tag:theconversation.com,2011:/institutions/colorado-college-703/articlesColorado College2024-02-12T12:36:05Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2233582024-02-12T12:36:05Z2024-02-12T12:36:05ZUn siglo de ‘Rhapsody in Blue’, el clásico que Gershwin compuso en diez días<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574944/original/file-20240202-27-30mlpw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=7%2C0%2C2658%2C1966&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">George Gershwin tardó sólo 10 días en escribir el clásico estadounidense.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/photo-of-us-composer-and-pianist-george-gershwin-news-photo/102488695?adppopup=true">GAB Archive/Redferns via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>El 12 de febrero de 1924 era un día gélido en Nueva York. Pero eso no impidió que <a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Continuum_Encyclopedia_of_Popular_Music/HZQemZyozqwC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=rachmaninov%20%22experiment%20in%20modern%20music%22&pg=PA479&printsec=frontcover">un intrépido grupo de asistentes a un concierto</a> se reuniera en el Aeolian Hall del centro de Manhattan para llevar a cabo “un experimento de música moderna”. El organizador, el director de orquesta <a href="https://www.albany.edu/%7Esw7656/pathfind.htm">Paul Whiteman</a>, quería mostrar cómo podían unirse el jazz y la música clásica. Así que encargó una nueva obra a un joven judío-americano de 25 años llamado <a href="https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/library/arts/gershwin-obit.html">George Gershwin</a>. </p>
<p>La contribución de Gershwin al programa, “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NIr_WPcVDt8">Rhapsody in Blue</a>”, superaría todas las expectativas y se convertiría en una de las obras más conocidas del siglo XX. Más allá de la sala de conciertos, acabó apareciendo en películas emblemáticas como <a href="https://youtu.be/7mwZYGcbQCo?si=9cCvQHYdTvjcjDEF"><em>Manhattan</em></a> de Woody Allen y <a href="https://youtu.be/ie-TS-BitnQ?si=m4PdBq-OM3Xit9dP"><em>Fantasía 2000</em></a> de Disney. Se interpretó durante las ceremonias de apertura de los <a href="https://youtu.be/ylUF32pwvtI?si=74KSSpvdtXlC-KpB">Juegos Olímpicos de Los Ángeles de 1984</a> y, si alguna vez vuela en United Airlines, la oirá sonar durante los <a href="https://blog.oup.com/2014/08/united-airlines-gershwin-rhapsody-blue/">vídeos de seguridad previos al vuelo</a>. </p>
<p>Llevo casi dos décadas <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-society-for-american-music/article/abs/each-man-kills-the-thing-he-loves-bernsteins-formative-relationship-with-rhapsody-in-blue/4D3271F9A4BD972DABD11C2ADB9DDF12">investigando</a> <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/arranging-gershwin-9780199978380">y escribiendo</a> <a href="https://www.schott-music.com/en/rhapsody-in-blue-no577145.html">sobre esta pieza</a>. Para mí, “Rhapsody” no es una composición estática anclada en el pasado, sino una pieza musical en continua evolución cuyo significado ha cambiado con el tiempo.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/ynEOo28lsbc?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>Programarla actualmente en conciertos se ha convertido en una especie de arma de doble filo. Un siglo después de su estreno, sigue siendo una de las favoritas del público y casi siempre garantiza agotar las entradas. Pero cada vez más estudiosos empiezan a ver en la obra una versión blanqueada de la vibrante escena musical negra de Harlem. </p>
<h2>Un éxito improvisado</h2>
<p>Whiteman encargó a Gershwin la composición de “Rhapsody” a finales de 1923. Pero, según cuenta la historia, el compositor se olvidó de su encargo <a href="https://www.loc.gov/static/programs/national-recording-preservation-board/documents/RhapsodyInBlue.pdf">hasta que leyó sobre el próximo concierto en un periódico</a> el 4 de enero de 1924. </p>
<p>Gershwin tuvo que trabajar deprisa, escribiendo según el tiempo que le dejaba su apretada agenda. <a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Arranging_Gershwin/3Yw_BAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA25&printsec=frontcover">Las pruebas manuscritas sugieren</a> que sólo trabajó en la pieza un total de 10 días a lo largo de varias semanas.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573109/original/file-20240202-19-djol50.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Partitura manuscrita." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573109/original/file-20240202-19-djol50.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573109/original/file-20240202-19-djol50.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=694&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573109/original/file-20240202-19-djol50.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=694&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573109/original/file-20240202-19-djol50.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=694&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573109/original/file-20240202-19-djol50.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=872&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573109/original/file-20240202-19-djol50.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=872&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573109/original/file-20240202-19-djol50.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=872&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Copia de la primera página del manuscrito de George Gershwin para ‘Rhapsody in Blue’.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/copy-of-the-first-page-of-the-autographed-manuscript-news-photo/500762335?adppopup=true">Gabriel Hackett/Archive Photos/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>En consecuencia, se basó en las melodías, armonías, ritmos y estructuras musicales familiares que habían empezado a granjearle una reputación como compositor popular en los escenarios de Broadway. Esta música estaba cada vez más influenciada por el jazz temprano, a medida que el sonido improvisado, sincopado e impregnado de <em>blues</em> de músicos negros como <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bxBQ2kiQyi8">Louis Armstrong</a> se abría camino hacia el norte desde Nueva Orleans. Gershwin también se mezcló con algunos de los grandes pianistas de Harlem de la época, como <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4ajtCKLTOiM">James P. Johnson</a> y <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6FDUNWm_W0Y">Willie “The Lion” Smith</a>, y recibió su influencia.</p>
<p>A pesar de haber sido improvisada rápidamente, “Rhapsody in Blue” acabó vendiendo <a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Arranging_Gershwin/3Yw_BAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA25&printsec=frontcover">cientos de miles de discos y copias de partituras</a>. Las propias interpretaciones de la obra por parte de Gershwin durante sus giras también contribuyeron a aumentar su popularidad. </p>
<p>Pero el éxito también lo convirtió en blanco de críticas, sobre todo porque Gershwin se había apropiado de la música negra.</p>
<h2>Los músicos negros se sienten desairados</h2>
<p>No se trata sólo de una crítica de los historiadores de la música del siglo XXI. Ya entonces, algunos artistas negros se sintieron molestos. Pero en lugar de denunciarlo por escrito, lo hicieron a través de su propio arte.</p>
<p>En 1929, la artista de blues Bessie Smith protagonizó un cortometraje titulado <em>St. Louis Blues</em>, basado en la canción homónima del compositor <a href="https://www.alamhof.org/wc-handy">W.C. Handy</a>. Cuenta con un reparto íntegramente negro, incluidos miembros de la <a href="https://syncopatedtimes.com/fletcher-henderson-orchestra/"><em>Fletcher Henderson Orchestra</em></a> y el <a href="https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/arts-culture/hall-johnson-1888-1970/"><em>Hall Johnson Choir</em></a>. Las versiones instrumentales y vocales de la canción de Handy constituyen el telón de fondo sonoro de esta película de 15 minutos, con una excepción muy señalada. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/S1qqB9l7RQM?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">El cortometraje <em>St. Louis Blues</em> lanza una sutil indirecta a Gershwin a los 14 minutos.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Smith interpreta el papel de Bessie, una amante no correspondida por un jugador tramposo llamado Jimmy. En la escena final, tras una discusión previa, Jimmy y Bessie se reconcilian en un club. Se abrazan en la pista de baile al son de “St. Louis Blues”. </p>
<p>Pero sin que Bessie lo sepa, Jimmy le roba cuidadosamente lo que lleva en el bolsillo y la empuja sin compasión a su taburete. Después de que Jimmy muestre su recién adquirida fortuna, comienza el glissando del clarinete de “Rhapsody in Blue”. Jimmy sale del club, haciendo una reverencia y quitándose el sombrero como un artista que agradece su ovación. </p>
<p>Es difícil no ver el subtexto de introducir la famosa pieza de Gershwin en este momento: del mismo modo que Jimmy le ha robado a Bessie, la película sugiere que Gershwin le había robado el jazz a la comunidad negra.</p>
<p>Otra respuesta musical a “Rhapsody” surgió en 1927 del pianista amigo de Gershwin, James P. Johnson: “<a href="https://youtu.be/Bw2ynNYSvgo?si=AF_Mrk0CDJhipJK8">Yamekraw</a>”. El editor Perry Bradford <a href="https://news.wosu.org/show/the-american-sound/2018-10-18/echoes-of-the-harlem-renaissance-james-p-johnson-wrote-a-rhapsody-in-black-and-white">facturó la obra</a> como “no una ‘Rhapsody in blue’ (que significa rapsodia en azul), sino una Rapsodia en blanco y negro (notas negras sobre papel blanco)”. </p>
<p>Por supuesto, las “notas negras” eran algo más que la propia partitura. Johnson demuestra cómo un músico negro abordaría <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/rhapsody">el género de la rapsodia</a>.</p>
<h2>Un caleidoscopio musical</h2>
<p>Gershwin describió una vez “Rhapsody” “<a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/George_Gershwin/RySwdc151ZoC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22musical%20kaleidoscope%20of%20America%22&pg=PA297&printsec=frontcover">como una especie de caleidoscopio musical de América, de nuestro vasto crisol de razas</a>”. </p>
<p>El problema de la metáfora del “crisol de culturas” es que pide a los inmigrantes que dejen atrás prácticas e identidades culturales para asimilarse a la población mayoritaria. </p>
<p>Y eso es precisamente lo que pretendía el experimento musical de Whiteman en el Aeolian Hall hace un siglo. <a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Jazz_Cultures/8aUwDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22the%20tremendous%20strides%20which%20have%20been%20made%20in%20popular%20music%20from%20the%20day%20of%20the%20discordant%20Jazz%22&pg=PA162&printsec=frontcover">Como rezaba el programa del concierto</a>, “Mr. Whiteman pretende señalar, con la ayuda de su orquesta y asociados, los tremendos avances que se han hecho en la música popular desde los días del Jazz discordante… hasta la música realmente melodiosa de hoy”. </p>
<p>En otras palabras, quería integrar la música popular de jazz de la época en la música clásica y, al hacerlo, resaltar la belleza inherente a la bestia, haciéndola más aceptable para el público blanco. </p>
<p>“Rhapsody in Blue” y otras obras híbridas de jazz y música clásica como ésta pronto se conocerían como música <em>middlebrow</em>. Este tenso término surge del espacio entre los denominados <em>lowbrow</em> y <em>highbrow</em>, que sitúan las obras de arte en una escala que va de lo pedestre a lo intelectual. Estos términos se relacionaban originalmente con <a href="https://theconversation.com/neuroscientists-put-the-dubious-theory-of-phrenology-through-rigorous-testing-for-the-first-time-88291">la pseudociencia de la frenología</a>, que extraía conclusiones sobre la inteligencia basándose en la forma del cráneo y la ubicación de la cresta de la línea de la frente. </p>
<p>La música culta, hecha por y para blancos, se consideraba la más sofisticada. Pero la música de alto nivel también podía elevar convenientemente la música de bajo nivel tomando prestados –o mejor dicho, apropiándose de– elementos musicales como el ritmo y la armonía. Fusionando ambas, la baja llega a la media. Pero nunca podría llegar a la cima por sus propios medios.</p>
<p>Si se pretende que “Rhapsody” de Gershwin se escuche como un “caleidoscopio musical de América”, es importante recordar quién sujeta la lente, qué música se añade a la mezcla y cómo ha cambiado una vez admitida. </p>
<p>Pero también es importante recordar que 100 años es mucho tiempo. Lo que la cultura valora, y por qué, cambia inevitablemente. Lo mismo ocurre con “Rhapsody in Blue”.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223358/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ryan Raul Bañagale no recibe salario, ni ejerce labores de consultoría, ni posee acciones, ni recibe financiación de ninguna compañía u organización que pueda obtener beneficio de este artículo, y ha declarado carecer de vínculos relevantes más allá del cargo académico citado.</span></em></p>La obra sigue fascinando al público. Pero cada vez son más los estudiosos que empiezan a ver la Rapsodia como una versión blanqueada de la vibrante escena musical negra de Harlem.Ryan Raul Bañagale, Associate Professor and Chair of Music, Colorado CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2130582024-02-07T13:13:23Z2024-02-07T13:13:23ZGeorge Gershwin’s ‘Rhapsody in Blue’ is a story of jazz, race and the fraught notion of America’s melting pot<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573120/original/file-20240202-27-30mlpw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=7%2C0%2C2658%2C1966&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">It took George Gershwin just 10 days to pen the American classic.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/photo-of-us-composer-and-pianist-george-gershwin-news-photo/102488695?adppopup=true">GAB Archive/Redferns via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>February 12, 1924, was a frigid day in New York City. But that didn’t stop <a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Continuum_Encyclopedia_of_Popular_Music/HZQemZyozqwC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=rachmaninov%20%22experiment%20in%20modern%20music%22&pg=PA479&printsec=frontcover">an intrepid group of concertgoers</a> from gathering in midtown Manhattan’s Aeolian Hall for “An Experiment in Modern Music.” The organizer, bandleader <a href="https://www.albany.edu/%7Esw7656/pathfind.htm">Paul Whiteman</a>, wanted to show how jazz and classical music could come together. So he commissioned a new work by a 25-year-old Jewish-American upstart named <a href="https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/library/arts/gershwin-obit.html">George Gershwin</a>. </p>
<p>Gershwin’s contribution to the program, “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NIr_WPcVDt8">Rhapsody in Blue</a>,” would go on to exceed anyone’s wildest expectations, becoming one of the best-known works of the 20th century. Beyond the concert hall, it would appear in iconic films such as Woody Allen’s “<a href="https://youtu.be/7mwZYGcbQCo?si=9cCvQHYdTvjcjDEF">Manhattan</a>” and Disney’s “<a href="https://youtu.be/ie-TS-BitnQ?si=m4PdBq-OM3Xit9dP">Fantasia 2000</a>.” It was performed during the opening ceremonies of the <a href="https://youtu.be/ylUF32pwvtI?si=74KSSpvdtXlC-KpB">1984 Los Angeles Olympics</a>, and if you ever fly on United Airlines, you’ll hear it playing during the <a href="https://blog.oup.com/2014/08/united-airlines-gershwin-rhapsody-blue/">preflight safety videos</a>. </p>
<p>I’ve spent nearly two decades <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-society-for-american-music/article/abs/each-man-kills-the-thing-he-loves-bernsteins-formative-relationship-with-rhapsody-in-blue/4D3271F9A4BD972DABD11C2ADB9DDF12">researching</a> <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/arranging-gershwin-9780199978380">and writing</a> <a href="https://www.schott-music.com/en/rhapsody-in-blue-no577145.html">about this piece</a>. To me, “Rhapsody” isn’t some static composition stuck in the past; rather, it’s a continuously evolving piece of music whose meaning has changed over time.</p>
<p>Programming “Rhapsody” for concerts today has become somewhat of a double-edged sword. A century after it premiered, it remains a crowd favorite – and almost always guarantees a sold-out show. But more and more scholars are starting to see the work as a whitewashed version of Harlem’s vibrant Black music scene. </p>
<h2>A cobbled-together hit</h2>
<p>Whiteman commissioned Gershwin to write “Rhapsody” sometime in late 1923. But as the story goes, the composer forgot about his assignment <a href="https://www.loc.gov/static/programs/national-recording-preservation-board/documents/RhapsodyInBlue.pdf">until he read about the upcoming concert in a newspaper</a> on Jan. 4, 1924. </p>
<p>Gershwin had to work quickly, writing as time allowed in his busy schedule. <a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Arranging_Gershwin/3Yw_BAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA25&printsec=frontcover">Manuscript evidence suggests</a> that he only worked on the piece a total of 10 days over the span of several weeks.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573109/original/file-20240202-19-djol50.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Handwritten sheet music." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573109/original/file-20240202-19-djol50.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573109/original/file-20240202-19-djol50.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=694&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573109/original/file-20240202-19-djol50.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=694&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573109/original/file-20240202-19-djol50.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=694&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573109/original/file-20240202-19-djol50.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=872&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573109/original/file-20240202-19-djol50.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=872&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573109/original/file-20240202-19-djol50.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=872&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A copy of the first page of George Gershwin’s manuscript for ‘Rhapsody in Blue.’</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/copy-of-the-first-page-of-the-autographed-manuscript-news-photo/500762335?adppopup=true">Gabriel Hackett/Archive Photos/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Accordingly, he relied on the familiar melodies, harmonies, rhythms and musical structures that had started to garner him acclaim as a popular composer for the Broadway stage. This music was increasingly influenced by early jazz, as the improvised, syncopated and blues-infused sound of Black musicians such as <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bxBQ2kiQyi8">Louis Armstrong</a> made its way north from New Orleans. Gershwin also mingled with, and was influenced by, some of the great Harlem stride pianists of the day, including <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4ajtCKLTOiM">James P. Johnson</a> and <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6FDUNWm_W0Y">Willie “The Lion” Smith</a>.</p>
<p>Despite being quickly cobbled together, “Rhapsody in Blue” ultimately sold <a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Arranging_Gershwin/3Yw_BAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA25&printsec=frontcover">hundreds of thousands of records and copies of sheet music</a>. Gershwin’s own performances of the work on tour also helped boost its popularity. </p>
<p>But success also opened up the piece to criticism – particularly that Gershwin had appropriated Black music.</p>
<h2>Black musicians feel snubbed</h2>
<p>This is not only a 21st-century critique by music historians. Even back then, some Black artists were miffed.</p>
<p>But rather than calling it out in print, they did so through their own art.</p>
<p>In 1929, blues artist Bessie Smith starred in a short film called “<a href="https://www.loc.gov/item/mbrs00063365/">St. Louis Blues</a>,” based on the song of the same name by composer <a href="https://www.alamhof.org/wc-handy">W.C. Handy</a>. It features an all-Black cast, including members of the <a href="https://syncopatedtimes.com/fletcher-henderson-orchestra/">Fletcher Henderson Orchestra</a> and the <a href="https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/arts-culture/hall-johnson-1888-1970/">Hall Johnson Choir</a>. Instrumental and vocal versions of Handy’s song provide the sonic backdrop for this 15-minute film – with one very pointed exception. </p>
<p>Smith plays the part of Bessie, an unrequited lover to a duplicitous gambler named Jimmy. In the final scene, after a previous falling out, Jimmy and Bessie reconcile in a club. They embrace on the dance floor to the strains of “St. Louis Blues.” </p>
<p>But unbeknownst to the love-struck Bessie, Jimmy carefully picks her pocket and unmercifully shoves her back to her bar stool. After Jimmy flashes his newly acquired bankroll, the opening clarinet glissando of “Rhapsody in Blue” begins. <a href="https://youtu.be/S1qqB9l7RQM?si=Y5Aoq1sutIipDuMv&t=848">During this brief, 20-second cue</a>, Jimmy boastfully backs out of the club, bowing and tipping his hat like a performer acknowledging his ovation. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/S1qqB9l7RQM?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The short film ‘St. Louis Blues’ takes a subtle dig at Gershwin 14 minutes in.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It’s hard not to see the subtext of introducing Gershwin’s famous piece at this moment: Just as Jimmy has robbed Bessie, the film suggests that Gershwin had pilfered jazz from the Black community.</p>
<p>Another musical response to “Rhapsody” emerged in 1927 from Gershwin’s stride pianist friend, James P. Johnson: “<a href="https://youtu.be/Bw2ynNYSvgo?si=AF_Mrk0CDJhipJK8">Yamekraw</a>.” Publisher Perry Bradford <a href="https://news.wosu.org/show/the-american-sound/2018-10-18/echoes-of-the-harlem-renaissance-james-p-johnson-wrote-a-rhapsody-in-black-and-white">billed the work</a> as “not a ‘Rhapsody in Blue,’ but a Rhapsody in Black and White (Black notes on White paper).” </p>
<p>Of course, the “black notes” were more than just the score itself. Johnson demonstrates how a Black musician would approach <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/rhapsody">the rhapsody genre</a>.</p>
<h2>Stuck in the middle with ‘Blue’</h2>
<p>Gershwin once described “Rhapsody” “<a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/George_Gershwin/RySwdc151ZoC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22musical%20kaleidoscope%20of%20America%22&pg=PA297&printsec=frontcover">as a sort of musical kaleidoscope of America – of our vast melting pot</a>.” </p>
<p>The problem with the “melting pot” metaphor is that it asks immigrants to leave behind cultural practices and identities in order to assimilate into the majority population. </p>
<p>And that’s just what Whiteman’s musical experiment at Aeolian Hall a century ago was all about: He sought, as he put it, to “<a href="https://syncopatedtimes.com/paul-whiteman-profiles-in-jazz/">make a lady out of jazz</a>.”</p>
<p><a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Jazz_Cultures/8aUwDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22the%20tremendous%20strides%20which%20have%20been%20made%20in%20popular%20music%20from%20the%20day%20of%20the%20discordant%20Jazz%22&pg=PA162&printsec=frontcover">As the concert’s program read</a>, “Mr. Whiteman intends to point out, with the assistance of his orchestra and associates, the tremendous strides which have been made in popular music from the day of the discordant Jazz … to the really melodious music of today.” </p>
<p>In other words, he wanted to fold the era’s popular jazz music into classical music – and, in doing so, draw out the inherent beauty in the beast, making it more acceptable to white audiences. </p>
<p>“Rhapsody in Blue” and other classical-jazz hybrid works like it would soon <a href="https://theconversation.com/jane-austen-monet-and-phantom-of-the-opera-middlebrow-culture-today-145176">become known as “middlebrow” music</a>. </p>
<p>This fraught term emerges from the space between the so-called “lowbrow” and “highbrow,” descriptors that locate works of art on a scale from pedestrian to intellectual. These terms originally related to <a href="https://theconversation.com/neuroscientists-put-the-dubious-theory-of-phrenology-through-rigorous-testing-for-the-first-time-88291">the pseudoscience of phrenology</a>, which drew conclusions about intelligence based on skull shape and the location of the ridge of one’s brow line. </p>
<p>Highbrow music, made by and for white people, was considered the most sophisticated.</p>
<p>But highbrow music could also conveniently elevate lowbrow music by borrowing – or rather, appropriating – musical elements such as rhythm and harmony. Merging the two, the low gets to the middle. But it could never get to the top on its own terms.</p>
<p>If Gershwin’s “Rhapsody” is meant to be heard as a “musical kaleidoscope of America,” it is important to remember who’s holding the lens, what music gets added to the mix, and how it has changed once admitted. </p>
<p>But it’s also important to remember that 100 years is a long time. What the culture values, and why, inevitably changes. The same is true for “Rhapsody in Blue.”</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/213058/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ryan Raul Bañagale does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The work remains a crowd favorite. But more and more scholars are starting to see ‘Rhapsody’ as a whitewashed version of Harlem’s vibrant Black music scene.Ryan Raul Bañagale, Associate Professor and Chair of Music, Colorado CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2223442024-02-01T20:56:00Z2024-02-01T20:56:00ZBilly Joel is back for an encore − but why did he wait so long to turn the lights back on?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572856/original/file-20240201-25-d4htz6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=282%2C89%2C2582%2C1773&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Joel performs at New York City's Madison Square Garden in 2015.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/billy-joel-performs-madison-square-garden-on-january-9-2015-news-photo/461257302?adppopup=true">Myrna Suarez/WireImage via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>With the flip of a digital switch, Billy Joel fans have their first new song in 17 years, “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hexZ5hwia08">Turn the Lights Back On</a>.” </p>
<p>It has all the markers of a classic Joel ballad: the rhythm and rolling chords of “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cx3QmqV2pHg">She’s Always a Woman</a>,” the plea to accept someone “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HaA3YZ6QdJU">Just the Way You Are</a>,” the percussive bass and snare of “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LVlDSzbrH5M">The Downeaster ‘Alexa</a>.’” There’s even a lick in the piano solo some may recall from “<a href="https://youtu.be/izzM9LXqP-U?si=iyl52C5sQqYD6W9m&t=168">Scenes from an Italian Restaurant</a>” – much slower, yes, but we should all be so lucky to be making new music into our 70s. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/hexZ5hwia08?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The official lyric video for Billy Joel’s ‘Turn the Lights Back On.’</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But what does it all add up to? Does this mean that Billy Joel is back? Did he ever go away?</p>
<p>In my scholarship, I explore <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/arranging-gershwin-9780199978380">the legacy of musicians</a> – how their music reverberates and transforms over time, long after the works themselves came into the world.</p>
<p>What makes Joel such an interesting case study is his active role in shaping the life of music that he composed long ago.</p>
<p>Typically, the legacy of an artist of Joel’s stature comes into view after they pass away. But Joel has been in the “legacy making” phase of his career longer than the entirety of many other musician’s careers.</p>
<h2>Creative hibernation</h2>
<p>Between 1970 and 1993, Joel released a new album every 12 to 16 months, composing more than 120 songs. </p>
<p>But he hasn’t released a new album of popular music since 1993’s “River of Dreams.” That album concluded with a song titled “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dEtcu-l9wDo">Famous Last Words</a>,” a straightforward rock song with a chorus that repeatedly intones, “These are the last words I have to say.” </p>
<p>From a distance, his fans came to understand this as a retirement from churning out hit albums. Since then, Joel – as timeless as some of his songs might be – has largely been an artist locked in time. </p>
<p>Even though he long ago quit recording new music, Joel has continued to fill stadiums. He toured “Face to Face” with Elton John for several years, and in 2014 he began a monthly residency at Madison Square Garden. That run will conclude <a href="https://www.billyjoel.com/news/billy-joel-announces-final-show-of-madison-square-garden-residency/">when he plays his 150th performance</a> in the iconic venue in July 2024. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A man smiles and faces another man wearing black glasses who's howling with laughter." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572922/original/file-20240201-27-lsl8j9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572922/original/file-20240201-27-lsl8j9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572922/original/file-20240201-27-lsl8j9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572922/original/file-20240201-27-lsl8j9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572922/original/file-20240201-27-lsl8j9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=623&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572922/original/file-20240201-27-lsl8j9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=623&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572922/original/file-20240201-27-lsl8j9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=623&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Billy Joel and Ray Charles share a laugh in 1993, the year Joel released ‘River of Dreams,’ his most recent album of new music.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/billy-joel-and-ray-charles-during-songwriters-hall-of-fame-news-photo/105403617?adppopup=true">Ron Galella/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These continual live performances have both extended the longevity of his songs and have allowed new generations to discover and enjoy his back catalog.</p>
<p>He’s sold <a href="https://www.billyjoel.com/biography/">more than 150 million albums</a>. Box sets, anthologies and special collector’s editions have long been a way to maintain and capitalize on an artist’s legacy – look no further than the steady line of <a href="https://variety.com/2022/music/reviews/the-beatles-revolver-deluxe-box-album-review-1235417007">50th anniversary reissues released by The Beatles</a>. In the absence of new music, Columbia Records has worked to maintain Joel’s presence by releasing Joel’s “Greatest Hits: Volume III” (1997) and “My Lives” (2005). </p>
<h2>A star’s last hurrah?</h2>
<p>Now it’s 2024, and Joel has been creatively dormant longer than he was active. </p>
<p>So what’s he doing with “Turn the Lights Back On”? Could a new compilation be in the works?</p>
<p><a href="https://rowman.com/ISBN/9781793601810/">I’ve written elsewhere</a> about the arrangement of Joel’s life and career through greatest hits compilations.</p>
<p>To encourage the purchase of these compilations, they’re usually accompanied by the release of new material, whether it’s something from the archives that never made it onto one of his prior albums, or – on special occasions – <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Make_You_Feel_My_Love">a brand-new song</a>.</p>
<p>But in a streaming era replete with <a href="https://open.spotify.com/playlist/2WgQ96x6mlX6RMS2yuSmvp">accessible and customizable playlists</a>, promoting a forthcoming album doesn’t seem to be the motivation here. </p>
<p>Rather, Joel seems to be taking a cue from The Beatles. </p>
<p>Last November, they released “<a href="https://theconversation.com/is-now-and-then-really-a-beatles-song-the-fab-four-always-used-technology-to-create-new-music-216981">Now and Then</a>,” which was marketed as “the last Beatles song.” One month later, Joel wryly suggested during a Madison Square Garden residency concert that he might have something in the pipeline. The news spread via <a href="https://www.tiktok.com/@billyjoel/video/7314822303660051758">his first-ever post to TikTok</a>.</p>
<p>In some ways, like “Now and Then,” the release of “Turn the Lights Back On” is a once-in-a-lifetime event – particularly for his younger fans. </p>
<p>Indeed, for millions of people this will be the first time many will have ever had the privilege of hearing a new song by an artist they’ve long admired. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1IxMN3cW8DU">In the teaser video announcing this new song</a> on Jan. 22, 2024, you literally see Joel turn the page for this next chapter in his career. If you pay close attention, the page he flips is a waterlogged set of lyrics for “Famous Last Words.” </p>
<p>He’s making good on the promise of the lyrics from that song: “There will be other words some other day, Ain’t that the story of my life?”</p>
<p>Back in the 1990s, he got out of the business of making records <a href="https://faroutmagazine.co.uk/the-reason-why-billy-joel-stopped-writing-songs/">because he was in a rut</a>. It’s possible that the years hence haven’t been as fulfilling as he’d hoped.</p>
<p>Does “Turn the Lights Back On” hint at what comes next? Is this Joel ready to share new music with the world again? Or is it a wistful plea from a baby boomer artist to be remembered as his star dims? </p>
<p>Perhaps trying to derive meaning is beside the point. As he declares toward the end of the song, “I’m here right now.” </p>
<p>Maybe that’s all any of his fans can ask for.</p>
<p><em>This article has been updated to correct the years that have passed since Joel’s last new song. It’s been 17 years, not 15 years.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222344/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ryan Raul Bañagale does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>In 1993, Joel sang, ‘These are the last words I have to say.’ What changed?Ryan Raul Bañagale, Associate Professor and Chair of Music, Colorado CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1858412022-07-28T12:25:47Z2022-07-28T12:25:47Z‘Rage giving’: Charities can get a boost from current events, such as controversial Supreme Court rulings<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/473454/original/file-20220711-26-qiraph.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5607%2C3732&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Giving to a cause tied to nettlesome news may calm the nerves.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/woman-is-angry-about-her-computer-news-photo/548849571?adppopup=true">Wodicka/ullstein bild via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When anger over everything from the killing of unarmed people of color to new restrictions on access to abortion bubbles over, many Americans act on it.</p>
<p>One avenue for someone who has gotten fed up with current events is to take part in protests, such as <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/6/11/thousands-rally-against-gun-violence-after-mass-shootings-surge">marching for gun reform</a> in response to mass shootings. Another is by what <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=Ay7ZS0cAAAAJ">nonprofit</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=3qOb1RwAAAAJ&hl=en">philanthropy scholars</a> like to call “rage giving” – charitable donations motivated by strong emotions and dissatisfaction with the political climate. </p>
<p>In our <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/elements/abs/rage-giving/7D91A09D64D1514AF3C19F6690A4BD75">new book about this phenomenon</a>, we explain that people often donate to nonprofits following breaking news about events they consider to be tragic or unjust. By donating, people may feel they are addressing the wrong they want to see righted, or they can express a strong politically driven view or value. </p>
<h2>Divisive moments</h2>
<p>When news coverage grows and collective anger culminates in high-profile marches, rage givers can experience an emotional release by channeling their feelings into <a href="https://www.theringer.com/tech/2018/6/22/17494052/rage-giving-trump-immigration-twitter">something they consider positive</a>.</p>
<p>Quick bursts of anger sometimes called “<a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/2018/06/20/rage-giving-fuels-record-fundraising-immigrant-children/718272002/">fury triggers</a>” <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12522">usually drive these gifts</a>. </p>
<p>We have found that waves of rage giving are often sparked by divisive political moments. These unexpected spikes in donations are typically fueled by extensive media coverage. </p>
<p>For example, after the <a href="https://www.npr.org/2022/05/27/1101490738/uvalde-buffalo-mass-shooting-similarities">mass shootings in Uvalde, Texas, and Buffalo</a>, New York, <a href="https://buffalonews.com/business/local/as-donations-flow-in-after-tops-shooting-the-first-grants-are-rolling-out/article_d871d938-ddfa-11ec-99b7-238ada5cebd2.html">donations to groups that support gun violence victims</a> in both <a href="https://cftexas.org/supportuvalde">communities surged</a>.</p>
<p>And, shortly after the May 2022 leak of the <a href="https://www.townandcountrymag.com/society/politics/a40218865/us-supreme-court-roe-v-wade-overturned-decision/">Supreme Court’s draft decision to overturn Roe v. Wade</a>, NARAL Pro-Choice America, an organization that advocates for access to abortion, saw a <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/us/donations-us-abortion-rights-groups-clinics-surge-after-supreme-court-leak-2022-05-04/">1,400% increase in donations within 24 hours</a>. </p>
<p>Likewise, the Brigid Alliance, a nonprofit <a href="https://theconversation.com/abortion-funds-are-in-the-spotlight-with-the-end-of-roe-v-wade-3-findings-about-what-they-do-182636">abortion fund</a> that provides financial and logistical help for people seeking abortions, saw the <a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/funding-increases-for-abortion-related-causes-as-rage-giving-continues">number of its donors quadruple</a> from May to July. The gifts ranged from $5 to $50,000.</p>
<h2>Growth following 2016 election</h2>
<p>Rage giving isn’t limited to guns or abortion. Nor is it new. </p>
<p>But there are many signs that the phenomenon grew ahead of, <a href="https://www.theringer.com/tech/2018/6/22/17494052/rage-giving-trump-immigration-twitter">during and after</a> the <a href="https://www.npr.org/2016/11/05/500782887/donald-trumps-road-to-election-day">heated 2016</a> and <a href="https://afpglobal.org/news/engagement-all-rage-philanthropy-amid-crisis">2020 presidential elections</a>. Many people who were concerned about immigration, civil rights and sexual assault and harassment during those highly polarized periods sought out opportunities to give to nonprofits and political action committees as <a href="https://www.bostonglobe.com/business/2016/11/21/rage-donate-becomes-anti-trump-balm/7t4pJvnlbfAW3A3NeItmyL/story.html">quick and easy ways to express their outrage</a>.</p>
<p>The ease and growth of online giving, <a href="https://institute.blackbaud.com/charitable-giving-report/online-giving-trends">up 42% in the three years ending in 2021</a>, makes it simpler for rage givers to express their outrage. There’s no longer a need to mail a check or make a phone call.</p>
<p>Rage giving is, to be sure, partisan in that anger and outrage can provoke political mobilization, action and higher voter turnout.</p>
<p>But nonprofits on both sides of the political and cultural divide have reaped windfalls from rage giving in recent years. <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-43884698">Giving to pro-gun organizations</a> like the National Rifle Association, for example, can surge when gun control measures are in the news –as is generally the case after mass shootings. </p>
<h2>More likely to be women and Democrats</h2>
<p>In 2017, we commissioned a survey that identified 520 people who said they had donated to a nonprofit of their choice after feeling <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108951036">unbridled anger during the 2016 presidential election</a>. Based on that data, we estimated that about 58% of these rage givers were women and 80% were white.</p>
<p>About 44% said they were Democrats, roughly 35% said they were Republicans and the remaining 21% identified as independent voters. Because the shares of Americans who <a href="https://news.gallup.com/poll/15370/party-affiliation.aspx">lean toward one major political party</a> or the other is more evenly matched, we found that, at that moment in time, Democrats were more likely to donate this way than more conservative Americans.</p>
<p>When thinking about the candidates in the 2016 presidential election and the stances each candidate takes on social and environmental issues, one rage giver from North Carolina said in response to our survey, “I’m just sick about it,” she said. “We’ve got to do something.”</p>
<p>We also found the surveyed rage donors were likely to be civically engaged – through behaviors such as volunteering, voting, contacting elected officials and participating in marches and protests. Rage giving, as a form of collective action, aligns with other helping behaviors by giving a voice to the underserved and unheard.</p>
<p>More research is needed to get a clearer picture of why certain people do this. But based on what we’ve learned so far, we believe that people who engage in rage giving see philanthropy as a type of civic engagement and that their gift, along with other donations, makes a difference.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/185841/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>These donors can experience an emotional release by channeling their feelings into something they consider positive.Jennifer A. Taylor, Associate Professor of Political Science, James Madison University Katrina Miller-Stevens, Associate Professor of Management, Colorado CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1578282021-03-30T11:36:50Z2021-03-30T11:36:50ZSolar geoengineering is worth studying but not a substitute for cutting emissions, study finds<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/392061/original/file-20210327-13-r8qzcl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C8%2C5405%2C3018&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Solar geoengineering could mean taking steps to alter the formation of clouds.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/flying-above-the-clouds-royalty-free-image/1158077392">Matt Dutcher/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>A new report from the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine <a href="https://www.nap.edu/catalog/25762/reflecting-sunlight-recommendations-for-solar-geoengineering-research-and-research-governance">tackles a controversial question</a>: Is solar geoengineering – an approach designed to cool the Earth by reflecting sunlight back into space or modifying clouds – a potential tool for countering climate change?</em></p>
<p><em>The report, produced by a committee of <a href="https://www.nap.edu/read/25762/chapter/1#v">16 experts from diverse fields</a>, does not take a position but concludes that the concept should be studied. It calls for creating a multidisciplinary research program, in coordination with other countries and managed by the <a href="https://www.globalchange.gov/">U.S. Global Change Research Program</a>, that seeks to fill in the many knowledge gaps on this issue.</em></p>
<p><em>The study emphasizes that such research is not a substitute for cutting greenhouse gas emissions and should be a minor part of the U.S. response to climate change. It notes that “engineering the climate” would not address the root cause of climate change – greenhouse gas emissions from human activities. And it calls for a research program that draws on physical science, social science and ethics and includes public input.</em> </p>
<p><em>These perspectives from three members of the study committee underline the complexity of this issue.</em></p>
<p></p><hr><p></p>
<h2>Three options, many questions</h2>
<p><strong>James W. Hurrell, Professor and Scott Presidential Chair of Environmental Science and Engineering, Colorado State University</strong></p>
<p>Solar geoengineering strategies are very controversial within and beyond the climate science community. It is a major step forward to have 16 experts from different disciplines agree that now is the time to establish a research program on this topic. Our committee traveled a long road to reach this recommendation, working through many complex and contentious issues to reach consensus, but we did it collegially and productively. Each of us learned a great deal. </p>
<p>The three options we considered raise many questions: </p>
<p>– <a href="https://www.nap.edu/read/25762/chapter/4#34">Stratospheric aerosol injection</a> would increase the number of small reflective particles (aerosols) in the upper atmosphere to increase reflection of sunlight back into space. While strong evidence exists that this approach <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/topics/earth/features/stratospheric-aerosols.html">can induce cooling at a global scale</a>, there is <a href="https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2019/03/f61/Chapter%205.pdf">limited understanding</a> of how cooling potential relates to the amounts of injected aerosols, their location and type, and the ensuing regional climate responses and impacts. </p>
<p>– <a href="https://www.nap.edu/read/25762/chapter/4#34">Marine cloud brightening</a> would add materials to low clouds over the ocean to make them more reflective. Water vapor in clouds condenses into droplets when it comes into contact with particles, such as salt; adding particles produces more droplets, making the clouds more reflective. </p>
<p>Where and by how much the brightness of clouds can be modified, and whether feedback processes will mask or amplify some of the effects, are important research questions. Key processes occur at scales too small to include directly into the current generation of global climate models, and these process uncertainties will need to be reduced in order to develop reliable projections of climate impacts. </p>
<p>– <a href="https://www.nap.edu/read/25762/chapter/4#35">Cirrus cloud thinning</a> would seek to reduce the formation of <a href="https://scied.ucar.edu/image/cirrus-clouds">wispy, thin clouds</a> that retain heat radiating upward from Earth’s surface. The efficacy of this approach is unknown because of very limited understanding of cirrus cloud properties and the microphysical processes determining how cirrus clouds may be altered. Existing climate model simulations have yielded contradictory results. </p>
<p>Given the risks of rapid warming and its impacts, it is important to consider a portfolio of response options, and to understand as quickly and efficiently as possible whether solar geoengineering could be a reasonably safe and effective option. A transdisciplinary, coordinated and well-governed research program might prove that more investment is warranted. Or it could indicate that solar geoengineering should not be considered further. The key point is that either outcome will be guided by sound science.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/392059/original/file-20210327-19-1rb7n1f.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/392059/original/file-20210327-19-1rb7n1f.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/392059/original/file-20210327-19-1rb7n1f.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=904&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/392059/original/file-20210327-19-1rb7n1f.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=904&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/392059/original/file-20210327-19-1rb7n1f.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=904&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/392059/original/file-20210327-19-1rb7n1f.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1136&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/392059/original/file-20210327-19-1rb7n1f.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1136&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/392059/original/file-20210327-19-1rb7n1f.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1136&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The new report examines three solar geoengineering options: stratospheric aerosol injection, marine cloud brightening and cirrus cloud thinning.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nationalacademies.org/news/2021/03/new-report-says-u-s-should-cautiously-pursue-solar-geoengineering-research-to-better-understand-options-for-responding-to-climate-change-risks">NAS</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p></p><hr><p></p>
<h2>A thoughtful and inclusive process</h2>
<p><strong>Ambuj D. Sagar, Founding Head, School of Public Policy, and Professor of Policy Studies, The Indian Institute of Technology Delhi</strong></p>
<p>Few climate issues are as polarizing as solar geoengineering, and for good reason. To many, even considering it could dilute efforts to cut emissions. It also reinforces the notion that as a society we are willing to place our faith in technology to solve our self-inflicted problems. </p>
<p>But refusing to engage with solar geoengineering also raises questions. Can we be sure that we won’t need it in the future? What if greenhouse warming generates horrendous climate impacts? And if it turns out that solar geoengineering is not technically feasible or socially acceptable, should we not learn that now? </p>
<p>This report recognizes that there is value in understanding more about the feasibility, acceptance, risks, ethics and governance of solar geoengineering to inform decision-making. But it also calls for a measured, nuanced and integrative approach. And it makes the point that exploring solar geoengineering should not compromise research or action on climate mitigation and adaptation.</p>
<p>Public engagement and participation, and insights from various disciplines, are key to carrying out effective research on solar geoengineering. At the same time, suitable expertise and institutional arrangements are needed to engage better with this complex topic. We need to understand how to effectively enhance such participation and strengthen such capacity.</p>
<p>Paying attention to these issues will open the door to including perspectives and researchers from the global south and other communities that often are marginalized. It also will help make the research agenda more robust and help people better understand potential risks around the world from solar geoengineering. A strong and inclusive research program should also fully involve developing countries and other relevant communities in exploring governance models for solar geoengineering. </p>
<p>Our panel recommended that the proposed U.S. research program be carried out in coordination with other countries. We hope this approach will spur deeper engagement worldwide, especially by developing countries that need to be part of global conversations and decisions on this issue. </p>
<p>Overall, I hope that perspectives and approaches presented in this report will catalyze a thoughtful and socially robust research program and equally thoughtful deliberations by scholars, policymakers and citizens on this thorny topic. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Volcanic cloud over Clark Air Base, Philippines." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/392060/original/file-20210327-25-5ta0cg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/392060/original/file-20210327-25-5ta0cg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=625&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/392060/original/file-20210327-25-5ta0cg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=625&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/392060/original/file-20210327-25-5ta0cg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=625&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/392060/original/file-20210327-25-5ta0cg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=786&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/392060/original/file-20210327-25-5ta0cg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=786&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/392060/original/file-20210327-25-5ta0cg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=786&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The 1991 eruption of Mt. Pinatubo in the Philippines injected into Earth’s stratosphere vast quantities of aerosol particles, which scattered and reflected sunlight, reducing Earth’s average global temperature by about 1 degree Fahrenheit over the next 15 months. Afterward, however, temperatures resumed rising.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100531212028/http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Volcanoes/Philippines/Pinatubo/images.html">Richard Hoblitt/USGS</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p></p><hr><p></p>
<h2>Broadening the discussion</h2>
<p><strong>Marion Hourdequin, Professor of Philosophy, Colorado College</strong></p>
<p>Geoengineering evolved <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/2016EF000521">from a fringe concept to a serious research topic</a> less than 20 years ago, and today solar geoengineering technologies are largely in the idea stage. Computer modeling simulations and <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/natural-hazards/volcano-hazards/volcanoes-can-affect-climate">natural analogs such as volcanoes</a> indicate that adding reflective aerosols to the stratosphere or increasing the “brightness” of marine clouds could have cooling effects. However, there are risks and uncertainties associated with these approaches, and the potential benefits – which may not be evenly distributed around the globe – are not well understood. </p>
<p>For example, scientists know very little about the regional effects of different solar geoengineering strategies. And researchers are just starting to explore the ecological, social, political, economic and ethical dimensions of these approaches.<br>
What’s more, many people in the U.S. and the world are unaware that research is moving forward and <a href="https://www.keutschgroup.com/scopex">outdoor experiments have been proposed</a>. So far, discussions about solar geoengineering have been concentrated among a relatively small group of researchers, primarily from <a href="https://www.nap.edu/read/25762/chapter/4?term=diversity#37">North America and Europe</a>. </p>
<p>[<em>Over 100,000 readers rely on The Conversation’s newsletter to understand the world.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=100Ksignup">Sign up today</a>.]</p>
<p>But like climate change itself, solar geoengineering would affect everyone. The technologies that our committee considered would have global and multigenerational effects. With this in mind, now is the time for broader and more inclusive conversations about how solar geoengineering should be studied and governed – and whether or not it should be seriously considered. These conversations need to include climate-vulnerable communities, Indigenous peoples and nations of the global south.</p>
<p>Our committee’s report calls for a program that weaves together multidisciplinary research, public and stakeholder engagement, and thoughtful limits and guidelines for research. This program should facilitate cooperation and capacity building, support a more demographically and geographically diverse research community, enable equitable participation and prioritize strategies that build trust, transparency and legitimacy.</p>
<p>Geoengineering raises big technical, social and ethical questions that should be informed by research but can’t be adequately answered by a small set of experts. And regardless of what we learn through geoengineering research, one thing is clear: Reducing emissions, decarbonizing economies and supporting adaptation to current and future climate impacts need to take center stage.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/157828/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Is it time to take drastic steps to modify Earth’s climate to avoid catastrophic warming? A panel of experts says the idea deserves study.James W. Hurrell, Professor and Scott Presidential Chair in Environmental Science and Engineering, Colorado State UniversityAmbuj D Sagar, Founding Head, School of Public Policy, and Vipula and Mahesh Chaturevdi Professor of Policy Studies, The Indian Institute of Technology DelhiMarion Hourdequin, Professor of Philosophy, Colorado CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1470342020-09-29T05:36:39Z2020-09-29T05:36:39ZMamalia besar yang dikurung di kebun binatang dan akuarium mengalami kerusakan otak<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/360463/original/file-20200929-14-1782vsc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Foto otak gajah.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.wits.ac.za/staff/academic-a-z-listing/m/man/paulmangerwitsacza/">Dr. Paul Manger/ University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="http://elephantsinjapan.com/worlds-loneliest-elephant-hanako/">Hanako</a>, seekor gajah betina Asia, tinggal lama di dalam kandang beton kecil di kebun binatang Inokashira Park di Jepang. </p>
<p>Di alam liar, <a href="https://www.elephantvoices.org/elephant-sense-a-sociality-4/elephants-are-socially-complex.html">gajah tinggal dengan berkelompok</a>, dan memiliki ikatan keluarga yang dekat. Pada dekade terakhir masa hidupnya, Hanako hidup sendiri. </p>
<p><a href="https://whalesanctuaryproject.org/whales/kiska-alone-again/">Kiska</a>, seekor orca (paus pembunuh) betina muda, ditangkap pada 1978 di pantai Islandia dan dibawa ke akuarium dan taman bermain Marineland di Kanada. </p>
<p>Orca adalah binatang sosial yang tinggal bersama keluarga dalam <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/o/orca/">kelompok</a> yang anggotanya bisa mencapai 40 orca, tapi Kiska telah tinggal sendirian di dalam akuarium kecil sejak 2011. </p>
<p>Kiska melahirkan lima anak, semuanya mati muda.</p>
<p>Untuk meredam stres dan rasa bosan, Kiska berenang lambat, berputar-putar tiada akhir, dan menggigiti kolam betonnya hingga giginya hancur.</p>
<p>Sayangnya, ini situasi umum pada mamalia besar yang dikurung di dalam industri “hiburan”. </p>
<p>Selama beberapa dekade <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=KvCW9T0AAAAJ&hl=en">mempelajari otak manusia, gajah Afrika, paus bungkuk, dan mamalia besar lainnya</a>, saya menemukan bahwa otak memiliki sensitivitas tinggi terhadap lingkungan, termasuk ada dampak serius pada struktur dan fungsi otak akibat tinggal dalam kurungan.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/349255/original/file-20200723-31-16bcfav.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/349255/original/file-20200723-31-16bcfav.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/349255/original/file-20200723-31-16bcfav.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349255/original/file-20200723-31-16bcfav.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349255/original/file-20200723-31-16bcfav.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349255/original/file-20200723-31-16bcfav.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=704&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349255/original/file-20200723-31-16bcfav.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=704&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349255/original/file-20200723-31-16bcfav.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=704&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hanako, seekor gajah Asia yang tinggal di kebun binatang Inokashira Park di Jepang; dan Kiska, orca yang tinggal di Marineland Canada. Satu gambar menunjukkan gigi Kiska yang telah rusak.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Elephants in Japan (left image), Ontario Captive Animal Watch (right image)</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Mempengaruhi kesehatan dan mengubah perilaku</h2>
<p>Mudah bagi kita untuk mengamati kondisi kesehatan keseluruhan dan dampak psikologis dari hidup dalam kurungan terhadap binatang-binatang ini. </p>
<p>Banyak gajah dalam kurungan yang menderita karena radang sendi, obesitas, atau masalah kulit. <a href="https://doi.org/10.11609/JoTT.o2620.1826-36">Gajah</a> dan orca seringkali memiliki masalah gigi yang parah. Orca dalam kurungan sering menderita <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2019.05.005">pneumonia, penyakit ginjal, penyakit gastrointestinal dan infeksi</a> </p>
<p>Banyak binatang <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.09.010">mencoba untuk bertahan</a> di dalam penangkaran dengan melakukan perilaku abnormal. </p>
<p>Beberapa memiliki perilaku “stereotipe” yang repetitif, kebiasaan tanpa tujuan seperti mengungkat-ungkit kepala mereka terus-menerus, bergoyang tanpa henti atau menggigiti jeruji kandang mereka. </p>
<p>Binatang lainnya, terutama jenis kucing besar, berjalan bolak-balik di kandang mereka. Gajah menggesek atau merusak gading mereka sendiri.</p>
<h2>Struktur otak yang berubah</h2>
<p>Penelitian neurosains menemukan bahwa hidup di dalam lingkungan kurungan yang serba berkekurangan dan memicu stres, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2019.05.005">merusak otak secara fisik</a>. </p>
<p>Perubahan ini ditemukan pada banyak spesies, termasuk tikus, kelinci, kucing, dan <a href="https://doi.org/10.1006/nimg.2001.0917">manusia</a>. </p>
<p>Walaupun banyak peneliti telah mempelajari otak binatang secara langsung, sebagian besar pengetahuan tentang otak berasal dari mengamati perilaku binatang, menganalisis tingkat hormon stres di dalam darah, dan mengaplikasikan pengetahuan yang didapatkan dari penelitian neurosains setengah abad. </p>
<p>Penelitian laboratorium juga menunjukkan bahwa mamalia di dalam kebun binatang atau akuarium memiliki gangguan fungsi otak. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/359445/original/file-20200922-16-gunhd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/359445/original/file-20200922-16-gunhd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/359445/original/file-20200922-16-gunhd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=803&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/359445/original/file-20200922-16-gunhd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=803&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/359445/original/file-20200922-16-gunhd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=803&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/359445/original/file-20200922-16-gunhd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1008&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/359445/original/file-20200922-16-gunhd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1008&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/359445/original/file-20200922-16-gunhd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1008&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ilustrasi ini menunjukkan perbedaan-perbedaan di dalam cerebral cortex otak pada binatang yang dikurung di lingkungan yang serba kekurangan dan yang kaya (alami). Kondisi serba kekurangan menjadikan cortex menjadi lebih tipih, mengurangi ketersediaan darah, kurangnya asupan untuk neuron, dan penurunan konektivitas di antara neuron.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Arnold B. Scheibel</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Tinggal di dalam lingkungan sempit dan kosong tanpa stimulasi intelektual atau kontak sosial yang cukup tampaknya <a href="https://doi.org/10.1590/S0001-37652001000200006">menipiskan cerebral cortex</a> – bagian otak yang berkontribusi dalam gerakan tubuh yang dilakukan secara sadar dan fungsi kognitif yang lebih tinggi, termasuk memori, perencanaan, dan pengambilan keputusan. </p>
<p>Terdapat juga konsekuensi lainnya. </p>
<p>Kapiler menyusut, mengurangi pasokan darah dengan oksigen yang kaya di otak yang dibutuhkan untuk bertahan hidup. </p>
<p>Neuron menjadi lebih kecil, dendirit neuron – cabang yang membentuk koneksi dengan neuro lainnya – menjadi lebih tidak kompleks, mengganggu komunikasi di dalam otak. </p>
<p>Akibatnya, neuron kortikal pada binatang penangkaran <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/cne.901230110">memproses informasi dengan lebih tidak efisien</a> dibanding binatang yang hidup di <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.420020208">lingkungan yang kaya dan lebih alami</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/349257/original/file-20200723-25-16c33n4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/349257/original/file-20200723-25-16c33n4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/349257/original/file-20200723-25-16c33n4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349257/original/file-20200723-25-16c33n4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349257/original/file-20200723-25-16c33n4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349257/original/file-20200723-25-16c33n4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349257/original/file-20200723-25-16c33n4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349257/original/file-20200723-25-16c33n4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sebuah neuron kortikal pada gajah Afrika liar yang hidup di habitat alami dibandingkan dengan kortikal neuron yang diperkirakan dari gajah kurungan.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Bob Jacobs</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Kesehatan otak juga terpengaruhi oleh area hidup yang sempit dan <a href="https://doi.org/10.3233/BPL-160040">tidak memungkinkan untuk bergerak</a>. </p>
<p>Aktivitas fisik meningkatkan aliran daerah ke otak; otak membutuhkan jumlah oksigen yang banyak. </p>
<p>Olahraga meningkatkan produksi koneksi baru dan <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.aaw2622">meningkatkan kemampuan kognitif</a>. </p>
<p>Di habitat alami, binatang-binatang ini harus bergerak untuk bertahan hidup, menempuh jarak yang jauh untuk mencari makan, atau menemukan pasangan. </p>
<p>Gajah biasanya bergerak sejauh sekitar <a href="https://www.elephantsforafrica.org/elephant-facts/#:%7E:text=How%20far%20do%20elephants%20walk,km%20on%20a%20daily%20basis">24 kilometer (km) hingga 190 km per hari</a>. Di kebun binatang, jarak yang mereka tempuh hanya sekitar <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0150331">5 km per hari</a> secara rata-rata, seringkali berjalan bolak-balik di kandang yang kecil. </p>
<p>Seekor orca bebas yang dipelajari di Kanada dapat menempuh jarak <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00300-010-0958-x">hingga 250 km per hari</a>; sementara itu, rata-rata akuarium orca luasnya hampir 10.000 kali lebih kecil dibandingkan tempat tinggal alaminya.</p>
<h2>Mengganggu reaksi kimia otak dan membunuh banyak sel</h2>
<p>Tinggal di kandang yang sempit atau tidak memungkinkan perilaku normal mengakibatkan terjadinya frustasi kronis dan kebosanan. </p>
<p>Di alam liar, sistem yang merespons stres pada binatang membantu mereka untuk kabur dari bahaya. </p>
<p>Namun, kurungan menjebak binatang-binatang menjadi <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1215502109">hampir tidak dapat memegang kendali sama sekali</a> akan lingkungan mereka sendiri. </p>
<p>Situasi seperti ini menumbuhkan <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/rev0000033">perilaku ketidakberdayaan</a>, dan secara negatif mempengaruhi <a href="https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/6391686">hipokampus</a> - yang mengontrol fungsi memori, dan <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.02.024">amigdala</a> - yang memproses emosi. </p>
<p>Stres yang berkepanjangan <a href="https://doi.org/10.3109/10253899609001092">menaikkan hormon stres</a> dan merusak, bahkan membunuh neuron pada kedua bagian otak. </p>
<p>Hal ini juga mengganggu <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2005.03.021">keseimbangan serotonin</a> yang sensitif, neurotransmitter yang menstabilkan <em>mood</em>, dan fungsi-fungsi lainnya.</p>
<p>Pada manusia, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1006/nimg.2001.0917">kekurangan asupan</a> bisa memicu <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2018.00367">masalah psikiatrik</a>, kegelisahan, gangguan <em>mood</em> atau <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1073858409333072"><em>post-traumatic stress disorder</em> (PTSD)</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00429-010-0288-3">Gajah</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0050139">orca</a>, dan binatang lainnya dengan otak yang besar, cenderung bereaksi dengan cara yang mirip terhadap kehidupan di lingkungan yang memicu stres.</p>
<h2>Kerusakan sirkuit</h2>
<p>Kurungan dapat merusak sirkuit otak yang kompleks, termasuk basal ganglia. </p>
<p>Kelompok neuron ini berkomunikasi dengan korteks serebral melalui dua jaringan: jalur langsung yang meningkatkan pergerakan dan perilaku, dan jalur tidak langsung yang menghambat. </p>
<p>Perilaku <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2014.05.057">stereotip repetitif</a> yang dilakukan banyak binatang dalam kurungan disebabkan oleh ketidakseimbangan di antara dua neurotransmitter, dopamin, dan <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.02.004">serotonin</a>. </p>
<p>Ketidakseimbangan tersebut menghambat kemampuan jalur tidak langsung untuk memodulasi pergerakan, kondisi yang juga ditemukan pada banyak spesises, dari ayam, sapi, kambing, dan kuda, hingga primata dan kucing besar.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/349258/original/file-20200723-17-dzrjt3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Image of brain showing areas affected by captivity" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/349258/original/file-20200723-17-dzrjt3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/349258/original/file-20200723-17-dzrjt3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349258/original/file-20200723-17-dzrjt3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349258/original/file-20200723-17-dzrjt3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349258/original/file-20200723-17-dzrjt3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349258/original/file-20200723-17-dzrjt3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349258/original/file-20200723-17-dzrjt3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Korteks serebral, hipokampus, dan amigdala yang diubah secara fisik oleh kurungan, juga sirkuit otak yang melibatkan basal ganglia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Bob Jacobs</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Evolusi telah menyebabkan otak binatang menjadi sangat responsif terhadap lingkungan mereka. </p>
<p>Reaksi ini bisa berdampak pada fungsi neural dengan <a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/311787/behave-by-robert-m-sapolsky/">mengaktifkan atau menonaktifkan gen yang berbeda</a>. </p>
<p>Hidup dalam lingkungan yang tidak layak atau abusif mengubah proses biokimia. Hal ini mengganggu sintesis protein yang membangun koneksi di antara sel otak dan neurotransmitter yang memfasilitasi komunikasi di antara keduanya.</p>
<p>Ada bukti kuat yang menunjukkan <a href="https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0577-11.2011">pengayaan asupan</a>, kontak sosial, dan ruang yang layak pada tempat kurungan yang lebih alami dibutuhkan untuk binatang-binatang berumur panjang dengan otak yang besar seperti <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0152490">gajah</a> dan <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/13880292.2017.1309858">mamalia air</a>. </p>
<p>Kondisi yang lebih baik mengurangi <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5543669/">perilaku stereotipe yang mengganggu</a>, meningkatkan koneksi di otak, dan <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/cdd.2009.193">memicu perubahan neurokimia</a> yang meningkatkan kemampuan belajar dan memori. </p>
<h2>Mempertanyakan kurungan</h2>
<p>Beberapa pihak berpendapat mengurung binatang itu penting karena membantu usaha menjaga spesies yang terancam punah atau menawarkan keuntungan edukasi untuk <a href="http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.574.3479&rep=rep1&type=pdf">pengunjung kebun binatang dan akuarium</a>. </p>
<p>Justifikasi ini patut dipertanyakan, terutama bagi <a href="https://animalstudiesrepository.org/acwp_zoae/8/">mamalia besar</a>. </p>
<p>Penelitian saya dan hasil penelitian dari peneliti yang lain menunjukkan bahwa mengurung mamalia besar dan mempertontonkan mereka adalah tindakan yang tidak dapat dipungkiri kejam dari perspektif saraf. </p>
<p>Kurungan menyebabkan kerusakan otak. </p>
<p>Persepsi publik terkait pengurungan hewan sedang berubah secara perlahan, seperti yang ditunjukkan dari reaksi terhadap film dokumenter <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackfish_(film)">Blackfish</a></p>
<p>Untuk binatang yang tidak bisa bebas, ada beberapa tempat perlindungan yang dibangun dengan baik. Beberapa sudah ada untuk gajah dan mamalia besar lainnya di <a href="https://www.elephants.com/">Tennessee</a>, dan <a href="http://www.pawsweb.org/about_our_sanctuaries.html">California</a> Utara, Amerika Serikat; dan di <a href="https://globalelephants.org/overview/">Brazil</a>. </p>
<p>Lainnya sedang dikembangkan untuk <a href="https://whalesanctuaryproject.org/">mamalia air</a> yang besar. </p>
<p>Mungkin masih belum terlambat untuk Kiska. </p>
<p><em>Dr. Lori Marino, Presiden <a href="https://whalesanctuaryproject.org/">Whale Sanctuary Project</a> dan mantan dosen senior di Emory University, berkontribusi dalam penulisan artikel ini.</em></p>
<hr>
<p><em>Ignatius Raditya Nugraha menerjemahkan artikel ini dari bahasa Inggris</em>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/147034/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bob Jacobs tidak bekerja, menjadi konsultan, memiliki saham, atau menerima dana dari perusahaan atau organisasi mana pun yang akan mengambil untung dari artikel ini, dan telah mengungkapkan bahwa ia tidak memiliki afiliasi selain yang telah disebut di atas.</span></em></p>Hidup dalam kurungan menyebabkan kerusakan pada struktur dan fungsi otak mamalia besar.Bob Jacobs, Professor of Neuroscience, Colorado CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1422402020-09-24T12:26:02Z2020-09-24T12:26:02ZThe neural cruelty of captivity: Keeping large mammals in zoos and aquariums damages their brains<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/349253/original/file-20200723-33-1boc6lr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3346%2C2232&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Photograph of an elephant brain. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.wits.ac.za/staff/academic-a-z-listing/m/man/paulmangerwitsacza/">Dr. Paul Manger/ University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="http://elephantsinjapan.com/worlds-loneliest-elephant-hanako/">Hanako</a>, a female Asian elephant, lived in a tiny concrete enclosure at Japan’s Inokashira Park Zoo for more than 60 years, often in chains, with no stimulation. In the wild, <a href="https://www.elephantvoices.org/elephant-sense-a-sociality-4/elephants-are-socially-complex.html">elephants live in herds</a>, with close family ties. Hanako was solitary for the last decade of her life. </p>
<p><a href="https://whalesanctuaryproject.org/whales/kiska-alone-again/">Kiska</a>, a young female orca, was captured in 1978 off the Iceland coast and taken to Marineland Canada, an aquarium and amusement park. Orcas are social animals that live in family <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/o/orca/">pods</a> with up to 40 members, but Kiska has lived alone in a small tank since 2011. Each of her five calves died. To combat stress and boredom, she swims in slow, endless circles and has gnawed her teeth to the pulp on her concrete pool.</p>
<p>Unfortunately, these are common conditions for many large, captive mammals in the “entertainment” industry. In decades of <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=KvCW9T0AAAAJ&hl=en">studying the brains of humans, African elephants, humpback whales and other large mammals</a>, I’ve noted the organ’s great sensitivity to the environment, including serious impacts on its structure and function from living in captivity. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/349255/original/file-20200723-31-16bcfav.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/349255/original/file-20200723-31-16bcfav.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/349255/original/file-20200723-31-16bcfav.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349255/original/file-20200723-31-16bcfav.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349255/original/file-20200723-31-16bcfav.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349255/original/file-20200723-31-16bcfav.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=704&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349255/original/file-20200723-31-16bcfav.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=704&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349255/original/file-20200723-31-16bcfav.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=704&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hanako, an Asian elephant kept at Japan’s Inokashira Park Zoo; and Kiska, an orca that lives at Marineland Canada. One image depicts Kiska’s damaged teeth.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Elephants in Japan (left image), Ontario Captive Animal Watch (right image)</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Affecting health and altering behavior</h2>
<p>It is easy to observe the overall health and psychological consequences of life in captivity for these animals. Many captive elephants suffer from arthritis, obesity or skin problems. Both <a href="https://doi.org/10.11609/JoTT.o2620.1826-36">elephants</a> and orcas often have severe dental problems. Captive orcas are plagued by <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2019.05.005">pneumonia, kidney disease, gastrointestinal illnesses and infections</a>. </p>
<p>Many animals <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.09.010">try to cope</a> with captivity by adopting abnormal behaviors. Some develop “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2017.05.003">stereotypies</a>,” which are repetitive, purposeless habits such as constantly bobbing their heads, swaying incessantly or chewing on the bars of their cages. Others, especially big cats, pace their enclosures. Elephants rub or break their tusks. </p>
<h2>Changing brain structure</h2>
<p>Neuroscientific research indicates that living in an impoverished, stressful captive environment <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2019.05.005">physically damages the brain</a>. These changes have been documented in many <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/cne.903270108">species</a>, including rodents, rabbits, cats and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1006/nimg.2001.0917">humans</a>. </p>
<p>Although researchers have directly studied some animal brains, most of what we know comes from observing animal behavior, analyzing stress hormone levels in the blood and applying knowledge gained from a half-century of neuroscience research. Laboratory research also suggests that mammals in a zoo or aquarium have compromised brain function. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/359445/original/file-20200922-16-gunhd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/359445/original/file-20200922-16-gunhd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/359445/original/file-20200922-16-gunhd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=803&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/359445/original/file-20200922-16-gunhd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=803&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/359445/original/file-20200922-16-gunhd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=803&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/359445/original/file-20200922-16-gunhd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1008&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/359445/original/file-20200922-16-gunhd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1008&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/359445/original/file-20200922-16-gunhd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1008&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This illustration shows differences in the brain’s cerebral cortex in animals held in impoverished (captive) and enriched (natural) environments. Impoverishment results in thinning of the cortex, a decreased blood supply, less support for neurons and decreased connectivity among neurons.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Arnold B. Scheibel</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Subsisting in confined, barren quarters that lack intellectual stimulation or appropriate social contact seems to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1590/S0001-37652001000200006">thin the cerebral cortex</a> – the part of the brain involved in voluntary movement and higher cognitive function, including memory, planning and decision-making.</p>
<p>There are other consequences. Capillaries shrink, depriving the brain of the oxygen-rich blood it needs to survive. Neurons become smaller, and their dendrites – the branches that form connections with other neurons – become less complex, impairing communication within the brain. As a result, the cortical neurons in captive animals <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/cne.901230110">process information less efficiently</a> than those living in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.420020208">enriched, more natural environments</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/349257/original/file-20200723-25-16c33n4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/349257/original/file-20200723-25-16c33n4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/349257/original/file-20200723-25-16c33n4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349257/original/file-20200723-25-16c33n4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349257/original/file-20200723-25-16c33n4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349257/original/file-20200723-25-16c33n4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349257/original/file-20200723-25-16c33n4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349257/original/file-20200723-25-16c33n4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An actual cortical neuron in a wild African elephant living in its natural habitat compared with a hypothesized cortical neuron from a captive elephant.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Bob Jacobs</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Brain health is also affected by living in small quarters that <a href="https://doi.org/10.3233/BPL-160040">don’t allow for needed exercise</a>. Physical activity increases the flow of blood to the brain, which requires large amounts of oxygen. Exercise increases the production of new connections and <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.aaw2622">enhances cognitive abilities</a>.</p>
<p>In their native habits these animals must move to survive, covering great distances to forage or find a mate. Elephants
typically travel anywhere from <a href="https://www.elephantsforafrica.org/elephant-facts/#:%7E:text=How%20far%20do%20elephants%20walk,km%20on%20a%20daily%20basis.">15 to 120 miles per day</a>. In a zoo, they average <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0150331">three miles daily</a>, often walking back and forth in small enclosures. One free orca studied in Canada swam <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00300-010-0958-x">up to 156 miles a day</a>; meanwhile, an average orca tank is about 10,000 times smaller than its <a href="https://www.cascadiaresearch.org/projects/killer-whales/using-dtags-study-acoustics-and-behavior-southern">natural home range</a>. </p>
<h2>Disrupting brain chemistry and killing cells</h2>
<p>Living in enclosures that restrict or prevent normal behavior creates chronic frustration and boredom. In the wild, an animal’s stress-response system helps it escape from danger. But captivity traps animals with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1215502109">almost no control</a> over their environment. </p>
<p>These situations foster <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/rev0000033">learned helplessness</a>, negatively impacting the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/6391686">hippocampus</a>, which handles memory functions, and the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.02.024">amygdala</a>, which processes emotions. Prolonged stress <a href="https://doi.org/10.3109/10253899609001092">elevates stress hormones</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.10-09-02897.1990">damages or even kills neurons</a> in both brain regions. It also disrupts the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2005.03.021">delicate balance of serotonin</a>, a neurotransmitter that stabilizes mood, among other functions.</p>
<p>In humans, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1006/nimg.2001.0917">deprivation</a> can trigger <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2018.00367">psychiatric issues</a>, including depression, anxiety, <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2018.00367">mood disorders</a> or <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1073858409333072">post-traumatic stress disorder</a>. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00429-010-0288-3">Elephants</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0050139">orcas</a> and other animals with large brains are likely to react in similar ways to life in a severely stressful environment. </p>
<h2>Damaged wiring</h2>
<p>Captivity can damage the brain’s complex circuitry, including the basal ganglia. This group of neurons communicates with the cerebral cortex along two networks: a direct pathway that enhances movement and behavior, and an indirect pathway that inhibits them. </p>
<p>The repetitive, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2014.05.057">stereotypic behaviors</a> that many animals adopt in captivity are caused by an imbalance of two neurotransmitters, dopamine and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.02.004">serotonin</a>. This impairs the indirect pathway’s ability to modulate movement, a condition documented in species from chickens, cows, sheep and horses to primates and big cats.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/349258/original/file-20200723-17-dzrjt3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Image of brain showing areas affected by captivity" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/349258/original/file-20200723-17-dzrjt3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/349258/original/file-20200723-17-dzrjt3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349258/original/file-20200723-17-dzrjt3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349258/original/file-20200723-17-dzrjt3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349258/original/file-20200723-17-dzrjt3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349258/original/file-20200723-17-dzrjt3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349258/original/file-20200723-17-dzrjt3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The cerebral cortex, hippocampus and amygdala are physically altered by captivity, along with brain circuitry that involves the basal ganglia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Bob Jacobs</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Evolution has constructed animal brains to be exquisitely responsive to their environment. Those reactions can affect neural function by <a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/311787/behave-by-robert-m-sapolsky/">turning different genes on or off</a>. Living in inappropriate or abusive circumstance alters biochemical processes: It disrupts the synthesis of proteins that build connections between brain cells and the neurotransmitters that facilitate communication among them. </p>
<p>There is strong evidence that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0577-11.2011">enrichment</a>, social contact and appropriate space in more natural habitats are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-1090.2003.tb02071.x">necessary</a> for long-lived animals with large brains such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0152490">elephants</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/13880292.2017.1309858">cetaceans</a>. Better conditions <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5543669/">reduce disturbing sterotypical behaviors</a>, improve connections in the brain, and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/cdd.2009.193">trigger neurochemical changes</a> that enhance learning and memory. </p>
<h2>The captivity question</h2>
<p>Some people defend keeping animals in captivity, arguing that it helps conserve endangered species or offers educational benefits for <a href="http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.574.3479&rep=rep1&type=pdf">visitors to zoos and aquariums</a>. These justifications are questionable, particularly for <a href="https://animalstudiesrepository.org/acwp_zoae/8/">large mammals</a>. As my own research and work by many other scientists shows, caging large mammals and putting them on display is undeniably cruel from a neural perspective. It causes brain damage. </p>
<p>[<em>Deep knowledge, daily.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=deepknowledge">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter</a>.]</p>
<p>Public perceptions of captivity are slowly changing, as shown by the reaction to the documentary <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackfish_(film)">“Blackfish</a>.” For animals that cannot be free, there are well-designed sanctuaries. Several already exist for elephants and other large mammals in <a href="https://www.elephants.com/">Tennessee</a>, <a href="https://globalelephants.org/overview/">Brazil</a> and Northern <a href="http://www.pawsweb.org/about_our_sanctuaries.html">California</a>. Others are being developed for large <a href="https://whalesanctuaryproject.org/">cetaceans</a>. </p>
<p>Perhaps it is not too late for Kiska. </p>
<p><em>Dr. Lori Marino, president of the <a href="https://whalesanctuaryproject.org/">Whale Sanctuary Project</a> and a former senior lecturer at Emory University, contributed to this article.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/142240/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bob Jacobs does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Life in captivity causes observable harm to the structure and function of large mammals’ brains.Bob Jacobs, Professor of Neuroscience, Colorado CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1425462020-07-16T12:12:45Z2020-07-16T12:12:45ZOklahoma is – and always has been – Native land<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/347399/original/file-20200714-139702-1i37gdd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=8%2C15%2C732%2C489&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Delegates from 34 Native tribes at the Creek Council House in Indian Territory, now called Oklahoma, 1880.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Delegates_from_34_tribes_in_front_of_Creek_Council_House%2C_Indian_Territory%2C_1880_-_NARA_-_519141.jpg">National Archives</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Some Oklahomans are <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/supreme-court-says-nearly-half-of-oklahoma-is-an-indian-reservation-whats-next/2020/07/10/8c2aba02-c2e7-11ea-b4f6-cb39cd8940fb_story.html">expressing trepidation</a> about the Supreme Court’s <a href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/19pdf/18-9526_9okb.pdf">recent ruling</a> that much of the eastern part of the state belongs to the Muscogee (Creek) Nation. They wonder whether they must now pay taxes to or be governed by the Muscogee. </p>
<p>In alarmist language, <a href="https://twitter.com/tedcruz/status/1281269895519514625?s=20">Sen. Ted Cruz of neighboring Texas tweeted</a> that the Supreme Court “just gave away half of Oklahoma, literally. Manhattan is next.”</p>
<p>In fact, the <a href="https://theconversation.com/supreme-court-upholds-american-indian-treaty-promises-orders-oklahoma-to-follow-federal-law-142459">landmark July 9 decision</a> applies only to criminal law. It gives federal and tribal courts jurisdiction over felonies committed by tribal citizens within the Creek reservation, not the state of Oklahoma. </p>
<p>Any shock that tribal nations <a href="http://www.ncai.org/policy-issues/tribal-governance">have sovereignty</a> over their own land reflects a serious misunderstanding of American history. For Oklahoma – indeed, all of North America – has always been, for lack of a better term, Indian Country.</p>
<h2>‘Indian Country’</h2>
<p>As both an <a href="https://www.coloradocollege.edu/academics/dept/raceethnicitymigration/people/profile.html?person=mckay_dwanna_lynn">educator</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=9h85fD8AAAAJ&hl=en">scholar</a>, I work to correct the erasure of Indigenous histories through my research and teaching.</p>
<p>North America was not a vast, unpopulated wilderness when white colonizers arrived in 1620. Up to <a href="https://www.amazon.com/American-Indian-Holocaust-Survival-Civilization/dp/080612220X/ref=sr_1_1?dchild=1&keywords=9780806120744&linkCode=qs&qid=1594487258&s=books&sr=1-1">100 million people</a> of more than 1,000 sovereign Indigenous nations occupied the area that would become the United States. At the time, fewer than 80 million people lived in Europe.</p>
<p>America’s Indigenous nations were incredibly advanced, with extensive trade networks and economic centers, superior agricultural cultivation, well developed metalwork, pottery and weaving practices, as historian <a href="http://www.beacon.org/An-Indigenous-Peoples-History-of-the-United-States-P1164.aspx">Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz</a> has comprehensively detailed. </p>
<p>Unlike Europe, with its periodic epidemics, North America had little disease, Dunbar-Ortiz says. People used herbal medicines, dentistry, surgery and daily hygienic bathing to salubrious effect.</p>
<p>Historically, Indigenous nations <a href="https://theconversation.com/indigenous-people-invented-the-so-called-american-dream-85351">emphasized equity</a>, consensus and community. Though individualism would come to define the United States, my <a href="https://doi.org/10.17953/aicr.37.4.g0rj7q5jp961q581">research</a> finds that Native Americans retain these values today, along with our guiding principles of respect, responsibility and reciprocity.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/347387/original/file-20200714-26-hqtwbp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/347387/original/file-20200714-26-hqtwbp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347387/original/file-20200714-26-hqtwbp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347387/original/file-20200714-26-hqtwbp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347387/original/file-20200714-26-hqtwbp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347387/original/file-20200714-26-hqtwbp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347387/original/file-20200714-26-hqtwbp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The US has violated every treaty it has made with Indian Tribes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/KDYvS">Public.Resource.Org</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Broken promises and stolen lands</h2>
<p>European and American colonizers <a href="http://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/pds/becomingamer/peoples/text3/indianscolonists.pdf">did not hold these same values</a>. From 1492 to 1900, they pushed inexorably westward across the North American continent, <a href="http://www.beacon.org/An-Indigenous-Peoples-History-of-the-United-States-P1164.aspx">burning Native villages, destroying crops</a>, <a href="https://open.mitchellhamline.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1157&context=facsch">committing sexual assaults</a>, <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Bad-Indians-Tribal-Deborah-Miranda/dp/1597142018">enslaving people</a> and <a href="https://www.nps.gov/sand/learn/historyculture/index.htm">perpetrating massacres</a>. The government did not punish these atrocities against Indigenous Nations and their citizens. </p>
<p>Citing the so-called “<a href="https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199579815.001.0001/acprof-9780199579815">Doctrine of Discovery</a>” and <a href="https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1373&context=wvlr">Manifest Destiny</a>, U.S. policymakers argued that the federal government had a divine duty to fully develop the region. <a href="https://time.com/5851864/institutional-racism-america/">Racist in language and logic</a>, they contended that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/2332649218821450">“Indians” did not know how to work or to care for the land</a> because they were inferior to whites. </p>
<p>Oklahoma was born of this <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TXjNDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA190&lpg=PA190&dq=normalcy+of+legitimized+racism&source=bl&ots=CUXMMH5VZ4&sig=ACfU3U37fr_T2Ie4oh0qrhyW3BlnLqo_4Q&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiz14Ljz8rqAhUhgK0KHeAGCggQ6AEwAHoECAoQAQ#v=onepage&q=normalcy%20of%20legitimized%20racism&f=false">institutionalized racism</a>. </p>
<p>Under the Indian Removal Act of 1830, the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek and Seminole nations – known as the Five Tribes – were forced from their ancestral homelands in the southeast and relocated to “Indian Territory,” as Oklahoma was then designated. Half of the Muscogee and Cherokee populations died from brutal and inhumane treatment as they were forcibly marched 2,200 miles across nine states to their new homelands in what most Americans call the <a href="https://www.nps.gov/trte/index.htm">Trail of Tears</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/347406/original/file-20200714-139820-1qc3zvk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/347406/original/file-20200714-139820-1qc3zvk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/347406/original/file-20200714-139820-1qc3zvk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=521&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347406/original/file-20200714-139820-1qc3zvk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=521&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347406/original/file-20200714-139820-1qc3zvk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=521&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347406/original/file-20200714-139820-1qc3zvk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=654&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347406/original/file-20200714-139820-1qc3zvk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=654&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347406/original/file-20200714-139820-1qc3zvk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=654&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A 1951 painting by artist Blackbear Bosin of people on the Trail of Tears.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/paintings-bosin-blackbear-trail-of-tears-news-photo/162085761?adppopup=true">Al Moldvay/The Denver Post via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www2.census.gov/prod2/decennial/documents/1890e1-01.pdf">Indian Territory</a>, which occupied all Oklahoma minus the panhandle, was almost 44 million acres of fertile rolling prairies, rivers and groves of enormous trees. Several Indian nations already lived in the area, including the Apache, Arapaho, Comanche, Kiowa, Osage and Wichita.</p>
<p>Legally, Indian Territory <a href="https://www.narf.org/nill/documents/icc_final_report.pdf">was to belong to the tribal nations forever</a>, and trespass by settlers was forbidden. But over the next two centuries, Congress would violate every one of the 375 treaties it made with Indian tribes as well as numerous statutory acts, <a href="https://www.usccr.gov/pubs/2018/12-20-Broken-Promises.pdf">according the United States Commission on Civil Rights</a>. </p>
<p>By 1890, only about 25 million acres of Indian Territory remained. The Muscogee lost nearly half their lands in an <a href="https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=RE001">1866 Reconstruction-era treaty</a>. And in 1889, <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Road-Disappearance-History-Civilization-American/dp/0806115327">almost 2 million acres in western Oklahoma</a> were redesignated as “Unassigned Lands” and opened to “white settlement.” By 1890, the U.S. Census showed that only 28% of people in Indian Territory were actually “Indian.”</p>
<p>With statehood in 1907, Oklahoma assumed jurisdiction over all its territory, ultimately <a href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/DocketPDF/18/18-9526/132680/20200211152306523_Amicus%20Brief%20of%20Muscogee%20Creek%20Nation.pdf">denying that the Muscogee had ever had a reservation</a> there. That is the historic injustice corrected by the Supreme Court on July 9.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/347409/original/file-20200714-139854-dnhikl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/347409/original/file-20200714-139854-dnhikl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/347409/original/file-20200714-139854-dnhikl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347409/original/file-20200714-139854-dnhikl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347409/original/file-20200714-139854-dnhikl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347409/original/file-20200714-139854-dnhikl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347409/original/file-20200714-139854-dnhikl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347409/original/file-20200714-139854-dnhikl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Eastern Oklahoma was granted by Congress to Native tribes in the 19th century.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Okterritory.png">Kmusser/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Respect, responsibility and reciprocity</h2>
<p>Despite all the brutality and broken promises, the Five Tribes have contributed socially, culturally and economically to Oklahoma far beyond the shrinking bounds of their territories, in ways that benefit all residents.</p>
<p>The public school system created by the Choctaws shortly after their arrival became the model for Oklahoma schools that exists today. Last year, <a href="https://oklahoman.com/article/5653531/caught-in-the-middle-130-million-in-education-funding-embroiled-in-tribal-gaming-clash">Oklahoma tribes</a> contributed over US$130 million to Oklahoma public schools. </p>
<p>Oklahoma tribes also <a href="https://www.tribalselfgov.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/Alltribe-2019-Impact-Report.pdf">enrich</a> Oklahoma’s economy, employing over 96,000 people – most of them non-Native – and attracting tourists with their cultural events. In 2017, Oklahoma tribes produced almost $13 billion in goods and services and paid out $4.6 billion in wages and benefits. </p>
<p>The Muscogee (Creek) Nation, in particular, <a href="http://www.mcnimpact.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/MCN_Impact_Report_June-26-2019.pdf">invests heavily</a> in the state, creating businesses, building roads and providing jobs, health care and social services in 11 Oklahoma counties. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/347384/original/file-20200714-139969-qmeunn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/347384/original/file-20200714-139969-qmeunn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347384/original/file-20200714-139969-qmeunn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347384/original/file-20200714-139969-qmeunn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347384/original/file-20200714-139969-qmeunn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347384/original/file-20200714-139969-qmeunn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347384/original/file-20200714-139969-qmeunn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A 2012 exhibition on Muscogee achievement at the Smithsonian Institute’s National Museum of the American Indian.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/dusjD1">Tim Evanson/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Still our homelands</h2>
<p>Citizens of the Five Tribes have also contributed to broader American society. </p>
<p>Before the Navajo Code Talkers of World War II, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choctaw_code_talkers">Choctaw Code Talkers</a> used their language as code for the United States in World War I. Lt. Col <a href="https://www.americanindianmagazine.org/story/creek-indian-wins-medal-of-honor">Ernest Childers</a>, a Muscogee, won the Medal of Honor for his service in World War II. U.S. Poet Laureate <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/30/books/joy-harjo-poet-laureate-second-term.html#:%7E:text=Joy%20Harjo%20has%20been%20appointed,writers%20such%20as%20Tracy%20K.">Joy Harjo</a>, also a Muscogee, is the first Indigenous poet laureate. <a href="https://www.nps.gov/people/mary-g-ross.htm">Mary Ross</a>, a Cherokee, was the first known Indigenous woman engineer. And <a href="https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=HE024">John Herrington</a>, Chickasaw, was a NASA astronaut. These are but a few examples.</p>
<p>The strong collaborative leadership of the Muscogee (Creek) Nation was <a href="https://www.publicradiotulsa.org/post/tribes-state-officials-react-historic-scotus-ruling-mcgirt-v-oklahoma">apparent after the Supreme Court’s ruling</a> in Principal Chief David Hill’s official response. </p>
<p>“Today’s decision will allow the Nation to honor our ancestors by maintaining our established sovereignty and territorial boundaries,” Hill said, adding: “We will continue to work with federal and state law enforcement agencies to ensure that public safety will be maintained.”</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/142546/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dwanna L. McKay does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The Supreme Court’s July 9 ruling that half of Oklahoma belongs to the Muscogee Nation confirms what Indigenous people already knew: North America is ‘Indian Country.’Dwanna L. McKay, Assistant Professor of Race, Ethnicity, and Indigenous Studies, Colorado CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1387122020-05-20T12:15:46Z2020-05-20T12:15:46Z5 reasons students should consider taking a gap year now<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/336202/original/file-20200519-152344-p9ha8r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C8256%2C5499&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Taking a break from college gives students a chance to de-stress.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/backpacker-using-laptop-in-hammock-on-balcony-in-royalty-free-image/1147004222?adppopup=true">JohnnyGreig/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>With many colleges and universities <a href="https://www.chronicle.com/article/Here-s-a-List-of-Colleges-/248626">still deciding</a> when to re-open their campuses after they were shuttered due to COVID-19, many high school seniors are thinking about <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2020/05/13/gap-years-college-covid/">taking a gap year</a>. Putting off college during the pandemic might enable them to get the on-campus experience they desire in 2021 instead of going to school remotely this fall.</p>
<p>Traditionally, a gap year is a semester or year of learning through experience. It is typically taken after high school and before college or starting a career. However, some college students choose to take a gap year while they’re still in college or before going to graduate school.</p>
<p>As the <a href="https://sites.coloradocollege.edu/gapyearresearchconsortium/advisory-board/#BobClagett">coordinator</a> of a <a href="https://sites.coloradocollege.edu/gapyearresearchconsortium/">research group</a> that examines the impact of taking a gap year, here are five ways that students will benefit from the gap year experience.</p>
<h2>1. Avoid burnout</h2>
<p>Perhaps most importantly, given the pressure in many high schools to excel in school and extracurricular activities to gain admission to college, a gap year gives students the opportunity to do something completely different. Just taking that <a href="https://college.harvard.edu/admissions/apply/first-year-applicants/considering-gap-year">step off the treadmill</a> can lead to new growth and self-discovery.</p>
<h2>2. Gain maturity</h2>
<p>Taking a break from your formal education can contribute to a deeper appreciation of what the purpose of school is really all about. This, in turn, allows students to begin college with a more mature and focused mindset.</p>
<p>A gap year can provide the opportunity to discover new areas of interest and even to completely reinvent yourself. One good example was a student who spent his gap year working as a fishing guide in Alaska. That experience led him to major in environmental resource management. Ultimately, he embarked on a career in nature conservation. </p>
<h2>3. Boost academic performance</h2>
<p>Could taking a break slow down a student’s academic momentum? Actually, <a href="https://sites.coloradocollege.edu/gapyearresearchconsortium/gap-year-research-outcomes/academic-outcomes/">research</a> conducted by an economist at Middlebury College – and replicated at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill – found the opposite is true. Not only did students who took a gap year perform, on average, better than those who did not, they actually performed better than would have been predicted, based on their academic credentials when they applied to college. For instance, the study found that the students who took a gap year earned GPAs that were .15 to .25 points higher than predicted.</p>
<h2>4. Earn academic credit</h2>
<p>At least <a href="https://vertoeducation.org/">one gap year program</a> also provides the opportunity to be admitted to and earn academic credit at a variety of colleges. Other schools, such as <a href="https://cre.fsu.edu/global/gapyear">Florida State University</a>, the <a href="https://globalgap.unc.edu/">University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill</a>, <a href="https://oip.princeton.edu/our-programs/novogratz-bridge-year">Princeton</a> and <a href="https://tischcollege.tufts.edu/education/tufts1plus4">Tufts University</a> offer their own gap year programs for students who want to postpone their on-campus enrollment for a year, but not always for academic credit. These college-based programs can also include financial assistance when needed.</p>
<h2>5. Gain independence</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/336126/original/file-20200519-152302-85hnt9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/336126/original/file-20200519-152302-85hnt9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/336126/original/file-20200519-152302-85hnt9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/336126/original/file-20200519-152302-85hnt9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/336126/original/file-20200519-152302-85hnt9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/336126/original/file-20200519-152302-85hnt9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/336126/original/file-20200519-152302-85hnt9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/336126/original/file-20200519-152302-85hnt9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A gap year can be a good time to to pursue one’s passion.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/gardener-planting-seedlings-in-tray-at-garden-royalty-free-image/1185416636?adppopup=true&uiloc=thumbnail_similar_images_adp">Luis Alvraez/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It’s not necessary to stick with a formal gap year program or limit yourself to just one activity. In my 45 years of working with gap year students, I’ve found that some of the best gap year experiences are those that are self-designed.</p>
<p>If you create your own gap year experience, the most important thing to figure out is what you want to get out of it – be that work experience in a career you intend to pursue, learning a foreign language, doing community service or gaining greater cultural or environmental awareness. Then it’s a matter of creating experiences that lead to that goal. </p>
<p>One memorable example was a student from Oklahoma who spent the first four months of her gap year tending llamas at a monastery in North Dakota, the next four months working for a lawyer in Tulsa and the last four volunteering at an orphanage in the Dominican Republic.</p>
<h2>Resources available</h2>
<p>While taking a gap year can often cost a lot of money, that doesn’t mean the gap year experience is limited only to those who can afford it. Many of the more expensive gap year programs offer <a href="https://www.gapyearassociation.org/financial-aid.php">need-based financial aid</a>.</p>
<p>It is also important to remember that many self-designed gap year experiences can cost very little, or even provide the opportunity to earn money through jobs or paid internships. Alternatively, it could involve doing volunteer work while living at home. For volunteer experiences away from home, sometimes students get their travel and living expenses covered. Service opportunities are often voluntary and therefore unpaid, but programs such as <a href="https://www.cityyear.org/about/history-values/americorps">AmeriCorps’ City Year</a> provide stipends to cover room and board expenses.</p>
<p>For those who want to join an existing gap year program, there are plenty of opportunities that provide students with a wide range of domestic and international experiences, leadership opportunities, and less formal learning environments. For example, you could check with the <a href="https://www.gapyearassociation.org/">Gap Year Association</a> for lists of accredited programs and its own research on the impact of taking a gap year. In addition, USA Gap Year Fairs sponsors fairs around the country in late winter where <a href="https://www.gooverseas.com/gap-year/usa-fairs/programs">gap year programs</a> provide information about their opportunities. There are also a number of <a href="https://www.gapyearassociation.org/gap-year-consultants.php">accredited independent gap year consultants</a> around the country who can provide expert advice on gap year experiences.</p>
<p>For high school seniors contemplating deferring enrollment in college until they can be assured of having the on-campus experience they envisioned, May and early June is the time to consider gap year opportunities and to inform the college admissions office of their desire to delay their enrollment. Not all colleges have the same gap year policies, however, and some are reviewing them in the context of the current pandemic. For these reasons, it is important to learn what a particular college’s or university’s policies are and to make sure you meet the deadlines to inform the institution of your plans.</p>
<p>[<em>Get the best of The Conversation, every weekend.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/weekly-highlights-61?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=weeklybest">Sign up for our weekly newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/138712/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Robert S Clagett does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The COVID-19 pandemic has many students thinking about forgoing a year of college. A gap year specialist says many benefits flow from taking the academic break.Robert S Clagett, Coordinator of the Gap Year Research Consortium at Colorado College, Colorado CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1237462019-09-18T22:16:49Z2019-09-18T22:16:49ZYouth climate movement puts ethics at the center of the global debate<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/293007/original/file-20190918-187991-vuqctn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Young environmentalists are putting the ethical dimensions of climate change at the center of a global debate that has historically focused on politics, efficiency and cost-benefits analysis.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Hong-Kong-Climate-Student-Protests/ab34783ffcc342c5a4566e5ac6770b29/143/0">AP Photo/Kin Cheung</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Even if you’ve never heard of Greta Thunberg, the 16-year-old Swedish environmentalist who <a href="https://www.npr.org/2019/08/28/754818342/teen-climate-activist-greta-thunberg-arrives-in-new-york-after-sailing-the-atlan">crossed the Atlantic on a sailboat</a> to attend a Sept. 23 <a href="https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/">United Nations summit on the climate</a>, you may have seen the student-led <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/09/20/climate/global-climate-strike.html">Global Climate Strike</a> she helped inspire on Friday, Sept. 20. </p>
<p>People in all 50 U.S. states and more than 150 countries, from Germany to Australia, took to the streets to “to <a href="https://globalclimatestrike.net/#faq">declare a climate emergency</a>” the organizers said, and show politicians what “action in line with climate science and justice means.” </p>
<p>The strike was galvanized by a global youth movement, whose <a href="https://www.fridaysforfuture.org/about;">Friday school walkouts</a> over the last year were themselves inspired by Thunberg’s own three-week strike in August 2018 to demand climate action by the Swedish parliament. </p>
<p>People of all ages joined the global protest, though adults – with their environmental organizations, climate negotiations and election campaigns – took <a href="https://www.vox.com/2019/9/17/20864740/greta-thunberg-youth-climate-strike-fridays-future">a little longer to get on board</a>. The Union of Concerned Scientists published an “<a href="https://blog.ucsusa.org/erika-spanger-siegfried/what-is-the-climate-strike-an-adults-guide">Adult’s Guide</a>” to the climate strike to help parents of participants get up to speed. </p>
<p>But the kids are clearly leading on climate change – and they’re changing the way we talk about this global challenge, putting ethics at the center of the debate.</p>
<h2>Climate change is an ethical problem</h2>
<p>Economic assessments of climate change, such as cost-benefit analysis, have for years helped justify political procrastination. By <a href="https://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1577&context=ylpr">discounting</a> the importance of anticipated harms to people in the future, policymakers can argue that taking actions to address climate change today are too costly.</p>
<p>Short-term thinking by today’s “grown-ups” ignores her generation, Thunberg <a href="https://www.npr.org/templates/transcript/transcript.php?storyId=730383662">says</a>. </p>
<p>“When you think about the future today, you don’t think beyond the year 2050,” she said in a <a href="https://www.ted.com/talks/greta_thunberg_the_disarming_case_to_act_right_now_on_climate?language=en">2018 TED talk</a>. “What we do or don’t do right now will affect my entire life and the lives of my children and grandchildren.”</p>
<p>Youth climate activists argue that “<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/jan/25/our-house-is-on-fire-greta-thunberg16-urges-leaders-to-act-on-climate">our house is on fire</a>” and insist that world leaders act accordingly. They are attuned to the ecological consequences, intergenerational implications and international unfairness of climate change for all people living today. </p>
<p>Scholars in my field of environmental ethics have been <a href="https://as.nyu.edu/content/dam/nyu-as/faculty/documents/ethics_pub_policy.pdf">writing about climate justice</a> for decades. The arguments vary, but a key conclusion is that the burdens of responding to climate change should be divided equitably – not borne primarily by the poor.</p>
<p>This notion of “common, but differentiated responsibilities” is a fundamental principle of equity outlined in the 1992 <a href="https://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/conveng.pdf">United Nations climate change treaty</a>, which laid the groundwork for the many international climate negotiations that have occurred since. </p>
<p>Philosophers like <a href="https://www.merton.ox.ac.uk/people/professor-henry-shue">Henry Shue</a> have laid out the reasons that wealthy countries like the United States are morally bound not just to significantly cut their own carbon emissions but also <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/climate-justice-9780198778745?lang=en&cc=us#">help other countries adapt to a changing climate</a>. That includes contributing financially to the development of climate-friendly energy sources that meet the pressing and near-term basic needs of developing countries. </p>
<p>Historically, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/246327954_Global_Environment_and_International_Inequality">wealthy countries</a> have contributed the most and benefited the most from fossil fuel emissions. These same countries have the greatest financial, technological and institutional capacity to shift away from fossil fuels. </p>
<p>Meanwhile, poor countries are often <a href="https://www.international.gc.ca/world-monde/issues_development-enjeux_developpement/environmental_protection-protection_environnement/climate-climatiques.aspx?lang=eng">most vulnerable</a> to climate impacts like <a href="https://theconversation.com/can-we-save-low-lying-island-nations-from-rising-seas-80232">rising seas</a>, more intense storms and eroding coastlines. </p>
<p>For these reasons, many environmental ethicists hold, wealthy high-emitting countries should lead the way on mitigation and finance international climate adaption. Some even argue that rich countries should <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/21550085.2017.1342965">compensate affected countries for the climate loss and damage</a>.</p>
<h2>Practical, not ethical</h2>
<p>Political leaders tend to dodge questions of ethics in their policymaking and global debates on climate change. </p>
<p>According to Stephen Gardiner, a philosopher at University of Washington, climate policy often <a href="https://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199996476.001.0001/acprof-9780199996476">focuses on “practical” considerations</a> like efficiency or political feasibility. </p>
<p>U.S. climate negotiators in particular <a href="https://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199337668.001.0001/acprof-9780199337668-chapter-2">have for decades pushed back</a> against ethically grounded differentiated responsibilities and resisted top down mandatory emissions cuts, seeking a more politically palatable option: <a href="https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/nationally-determined-contributions-ndcs">Voluntary emissions cuts</a> determined by each country.</p>
<p>And some legal scholars say a climate policy based not on ethics but on <a href="https://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199996476.001.0001/acprof-9780199996476-chapter-6">self-interest</a> might be more effective.</p>
<p>University of Chicago law professors Eric Posner and David Weisbach have gone so far as to suggest, on efficiency grounds, that <a href="https://press.princeton.edu/titles/9130.html">developing nations should pay wealthy countries to emit less</a>, since poorer and more vulnerable nations have more to lose as a result of the climate crisis.</p>
<h2>The kids aren’t buying it</h2>
<p>Young activists like Greta Thunberg are reversing the marginalization of ethics from climate conversations. </p>
<p>With their focus on challenging “<a href="https://www.teenvogue.com/story/5-youth-led-climate-justice-groups-to-save-the-environment">systematic power and inequity</a>” and <a href="https://www.teenvogue.com/story/5-youth-led-climate-justice-groups-to-save-the-environment">respect and reciprocity</a>, they recognize that virtually all decisions about how to respond to climate change are value judgments. </p>
<p>That includes inaction. The status quo – a fossil fuel-dominated energy economy – is making the <a href="https://theconversation.com/global-inequality-is-25-higher-than-it-would-have-been-in-a-climate-stable-world-115937">rich richer and the poor poorer</a>. Sticking with business as usual, the argument goes, places more importance on near-term benefits enjoyed by some than on the longer-term consequences many will suffer.</p>
<p>Polls show <a href="https://beta.washingtonpost.com/science/most-american-teens-are-frightened-by-climate-change-poll-finds-and-about-1-in-4-are-taking-action/2019/09/15/1936da1c-d639-11e9-9610-fb56c5522e1c_story.html?wpisrc=nl_most&wpmm=1">the youth are concerned and engaged</a>. Youth activists are explicitly calling attention to the harm climate change is causing now and the harm it threatens for the future – and demanding action. And they are working internationally, in a global movement of solidarity.</p>
<p>Scholarship on climate ethics is robust, but it has had <a href="https://ethicsandclimate.org/2019/08/12/unesco-examines-the-urgency-of-and-strategy-for-getting-traction-for-ethical-guidance-in-climate-change-policy-formation-at-bangkok-program/">limited effects on actual policy</a>. Young people, on the other hand, are communicating the ethical issues clearly and loudly. </p>
<p>In doing so, they are demanding accountability from adults. They are asking us to consider what our resistance to change means for the world they will inherit. </p>
<p>So when my high school-aged daughter pulled a wrinkled climate strike flier out of her backpack recently, asking, “Can I skip school and go?” </p>
<p>I asked myself, “What am I saying if I say no?” </p>
<p>[ <em>Like what you’ve read? Want more?</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=likethis">Sign up for The Conversation’s daily newsletter</a>. ]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/123746/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marion Hourdequin serves on a National Academies of Sciences study committee that studies climate intervention strategies that reflect sunlight to cool Earth. The views expressed in this article are her own.</span></em></p>Economic and political assessments of climate change have for years helped justify inaction. Now, young environmentalists worldwide are shifting the debate to focus on values, ethics and justice.Marion Hourdequin, Professor of Philosophy, Colorado CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1110432019-03-19T10:44:34Z2019-03-19T10:44:34ZFor Native Americans, US-Mexico border is an ‘imaginary line’<p>Immigration restrictions were making life difficult for Native Americans who live along – and across – the U.S.-Mexico border even before President Donald Trump <a href="https://www.msnbc.com/am-joy/watch/trump-declares-national-emergency-then-leaves-for-mar-a-lago-1443814979608">declared a national emergency</a> to build his border wall. </p>
<p>The traditional homelands of 36 <a href="https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2018/01/30/2018-01907/indian-entities-recognized-and-eligible-to-receive-services-from-the-united-states-bureau-of-indian">federally recognized tribes</a> – including the Kumeyaay, Pai, Cocopah, O’odham, Yaqui, Apache and Kickapoo peoples – were split in two by the <a href="https://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/guadalupe-hidalgo">1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo</a> and 1853 <a href="https://history.state.gov/milestones/1830-1860/gadsden-purchase">Gadsden Purchase</a>, which carved modern-day California, Arizona, New Mexico and Texas out of northern Mexico. </p>
<p>Today, tens of thousands of people belonging to U.S. Native tribes live in the Mexican states of <a href="https://www.indigenousalliance.org/copy-of-border-crossing-manual">Baja California, Sonora, Coahuila and Chihuahua</a>, my research estimates. The Mexican government does not recognize indigenous peoples in Mexico as nations as the U.S. does, so there is no enrollment system there.</p>
<p>Still, many Native people in Mexico routinely cross the U.S.-Mexico border to participate in cultural events, visit religious sites, attend burials, go to school or visit family. Like other “non-resident aliens,” they must pass through <a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/obama-signs-600-million-bill-to-boost-u-s-border-security">rigorous security checkpoints</a>, where they are subject to interrogation, inspection and <a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2018/08/29/us-denying-passports-to-americans-along-border/">rejection or delay</a>.</p>
<p>Many Native Americans I’ve interviewed for <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=KHsIs6YAAAAJ&hl=en">anthropological research on indigenous activism</a> call the U.S.-Mexico border “the imaginary line” – an invisible boundary created by colonial powers that <a href="https://theconversation.com/indigenous-people-invented-the-so-called-american-dream-85351">claim sovereign indigenous territories</a> as their own.</p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/border-wall/story/tohono-oodham-nation-arizona-tribe/582487001/">border wall would further separate Native peoples</a> from friends, relatives and tribal resources that span the U.S.-Mexico border.</p>
<h2>Homelands divided</h2>
<p>Tribal members say that many Native Americans in the U.S. feel detached from their relatives in Mexico. </p>
<p>“The effect of a wall is already in us,” Mike Wilson, a member of the Tohono O'odham Nation, who lives in Tucson, Arizona, told me. “It already divides us.”</p>
<p>The Tohono O’odham are among the U.S. federal tribes <a href="http://www.tonation-nsn.gov/nowall/">fighting the government’s efforts</a> to beef up existing security with a border wall. In late January, the Tohono O'odham, Pascua Yaqui and National Congress of Indian Americans <a href="https://www.dailykos.com/stories/1815670">met</a> to create a proposal for facilitating indigenous border crossing. </p>
<p>The Tohono O'odham already know how life changes when traditional lands are physically partitioned. </p>
<p>By U.S. law, enrolled Tohono O’odham members in Mexico are eligible to receive educational and medical services in <a href="https://digitalcommons.law.seattleu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1118&context=ailj">Tohono O'odham lands in the U.S.</a></p>
<p>That has become difficult since 2006, when a <a href="https://www.npr.org/2019/01/23/685812553/native-american-leader-a-border-wall-is-not-the-answer">steel vehicle barrier</a> was built along most of the 62-mile stretch of U.S.-Mexico border that bisects the Tohono O’odham Nation.</p>
<p>Previously, to get to the U.S. side of Tohono O’odham territory, many tribe members would simply drive across their land. Now, they must travel long distances to official ports of entry. </p>
<p>One Tohono O'odham rancher told The New York Times in 2017 that he must travel several miles to <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/20/us/border-wall-tribe.html">draw water from a well 100 yards away from his home</a> – but in Mexico. </p>
<p>And Pacific Standard magazine <a href="https://psmag.com/social-justice/a-closed-border-gate-has-cut-off-three-tohono-oodham-villages">reported</a> in February 2019 that three Tohono O'odham villages in Sonora, Mexico, had been cut off from their nearest food supply, which was in the U.S.</p>
<h2>Native rights</h2>
<p>Land is central to Native communities’ <a href="http://www.un.org/en/events/indigenousday/pdf/Backgrounder_LTNR_FINAL.pdf">historic, spiritual and cultural identity</a>. </p>
<p>Several international agreements – including the <a href="https://www.un.org/development/desa/indigenouspeoples/declaration-on-the-rights-of-indigenous-peoples.html">United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples</a> – confirm these communities’ innate rights to <a href="https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:12100:0::NO::P12100_ILO_CODE:C169">draw on cultural and natural resources</a> across international borders.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263990/original/file-20190314-28499-1rf7g57.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263990/original/file-20190314-28499-1rf7g57.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263990/original/file-20190314-28499-1rf7g57.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=723&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263990/original/file-20190314-28499-1rf7g57.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=723&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263990/original/file-20190314-28499-1rf7g57.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=723&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263990/original/file-20190314-28499-1rf7g57.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=908&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263990/original/file-20190314-28499-1rf7g57.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=908&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263990/original/file-20190314-28499-1rf7g57.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=908&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An 1894 map of indigenous North American languages shows how Native homelands span modern-day national borders.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/britishlibrary/11227579796">British Library</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The United States offers few such protections. </p>
<p>Officially, various federal laws and treaties affirm the rights of federally recognized tribes to cross between the U.S., Mexico and Canada. </p>
<p>The <a href="http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/jay.asp">Jay Treaty of 1794</a> grants indigenous peoples on the U.S.-Canada border the right to freely pass and repass the border. It also gives Canadian-born indigenous persons the right to live and work in the United States.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-92/pdf/STATUTE-92-Pg469.pdf">American Indian Religious Freedom Act</a> of 1978 says that the U.S. will protect and preserve Native American religious rights, including “access to sacred sites” and “possession of sacred objects.”
And the 1990 <a href="https://www.nps.gov/archeology/tools/laws/nagpra.htm">Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act</a> protects Native American human remains, burial sites and sacred objects. </p>
<p>United States law also requires that federally recognized sovereign tribal nations on the U.S.-Mexico border must be <a href="http://www.ncai.org/policy-issues/tribal-governance">consulted in federal border enforcement planning</a>. </p>
<p>In practice, however, the free passage of Native people who live across both the United States’ northern or southern border is curtailed by <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/18/travel/is-your-id-approved-for-travel-these-are-the-latest-rules.html">strict identification laws</a>. </p>
<p>The United States requires anyone entering the country to present a passport or other U.S.-approved identification confirming their citizenship or authorization to enter. The Real ID Act of 2005 allows the Department of Homeland Security secretary to waive any U.S. law – including those protecting indigenous rights – that may impede <a href="https://psmag.com/environment/the-little-known-law-that-the-trump-administration-is-using-to-build-a-border-wall">border enforcement</a>. </p>
<p>Several standard U.S. tribal identification documents – including <a href="https://help.cbp.gov/app/answers/list/search/1/kw/Form%20I-872%20American%20Indian%20Card/suggested/1">Form I-872 American Indian Card</a> and enhanced tribal photo identification cards – are <a href="https://help.cbp.gov/app/answers/detail/a_id/998/%7E/travel-documents-for-native-americans%2C-including-u.s.%2C-canadian-and-mexican">approved travel documents</a> that enable Native Americans to enter the U.S. at land ports of entry. </p>
<h2>Arbitrary identity tests</h2>
<p>Only the <a href="https://help.cbp.gov/app/answers/list/search/1/kw/Form%20I-872%20American%20Indian%20Card/suggested/1">American Indian Card</a>, which is issued exclusively to members of the Kickapoo tribes, recognizes indigenous people’s right to cross the border regardless of citizenship. </p>
<p>According to the <a href="https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/97/hr4496/text">Texas Band of Kickapoo Act of 1983</a>, “all members of the Band” – including those who live in Mexico – are “entitled to freely pass and repass the borders of the United States and to live and work in the United States.” </p>
<p>The majority of indigenous Mexicans wishing to live or work in the United States, however, must <a href="https://www.usa.gov/enter-us">apply for immigrant residence and work authorization</a> like any other person born outside of the U.S. The relevant tribal governments in the U.S. may also work with Customs and Border Patrol to waive certain travel document requirements on a case-by-case basis for short-term visits of Native members from Mexico.</p>
<p>Since border patrol agents have expansive <a href="https://www.aila.org/File/DownloadEmbeddedFile/47306">discretionary power</a> to refuse or delay entries in the interest of national security, its officers sometimes make arbitrary requests to verify Native identity in these cases. </p>
<p>Such tests, my research shows, have included asking people to speak their indigenous language or – if the person is crossing to participate in a Native ceremony – to perform a traditional song or dance. Those who refuse these requests <a href="https://nointervention.com/archive/usa/border-wall/kumeyaay1812.html">may be denied entry</a>. </p>
<p>Border agents at both the <a href="https://www.amnestyusa.org/files/ai_inhostileterrain_final031412.pdf">Mexico</a> and <a href="https://missoulian.com/news/local/indians-seek-less-hassle-more-respect-at-u-s-/article_818b6420-5545-11e1-8260-0019bb2963f4.html">Canada borders</a> have also reportedly mishandled or destroyed Native ceremonial or medicinal items they deem suspicious.</p>
<p>“Our relatives are all considered ‘aliens,’” said the Yaqui elder and activist José Matus. “[T]hey’re not aliens. … They’re indigenous to this land.” </p>
<p>“We’ve been here since time immemorial,” he added.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/111043/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christina Leza does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The U.S-Mexico border runs through Native American territories. A wall would further divide these communities, separating children from schools, farmers from water and families from each other.Christina Leza, Associate Professor of Anthropology, Colorado CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1105592019-02-11T11:44:40Z2019-02-11T11:44:40ZWeezer’s cover album: Is the rock band honoring or exploiting the originals?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/258026/original/file-20190208-174861-nms2kt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A cover song can both enhance and diminish the legacy of the original artist.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/man-holding-record-isolated-on-green-564528277?src=_k-lr44K8fS7yyNbgvOWhQ-1-0">PrinceOfLove/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you’ve noticed the 1980s hit “Africa” playing on the radio more than usual, you likely weren’t listening to the original version by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FTQbiNvZqaY">Toto</a>. Instead, it was probably the recently released cover by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mk5Dwg5zm2U">Weezer</a>, which has already been heard over 25 million times on Spotify.</p>
<p>Maybe you know the backstory: A teenage fan started a joke Twitter account, <a href="https://twitter.com/weezerafrica">@weezerafrica</a>, in order to persuade her favorite band to cover her favorite song. Days later, the hashtag #WeezerCoverAfrica went viral, and, after months of virtual prodding, the band indulged the request. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/258004/original/file-20190208-174873-1bjfpk9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/258004/original/file-20190208-174873-1bjfpk9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/258004/original/file-20190208-174873-1bjfpk9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/258004/original/file-20190208-174873-1bjfpk9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/258004/original/file-20190208-174873-1bjfpk9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/258004/original/file-20190208-174873-1bjfpk9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/258004/original/file-20190208-174873-1bjfpk9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Weezer’s ‘Teal Album’ is entirely made up of cover songs – and the band’s fans love it.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://m.media-amazon.com/images/I/719u61DhWdL._SS500_.jpg">Atlantic Records</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>To everyone’s surprise, Weezer suddenly had a chart-topping hit – its best performing single <a href="https://www.billboard.com/music/weezer/chart-history/hot-100">in a dozen years</a>. And it isn’t even the band’s own song. Now Weezer has released an entire album of covers – a self-titled EP affectionately known as the “Teal Album,” which has already hit <a href="https://www.billboard.com/charts/billboard-200">No. 5 on the Billboard 200</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.coloradocollege.edu/academics/dept/music/people/profile.html?person=banagale_ryan_raul">As a musicologist</a>, Weezer’s successful foray into cover songs made me think about the overall trajectory of the practice.</p>
<p>They’re usually a fun way to memorialize an existing song and pass it along from one generation to the next. But the practice isn’t free of controversy.</p>
<h2>Enriching our collective musical memory</h2>
<p>The editor of a book on cover songs, communication scholar <a href="https://books.google.com/books/about/Play_it_Again.html?id=7sMts2js234C">George Plasketes</a> writes that covers are “about favorite songs and great songs. Classics and standards.” They show how “musical artifacts are kept culturally alive, repeating as echoes.”</p>
<p>To Plasketes, regardless of what a musician might add or subtract in the process, cover songs capture and convey a collective musical history.</p>
<p>The concept of covering has been around as long as music has been written down. The earliest choirs for Catholic masses often sang versions of earlier Gregorian chants. These “covers” were intended to both teach and entertain – to attract worshippers and spread Christianity. Then, as now, covers circulated culture.</p>
<p>Scholars have identified many categories of cover songs, but people are probably most familiar with two of them: the “straight cover” and the “transformative cover.”</p>
<p>The former, also known as a “karaoke cover,” sounds almost exactly like the original, which is the route taken by Weezer. Such an approach might pay homage to a music influence, like The Beatles’ “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2RicaUqd9Hg">Twist and Shout</a>,” which had been popularized by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cTaqn8_gMR0">The Isley Brothers</a> but was originally recorded by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LsDpc-8iR8g">The Top Notes</a>. </p>
<p>A straight cover can also form a sort of ironic commentary. Cultural theorist Steve Bailey <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0300776032000095486?src=recsys">notes that</a>, while such covers “tend to ridicule the originals,” they also “celebrate the continued vitality … of the music and its importance.” </p>
<p>Certainly, there’s a dose of irony to Weezer’s “Africa” – the band recorded it at the request of fans, not necessarily out of some deep connection to the music or as a nod to Toto’s influence. We can’t be certain, but it seems as if Weezer’s poking fun at the ‘80s hit, while still staying true to the original. </p>
<p>More frequently, covers fall into the transformative category, which is when musicians put their artistic stamp on a song. </p>
<p>Consider a hit such as Whitney Houston’s “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3JWTaaS7LdU">I Will Always Love You</a>.” Houston was able to transform Dolly Parton’s <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aDqqm_gTPjc">original country song</a> into a pop anthem. </p>
<p>Then there’s Aretha Franklin’s “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6FOUqQt3Kg0">Respect</a>,” which famously flipped the gender dynamics of Otis Redding’s <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KvC9V_lBnDQ">original</a> – all of a sudden it was a woman asking “for a little respect when you get home.”</p>
<h2>The contradictions of the cover</h2>
<p>It’s fun to hear one performer emulate another or to experience a familiar song made anew. But the question of “who gets to cover whom” reveals one problematic aspect of the genre. </p>
<p>As <a href="https://theconversation.com/champion-or-copycat-elvis-presleys-ambiguous-relationship-with-black-america-82293">white rock 'n’ rollers usurped black rhythm and blues artists</a> in the 1950s, countless covers became known not as covers, but as the definitive version. </p>
<p>Did you know that Elvis Presley’s “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-eHJ12Vhpyc">Hound Dog</a>” was originally performed by rhythm-and-blues singer <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yoHDrzw-RPg">Big Mama Thornton</a>? Or that Bill Haley’s “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8B7xr_EjbzE">Shake, Rattle and Roll</a>” was first recorded by blues shouter <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y9wTQsAgktg">Big Joe Turner</a>?</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/yoHDrzw-RPg?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Elvis Presley covered Big Mama’s ‘Hound Dog’ – and reaped the rewards.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These two versions are especially emblematic of the issue. Not only are the covers safer, less-sexualized renderings geared to a white teenage market, but their subsequent popularity severed the songs’ original associations with their black creators. Elvis and Haley earned millions of dollars off of this appropriation. Few hear “Hound Dog” and think of Big Mama Thornton. </p>
<p>On digital streaming platforms and automated playlists, cover versions of popular songs can still siphon attention and money away from the original. Enter any title from Weezer’s “Teal Album” into Spotify or YouTube and the new recordings sit right next to the originals. At the same time, this side-by-side placement might encourage deeper exploration of our musical past. If you realize that your favorite song is actually a cover, you might be inclined to listen to the original. </p>
<p>But do we need to know the original to appreciate a cover? Or even be aware that a song we know well is a cover to begin with? Listeners unfamiliar with <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kPz21cDK7dg">Nine Inch Nails</a> might believe Johnny Cash’s “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vt1Pwfnh5pc">Hurt</a>” is originally his. No doubt similar assumptions have been made about Jimi Hendrix’s “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TLV4_xaYynY">All Along the Watchtower</a>,” which is actually a <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BzanOzyqgas">Bob Dylan</a> tune. <a href="https://youtu.be/fOaMQ-R9YGM?t=292">Many other</a> <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aJJGMpxnJkE">artists</a> have also covered “All Along the Watchtower.”</p>
<p>If a song gets repeatedly covered, it could be a sign of its artistic strength. As professor of American literature and culture <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7sMts2js234C&lpg=PP1&pg=PA153#v=onepage&q&f=false">Russell Reising writes</a>, “There’s clearly something about the Dylan original that not only continues to inspire performers but resonates with the socio-political events of our culture.” </p>
<p>Even great originals can possess a degree of unrealized potential just waiting to be discovered by the artists that cover them.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/110559/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ryan Raul Bañagale does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Some covers are recorded as a nod to the legacy of the original, only to end up becoming the definitive version of the song.Ryan Raul Bañagale, Crown Family Professor for Innovation in the Arts, Colorado CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/982842018-08-29T10:47:20Z2018-08-29T10:47:20ZMaking college more affordable<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/227517/original/file-20180712-27021-sf3pco.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Has the cost of higher education in the U.S. put college out of financial reach?
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/investment-education-concept-conception-fee-expenses-659689999?src=2xQeZglNENWOjh3EuWS-Ww-6-0">DRogatnev/www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Editor’s note: When it comes to the cost of higher education in the U.S., signs of trouble abound.</em></p>
<p><em>For instance, states now <a href="http://www.sheeo.org/news/sheeo-releases-state-higher-education-finance-fy-2017">rely more heavily on tuition</a> to finance their public colleges and universities than on government funding.</em> </p>
<p><em>Private colleges and universities are also struggling to make ends meet, <a href="https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2018/04/30/nacubo-report-finds-tuition-discounting-again">steering a record amount of tuition revenue</a> toward grant aid for economically needy students.</em> </p>
<p><em>Meanwhile, the number of student borrowers who defaulted on their student loans <a href="https://www.ed.gov/news/press-releases/us-department-education-releases-national-student-loan-fy-2014-cohort-default-rate">edged up</a> last year as did the <a href="https://trends.collegeboard.org/sites/default/files/2017-trends-in-college-pricing_1.pdf">price of higher education itself</a>.</em> </p>
<p><em>So we asked our panel of presidents – from Xavier University of Louisiana, Colorado College and Penn State: Given this reality, what are the top two or three things that you believe need to happen to make college more affordable – particularly for low-income students, students of color and the working class?</em></p>
<hr>
<h2>More than one funder has to step up</h2>
<p><strong>Jill Tiefenthaler, President of Colorado College</strong></p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/233953/original/file-20180828-86141-1ugxh71.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/233953/original/file-20180828-86141-1ugxh71.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=744&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/233953/original/file-20180828-86141-1ugxh71.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=744&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/233953/original/file-20180828-86141-1ugxh71.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=744&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/233953/original/file-20180828-86141-1ugxh71.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=935&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/233953/original/file-20180828-86141-1ugxh71.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=935&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/233953/original/file-20180828-86141-1ugxh71.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=935&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Jill Tiefenthaler, president of Colorado College.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.coloradocollege.edu/us/giving/campaign/phonecast.html">Colorado College</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A college education has many funders. Federal and state governments provide support, as do the institutions of higher education themselves. And then, of course, there is the money paid by the students’ families. Improving access will require additional support from one or more of these sources.</p>
<p>To start at the local level, an increase in state funding would make college more affordable. After all <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d17/tables/dt17_303.70.asp">over 70 percent of all undergraduates</a> attend public institutions, and historically, states have been the primary source of funding for both two- and four-year public institutions.</p>
<p>However, states have <a href="https://www.educationnext.org/higher-ed-lower-spending-as-states-cut-back-where-has-money-gone/">reduced their support in recent years</a> and, as a result, the burden has fallen on students and their families. The <a href="https://www.marketwatch.com/story/heres-how-many-new-yorkers-are-benefiting-from-the-states-free-college-plan-2017-10-03">“free college”</a> plans in New York and a <a href="http://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/blogs/stateline/2018/01/05/why-free-college-tuition-is-spreading-from-cities-to-states">few other states</a> are examples of commitments to improve access. However, given the pressure on budgets resulting from underfunded pensions, Medicaid and K-12, I am not optimistic that students can count on increased support from states. In addition, <a href="https://www.marketwatch.com/story/how-the-new-tax-law-affects-homeowners-it-could-be-more-than-you-think-2018-02-05">recent tax changes</a> that limit federal deductions for state taxes will increase pressure to keep state income and property tax rates down, further hindering state funding.</p>
<p>Additional support from the federal government, by increasing the <a href="https://studentaid.ed.gov/sa/types/grants-scholarships/pell">Pell Grant</a> program, could make a big difference. The maximum Pell Grant for the 2018-19 academic year is $6,095. This is sufficient to cover the annual tuition at most community colleges. For example, the average tuition at <a href="https://www.ppcc.edu">the community college in my city</a> is $4,651. However, only students with family incomes of less than $60,000 qualify and the amount of the grant declines significantly as family income increases. Increasing the income cut-off and providing the full $6,095 to all who qualify would make college much more accessible for low- and middle-income students.</p>
<p>Private nonprofit colleges and universities educate <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d17/tables/dt17_303.70.asp">about 20 percent of all undergraduates</a>. The “sticker price” at these institutions gives the impression that they are not accessible to low- and middle-income students. However, privates provide significant institutional aid. </p>
<p>The major source of this support is philanthropy, made up of earnings on endowments and annual gifts. Private institutions with smaller endowments also provide aid from tuition revenue by using the revenue from some students to provide financial aid to other students. However, increasing institutional aid by using tuition revenue is not sustainable. Therefore, the key to making private institutions more affordable is increasing endowments through philanthropy. Although it is true that the new <a href="https://econofact.org/the-university-endowment-tax-who-will-pay-it-and-why-was-it-implemented">“endowment tax”</a> on large endowments and any changes to the tax deduction for charitable giving reduce the funds available for financial aid. In addition, private institutions could reduce “merit aid” – aid that is awarded on the basis of academic, athletic or artistic merit – and reallocate those funds to need-based financial aid. </p>
<p>Of course, <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/grade-point/wp/2017/05/26/forget-the-marketing-gimmicks-its-time-for-colleges-to-cut-costs/">some may argue</a> that rather than finding new sources of revenue, colleges could simply cut their costs and reduce tuition. This would make college more affordable but it would also reduce the quality of the education provided. </p>
<p>Higher education is a very competitive market, and students and their families demand quality – as they should. We must do our best to educate students in a global environment, keeping pace with technological innovations, teaching critical thinking, fostering comfort with ambiguity, and graduating nimble leaders who will thrive in a rapidly changing era.</p>
<hr>
<h2>What needs discussing is the total cost of a degree</h2>
<p><strong>Eric Barron, President of Pennsylvania State University</strong></p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/233958/original/file-20180828-86138-9iqxkk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/233958/original/file-20180828-86138-9iqxkk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=801&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/233958/original/file-20180828-86138-9iqxkk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=801&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/233958/original/file-20180828-86138-9iqxkk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=801&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/233958/original/file-20180828-86138-9iqxkk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1006&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/233958/original/file-20180828-86138-9iqxkk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1006&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/233958/original/file-20180828-86138-9iqxkk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1006&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Eric Barron, president of The Pennsylvania State University.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://president.psu.edu/biography.html">The Pennsylvania State University</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The high level of tuition in U.S. universities can be blamed on many factors. On top of <a href="https://www.educationnext.org/higher-ed-lower-spending-as-states-cut-back-where-has-money-gone/">shrinking state appropriations</a> there are more technology-intensive degrees in every field; an <a href="https://news.psu.edu/story/475363/2017/07/21/administration/trustees-hear-update-proposed-university-capital-plan">aging campus infrastructure;</a> a sharp increase in compliance and <a href="https://regulatorystudies.columbian.gwu.edu/reg-stats">regulations</a> reporting; and soaring health care costs.</p>
<p>University administrators should be deeply concerned that our price is limiting access to an education that enables upward mobility. Interestingly, the conversation on access and affordability seems to be fixated on controlling, first and foremost, the increase in tuition. We need to broaden the framing of this discussion considerably.</p>
<p>The first step is to change the conversation to one of the total cost of a degree. The simple fact is that timely completion of a degree is a critical mechanism to control total cost. A tuition increase pales in comparison to going to school for another year.</p>
<p>The second step is to recognize that the only thing worse than going five and six years in order to graduate, is to accumulate debt and drop out before graduation.</p>
<p>Universities like Penn State are justifiably proud of their <a href="https://budget.psu.edu/factbook/StudentDynamic/gradretratesummary.aspx?&ratetype=grad&repyear=2017&YearCode=2015&FBPlusIndc=N">high graduation rates</a>. However, when you dig deeper, you discover that first-generation, need-based students have <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-graduation-rates-lag-for-low-income-college-students-96182">a dramatically lower graduation rate</a> than most of their peers. At Penn State, they graduate 22 percentage points below the average. We can point to many factors that cause [this graduation gap], but it’s clearly not due to lack of ambition.</p>
<p>Sixty-two percent of these students work an average of 22 hours a week, usually at minimum wage jobs, so they can’t take a full credit load. It is impossible to graduate in four years. They drop classes more frequently than other students and tend to have lower grades because of their work load. Sadly, they also don’t have time to participate in advantageous activities, such as research or internships. They get discouraged. They either give up or end up attending a fifth or sixth year at a significant cost. If they graduate, they have paid more and gotten less from the experience than other students.</p>
<p>Our universities need a laser-like focus on mitigating all factors that slow the time to the completion of a degree. Every student should have access to financial literacy advisers and tools that help students take the most cost-efficient way to achieve a degree. We need “completion” programs to be a priority and not allow students to slip away because of finances or other hardships.</p>
<p>We can serve our mission of upward mobility and save students millions in costs and debt if we help every student, regardless of financial capability, to graduate, and graduate on time.</p>
<hr>
<h2>The importance of pre-collegiate preparation</h2>
<p><strong>Reynold Verret, President of Xavier University of Louisiana</strong> </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/233948/original/file-20180828-86129-1yc9gx2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/233948/original/file-20180828-86129-1yc9gx2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/233948/original/file-20180828-86129-1yc9gx2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=633&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/233948/original/file-20180828-86129-1yc9gx2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=633&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/233948/original/file-20180828-86129-1yc9gx2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=633&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/233948/original/file-20180828-86129-1yc9gx2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=795&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/233948/original/file-20180828-86129-1yc9gx2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=795&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/233948/original/file-20180828-86129-1yc9gx2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=795&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Reynold Verret, president of Xavier University of Louisiana.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.xula.edu/president/">Xavier University</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>By 2020, nearly <a href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED584413.pdf">two-thirds</a> of jobs will require postsecondary education. Yet, fewer than <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d15/tables/dt15_603.20.asp">45 percent of adult Americans</a> currently have earned an associate degree or higher, as reported in national data.</p>
<p>The cost of higher education and its impact on access and opportunity is a major barrier to more students earning degrees. Talent and ability are not relegated to those of higher means. Our present challenge is to assure education and opportunity for students from all backgrounds. Sadly, we as a nation have been comfortable with very good schools for the haves and less than good ones for the have-nots. </p>
<p>On the federal level, <a href="https://studentaid.ed.gov/sa/types/grants-scholarships/pell">Pell awards</a> should be increased and eligibility expanded for students with the greatest need. Pell awards should also be allowed to continue to apply during the summer terms so that students persist and graduate on time. </p>
<p>On average, an American student takes 5.1 years to earn the bachelor’s degree. <a href="https://nscresearchcenter.org/signaturereport11/">Time to degree completion</a> has increased over the past decades due to a number of factors, such as the need to work and inadequate pre-collegiate schooling. Each extra year increases the cost of the bachelor’s degree by 25 percent. The time it takes to earn a bachelor’s degree could be reduced if students didn’t have to take courses to acquire math and language skills that are normally mastered in high school.</p>
<p>Bold steps are needed. This includes building an equitable K-12 educational pipeline that provides better college readiness for all of America’s students. Quality K-12 requires great teachers who remain in the profession and teach in schools with the greatest need. The teaching profession must be elevated and the nation’s best students should be encouraged to become teachers. For their service, school loans should be forgiven or repaid. Colleges and universities should also create postsecondary certificates and credentials meeting the needs of students entering careers that do not require college degrees.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://sites.ed.gov/whhbcu/one-hundred-and-five-historically-black-colleges-and-universities/">HBCU</a> where I serve as president, Xavier University of Louisiana, has been leading the nation in educating <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/13/magazine/a-prescription-for-more-black-doctors.html">African-Americans who go on to achieve medical degrees</a>. The school also excels in preparing students who achieve Ph.D.s in the STEM fields. A 2017 study has ranked the university <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/18/opinion/sunday/americas-great-working-class-colleges.html">6th in the nation</a> for social mobility, whereby students from the lower 40 percent of the U.S. income distribution enter the upper 40 percent. Our success and the <a href="https://www.chronicle.com/article/How-Are-Black-Colleges-Doing-/243119">success of other HBCUs</a> should dispel any notion that talent is associated with socioeconomic status.</p>
<p>The education of our citizens is not only an individual but a collective benefit: America thrives if it develops all of its talent.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/98284/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jill Tiefenthaler is affiliated with the National Association of Colleges and Universities (NAICU), serving as treasurer and on its executive committee; and with the Annapolis Group, serving as chair of its board of directors. She has received funding from foundations in support of education and research. These include Blue Shield of California Foundation and National Consortium for Violence Research.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Eric J. Barron is currently a member of the University Corp. for Atmospheric Research (UCAR) Board of Trustees, APLU Board of Directors, CICEP Chair, College Football Play-off (CFP) Board of Managers, Council on Competitiveness: EMCP Steering Committee, Universities Research Association (URA), Big Ten Council of Presidents and Chancellors and American Talent Initiative (ATI). </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Reynold Verret and Xavier University of Louisiana receives and has received funding from federal agencies and foundations in support of education and research. These include the NIH, NSF, NASA, DOD and the Howard Hughes Medical institute</span></em></p>As students head back to campus, the ever higher cost of a college education is once again top of mind. The presidents of Colorado College, Penn State and Xavier University weigh in on what’s to be done.Jill Tiefenthaler, President, Colorado CollegeEric J. Barron, President, Penn StateReynold Verret, President, Xavier University of Louisiana, Xavier University of LouisianaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1004212018-08-08T10:38:59Z2018-08-08T10:38:59ZWhat elephants’ unique brain structures suggest about their mental abilities<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230916/original/file-20180807-1652-1fmdlm1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">African elephant bull.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/bDsWjD">Michelle Gadd/USFWS</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Conservationists have designated August 12 as <a href="http://worldelephantday.org/about">World Elephant Day</a> to raise awareness about conserving these majestic animals. Elephants have many engaging features, from their incredibly dexterous trunks to their memory abilities and complex social lives. </p>
<p>But there is much less discussion of their brains, even though it stands to reason that such a large animal has a pretty big brain (about 12 pounds). Indeed, until recently very little was actually known about the elephant brain, in part because obtaining well-preserved tissue suitable for microscopic study is extremely difficult. </p>
<p>That door was opened by the pioneering efforts of neurobiologist <a href="https://www.wits.ac.za/staff/academic-a-z-listing/m/man/paulmangerwitsacza/">Paul Manger</a> at the University of the Witwatersrand in South Africa, who obtained permission in 2009 to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneumeth.2009.01.001">extract and preserve the brains of three African elephants</a> that were scheduled to be culled as part of a larger population management strategy. We have thus learned more about the elephant brain in the last 10 years than ever before. </p>
<p>The research shared here was conducted at Colorado College in 2009-2011 in cooperation with Paul Manger, <a href="https://anthropology.columbian.gwu.edu/chet-sherwood">Columbia University anthropologist Chet Sherwood</a> and <a href="http://labs.neuroscience.mssm.edu/project/hof-lab/">neuroscientist Patrick Hof of the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai</a>. Our goal was to explore the shapes and size of neurons in the elephant cortex.</p>
<p>My lab group has long been interested in <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=KvCW9T0AAAAJ&hl=en">the morphology, or shape, of neurons in the cerebral cortex of mammals</a>. The cortex constitutes the thin, outer layer of neurons (nerve cells) that cover the two cerebral hemispheres. It is closely associated with higher cognitive functions such as coordinated voluntary movement, integration of sensory information, sociocultural learning and the storing of memories that define an individual. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230640/original/file-20180803-41357-c6z1xj.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230640/original/file-20180803-41357-c6z1xj.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230640/original/file-20180803-41357-c6z1xj.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230640/original/file-20180803-41357-c6z1xj.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230640/original/file-20180803-41357-c6z1xj.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230640/original/file-20180803-41357-c6z1xj.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230640/original/file-20180803-41357-c6z1xj.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230640/original/file-20180803-41357-c6z1xj.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">These images illustrate the process of removing a small section of cerebral cortex from the right cerebral hemisphere of the elephant. This tissue is stained and placed on a glass slide so that, under the microscope, one can see individual neurons and trace them in three dimensions.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Robert Jacobs</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The arrangement and morphology of neurons in the cortex is relatively uniform across mammals – or so we thought after <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/11.6.558">decades of investigations on human</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhs239">nonhuman primate brains</a>, and the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.10-05-01407.1990">brains of rodents</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/cne.902290404">cats</a>. As we found when we were able to analyze elephant brains, the morphology of elephant cortical neurons is radically different from anything we had ever observed before.</p>
<h2>How neurons are visualized and quantified</h2>
<p>The process of exploring neuronal morphology begins with staining brain tissue after it has been fixed (chemically preserved) for a period of time. In our laboratory we use a technique over 125 years old called the <a href="https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/golgi-staining-technique">Golgi stain</a>, named after Italian biologist and Nobel Laureate <a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1906/golgi-bio.html">Camillo Golgi</a> (1843-1926).</p>
<p>This methodology set the foundation of modern neuroscience. For example, Spanish neuroanatomist and Nobel Laureate <a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1906/cajal-bio.html">Santiago Ramon y Cajal</a> (1852-1934) used this technique to provide a road map of what neurons look like and how they are connected with each other. </p>
<p>The Golgi stain impregnates only a small percentage of neurons, allowing individual cells to appear relatively isolated with a clear background. This reveals the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMHT0023688/">dendrites</a>, or branches, that constitute the receptive surface area of these neurons. Just as branches on a tree bring in light for photosynthesis, the dendrites of neurons allow the cell to receive and synthesize incoming information from other cells. The greater the complexity of the dendritic systems, the more information a particular neuron can process. </p>
<p>Once we stain neurons, we can trace them in three dimensions under the microscope, with the help of a computer and <a href="http://www.mbfbioscience.com">specialized software</a>, revealing the complex geometry of neuronal networks. In this <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00429-010-0288-3">study</a>, we traced 75 elephant neurons. Each tracing took one to five hours, depending on the complexity of the cell. </p>
<p> </p>
<h2>What elephant neurons look like</h2>
<p>Even after doing this kind of research for years, it remains exciting to look at tissue under the microscope for the first time. Each stain is a walk through a different neural forest. When we examined sections of elephant tissue, it was clear that the basic architecture of the elephant cortex was different from that of any other mammals that have been examined to date – including its closest living relatives, the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1159/000445495">manatee</a> and the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.05991.x">rock hyrax</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230641/original/file-20180803-41360-mo0bvx.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230641/original/file-20180803-41360-mo0bvx.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230641/original/file-20180803-41360-mo0bvx.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230641/original/file-20180803-41360-mo0bvx.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230641/original/file-20180803-41360-mo0bvx.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230641/original/file-20180803-41360-mo0bvx.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230641/original/file-20180803-41360-mo0bvx.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230641/original/file-20180803-41360-mo0bvx.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Tracings of the most common neuron (the pyramidal neuron) in the cerebral cortex of several species. Note that the elephant has widely branching apical dendrites, whereas all other species have a more singular, ascending apical dendrite. The scale bar = 100 micrometers (or 0.004 of an inch).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Bob Jacobs</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Here are three major differences that we found between cortical neurons in the elephant and those found in other mammals.</p>
<p>First, the dominant cortical neuron in mammals is the pyramidal neuron. These are also prominent in the elephant cortex, but they have a very different structure. Instead of having a singular dendrite that comes off the apex of the cell (known as an apical dendrite), apical dendrites in the elephant typically branch widely as they ascend to the surface of the brain. Instead of a single, long branch like a fir tree, the elephant apical dendrite resembles two human arms reaching upward.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230643/original/file-20180803-41327-1nngs8w.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230643/original/file-20180803-41327-1nngs8w.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230643/original/file-20180803-41327-1nngs8w.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230643/original/file-20180803-41327-1nngs8w.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230643/original/file-20180803-41327-1nngs8w.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230643/original/file-20180803-41327-1nngs8w.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230643/original/file-20180803-41327-1nngs8w.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230643/original/file-20180803-41327-1nngs8w.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A variety of cortical neurons in the elephant that are seldom if ever observed in the cortex of other mammals. Note that all of them are characterized by dendrites that spread out from the cell body laterally, sometimes over considerable distances. The scale bar = 100 micrometers (or 0.004 of an inch).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Bob Jacobs</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Second, the elephant exhibits a much wider variety of cortical neurons than do other species. Some of these, such as the flattened pyramidal neuron, are not found in other mammals. One characteristic of these neurons is that their dendrites extend laterally from the cell body over long distances. In other words, like the apical dendrites of pyramidal cells, these dendrites also extend out like human arms uplifted to the sky. </p>
<p>Third, the overall length of pyramidal neuron dendrites in elephants is about the same as in humans. However, they are arranged differently. Human pyramidal neurons tend to have a large number of shorter branches, whereas the elephant has a smaller number of much longer branches. Whereas primate pyramidal neurons seem to be designed for sampling very precise input, the dendritic configuration in elephants suggests that their dendrites sample a very broad array of input from multiple sources. </p>
<p>Taken together, these morphological characteristics suggest that neurons in the elephant cortex may synthesize a wider variety of input than the cortical neurons in other mammals. </p>
<p>In terms of cognition, my colleagues and I believe that the integrative cortical circuitry in the elephant supports the idea that they are essentially contemplative animals. Primate brains, by comparison, seem specialized for rapid decision-making and quick reactions to environmental stimuli. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/nK7n1EqX1NQ?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A tuskless matriarch elephant shows kindness toward young orphan elephants trying to find their way in the Kenyan bush.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Observations of elephants in their natural habitat by researchers such as <a href="https://elephantvoices.org">Dr. Joyce Poole</a> suggest that elephants are indeed <a href="http://www.natgeotv.com/int/mind-of-a-giant">thoughtful, curious and ponderous creatures</a>. Their large brains, with such a diverse collection of interconnected, complex neurons, appear to provide the neural foundation of the elephant’s sophisticated cognitive abilities, including <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/zoo.20251">social communication</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1006/anbe.2001.1815">tool construction and use</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0023251">creative problem-solving</a>, <a href="https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/imp/jcs/2008/00000015/f0020010/art00008">empathy</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0608062103">self-recognition, including theory of mind</a>. </p>
<p>The brains of all species are unique. Indeed, even the brains of individuals within a given species are unique. However, the special morphology of elephant cortical neurons reminds us that there is certainly more than one way to wire an intelligent brain.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/100421/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bob Jacobs does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Cells that transmit nerve impulses in the part of elephants’ brains responsible for functions such as learning and memory are structured differently from those of any other mammal.Bob Jacobs, Professor of Neuroscience, Colorado CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/922522018-04-20T10:36:49Z2018-04-20T10:36:49ZHousing discrimination thrives 50 years after Fair Housing Act tried to end it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/215693/original/file-20180419-163982-1cicwu4.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Fair housing protest in Seattle, Washington, 1964.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Fair_housing_protest,_Seattle,_1964.gif">Jmabel/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In the midst of riots in 1968 after civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr. was slain, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the <a href="https://www.justice.gov/crt/fair-housing-act-2">Fair Housing Act</a>. </p>
<p>The federal legislation addressed one of the bitterest aspects of racism in the U.S.: segregated housing. It prohibited discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion and national origin when selling and renting housing.</p>
<p>The Department of Housing and Urban Development, or HUD, has administered the act with some success. From 1970 to 2010, the share of African-Americans living in highly segregated neighborhoods <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4808815/">declined by half</a>. But in areas that remained highly segregated in 2010, there were no signs of improvement. In several cities, such as Baltimore and Philadelphia, average levels of segregation <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4808815/">had actually increased</a>. </p>
<p>My scholarship <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=2JIQ1MIAAAAJ&hl=en">on public housing and residential mobility</a> demonstrates that where African-American people live is often still limited by discrimination.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, HUD – the department charged with ending housing discrimination – has shifted much of its focus away from that core mission to instead promote economic self-sufficiency.</p>
<p>The effect of this change could mean the discrimination that continues to exist will remain, and people of color will continue to have limited options for housing, attend <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-soc-070308-120032">lower-performing schools</a> and experience <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1497358/">poorer health outcomes</a>.</p>
<h2>Refocusing HUD’s mission</h2>
<p>The Fair Housing Act’s dual mission was to eliminate housing discrimination and to promote residential integration. The communities its authors imagined were desegregated and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4808815/">open to all people</a>. </p>
<p>The first HUD secretary, <a href="http://time.com/4175137/first-african-american-cabinet-member/">Robert C. Weaver</a>, believed such places would allow for a diverse mix of people and housing options. This founding tenet is reflected in the <a href="https://www.hud.gov/about/mission">mission statement</a> HUD has used since 2010: “HUD’s mission is to create strong, sustainable, inclusive communities and quality affordable homes for all.”</p>
<p>However, HUD’s current secretary, Ben Carson, appointed by President Donald Trump, has proposed a new mission statement. <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2018/03/07/ben-carsons-mission-statement-for-hud-may-no-longer-include-anti-discrimination-language/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.b80b675d273c">It reads</a>: “HUD’s mission is to ensure Americans have access to fair, affordable housing and opportunities to achieve self-sufficiency, thereby strengthening our communities and our nation.”</p>
<p>One of the key differences between these two mission statements is the goal. While the former focused on building inclusive communities, the new mission focuses on individuals being self-sufficient. This shift reflects an age-old debate about the role of the government in helping poor people secure housing. Recent actions by conservatives suggest they are interested in decreasing government assistance for housing to poor people.</p>
<p>For example, the White House’s fiscal year 2019 budget proposal called for <a href="https://www.npr.org/2018/02/13/585255697/white-house-budget-calls-for-deep-cuts-to-hud">slashing HUD’s funding by US$8.8 billion</a>. Shortly thereafter, HUD Secretary <a href="https://www.npr.org/2018/02/13/585255697/white-house-budget-calls-for-deep-cuts-to-hud">Carson tweeted</a>, “The proposed budget is focused on moving more people toward self-sufficiency through reforming rental assistance programs and moving aging public housing to more sustainable platforms.” </p>
<p>On March 23, in lieu of a government shutdown, Congress <a href="https://www.citylab.com/equity/2018/03/housing-doom-narrowly-averted-by-omnibus/556322/">passed an omnibus bill</a> that actually added money to HUD’s budget. Yet, there is still a possibility that the White House will rescind <a href="https://www.govexec.com/management/2018/04/trump-looks-slash-agency-budget-increase-he-just-signed-law/147196/">some of these increases</a>. Conservatives <a href="http://thehill.com/homenews/house/383649-mccarthy-premature-to-reject-rescissions-of-omnibus">are still split</a> on whether or not they should go against their deal with liberals to save money. This could drastically change the way HUD operates over the next year.</p>
<h2>Diminishing role of government</h2>
<p>Such efforts to diminish the government’s role in providing housing assistance to the poorest populations is based on historic ideas on <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/15575330709490182">the causes of poverty</a>. </p>
<p>Poverty, some people argue, is <a href="https://academic.oup.com/socpro/article-abstract/21/5/634/1684757">caused by an individual’s lack of motivation</a>. Blaming other factors out of their control, according to this line of thinking, is a way of not accepting responsibility. This idea is now being translated into housing policy.</p>
<p>The focus on economic self-sufficiency is not new. Starting in the 1980s, HUD <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10511482.1993.9521140">linked housing programs and policies</a> with efforts to increase an individual’s ability to support themselves without government assistance.</p>
<p>Promoting self-sufficiency isn’t a bad idea. Raising the income levels of low-income people is a useful endeavor, since housing is often the largest expense among families. </p>
<p>But here’s the problem with focusing on self-sufficiency: It creates the illusion that where people live is solely their choice. It’s not. The market dictates where people can live, and so does discrimination by landlords and mortgage lenders. </p>
<p>Incomes in the U.S. <a href="http://www.governing.com/news/headlines/housing-cost-affordability-burden-increases-in-cities.html">are not increasing</a> at the same rate as housing costs. And as the economy is bouncing back from the Great Recession, housing is becoming <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10511482.2017.1298214">increasingly unaffordable</a> for people at nearly all income levels.</p>
<p>So getting people off of housing assistance, while providing training so they can get higher-paying jobs, does not mean they can find affordable housing in the neighborhood of their choice. </p>
<p>To be effective, housing policies must address, not ignore these challenges. A full return to the spirit with which the Fair Housing Act was passed could be a step in the right direction.</p>
<p>If the Fair Housing Act has taught us anything in the last 50 years, it has highlighted that attaining affordable housing is a problem for many people. Focusing on self-sufficiency and turning a blind eye to housing discrimination shifts the focus of housing policy in the United States away from building “inclusive and sustainable communities free from discrimination.”</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/92252/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Prentiss Dantzler does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Where people live in the US is still often influenced by racial discrimination. Is the federal government doing enough to carry out the vision of the civil rights era legislation?Prentiss Dantzler, Assistant Professor of Sociology and Urban Studies, Colorado CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/945612018-04-18T10:42:52Z2018-04-18T10:42:52ZAmericans support legal marijuana – but states don’t agree on how to regulate it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/215209/original/file-20180417-163986-juezzk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Marijuana varieties on display in a California dispensary. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/California-Marijuana-Open-for-Business/33dd95de1fb845e6b314d493f39353fe/7/1">AP Photo/Mathew Sumner</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>On 4/20, many across the U.S. gather to celebrate their love and appreciation for marijuana. </p>
<p>Polls show that <a href="http://news.gallup.com/poll/221018/record-high-support-legalizing-marijuana.aspx">64 percent</a> of Americans favor legalizing marijuana. But, despite the majority support, there’s no clear consensus on how it should be regulated. As a researcher who has studied the impact of drugs in the U.S. and Mexico, it’s been captivating to watch states adapt as they attempt to regulate this illicit and stigmatized substance.</p>
<p>Many states permit medical marijuana, but there’s a wide variety of approaches. Today, 29 states currently permit medical marijuana and have an established system for regulating it.</p>
<p>Another 17 states have limited medical programs. These programs provide access to products with low levels of <a href="https://www.livescience.com/24553-what-is-thc.html">tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)</a> and high levels of cannabidiol (CBD), with the goal of eliminating the “high” and maximizing medical benefits. Beyond that, the conditions doctors and patients can treat with cannabis vary from state to state.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.revisor.mn.gov/laws/?id=311&doctype=Chapter&type=0&year=2014">Minnesota</a>, <a href="https://www.health.ny.gov/regulations/medical_marijuana/regulations.htm">New York</a> and <a href="http://www.wvlegislature.gov/Bill_Status/bills_text.cfm?billdoc=SB386%20SUB1%20enr.htm&yr=2017&sesstype=RS&billtype=B&houseorig=S&i=386">West Virginia</a> don’t permit marijuana smoking as part of their medical programs. West Virginia, however, allows patients to vaporize marijuana plant matter, while Minnesota only permits consumption of marijuana in liquid extract form. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.colorado.gov/pacific/cdphe/medicalmarijuana">Colorado</a>, where I am based, has a much more expansive medical program. Patients can access an array of products, from extracts to strains of raw plant material. While <a href="https://www.health.ny.gov/regulations/medical_marijuana/regulations.htm">New York</a> caps the amount of THC that a product dose may contain, Colorado and other states have no such limit on their medical marijuana products. </p>
<p><iframe id="16j0H" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/16j0H/3/" height="600px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>Meanwhile, recreational marijuana use has been approved for adults 21 and over by nine states: Alaska, California, Colorado, Maine, Massachusetts, Nevada, Oregon, Vermont and Washington, as well as the District of Columbia. </p>
<p>However, once again, states haven’t implemented their policies uniformly. <a href="https://legislature.vermont.gov/assets/Documents/2018/Docs/BILLS/H-0511/H-0511%20Senate%20Proposal%20of%20Amendment%20Unofficial.pdf">Vermont</a>, for example, does not currently have a system for commercial sale and distribution, and only allows individuals to cultivate two plants. <a href="https://www.colorado.gov/pacific/enforcement/marijuanaenforcement">Colorado</a>, on the other hand, has developed a robust commercial system, allows individuals to grow up to six plants, and limits the amount of marijuana products an individual can possess. </p>
<p>Most states have struggled with how to navigate the public consumption of cannabis, which remains illegal. As states continue to debate and implement marijuana policies, the American public will begin to recognize what works (and what doesn’t). </p>
<p>While these policy inconsistencies may raise concerns for some constituents, these state experiments are a valuable way to figure out how this substance works and how it affects society.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/94561/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Santiago Guerra is affiliated with Colorado Springs Medical Marijuana Working Group as a content expert. </span></em></p>Medical marijuana? Recreational marijuana? Both or neither? Here’s a quick guide to the topsy-turvy landscape for marijuana regulation in the US.Santiago Guerra, Assistant Professor of Southwest Studies, Colorado CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/941102018-03-31T11:23:52Z2018-03-31T11:23:52Z‘Oklahoma!’ at 75: Has the musical withstood the test of time?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/212737/original/file-20180330-189824-yxmwky.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">After opening in 1943, “Oklahoma!” was an instant hit and had a run of over 2,000 performances.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Watchf-AP-A-NY-USA-APHS369511-Richard-Rodgers/12cfd96e2cf34438974dbd9fbd7fedce/10/0">Charles Lucas/AP Photo</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Musicals have long depicted utopian worlds, offering an escape for audiences, if only for a few hours. When Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein’s “Oklahoma!” premiered in March 1943, the musical was a perfect reprieve for audiences immersed in the day-to-day anxieties of World War II. </p>
<p>It offers a classic narrative: Two men, cowboy Curly McLain and farmhand Jud Fry, fight for the affections of one woman, farm girl Laurey Williams. This love triangle is played out against the backdrop of westward expansion at the outset of the 20th century. In the end, Curly prevails, and the musical closes with a rousing celebration of unity, statehood and nation-building. </p>
<p>“We know we belong to the land / And the land we belong to is grand! … ” <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZbrnXl2gO_k&feature=youtu.be&t=1m43s">the cast sings</a>. “You’re doin’ fine, Oklahoma! Oklahoma, O.K.” </p>
<p>It’s the sort of all-American story that connects audiences to our collective past – one of the same appeals that has made “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yvBYOBTkDRk">Hamilton</a>” a huge success today.</p>
<p>But as we celebrate the 75th anniversary of “Oklahoma!,” I wonder, as a scholar of American music, if the favorite musical of high school drama teachers no longer resonates as it once did. </p>
<p>Said another way: Whose America did “Oklahoma!” depict? And is the musical’s vision of the nation relevant today?</p>
<p>“Oklahoma!” was Rodgers and Hammerstein’s first time working together as a team, and the duo based their musical on “<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Grow_the_Lilacs_(play)">Green Grow the Lilacs</a>,” a 1930 play by Lynn Riggs. </p>
<p>That story is also about white Americans and westward expansion, but there’s a key difference: References to Native Americans and African Americans appear in Riggs’ play. Characters talk frequently about “Indian Territory” and acknowledge the dangers of living there. </p>
<p>When Rodgers and Hammerstein adapted this narrative, their characters became blissfully unaware of the racial realities of their setting. Even though <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/lesser-known-history-african-american-cowboys-180962144/">one in four</a> cowboys were black, they didn’t incorporate African-Americans; and while the show is set in Claremore, Oklahoma – smack in the middle of Cherokee Nation – there’s no mention of the violent conflict and division of tribal lands that had been taking place since the 1887 passage of the <a href="http://legisworks.org/sal/24/stats/STATUTE-24-Pg387.pdf">Dawes Act</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/212741/original/file-20180330-189821-wvpwv4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/212741/original/file-20180330-189821-wvpwv4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/212741/original/file-20180330-189821-wvpwv4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/212741/original/file-20180330-189821-wvpwv4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/212741/original/file-20180330-189821-wvpwv4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=549&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/212741/original/file-20180330-189821-wvpwv4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=549&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/212741/original/file-20180330-189821-wvpwv4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=549&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">‘Oklahoma!’ celebrates its fifth birthday at St. James Theatre in New York on March 31, 1948.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Watchf-Associated-Press-Domestic-News-Entertain-/5cbd064243234a4ab8673720696d0fa8/12/0">Ed Ford/AP Photo</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>So where did they go? Musical theater scholar <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fv4IAQAAMAAJ">Andrea Most</a> argues that the non-white figures find a home in the antagonist, Jud Fry.</p>
<p>In the musical, Fry is the embodiment of all things dangerous and dark, a brute who consumes copious amounts of alcohol and lives in a squalid shack plastered with pornography. At the time, in American entertainment, whenever writers wanted to set a character apart from proper, white society, it was common to deploy this trope. The symbolism isn’t reserved for African Americans and Native Americans. Jud’s character also embodies the looming danger of Imperial Japan and Nazi Germany. </p>
<p>When Curly sings “everything’s going my way” in the opening number, he’s not just talking about their collective prosperity; he’s also referencing military victories abroad. Jud’s continued presence threatens the forward motion of Claremore. According to Most, after Jud dies from falling on his own knife during a fight with Curly, he becomes “a sacrificial scapegoat … whose death cleanses the community of darkness.”</p>
<p>The death of Jud is Manifest Destiny and a new world order two-stepping its way into the 20th century. </p>
<p>Of course, real life isn’t so black and white: The day “Oklahoma!” premiered, Allied forces killed hundreds of civilians when they accidentally bombed a neighborhood in <a href="http://www.brandgrens.nl/en/the-bombing-of-rotterdam">Rotterdam</a>. </p>
<p>“Oklahoma!” ignores all of this. It favors a nostalgic vision of America’s actions in the world, a necessarily reductive spin for theatergoers of its day.</p>
<p>But audiences of 2018 are more culturally sophisticated. Does “Oklahoma!” have a place in this America? </p>
<p>Musicals – then, just as now – offer an important window into American culture. And “Oklahoma!” can be seen as a work that captures an optimistic vision of America at a moment when its future remained very much up in the air. </p>
<p>But treating “Oklahoma!” as a museum piece – a work frozen in time, performed with full fidelity to the original version – doesn’t feel quite right to me. At the same time, neither does removing it from the regularly performed repertoire of American musical theater. It remains an important show.</p>
<p>Perhaps it’s on modern audiences to read between the lines when they watch classic musicals – to think about what’s not appearing on stage, and why that might be the case.</p>
<p>But directors and performers can also play a role and can make creative choices that open up the narrative a bit. What if the cowboys were all dressed as police officers? What if Laurey was played by a Native American actress? What if Curly actually drove the knife into Jud, rather than Jud falling onto it on his own? </p>
<p>Creative re-envisioning doesn’t need to only apply to “Oklahoma!” Any Broadway classic, from “Show Boat” to “A Chorus Line,” should be eligible. Doing so can allow American actors, directors and audiences alike to reclaim the narratives of the past, while maintaining dialogue with the realities of our present moment.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/94110/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ryan Raul Bañagale does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The Broadway hit offered an escape from the anxieties of World War II. But the America it portrayed – unified, patriotic and white – rings hollow today.Ryan Raul Bañagale, Crown Family Professor for Innovation in the Arts, Colorado CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/363532015-01-21T17:34:58Z2015-01-21T17:34:58ZThe State of the Union 2015 – theater, traditions, politics<p><em>Editor’s note: “The state of the union is good,” and the attitude of President Barack Obama in his annual speech to Congress was upbeat. Good economic news and no more election campaigns were the backdrop to the president’s “<a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2015/01/21/us/state-of-the-union-obama-ambitious-agenda-to-help-middle-class.html?ribbon-ad-idx=3&rref=homepage">ambitious agenda</a>” and “<a href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/?reload=true">assertive”</a> call to action. Here scholars from around the US give their reactions to the rhetoric, the theater and the longer term impact of this set piece in American politics.</em></p>
<hr>
<h2>SOTU has few traditions to break: it’s the content that counts</h2>
<p>*<em>J Michael Hogan, Pennsylvania State University
*</em></p>
<p>Even before he spoke, the pundits accused Barack Obama of “killing” the State of the Union (SOTU) address by previewing its content in speeches, videos and social media. The SOTU is no longer the “big reveal,” they complained, which presumably diminished both its audience and the tradition itself. </p>
<p>Hogwash! Although rooted in the Constitution, the SOTU has never been that tradition-bound. </p>
<p>Delivered as a written report for much of our history, Wilson changed it into a major speech to Congress; Coolidge made it a radio address; Truman delivered it on TV; and LBJ moved it to prime time. And George W. Bush gets the credit (or blame) for first streaming it over the Internet. </p>
<p>Whatever the medium, the message is what matters. Scholars still point to Ronald Reagan’s 1982 SOTU as one that transformed the genre by invoking the personal stories of invited guests to illustrate his themes. They also still talk about SOTU addresses with big ideas, like the <a href="http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/monroe.asp">Monroe Doctrine</a> in 1823, Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s <a href="http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/fourfreedoms">Four Freedoms</a> or Lyndon Johnson’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/search?q=lbj%27s+great+society&sort=relevancy&date=all&date_from=&date_to=&type=all">Great Society</a>. </p>
<p>Let’s hope that the pundits will now provide at least some analysis of Obama’s ideas instead of obsessing over how the speech was delivered and its implications for the next presidential election. </p>
<hr>
<h2>Rallying the party with ‘middle class economics’</h2>
<p><strong>Tom Cronin, Colorado College</strong></p>
<p>President Obama gave an optimistic talk about how America has recovered from the major recession and proposed a populist “Middle Class Economics” policy agenda that might help working and middle class America enjoy more of the fruits of this recovery. </p>
<p>Most Americans probably either didn’t listen to his talk or turned it off mid-way through. And research shows that few of these types of talks have more than a minor impact on public opinion or what Congress is inclined to do.</p>
<p>Still, it is an opportunity for any president to help shape the agenda. Americans expect presidents to celebrate the nation and talk proudly about recent accomplishments and possible future achievements. Obama,like most recent presidents, did this. </p>
<p>The president is a polished speaker and has a splendid ability to portray shared aspirations. What he was especially able to do in the talk, even if momentarily, was to make people forget that Democrats just suffered one of their worst elections defeats in generations. </p>
<p>Obama’s strongest sections were talking about the economy and what might be done to help community college students, low wage earners and helping on issues such as child care and paid sick leave. He cleverly, or perhaps deceptively, avoided talking about hiking capital gains taxes and similar revenue-generating policies needed to pay for these programs.</p>
<p>The President seemed to be claiming too much credit for the recovery and similarly conveyed more progress in Afghanistan and Iraq and in the war against terrorism than is justified.</p>
<p>Overall, however, he rallied his party, set out some worthy aspirations and established some progressive markers that will require members of Congress to at least consider and debate them. </p>
<p>He was using the bully pulpit as best he could, but no one expects major breakthroughs on most of his agenda, save perhaps on trade and cybersecurity issues.</p>
<hr>
<h2>Muted trumpet, quiet hands: a visual and aural analysis</h2>
<p><strong>Michael Cornfield, George Washington University</strong></p>
<p>Television and video focus our attention on facial expressions. Since the contents and contexts of the SOTU have been heavily discussed (both before and after its delivery) by partisans, journalists and academics, I decided to write about what the faces said to us viewers during the speech and to listen carefully to the president’s tone of voice.</p>
<p>Obama began in a key of confidence and concluded in a pleading higher register that reminded me of James Stewart as Jefferson Smith in the early, relatively composed stage of his fictional filibuster in the movie Mr. Smith Goes to Washington. He did not soar, as he is famous for, but the uplift echoed those orations past. </p>
<p>Obama struck me as a valedictorian: proud of his GPA (two wins, no losses, as he reminded the Republicans), non-strategic in his agenda and outreach and wishful for the same “higher politics” he advocated eleven years ago in his “One America” speech at the Democratic National Convention in Boston, which he referenced.</p>
<p>The reactions of the assembled were in large part impassive and subdued. There were very few standing ovations and they were very brief in duration. </p>
<p>Speaker Boehner, visible throughout, mostly pursed his lips; oddly, I did not see Senate Majority Leader McConnell. The greatest show of emotion came from Alan Gross, the freed Cuban prisoner, who flashed his broken smile and mouthed thanks. House Ways and Means Chairman Paul Ryan was glimpsed three times, wearing a grudging half-smile. Democratic stalwart Maxine Waters relished a swipe at the GOP’s focus on the Keystone pipeline.</p>
<p>The Republican majority, while stony, did not turn its back on the president in the manner of New York City police, not even when Obama defended the object of the officers’ scorn, Mayor de Blasio. The Democrats cheered, especially Elizabeth Warren, but not overly so.</p>
<p>Emotions, especially anger, can energize political participation. At the set piece theater that is the SOTU, we saw and heard very little emotion. Perhaps in the context of recent terrorism and the ultimatums that dominated the last Congress, that is a good thing. </p>
<hr>
<h2>Four reasons why this is Obama’s best SOTU ever</h2>
<p><strong>Matthew Hale, Seton Hall University</strong> </p>
<p>President Obama sounded, acted and seemed to really enjoy being a Democrat in his State of the Union Speech, no small feat for a president facing a hostile congress filled with Republican faces. This was, I think, his best State of the Union speech ever for four reasons. </p>
<ul>
<li><p>First, the President took credit for his successes in the economy. He hasn’t had as much good economic news in past years but this year he did and he wasn’t afraid to talk about it. </p></li>
<li><p>Second, he wasn’t afraid to throw a punch. He took long overdue smacks at Vladimir Putin and one at snarky republicans laughing at the fact he has no more elections. </p></li>
<li><p>Third, he made promoting the middle class a cohesive theme and not just a checklist of programs. </p></li>
<li><p>Fourth and finally, the President didn’t forget that he has some serious rhetorical gifts. He referenced his 2004 Democratic convention speech and used its soaring optimism as a concluding theme to this one. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>The President needed to show he was still important and still in the game. He more than accomplished those goals. </p>
<hr>
<h2>It’s all about 2016</h2>
<p><strong>John Geer, Vanderbilt University</strong></p>
<p>The discussion about the 2016 presidential election is in full swing. </p>
<p>There are a lot of unknowns as we approach this contest. One thing we do know is that Barack Obama will not be on the ballot. He reminded us of that fact in his State of the Union speech. </p>
<p>Even so, he will play a critical role in the upcoming battle for the White House. The SOTU highlights the role he can and will play. </p>
<p>By touting the recent gains in the economy, he provides the Democrats the argument for retaining the White House: unemployment is falling, the deficit is shrinking and economic growth is robust. </p>
<p>At the same time, he is forcing the Republicans into an unappealing box. </p>
<p>They can no longer claim the economy is stagnant, as Mitt Romney did in 2012. Instead, Republicans must shift focus to income disparities; namely that the middle class has not been part of the economic recovery. </p>
<p>This is not an easy argument for the Republicans to make given their own history of tax policies that have favored the wealthiest Americans. Obama knows that and surely relished that aspect of the speech as he pushed the GOP into unfriendly territory. </p>
<p>If the economy continues to do well for the next 22 months, the Republican nominee will likely find the 2016 presidential election an uphill climb: Barack Obama will be a key reason for it. </p>
<hr>
<h2>A theater of whimsy</h2>
<p><strong>Daniel Franklin, Georgia State University</strong></p>
<p>The State of the Union address has become part of the theater of American politics but does anyone watch? </p>
<p>Democrats pushed hard to increase their viewership in 2015 by urging supporters to watch the speech on their smart phones and tablets. Maybe the strategy worked. According to the latest count there were over <a href="http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation-now/2015/01/21/obama-sotu-twitter-facebook/22100811/">two and a half million tweets </a>related to the speech. Although, it should also be said that, according to<a href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/tv-column/post/about-38-million-people-watch-obamas-state-of-the-union/2012/01/25/gIQAYN3ORQ_blog.html"> Nielsen</a>, television viewing of the SOTU was at an all time low of 38 million. </p>
<p>As to the speech itself, President Obama engaged in what best can be described as political whimsy as raising taxes on the rich and much of the rest of his program has as much chance of passing in the next Congress as a snowball’s chance in … oh well, you know. I presume that fans of term limits will be ecstatic about watching a lame duck president adopt a strategy of make a wish policy list.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/36353/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Matthew Hale is a registered Democrat. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Daniel P. Franklin, J Michael Hogan, John G Geer, Michael Cornfield, and Tom Cronin do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Editor’s note: “The state of the union is good,” and the attitude of President Barack Obama in his annual speech to Congress was upbeat. Good economic news and no more election campaigns were the backdrop…Matthew Hale, Associate Professor and MPA Program Chair, Department of Political Science and Public Affairs , Seton Hall UniversityDaniel P. Franklin, Associate Professor, Political Science and Author of Pitiful Giants: Presidents in their Final Terms, Georgia State UniversityJ Michael Hogan, Liberal Arts Research Professor Director, Center for Democratic Deliberation Dept. of Communication Arts and Sciences, Penn StateJohn G Geer, Gertrude Conaway Vanderbilt Professor of Political Science, Professor of Public Policy and Education Co-Director, Vanderbilt Poll, Vanderbilt UniversityMichael Cornfield, Associate Professor of Political Management; Research Director, Global Center for Political Engagement , George Washington UniversityTom Cronin, McHugh Professor of American Institutions and Leadership, Colorado CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/224452014-01-27T17:53:14Z2014-01-27T17:53:14ZWith Mitt, Netflix shows human side of a hamstrung candidate<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/39906/original/5zqdnwcr-1390824070.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">'Corporations are people' – and so, apparently, is Mitt Romney.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Gage Skidmore</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Mitt, a newly released documentary about former presidential candidate Mitt Romney, provides an up-close look at the exhausting presidential election process in the U.S. This is no House of Cards when it comes to entertainment; rather, it’s more of a quirky home movie documenting some of the joy and pain of two failed presidential efforts by a man who wanted to fulfil his father’s dream, and earnestly serve his country.</p>
<p>There are countless scenes of the clean-cut Romney with his charming and equally clean-cut, handsome, and well-bred clan, chatting amicably about what he should decide, how he should deal with opportunities and adversity, and whether what he is doing is really worth it. Romney comes across here as a loving family man, a devout Mormon – and unfortunately for him, an insufficiently creative or empathic politician.</p>
<p>Romney ran and failed to win the Republican nomination for president in 2008. His father, George, a talented automobile executive and popular three-term governor of Michigan, ran and lost his own bid to be the Republican nominee for president in 1968. Mitt had also run unsuccessfully for the senate in 1994 (as had his mother in 1970), but he was elected governor of Massachusetts in 2002, and finally win the Republican nomination for president in 2012.</p>
<p>On <a href="http://edition.cnn.com/election/2012/results/main">7 November 2012</a>, he won almost 48% of the popular vote to Obama’s 50.6%. Americans were obviously divided. (Note that Obama’s public approval these days hovers around 43% on a good day.) President Obama won 62.2 million popular votes and 332 electoral college votes to Romney’s 59.1 million and 206. In practical political logistics, Romney lost because he failed to win several <a href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/the-fix/post/the-9-swing-states-of-2012/2012/04/16/gIQABuXaLT_blog.html">swing states</a> such as Ohio, Florida, Iowa, Michigan, Virginia, Wisconsin, and Colorado.</p>
<p>Romney had a chance to pick off these battleground states. Why did he lose? There is no single easy explanation. The American economy was slowly but surely rebounding from its huge recession. While Obama did not have to endure the crazy patchwork of pre-election caucuses and primaries that Romney did, and the republican was hammered and emerged a wounded candidate. Americans wanted the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan to end, and Obama appeared to be doing this. On top of these factors, Obama benefited from a <a href="http://www.governing.com/blogs/politics/gov-political-demographic-trends-brighter-for-democrats.html">shifting demographic landscape</a> that looks likely to favour Democrats for some time.</p>
<p>But another reason Romney lost – and here is where Greg Whitley’s documentary is revealing – was his personal style. Romney’s campaign persona was mechanical and seldom inspirational. It was clear that he was an enormously wealthy businessman and a devout family man, but this was not enough.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/rLHxbemvpxY?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>Above all, though, Mitt is a document of how painful and sometimes petty American politics can be. The Romney it depicts can’t understand why rival Republican campaign managers hate him. He agonises about how negative campaign ads smeared him as a “flip-flopping Mormon”. He and his sons wonder aloud about the near impossibility of correcting what they believe is unfair branding. They fully appreciate how first impressions, especially negative images, can be hard to reverse.</p>
<p>Romney’s main message in the 2012 campaign was that America needed to lessen the tax burden on corporations and small businesses. He called for <a href="http://abcnews.go.com/Business/mitt-romneys-rage-regulation/story?id=17128454">less regulation</a> and <a href="http://mittromneycentral.com/on-the-issues/limited-government/">less government</a>. He ran as a <a href="http://www.thenation.com/article/167683/mitt-romneys-neocon-war-cabinet">neo-conservative</a> on foreign policy, pledging not to cut military spending. He promised to <a href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/think-tanked/post/ask-a-think-tank-romneys-plan-to-repeal-obamacare-on-day-one/2012/07/02/gJQAxl0QIW_blog.html">end Obamacare</a>, which was actually modelled on the Massachusetts system that he <a href="http://hcfama.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=Page.viewPage&pageId=839&parentID=736&nodeID=2">enacted as governor</a>. He espoused socially conservative positions on <a href="http://www.nationalreview.com/articles/291860/romney-conservative-immigration-steve-baldwin">immigration</a>, <a href="http://mittromneycentral.com/on-the-issues/same-sex-marriage/">marriage equality</a> and abortion. Some of these positions were contrary to majority sentiment in the US but were fixed Republican dogma from which he could not waver.</p>
<p>Romney was unabashedly proud of being a successful capitalist, but sometimes came across as dismissive of those without <a href="http://www.outsidethebeltway.com/mitt-romney-make-business-experience-a-requirement-for-the-presidency/">business experience</a>. His opponents, in both parties, portrayed him as <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-19682947">so rich</a> that he could not understand the average person. (It didn’t help that he was reluctant to release tax returns.) His strength was his ability to celebrate freedom and free enterprise, but many of his other policy initiatives seemed recycled and even cold-hearted. </p>
<p>Candidate Romney was attractive and persistent, but unlike <a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GEXOpm0H7QA">Ronald Reagan</a>, <a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N7EyYhbLn98">Bill Clinton</a>, or <a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nv9NwKAjmt0">Barack Obama</a>, he <a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E2h8ujX6T0A">could not</a> fire up a crowd. He gained a reputation for being formal and stiff.</p>
<p>This documentary – with wonderful footage from both the 2008 and the 2012 campaigns – reveals a more likable and sometimes even light-hearted and playful Mitt Romney than was ever seen in public. It also captures his understandable unease with (and sometimes disdain for) the strange and often demeaning presidential election process.</p>
<p>Mitt is a film for political junkies. It is unlikely to be a major hit or prizewinner. But its intimate, unrehearsed insider access to a patriotic and earnest national politician, one who struggles to find his way up the proverbial “greasy pole” of politics, makes for a poignant and winning film. It is undeniably a friendly bouquet presented in honour of Governor Romney, but it also leaves the viewer questioning the lengthy, convoluted and unseemly process by which Americans select their presidents.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/22445/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tom Cronin does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Mitt, a newly released documentary about former presidential candidate Mitt Romney, provides an up-close look at the exhausting presidential election process in the U.S. This is no House of Cards when…Tom Cronin, McHugh Professor of American Institutions and Leadership, Colorado CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.