (14%) from the federal government, A$55.4 billion (49%) from state, territory and local governments and A$40.9 billion (37%) from private sources.</p>
<p>The bulk of Australia’s education spending is directed to three levels of education: primary schools (27%), secondary schools (28%) and higher education (26%). </p>
<p>The remaining 19% is spread between early childhood education, preschool, vocational education and training (VET) certificates, diplomas and advanced diplomas.</p>
<h2>Spending as a percentage of GDP</h2>
<p>In 2015, Australia spent A$102.4 billion on primary school and above. In real terms this spending has grown substantially since the beginning of the century and faster than student numbers.</p>
<p>While spending on education increased by 79% between 2000 and 2015, the number of students in the Australian education system increased by only 22%. As a result, education spending per student (primary and above) increased by 46% over this period.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/yes-education-funding-has-increased-but-not-everyone-benefits-65340">Yes, education funding has increased – but not everyone benefits</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Australia’s spending on education as a proportion of GDP has also increased, from 5.1% in 2000 to 5.9% in 2015. </p>
<p>This increase has largely been driven by private sources of funding, rather than government funds, indicating an increasing willingness by people to invest in their own (or their children’s) education. </p>
<hr>
<iframe title="Australia's annual spending on education (primary school and above) as a percentage of GDP, 2000-2015&nbsp;" aria-label="Interactive line chart" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/Gtily/3/" scrolling="no" frameborder="0" style="border: none;" width="100%" height="500"></iframe>
<hr>
<p>The share of private spending on education (primary and above) after transfers increased from 26% of total education spending in 2000 to 34% in 2015. </p>
<p>The fastest period of growth in private spending has been since 2012. This coincided with the introduction of the higher education sector’s demand-driven funding arrangements (where universities didn’t have a cap on the number of bachelor degree students they could take). </p>
<p>But it’s important to remember the government allocates a significant amount of its initial funding (before transfers) to student loans.</p>
<h2>Spending as a percentage of total government spending</h2>
<p>Government spending on education before transfers increased by 67% in real terms between 2000 and 2015. At the same time, total government spending rose by 65%. </p>
<p>So, government spending on education before transfers, as a percentage of total government spending, was 1% higher in 2015 than in 2000. It peaked in 2010 due to the global financial crisis stimulus spending and fell in the interim.</p>
<hr>
<iframe title="Annual government spending on education as a percentage of total government spending per level of education, 2000 to 2015" aria-label="Interactive line chart" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/iJ8mS/2/" scrolling="no" frameborder="0" style="border: none;" width="100%" height="541"></iframe>
<hr>
<p>Australia’s government spends a <a href="https://read.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/education-at-a-glance-2018_eag-2018-en#page284">relatively large proportion</a> of its budget on education compared to other OECD countries. In total, government spending on education is 13.5%, which ranks Australia ninth of the 39 countries in the OECD reporting. </p>
<p>But Australia’s total government spending for all services (including health, education, social protection, defence, public order and safety) <a href="https://read.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/education-at-a-glance-2018_eag-2018-en#page434">is relatively low</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/factcheck-is-australia-below-the-international-average-when-it-comes-to-school-funding-72189">FactCheck: is Australia below the international average when it comes to school funding?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>ACER’s analysis is drawn from annual expenditure data the Australian Government Department of Education submits for the joint UNESCO Institute for Statistics, OECD and Eurostat (UOE) data collection on education statistics – which the OECD releases as the <a href="https://www.oecd.org/education/education-at-a-glance/">Education at a Glance</a> publication. </p>
<p>The Education at a Glance reports are good for obtaining a snapshot of Australian education spending in relation to other OECD countries. But until now the data have not been organised in a useful way for further examining the Australian context.</p>
<p>To fully appreciate the nuances of the data, we need increased expertise in the economics of education in Australia. More emphasis on this would enable long-term forecasting of the policy implications of Australia’s investment in education and would offer an additional objective voice at the education policy table.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/120076/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>In 2015, the federal government contributed A$47.2 billion (42%) to education. State, territory and local governments spent A$39.1 billion (35%) and A$25.5 billion (23%) came from private sources.Daniel Edwards, Research Director, Australian Council for Educational ResearchJames Mahmud Rice, Research consultant and doctoral student, The University of MelbourneJulie McMillan, Senior Research Fellow, Australian Council for Educational ResearchLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/996482018-07-31T20:14:30Z2018-07-31T20:14:30ZFewer teenagers plan on further study, with disadvantaged teens most at risk<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/229767/original/file-20180730-106508-8bhjft.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5897%2C3907&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Teenagers' plans for the future can affect their school work now.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/RmO3If0EYHM">Sammie Vasquez/Unsplash</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A smaller proportion of Australian teenagers are expecting to go to university or TAFE than they did 15 years ago, according to new research.</p>
<p>The survey, by the <a href="https://www.acer.org">Australian Council for Educational Research</a> (ACER), which manages the <a href="https://www.acer.org/ozpisa">Program for International Student Assessment</a> (PISA) in Australia, found in 2015 a total of 54% of 15-year-old students were aiming for a university degree. Around 3% were aiming for a TAFE diploma. This was down from 2003, when 63% planned to go to university, and 8% planned to do a TAFE diploma.</p>
<p>A decline in students’ expectations of a university degree may not be cause for alarm. Instead, it may reflect expanding opportunities in other qualification areas, such as apprenticeships and other forms of vocational education. The decline in those students expecting to do a TAFE diploma may reflect fewer offerings in the TAFE sector.</p>
<hr>
<p><iframe id="xDPaf" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/xDPaf/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<hr>
<p>What’s alarming is the disparity that remains between different groups of students. In particular, those related to disadvantage such as Indigeneity, low socioeconomic background and rurality.</p>
<h2>What else did the survey find?</h2>
<p>The 2015 PISA survey is a large-scale three-yearly study of more than half a million 15-year-olds in 72 countries, including 14,500 students in 750 Australian schools. It measures reading, science and maths literacy to determine how well prepared students are for the challenges of adult life. It’s managed internationally by the OECD and in Australia by ACER.</p>
<p>Educational pathways and prospects across OECD countries varied, despite some having similar cultures.</p>
<p>More than half (54%) of the Australian students surveyed in 2015 expected to go university. This is higher than the OECD average (44%), and students in Ireland (46%) and New Zealand (45%), but lower than those in Canada (64%) and the US (76%). </p>
<hr>
<p><iframe id="8XZPK" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/8XZPK/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<hr>
<p>Another 35% of Australian students expected to finish year 12 or a certificate four level qualification (generally associated with apprenticeships), compared to 23% internationally.</p>
<p>On average only a few Australian students (less than 3% nationally) expected to leave school before finishing Year 12.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/leaving-school-early-means-youre-likely-never-to-return-to-study-and-training-in-adult-life-79346">Leaving school early means you're likely never to return to study and training in adult life</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Across the states and territories, two-thirds (66%) of students in the ACT expected they would complete a university degree, compared to just 44% students in Tasmania. At the same time, around 8% of Tasmanian students – twice the national average – planned to leave school without completing year 12.</p>
<h2>Disadvantaged students’ expectations</h2>
<p>While it’s concerning that a smaller proportion of students are expecting to go to university than they did in 2003, the disparity between different groups of students is even more concerning.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/more-at-risk-young-people-are-turning-to-private-vet-providers-65315">More at-risk young people are turning to private VET providers</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Not only are there differences in their access to and <a href="https://www.ncsehe.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/Equity-Student-Briefing-Note_FINAL.pdf">opportunity for further study</a>, the survey highlights the range of their expectations, and what that might represent for their future.</p>
<p>Further comparison of the educational expectations of various groups of students revealed some worrying patterns related to disadvantage: </p>
<ul>
<li>only 28% of Indigenous students, compared to 55% of non-Indigenous students, expected to complete a university degree</li>
<li>almost 40% of students at remote schools, compared to almost 60% of those attending metropolitan schools, expected to complete a university degree</li>
<li>some 34% of students in the lowest socioeconomic quartile, compared to almost 77% in the highest quartile, expected to complete a university degree</li>
<li>even among high achievers, fewer students from the lowest socioeconomic quartile said they expected to go to university (74%) compared to students from the highest socioeconomic quartile (92%).<br></li>
</ul>
<p>Interestingly, higher proportions of students from an immigrant background (both first-generation Australians and second-generation), compared to students born in Australia to Australian-born parents, expected to go to university.</p>
<h2>Why does this matter?</h2>
<p>Having different expectations for future education <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.5153/sro.3508">can impact students’ current experiences</a> of education, influence their motivation, behaviour and <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/berj.3171">achievement at school</a> now.</p>
<p>For example, students who know they won’t be able to afford to move out of home to go to their chosen university may decide, consciously or not, to not put so much effort into their schoolwork if they can get into a different course at a local TAFE that requires a lower ATAR.</p>
<p>For young people, expectations for further study can also become a self-fulfilling prophecy. Those expecting to leave school early are <a href="https://www.ncver.edu.au/publications/publications/all-publications/educational-outcomes-the-impact-of-aspirations-and-the-role-of-student-background-characteristics">more likely to do so</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/students-own-low-expectations-can-reinforce-their-disadvantage-23501">Students' own low expectations can reinforce their disadvantage</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Students who expect to attend university are more likely to do so, and so gain access to improved social and labour markets outcomes. These include increased health and life expectancy, higher incomes and greater levels of wellbeing – the “health, wealth and happiness” trifecta.</p>
<p>For policymakers, expectations may be of more practical interest. A society may wish to see the general education of its population increase, to provide more well-informed citizens, ensure a supply of adequately trained scientists, engineers or doctors, or raise basic standards of literacy and wellbeing.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/99648/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sue Thomson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Although fewer Australian teens planned on going to university or TAFE than 15 years ago, figures were still higher than the OECD average.Sue Thomson, Deputy CEO (Research), Australian Council for Educational ResearchLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/978662018-06-06T10:04:11Z2018-06-06T10:04:11ZMany Australian school students feel they ‘don’t belong’ in school: new research<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/222088/original/file-20180607-137298-zcan09.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Students' sense of belonging at school is linked to how well they do at school.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>A report released today by the <a href="https://www.acer.org/">Australian Council for Educational Research</a> (ACER), the managers of the <a href="http://www.oecd.org/pisa/">Program for International Student Assessment</a> (PISA) in Australia, explores Australian students’ sense of belonging. This has been <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00220670309596617">shown</a> to play a big part in academic success at school. </p>
<p>Australian students, on average, reported a poorer sense of belonging at school compared to students across the OECD. A lower proportion of Australian students than the OECD average said they “feel like they belong at school”.</p>
<h2>Why does this matter?</h2>
<p>For some students, a sense of belonging is <a href="http://www.oecd.org/education/school/programmeforinternationalstudentassessmentpisa/34002216.pdf">indicative</a> of educational success and long-term health and wellbeing. It has also been <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00220670309596617">found</a> to promote positive attitudes towards students’ learning. </p>
<p>What’s more, students who feel part of, and accepted by, their school community are not only <a href="http://www.oecd.org/education/pisa-2015-results-volume-iii-9789264273856-en.htm">more likely</a> to participate in school activities, both academic and non-academic, but will be actively engaged in these activities.</p>
<h2>What were students asked?</h2>
<p>PISA 2015 asked students to rate their reaction to these six statements on how they feel about school:</p>
<ul>
<li>I feel like an outsider (or left out of things) at school<br></li>
<li>I make friends easily at school </li>
<li>I feel like I belong at school<br></li>
<li>I feel awkward and out of place in my school<br></li>
<li>other students seem to like me<br></li>
<li>I feel lonely at school.</li>
</ul>
<p>Student responses (strongly agree, agree, disagree and strongly disagree) were combined to construct the sense of belonging index. This allowed us to compare Australian students with their OECD counterparts and with their peers in different states and territories, socioeconomic groups, and between genders. </p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/221945/original/file-20180606-137291-1bnsz45.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/221945/original/file-20180606-137291-1bnsz45.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=545&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/221945/original/file-20180606-137291-1bnsz45.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=545&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/221945/original/file-20180606-137291-1bnsz45.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=545&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/221945/original/file-20180606-137291-1bnsz45.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=686&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/221945/original/file-20180606-137291-1bnsz45.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=686&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/221945/original/file-20180606-137291-1bnsz45.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=686&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">ACER/The Conversation</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<h2>How does Australia compare?</h2>
<p>Across the full spectrum of PISA participants, students in Spain had the highest levels of sense of belonging. This was followed by students in Austria and Albania. Students in Turkey had the lowest sense of belonging, followed by students in Macao (China) and the Dominican Republic. </p>
<p>Ten countries were selected for further comparison with Australia. These included seven high-performing countries – Canada, Estonia, Finland, Hong Kong (China), Japan, Macao (China) and Singapore – who performed significantly higher in scientific, reading and mathematical literacy than Australia, and three culturally similar English-speaking OECD countries – New Zealand, the UK and the US.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/ideas-for-australia-why-is-australia-falling-behind-in-maths-science-and-literacy-and-what-can-be-done-about-it-56267">Ideas for Australia: Why is Australia falling behind in maths, science and literacy – and what can be done about it?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Students in the high-performing countries did not necessarily report a greater sense of belonging than Australian students. Macao (China), Hong Kong (China), Singapore, Canada, Estonia and Japan came in below, and Finland above, the OECD average. Students in the other English-speaking countries also reported a sense of belonging below the OECD average. </p>
<hr>
<p><iframe id="xGHvR" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/xGHvR/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<hr>
<p>Australia performed close to the OECD average on most questions except “other students seem to like me” (88% compared with the OECD average of 82%) and “I feel like an outsider (or left out of things) at school” (77% against the OECD average of 83%). </p>
<p>Fewer Australian students disagreed with the remaining negative statements than the average. This indicates more Australian students feel awkward, out of place, and lonely in school than their OECD peers.</p>
<h2>Sense of belonging in different demographic groups</h2>
<p>We also examined sense of belonging among a number of different groups within Australia.</p>
<p>Male students in Australia reported a greater sense of belonging than female students. For males, the sense of belonging was similar to the average across OECD countries. But for female students, it was substantially lower. </p>
<p>Boys were more likely to respond positively to all of the statements. The most substantial of these were seen on the negative statements. Some 7% more female than male students reported feeling like an outsider at school, and 7% more female than male students said they felt lonely at school. </p>
<p>Indigenous students reported a much lower sense of belonging than their non-Indigenous peers. The largest difference was on the statement “I feel like I belong in school”, which 8% fewer Indigenous students agreed with.</p>
<p>Students in metropolitan schools responded more positively on all of the statements than students in either provincial or remote schools. In particular, a much lower proportion of students in provincial and remote schools felt they belonged in school (11% difference between students in metropolitan schools and those in remote schools). </p>
<p>There were stark differences in the results for different levels of socioeconomic background. In PISA, the socioeconomic index for students is broken into quarters and compared. </p>
<p>Students in the highest quarter of socioeconomic background scored at the OECD average on sense of belonging. These students’ experience of schooling is very different from that of students in the lowest quarter of socioeconomic background. </p>
<p>The differences are large on every item. The largest, again, was on the statement “I feel like I belong in school”, for which there was a 13% gap between the two groups. Just 65% of students in the lowest socioeconomic quartile agreed with this statement, compared to 78% of students in the highest socioeconomic quartile. </p>
<p>Some 73% of low socioeconomic students said they felt awkward and out of place in their school, compared to 82% of high socioeconomic students. There was a similar difference in the proportion of each group of students who said they felt like an outsider at school.</p>
<p>Finally, foreign-born and first-generation students reported a greater sense of belonging than Australian-born students.</p>
<p>Even when taken individually, some of these differences are disturbing. While the majority of Australian students feel a sense of belonging at school, there is a solid core of students who do not feel this way - roughly one in five, or five students in the average classroom.</p>
<p>But we know the issues in individual schools can be much worse than these figures describe. Other than gender, these characteristics are not randomly distributed across the population. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/to-reduce-inequality-in-australian-schools-make-them-less-socially-segregated-95034">To reduce inequality in Australian schools, make them less socially segregated</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>For example, there are schools that enrol a large proportion of low socioeconomic background students. The number of students who feel like an outsider, lonely, or awkward will be much higher in these schools than in schools in which there are few such students. </p>
<p>For provincial and remote schools, the proportions could be further inflated, with more students from Indigenous backgrounds and more students at lower levels on the socioeconomic index.</p>
<h2>Trends over time</h2>
<p>Sense of belonging at school in Australia has declined overall between PISA 2003 and PISA 2015. It has declined across all demographic groups. </p>
<p>The largest decline was on the statement “I feel like I belong at school” - with which 88% of students agreed in 2003 but just 72% agreed in 2015. The difference in the proportion who said they felt like an outsider declined by 15%, while the proportion who said they felt awkward or out of place declined by 13%.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Read the full report <a href="https://research.acer.edu.au/ozpisa/30/">here</a>.</em></p>
<hr><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/97866/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sue Thomson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Australian students, on average, reported a poorer sense of belonging at school than the OECD average. But issues with sense of belonging aren’t distributed evenly across the population.Sue Thomson, Deputy CEO (Research), Australian Council for Educational ResearchLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/935552018-05-16T20:14:04Z2018-05-16T20:14:04ZWe need to reform NAPLAN to make it more useful<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/213994/original/file-20180410-114121-smsilr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">4.5 million young Australians between the ages of nine and 24 have taken NAPLAN tests at some point during their schooling.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>NAPLAN testing starts this week. With calls for a review, many education experts are calling the Future of NAPLAN into question. In <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/future-of-naplan-53601">this series</a>, the experts look at options for removing, replacing, rethinking or resuming NAPLAN.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>The National Assessment Program - Literacy and Numeracy <a href="https://www.nap.edu.au/results-and-reports/national-reports">(NAPLAN)</a> has now been in place for a decade. Some 4.5 million young Australians between the ages of nine and 24 have taken NAPLAN tests at some point during their schooling. </p>
<p>But NAPLAN has its <a href="http://sydney.edu.au/education_social_work/news_events/resources/No_NAPLAN.pdf">critics</a> and, as with all testing programs, would benefit from ongoing review and refinement. </p>
<p>Here are two suggestions that might make these tests more useful to classroom teaching and learning.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/classroom-design-should-follow-evidence-not-architectural-fads-89861">Classroom design should follow evidence, not architectural fads</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Abandon public comparisons of school results</h2>
<p>In common with the state-based tests (for example, the <a href="https://www.records.nsw.gov.au/series/18928">NSW Basic Skills Test</a>) it replaced, NAPLAN was introduced to provide parents, teachers and schools with objective information about students’ foundational literacy and numeracy skills. </p>
<p>This was after unacceptably low levels of reading and numeracy were going undetected and unaddressed in Australian schools.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/213998/original/file-20180410-71151-cvv6ae.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/213998/original/file-20180410-71151-cvv6ae.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/213998/original/file-20180410-71151-cvv6ae.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/213998/original/file-20180410-71151-cvv6ae.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/213998/original/file-20180410-71151-cvv6ae.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/213998/original/file-20180410-71151-cvv6ae.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/213998/original/file-20180410-71151-cvv6ae.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">NAPLAN testing has reportedly led to inappropriate levels of practice testing and increased student test anxiety.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Since the introduction of NAPLAN, there has been a marked increase in the stakes attached to these tests. School results have been made available for public comparison on the <a href="https://myschool.edu.au/">My School</a> website. Some schools even use NAPLAN in their marketing and student selection processes. </p>
<p>Other schools and school systems use NAPLAN to hold teachers and school leaders accountable for improvement, including making test results part of performance reviews. And there have been proposals to make NAPLAN results the basis of teacher <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/teacher-wages-to-be-linked-to-test-results-20091114-ifnw.html">performance pay</a> and financial <a href="http://parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/search/display/display.w3p;query=Id%3A%22library%2Fpartypol%2FIGOX6%22">rewards</a> for school improvement.</p>
<p>As a result, parents, teachers and schools now place greater importance on NAPLAN results in comparison to the earlier state-based tests. This has led to <a href="https://theconversation.com/naplan-testing-does-more-harm-than-good-26923">reports</a> of inappropriate levels of practice testing and increased student test anxiety. It has also narrowed teaching to the test, and led to occasional cheating.</p>
<p>The decision to make all schools’ NAPLAN results public was based on a belief this would provide parents with better information when choosing schools. </p>
<p>This was a market-driven belief that, for schools, the risk of losing students would be a powerful incentive to improve. But test-based incentives have proven largely <a href="https://michaelfullan.ca/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/13396088160.pdf">ineffective</a> in driving school improvement.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/213999/original/file-20180410-71160-119ixgp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/213999/original/file-20180410-71160-119ixgp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/213999/original/file-20180410-71160-119ixgp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/213999/original/file-20180410-71160-119ixgp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/213999/original/file-20180410-71160-119ixgp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/213999/original/file-20180410-71160-119ixgp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/213999/original/file-20180410-71160-119ixgp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The current paper test is given to students in years three, five, seven and nine.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Parents have sometimes drawn incorrect conclusions about the quality of a school from publicly reported test results. And public comparisons of schools have resulted in a range of unanticipated negative <a href="https://www.goodschools.com.au/insights/education-updates/concerns-over-naplan-testing">consequences</a> such as narrowing teaching and increasing levels of teacher and student stress.</p>
<p>An obvious strategy is to stop reporting school results publicly and to restrict access to school-level NAPLAN data to individual schools and school systems. The primary focus of literacy and numeracy testing might then return to its original purpose of informing teaching and learning.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/naplan-only-tells-part-of-the-story-of-student-achievement-86144">NAPLAN only tells part of the story of student achievement</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Enhance the instructional value of NAPLAN</h2>
<p>NAPLAN is a paper test given to students in years three, five, seven and nine, although this year some schools will administer the test online for the first time. The instructional value of these tests appears to be limited in several ways.</p>
<ol>
<li><p>Because common <a href="https://www.teachermagazine.com.au/articles/naplan-reading-the-achievement-spread">year-level tests</a> are too difficult for some students in each year level and too easy for others, NAPLAN provides little information to guide the teaching of these students.</p></li>
<li><p>Because the marking of paper tests is a time consuming process, results are provided many weeks after testing, limiting their usefulness to teaching.</p></li>
<li><p>NAPLAN tests include only a few items on each literacy and numeracy skill and so are of limited diagnostic value for individual students.</p></li>
</ol>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/214000/original/file-20180410-71173-1lkl0di.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/214000/original/file-20180410-71173-1lkl0di.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214000/original/file-20180410-71173-1lkl0di.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214000/original/file-20180410-71173-1lkl0di.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214000/original/file-20180410-71173-1lkl0di.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214000/original/file-20180410-71173-1lkl0di.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214000/original/file-20180410-71173-1lkl0di.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An online version of NAPLAN could provide opportunities to improve the quality of the test.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The delivery of NAPLAN online, being gradually implemented from this year, offers an opportunity to address these limitations. </p>
<p>The first step is to continue to get rid of fixed, year-level tests and fully replace them with online “<a href="https://www.edglossary.org/computer-adaptive-test/">adaptive</a>” tests. In adaptive testing, students are given test questions that are directly targeted to individual students’ skill levels. Adaptive testing provides more precise information about the points individuals have reached in their learning, regardless of their year level.</p>
<p>The benefits of adaptive testing are best realised when the purpose of testing is to establish and understand where individuals are in their skill development. This requires the substantive interpretation of test results by reference to a well-constructed <a href="https://rd.acer.org/article/progress-towards-a-global-measurement-scale">map</a> of long-term skill development. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/naplan-online-will-australian-schools-and-students-be-ready-25327">NAPLAN online: will Australian schools and students be ready?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>NAPLAN scores are expressed on a numerical scale that extends across years three, five, seven and nine. These scores are interpreted with reference to a hierarchy of skill “bands” (or <a href="https://www.nap.edu.au/nap-sample-assessments/civics-and-citizenship/proficiency-levels">proficiency levels</a>). </p>
<p>The instructional usefulness of NAPLAN will be enhanced by working to describe and illustrate these skill levels in ways that maximise guidance to teaching and learning and by making them the direct reference for understanding students’ NAPLAN performances. </p>
<p>Online delivery and scoring will provide more immediate feedback to teachers and students thus improving NAPLAN’s instructional value.</p>
<p>Delivery in an online environment also introduces the possibility of changing NAPLAN itself. For example, the wrong answers a student gives in numeracy could be used to draw automatic conclusions about the mistakes they are making. This could be checked by giving more questions of the same type and feeding the results back to the teacher.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/93555/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Geoff Masters works for ACER which undertakes commissioned research and development related to NAPLAN.</span></em></p>NAPLAN has now been in place for a decade and needs ongoing review and refinement to make it more useful to classroom teaching and learning.Geoff Masters, CEO, Australian Council for Educational ResearchLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/879372017-11-23T19:11:21Z2017-11-23T19:11:21ZEvidence-based education needs standardised assessment<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/195979/original/file-20171123-6027-1t7k8zl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Standardised assessments can inform what teachers teach, based on evidence of student learning.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The latest <a href="https://www.education.gov.au/review-achieve-educational-excellence-australian-schools">Gonski</a> review aims to improve evidence-based decision-making in Australian school education. It recognises that governments’ educational investment must be based on more than politics, just as teachers’ instructional decisions must be based on more than intuition. Like other professional sectors, Australian education must be guided by rigorous evidence of what works, for whom and in what contexts. </p>
<p>Standardised assessments, like <a href="https://www.nap.edu.au/naplan">NAPLAN</a>, are powerful tools in building a strong evidence base for education policy and practice. As NAPLAN enters its second decade, it is timely to reflect on how Australia can make best use of standardised assessment to drive system improvement. This does not deny valid criticisms of punitive standardised testing regimes. Instead, it considers how we might avoid a “baby and bathwater” scenario, and retain the benefits of standardised testing with fewer flaws.</p>
<h2>Comparison not competition</h2>
<p>Comparison of standardised assessments across systems, schools and classrooms can guide evidence-based policy and practice in many ways. Analysis of NAPLAN trends can help identify <a href="https://www.teachermagazine.com.au/columnists/geoff-masters/how-well-are-we-learning-from-naplan">policies and practices</a> that may have contributed to improvements. The first <a href="https://docs.education.gov.au/system/files/doc/other/what_is_the_schooling_resource_standard_and_how_does_it_work.pdf">Gonski review</a> used comparisons of NAPLAN data as evidence to estimate the costs of quality school education. </p>
<p>Australia participates in international standardised tests like <a href="http://www.oecd.org/pisa/">PISA</a>, <a href="https://timssandpirls.bc.edu/">TIMSS</a> and <a href="https://timssandpirls.bc.edu/">PIRLS</a>. This is part of a broader global conversation about how to make education systems work better for everyone. Many teachers and school leaders are now using standardised test data to <a href="https://research.acer.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1019&context=tll_misc">guide school improvement</a>.</p>
<p>On the other hand, standardised assessment can fuel unhealthy competition. The worst effects of MySchool can be seen in <a href="https://theconversation.com/unfair-funding-is-turning-public-schools-into-sinks-of-disadvantage-751">residualised</a> schools abandoned by students and families who can afford to go elsewhere. The worst effects of NAPLAN itself can be seen in students placed under pressure to gain the score they need to get into a selective school, or top-stream class. </p>
<p>Internationally, simplistic PISA league tables risk undermining the global improvement agenda that the assessment was designed to support. </p>
<p>Standardised testing does not have to be used this way. It is most effective when used for <a href="http://nepc.colorado.edu/publication/data-driven-improvement-accountability">system improvement</a>, not sanctions or exclusion. Australia has not followed other nations in linking assessment to sanctions for schools or pay for teachers. This is something to be celebrated and sustained.</p>
<h2>Standardised not homogenised</h2>
<p>Standardised assessments work best when they adapt to students’ individuality. For example, through “<a href="https://www.nap.edu.au/online-assessment">tailored testing</a>” in NAPLAN online. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/fbX8FudbeDs?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>There is <a href="https://www.teachermagazine.com.au/columnists/geoff-masters/shifting-the-focus-of-naplan">potential</a> for Australia to go much further by assessing students across the full continuum of learning, instead of bundling them into year-level groups. </p>
<p>ACER is also <a href="https://www.acer.org/cari/projects/new-metric-projects/assessment-of-general-capabilities">developing</a> standardised assessments that use a wider range of methods to capture the skills of students who may not perform their best on a written test. This makes standardised tests more inclusive of different learning styles and cultures, as well as disability.</p>
<h2>Assessment for teaching</h2>
<p>Standardised assessments can inform what teachers teach, based on evidence of student learning. This happens most effectively when assessments are mapped to curriculum. More work needs to be done to strengthen the connection between curriculum and assessment in Australia. This would help teachers make better use of NAPLAN results to inform their teaching. Current work on describing national learning progressions in literacy and numeracy will help connect the Australian Curriculum to NAPLAN assessment. </p>
<p>We also need to assess the right things. Australia’s <a href="https://www.nap.edu.au/nap-sample-assessments/assessment-frameworks">National Assessment Program</a> covers a broad range of subject areas, beyond literacy and numeracy. <a href="https://rd.acer.org/article/assessing-general-capabilities">Research</a> is also underway about assessing general capabilities, such as critical and creative thinking, and collaboration, which are essential to students’ success in modern workplaces.</p>
<h2>Pluralism not hegemony</h2>
<p>A healthy education system will have multiple assessments (large-scale and small), each designed to suit the purpose at hand. NAPLAN is an imperfect measure by nature, and cannot be expected to measure children’s learning as competently as the teacher who spends hours with them every day. </p>
<p>On the other hand, individual teachers’ judgements cannot map learning across the entire education system. Teachers may be experts on the progress of their students, but they cannot compare that progress with students in the school down the road, let alone a school in another state or territory. Standardised assessment provides the best birds-eye view of where the system is working, and where additional attention is required.</p>
<p>Most importantly, standardised assessment is part of the social contract between governments and populations, to provide a quality education for every child. </p>
<p>ACER works with many countries developing standardised assessments, hungry for information about how well their system is working. In countries where government investment is limited, standardised assessments have even been developed by <a href="https://www.acer.org/gem/citizen-led-assessments-evaluation-reports">citizen-led groups</a> to meet parents’ demands for information about their children’s learning. This is the best illustration of the purpose of standardised assessment: as evidence that empowers education stakeholders to focus on positive change.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/87937/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jen Jackson works for the Australian Council for Educational Research. She receives funding from the Australian Government Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Raymond J Adams heads the Centre for Global Education Monitoring at ACER which is funded by ACER and DFAT. Ray chairs ACARA’s Measurement Advisory Group</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ross Turner works for the Australian Council for Educational Research. </span></em></p>Standardised tests are a powerful tool for building an evidence base of what works to guide education policy.Jen Jackson, Research Fellow, Educational Monitoring and Research, Australian Council for Educational ResearchRaymond J Adams, Head Centre for Global Education Monitoring - ACER, Australian Council for Educational ResearchRoss Turner, Principal Research Fellow, Australian Council for Educational ResearchLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/712192017-02-06T19:14:45Z2017-02-06T19:14:45ZRethinking how we assess learning in schools<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/152511/original/image-20170112-25897-13ytzq4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Students don't always know if they are making any progress in their learning.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>In <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/educating-australia-35445">this series</a> we’ll explore how to improve schools in Australia. Some of the most prominent experts in the sector tackle key questions, including why we are not seeing much progress; whether we are assessing children in the most effective way; why parents need to listen to what the evidence tells us, and much more.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>There is a major flaw in the way we currently assess school students. By labelling them as either “good” or “poor” learners based on their overall grades at the end of each year, students have no clear idea whether they are making progress over extended periods of time.</p>
<p>We need to move away from focusing on what grade a child will get at the end of a year, to assessing the progress that students make over time.</p>
<h2>How students are assessed</h2>
<p>This is how most parents, teachers and students likely view the school process:</p>
<p>It begins with a curriculum that spells out what teachers should teach and students should learn in each year of school.</p>
<p>The role of teachers is to deliver this curriculum by making it engaging and meaningful, and ensuring that all students have an opportunity to learn what the curriculum prescribes. </p>
<p>The role of students is to learn what teachers teach, and it is accepted that some students – the better learners – will learn more of this than others.</p>
<p>The role of assessment is to establish how well students have learnt what teachers have taught. This can be done at the end of a period of teaching such as a semester or school year. Such assessments are sometimes called “summative” or assessments of learning. </p>
<p>Alternatively, assessments can be undertaken during teaching to establish how well students have learnt so far. These assessments are sometimes called “formative” or assessments for learning, because they provide information about gaps in learning and material that may need to be retaught.</p>
<p>Students are then graded on how well they have learnt the curriculum for their year level. Those who can demonstrate most of this curriculum receive high grades; those who demonstrate relatively little receive low grades.</p>
<h2>Unintended consequences</h2>
<p>In support of this way of organising teaching and learning is the argument that the best way to raise achievement levels in schools is to set clear curriculum standards for each year of school, rigorously assess how well students meet those expectations and report performances honestly and fearlessly. If a student has failed, say so.</p>
<p>All of this may be appropriate if all students in each year of school began the year at the same starting point. This is patently not the case. </p>
<p>In any year of school, the gap between the most advanced 10% of students and the least advanced 10% is the equivalent of at <a href="http://www.nap.edu.au/docs/default-source/default-document-library/2016-naplan-national-report.pdf">least five to six years of school</a>. If school were a running race, students would begin the year widely spread out along the running track. Despite this, all students would be judged against the same finish line (the year-level expectations).</p>
<p>And the consequences are predictable. Students at the back of the pack, who are two or three years behind the bulk of students and the year-level curriculum, struggle and generally achieve low grades, often year after year. </p>
<p>A student who receives a “D” this year, a “D” next year and a “D” the year after is given little sense of the progress they are actually making and, worse, may conclude that there is something stable about their ability to learn (they are a “D student”). Many of these students <a href="http://www.aitsl.edu.au/docs/default-source/default-document-library/engagement_in_australian_schools__grattan">eventually disengage</a> from the schooling process.</p>
<p>At the front of the pack, more advanced students generally begin the school year on track to receive high grades. Many receive high grades on the middling expectations for their age group without being overly stretched or challenged. There is <a href="http://www.theage.com.au/national/education/results-flatline-fortop-students-20130109-2cgud.html">evidence</a> that least year-on-year progress is often made by these students.</p>
<h2>An alternative – monitoring learning</h2>
<p>An alternative is to recognise that the fundamental purpose of assessment is to establish and understand where individuals are in their long-term learning progress at the time of assessment. </p>
<p>This usually means establishing what they know, understand and can do – something that can be done before, during or after teaching, or without reference to a course of instruction at all.</p>
<p>Underpinning this alternative is a belief that every learner is capable of further progress if they can be engaged, motivated to make the appropriate effort and provided with targeted learning opportunities. </p>
<p>This is a more positive and optimistic view than a belief that there are inherently good and poor learners as confirmed by their performances on year-level expectations. </p>
<p>It also recognises that successful learning is unlikely when material is much too difficult or too easy, but depends instead on providing every learner with well-targeted, personalised stretch challenges.</p>
<p>A good understanding of where students are in their learning provides starting points for teaching and a basis for monitoring learning progress over time. </p>
<p>One of the best ways to build students’ confidence as learners is to help them see the progress they are making over extended periods of time.</p>
<p>A focus on monitoring learning encourages a long-term perspective. Rather than being defined only in terms of year-level expectations, successful learning is defined as the progress or growth that students make over time. </p>
<p>Under this approach, every student is expected to make excellent progress every year towards the achievement of high standards – regardless of their current levels of attainment.</p>
<hr>
<p>• <em>Geoff Masters explores this theme further in a new book called <a href="https://www.mup.com.au/items/165663">Educating Australia: Challenges for the Decade Ahead</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/71219/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Geoff Masters is the CEO of the Australian Council for Educational Research, a body that provides assessment resources to schools and advice to governments. </span></em></p>Our current way of assessing students doesn’t let them see the progress they are making over extended periods of time.Geoff Masters, CEO, Australian Council for Educational ResearchLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.