tag:theconversation.com,2011:/institutions/murdoch-university-746/articlesMurdoch University2024-01-29T05:26:27Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2166402024-01-29T05:26:27Z2024-01-29T05:26:27ZAustralia’s soils are notoriously poor. Here’s how scientists are working to improve them<p>Most things you eat grew in soil or ate plants growing in soil. We don’t think much about it, but soil is essential to life. </p>
<p>During the last Ice Age, much of the northern hemisphere was covered in glaciers. As they moved, glaciers eroded away the top layer of rock and left a fresh layer of rock, ready to weather into soil. </p>
<p>But Australia didn’t have this renewal of soil from grinding ice – or from volcanoes, which dredge up minerals vital to plant life from deep below. As a result, our soils are famously very poor – heavily weathered, old, and short on nutrients. This is one reason why we have so much land devoted to grazing animals (crops need more nutrients than grass does), a heavy reliance on fertilisers and a <a href="https://www.soilscienceaustralia.org.au/about/about-soil/state-soils/">detailed knowledge</a> of fertile soils where they exist. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, our soils – <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-43394-3_20">valued at A$930 billion</a> – are under threat. The latest <a href="https://soe.dcceew.gov.au/land/environment/soil">State of the Environment report</a> rated the health of our soils as “poor” and declining. Late last year, the government <a href="https://www.agriculture.gov.au/agriculture-land/farm-food-drought/natural-resources/soils/national-soil-action-plan">released a national plan</a> to improve our soils. </p>
<p>Researchers are working on ways of improving Australian soils to make agriculture more sustainable and less reliant on fertilisers. Here are some examples. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571820/original/file-20240129-29-84yv2w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="black soil in hands" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571820/original/file-20240129-29-84yv2w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571820/original/file-20240129-29-84yv2w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571820/original/file-20240129-29-84yv2w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571820/original/file-20240129-29-84yv2w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571820/original/file-20240129-29-84yv2w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571820/original/file-20240129-29-84yv2w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571820/original/file-20240129-29-84yv2w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Good soil is hard to come by.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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<h2>From farm to food</h2>
<p>You might wonder what the problem is. Aren’t we growing and exporting more food than ever? Farm productivity and incomes are at <a href="https://www.agriculture.gov.au/abares/products/insights/snapshot-of-australian-agriculture#farm-incomes-at-record-highs">record highs</a> and many farmers are adopting more efficient practices informed by research to help manage their soil amid new risks such as shifting rainfall and <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-a-flash-drought-an-earth-scientist-explains-194141">flash droughts</a>. </p>
<p><iframe id="S6lxv" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/S6lxv/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>But many of our soils are fundamentally vulnerable because they function in old and weathered landscapes. To keep the food coming, farmers have had to resort to clearing more land and increasing <a href="https://soe.dcceew.gov.au/land/environment/soil#soil-health">fertilisers, pesticides and herbicides</a>. That works short term. But there are <a href="https://theconversation.com/intensive-farming-is-eating-up-the-australian-continent-but-theres-another-way-130877">increasing concerns</a> this intensive approach ends up making soil worse – more eroded, more saline and more acidic. All three of these are worsened by our changing climate.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/regenerative-agriculture-is-all-the-rage-but-its-not-going-to-fix-our-food-system-203922">'Regenerative agriculture' is all the rage – but it's not going to fix our food system</a>
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<h2>What can be done?</h2>
<p>Soil scientists have long worked on ways to get more out of our soils. The Green Revolution of the 1960s led to huge increases in yield – but required huge increases in application of fertilisers and other chemicals. </p>
<p>In Australia, farmers will likely have to rely on fertiliser for the foreseeable future as a way to correct soils which are naturally short on nutrients. </p>
<p>What we can do is learn to apply fertiliser only when it’s needed. That’s good for farmers – fertiliser is expensive – and good for the health of soil and nearby waterways. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-sub-sahara-can-learn-from-indias-green-revolution-the-good-and-the-bad-78868">What sub-Sahara can learn from India's 'Green revolution': the good and the bad</a>
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<p>In southwest Western Australia, for example, soil scientists are <a href="https://soilswest.org.au/project-npk/">working to understand</a> how best to dose the soil with nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus – and how much to use. </p>
<p><iframe id="BxKje" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/BxKje/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>In <a href="https://estuaries.dwer.wa.gov.au/soil-wise">another project</a>, scientists are working with farmers and land managers to sample and test their soil and interpret the data together. The goal is to pare back fertiliser use, which improves water quality in nearby waterways and estuaries, as unused fertiliser runs off and can trigger algal blooms. </p>
<p>Precision application of fertiliser is one method. But there are many other innovative soil projects across Australia. </p>
<p>For instance, fungi do vital work in cycling soil nutrients. And mycorrhizal fungi go one step further and live in symbiotic relationships with plants. What if we could use these fungi as a kind of living biofertiliser for grain crops? Scientists <a href="https://groundcover.grdc.com.au/agronomy/soil-and-nutrition/biofertiliser-potential-in-native-fungus">are exploring</a> the potential for one such species, the ridge-stemmed bolete (<em>Austroboletus occidentalis</em>), to play this role. </p>
<h2>It’s alive!</h2>
<p>Researchers recently estimated <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2304663120">soil contains</a> about three-fifths of all species on the planet, including bacteria, fungi, viruses, nematodes, mites, worms and insects.</p>
<p>Soil is, in short, teeming with life. Some underground lifeforms are pests to farmers, chewing on the roots of crops. But many others are beneficial. </p>
<p>If we <a href="https://www.cell.com/trends/ecology-evolution/fulltext/S0169-5347(23)00211-2">improve our understanding</a> and measurement of soil microorganisms, we could use them to speed up recovery of degraded landscapes, such as former mine sites or unproductive farmland. </p>
<p>Our understanding of how things living in soil impact environments and respond to change is rapidly growing, but we are still scratching the surface. For example, more than 90% of the estimated 5 million species of fungi are <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/aug/30/flora-fauna-and-funga-un-backs-new-term-for-conservation-discussions">currently unknown</a>.</p>
<h2>Digging deeper</h2>
<p>Australia has the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1706103114">world’s third highest loss</a> of soil carbon over the last 250 years, caused largely by very high rates of land clearing. We risk releasing even more soil carbon in the future, as climate change is expected to worsen erosion and bushfire intensity. </p>
<p>One response by the government has been to create a market for soil carbon credits, the first of which went on sale last year. The market-based approach has been <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.119146">widely criticised</a>. Soil experts <a href="https://theconversation.com/heres-how-to-fix-australias-approach-to-soil-carbon-credits-so-they-really-count-towards-our-climate-goals-210880">have called</a> for the credit system to be much more robust to ensure it actually works.</p>
<p>Research into the problems facing our soil is important, but we’ll need government and industry backing to better coordinate the response. </p>
<p>That’s why last year’s action plan has been broadly welcomed, despite being 18 months overdue. The joint federal-state plan indicates governments at both levels recognise the danger to our soil. Framed around securing soil as a “national asset”, the plan envisages standardising soil data collection and sharing, accelerating uptake of best-practice soil management, among other things. </p>
<p>Will it stop the damage done to our lifegiving soils? That remains to be seen. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/heres-how-to-fix-australias-approach-to-soil-carbon-credits-so-they-really-count-towards-our-climate-goals-210880">Here's how to fix Australia's approach to soil carbon credits so they really count towards our climate goals</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216640/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ryan Borrett is part of SoilsWest and collaborates on projects that receive funding from Murdoch University, the Western Australian Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development, and the Grains Research and Development Corporation. </span></em></p>The health of our soils is poor – and getting worse. Here’s why that matters and what we can do about itRyan Borrett, Science Communications Coordinator, Murdoch UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2215892024-01-28T19:03:27Z2024-01-28T19:03:27ZBanksias are iconic Australian plants, but their ancestors actually came from North Africa<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571053/original/file-20240124-19-b1td3b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=41%2C57%2C5416%2C3608&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/a-yellow-flower-with-green-leaves-on-a-branch-wmy7IFiAQZQ">Sandie Peters/Unsplash</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Few plants conjure up the Australian bush better than banksias, whose beautiful flowers are irresistible to honeyeater birds, small marsupials and nature lovers.</p>
<p>But our research, published in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ppees.2024.125778">Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics</a>, shows that the ancestors of banksias actually migrated here from North Africa. </p>
<p>From <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcad055">early fossil pollen studies</a>, we already knew that the protea family (Proteaceae), which includes banksias, grevilleas, waratahs and macadamias in Australia, originated in northwest Africa 130 million years ago. </p>
<p>Our task was to track their migration to Australia, where they became the unique symbols of the Australian bush that we admire today. To give credit where it’s due, we need to know where our natural heritage originated. So, how did this iconic group of plants get here?</p>
<h2>Looking at the entire family</h2>
<p>Our study relied on two approaches. We used a DNA assessment of the entire protea family to create an evolutionary tree. Then we inserted key fossil pollen records of a known age into the tree, to serve as a “molecular clock”. This helped us work out the time of origin of all genera in this family.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571077/original/file-20240124-27-trdrd4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An orange-pink flower resembling a bottle brush" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571077/original/file-20240124-27-trdrd4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571077/original/file-20240124-27-trdrd4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=748&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571077/original/file-20240124-27-trdrd4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=748&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571077/original/file-20240124-27-trdrd4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=748&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571077/original/file-20240124-27-trdrd4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=940&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571077/original/file-20240124-27-trdrd4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=940&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571077/original/file-20240124-27-trdrd4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=940&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption"><em>Banksia hookeriana</em>, the most important species used in the wildflower trade in Western Australia and now widely planted. This is the most studied of all members of the protea family.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Byron Lamont</span></span>
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<p>We then searched the literature for records of ancient sedimentary deposits that contain fossil pollen with affinities to banksias in Africa, South America, Antarctica (which was covered in forest until 40 million years ago) and Australia. </p>
<p>This was made possible by the fact the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/pollen">hard walls of pollen grains</a> allow them to be preserved for millions of years. Also, the pollen grains of plants in the protea family are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1071/SB97022">quite distinctive</a> from those of other families. We then compared the dates and locations of the fossil pollen against our family tree.</p>
<p>This showed that by 120 million years ago, the ancestors of banksias had begun crossing into northeast South America. The two continents remained joined at their tips until 100 million years ago.</p>
<p>The plants then migrated down the east side of South America – first reaching the Scotia Isthmus about 110 million years ago – and crossed onto the Antarctic Peninsula. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-coastal-banksia-has-its-roots-in-ancient-gondwana-138434">The coastal banksia has its roots in ancient Gondwana</a>
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<h2>Two routes into Australia</h2>
<p>Here, the ancestors separated into two groups. One, the soft-leaved group, followed a cool-temperate rainforest pathway (dark for up to four months of the year) along the south side of Antarctica. They entered Australia via Tasmania from 105 million years ago. </p>
<p>The rainforest elements continued up the east coast, with some eventually reaching New Guinea; <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1501648">others entered New Caledonian rainforests</a> directly from southern Antarctica. This route remained open until 45 million years ago, when Australia and Antarctica finally separated. </p>
<p>The other, hard-leaved group followed an open, fire-prone woodland pathway along the warmer, sunnier northern side of Antarctica. They entered Australia via the southwest tip that remained attached to Antarctica until about 70 million years ago. </p>
<p>The two points of entry were separated by a huge inland sea that occupied the Great Australian Bight during that period.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571078/original/file-20240124-25-yrlux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571078/original/file-20240124-25-yrlux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571078/original/file-20240124-25-yrlux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=340&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571078/original/file-20240124-25-yrlux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=340&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571078/original/file-20240124-25-yrlux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=340&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571078/original/file-20240124-25-yrlux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=427&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571078/original/file-20240124-25-yrlux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=427&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571078/original/file-20240124-25-yrlux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=427&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Migratory pathway taken by the ancestors of banksias beginning 132 million years ago in north Africa. Note how the ancestors split into two groups on entering Antarctica from South America, banksia itself entering via southwest Australia and the rainforest species via Tasmania.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Modified from Lamont et al. (2024) Perspectives in Plant Ecology Evolution and Systematics</span></span>
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<h2>A proliferation of banksias</h2>
<p>Since banksia itself appears to have arisen 100 million years ago, the genus either evolved in northeast Antarctica or at the extreme corner of southwestern Australia. From there, they spread to the rest of Australia over the next 50 million years.</p>
<p>Banksias now consist of <a href="https://anpsa.org.au/genera/banksia/">around 200 species</a>, 90% of which are endemic to southwestern Australia. Ancestors of the bulk of the hard-leaved genera, such as grevilleas, hakeas, macadamias and waratahs, also entered Australia via the southwestern tip. They then migrated east along the margins of the Nullarbor Plain – thickly vegetated back then – to southeast Australia.</p>
<p>Until the results of our new study, it was believed the protea family arose in Australia and spread from here to Africa, South America, New Caledonia and Asia. Almost all migration would have needed to be over the oceans, as it was thought to have happened after the breakup of the Gondwanan supercontinent. </p>
<p>In fact, the journey was entirely overland as it occurred when Gondwana was largely intact, except for the early departure of Greater India.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571079/original/file-20240124-15-c2155i.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571079/original/file-20240124-15-c2155i.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571079/original/file-20240124-15-c2155i.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571079/original/file-20240124-15-c2155i.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571079/original/file-20240124-15-c2155i.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571079/original/file-20240124-15-c2155i.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=523&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571079/original/file-20240124-15-c2155i.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=523&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571079/original/file-20240124-15-c2155i.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=523&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Banksia shrubland 300km north of Perth, Western Australia. Three species of banksia, about 1.5 metres tall, are present in this image as well as several other members of the protea family, such as <em>Adenanthos</em> and <em>Xylomelum</em>.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Byron Lamont</span></span>
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<h2>Plants out of Africa</h2>
<p>Anthropologists are keen to point to the “<a href="https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/the-first-migrations-out-of-africa/">out of Africa</a>” hypothesis for the origin and <a href="https://theconversation.com/new-path-for-early-human-migrations-through-a-once-lush-arabia-contradicts-a-single-out-of-africa-origin-214719">migratory history of humans</a>. It now appears such a hypothesis is equally applicable to some important groups of plants.</p>
<p>This is the first time the southwest corner of Australia has been recognised as a major migratory route for the protea family.</p>
<p>We now need to take seriously the Antarctic–southwest Australian link as a likely major entry route for many other hard-leaved plant groups into Australia. They could have originated in Antarctica and South America, and possibly even Africa.</p>
<p>This north Antarctic pathway might well also apply to eucalypts, whose oldest records are for southern South America, as well as currently endemic animals and microbes.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221589/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Byron Lamont receives funding from the Australian Research Council </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lynne Milne is a member of the Australian and New Zealand Forensic Society and the American Association of Stratigraphic Palynologists. She is currently the Treasurer of the Royal Societies of Australia. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tianhua He received funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Richard Cowling does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Today, these plants are iconic to the Australian bush. But banksias and their many relatives originated in far-away shores 130 million years ago.Byron Lamont, Distinguished Professor Emeritus in Plant Ecology, Curtin UniversityLynne Milne, Curtin UniversityRichard Cowling, Professor, Nelson Mandela UniversityTianhua He, Senior lecturer, Murdoch UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2210172024-01-15T19:05:30Z2024-01-15T19:05:30ZSouth Africa has made its genocide case against Israel in court. Here’s what both sides said and what happens next<p>Following the October 7 attack by Hamas, Israeli forces have carried out sustained attacks on the Palestinian controlled territory, dividing the international community.</p>
<p>Last week, the South African government presented a case to the International Court of Justice. They argued the Israeli government’s attack on Gaza, and especially the actions of its forces within Gaza since early October, could amount to genocide. </p>
<p>Few cases that have gone before the court are as explosive and potentially significant as this one.</p>
<p>Here’s how the hearings unfolded and what happens now.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-enforcement-power-does-the-international-court-of-justice-have-in-south-africas-genocide-case-against-israel-220523">What enforcement power does the International Court of Justice have in South Africa's genocide case against Israel?</a>
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<h2>Defining genocide</h2>
<p>The crime of genocide is covered in the 1948 United Nations <a href="https://www.un.org/en/genocideprevention/documents/atrocity-crimes/Doc.1_Convention%20on%20the%20Prevention%20and%20Punishment%20of%20the%20Crime%20of%20Genocide.pdf">Convention for the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide</a>. </p>
<p>It is defined as acts committed with intent to destroy, either in part or in whole, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, including:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>killing members of the group</p></li>
<li><p>causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group</p></li>
<li><p>deliberately inflicting conditions of life calculated to bring about a groups physical destruction, in whole or in part</p></li>
<li><p>imposing measures to prevent births</p></li>
<li><p>forcibly transferring children.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>The Genocide Convention is designed to not only prosecute individuals and governments who committed genocide, but to prevent it from occurring.</p>
<p>Therefore, the Convention states that while genocidal acts are punishable, so too are attempts and incitement to commit genocide, regardless of whether they are successful or not.</p>
<h2>The South African case</h2>
<p>The South African government argued that Israeli forces had killed <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/1/14/israel-vows-not-to-stop-as-gaza-death-toll-nears-24000-on-day-100-of-war#:%7E:text=At%20least%2023%2C968%20people%20in,people%20were%20also%20taken%20captive.">23,210</a> Palestinians. Approximately 70% were believed to be women and children. </p>
<p>Crucially for the court, South Africa <a href="https://www.icj-cij.org/sites/default/files/case-related/192/192-20240111-ora-01-00-bi.pdf">argued</a> Israeli forces were often aware that the bombings would cause significant civilian casualties. It said many of the Palestinians were killed in Israeli declared safe zones, mosques, hospitals, schools and refugee camps. </p>
<p>Beyond the death toll, South Africa argued that there were 60,000 wounded and maimed Palestinians. The separation of families through arrest and displacement has caused large scale and likely enduring harm to civilians. South Africa highlighted the displacement of 85% of Palestinians, particularly the <a href="https://apnews.com/article/israel-palestinians-gaza-hamas-war-c8b4fc20e4fd2ef381d5edb7e9e8308c">October 13 evacuation</a> order which displaced over one million people in 24 hours.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/south-africa-is-taking-israel-to-court-for-genocide-in-palestine-what-does-it-mean-for-the-war-in-gaza-220660">South Africa is taking Israel to court for genocide in Palestine. What does it mean for the war in Gaza?</a>
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<p>The South African government also alleged the Israeli attacks and the actions of its forces were preventing the humanitarian needs of the Palestinian people being met. It particularly emphasised the Israeli decision to <a href="https://www.hrw.org/news/2023/11/16/israeli-authorities-cutting-water-leading-public-health-crisis-gaza">cut off water supply</a> to Gaza. The distribution of food, medicine and fuel were also hampered. Israeli <a href="https://www.hrw.org/news/2023/11/14/gaza-unlawful-israeli-hospital-strikes-worsen-health-crisis">attacks on hospitals</a> were also highlighted.</p>
<p>South Africa alleged the denial of adequate humanitarian assistance, especially medical supplies and care, amounts to the imposing of measures to prevent births. </p>
<p>Finally, South Africa focused on speeches by Israeli political leaders and soldiers advocating for the erasure of Gaza. This included Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu’s reference to the <a href="https://www.news.com.au/finance/work/leaders/oldtime-religion-netanyahu-invokes-scripture-as-hamas-fight-becomes-israels-holy-war/news-story/be3a19446c5e151e087e77b20ebdf145">biblical destruction</a> of enemies of ancient Israel and military commanders’ reference to Palestinians <a href="https://www.moroccoworldnews.com/2023/10/358170/israel-defense-minister-calls-palestinians-human-animals-amid-israeli-aggression">as “human animals”</a> that need to be eliminated. These were used as evidence of incitement to genocide.</p>
<p>If the International Court of Justice doesn’t find that Israel is committing genocidal acts, South Africa has argued the Israeli forces have demonstrated an <em>intent</em> to commit genocide, and that there should be an interim order made to stop it.</p>
<h2>The Israeli response</h2>
<p>The Israeli government rejects all of the allegations by South Africa. Israel presented its <a href="https://www.icj-cij.org/sites/default/files/case-related/192/192-20240112-ora-01-00-bi.pdf">arguments</a> on January 12. </p>
<p>Israel’s overall argument is that the attacks on Gaza have been directed at Hamas soldiers. It says the civilian casualties have been an unfortunate consequence of carrying out military operations in an urban environment. Accordingly, the deaths, injuries and damage are not genocidal in nature, but instead, are incidental to military action. </p>
<p>Israel has presented evidence that it is delivering food, water, medical supplies and fuel to Gaza, demonstrating the opposite of genocidal intent. The Israeli Defence Force also runs a Civilian Harm Mitigation Unit. </p>
<p>These actions, according to Israel, are “concrete measures aimed specifically at recognising the rights of the Palestinian civilians in Gaza to exist”. </p>
<p>Finally, Israel has argued that the quotes South Africa have argued display incitement to commit genocide have been taken out of context. According to Israel, the court has no grounds to find that there are acts of genocide taking place, or that there is genocidal intent. </p>
<p>At this point, the court will not decide whether Israel has committed genocide or not. Determining that will likely take several years. Instead, the court will decide whether the allegations are at the least plausible, and if so, likely order that Israel and Palestine reach an interim ceasefire, and for Israeli forces to take all necessary steps to prevent genocide. </p>
<h2>How significant is it?</h2>
<p>If the court rules in favour of South Africa, a major world power – supported by the US and much of the Western world – will have been found to have committed what has, historically, been the most notorious of crimes. </p>
<p>That said, the prospect of any ruling by the International Court of Justice having a meaningful impact on the conflict in Gaza is remote. </p>
<p>The UN and its legal institutions are powered solely by a belief the international community is respectful of international institutions and international law. The problem is when a powerful country does not believe a ruling by a United Nations body applies to them, little can be done to enforce it. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/after-3-months-of-devastation-in-the-israel-hamas-war-is-anyone-winning-220644">After 3 months of devastation in the Israel-Hamas war, is anyone 'winning'?</a>
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<p>The case of <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/1986/jun/28/usa.marktran">Nicaragua vs the United States</a> in 1986 shows this in stark detail. The US initially indicated it would respect the decision of the court, but when the court found against the US, the US simply ignored the decision. For Israel and for its most powerful supporters, a finding against it by the court would likely be something they dispute and ultimately ignore. </p>
<h2>Where does this leave Australia?</h2>
<p>There is, however, a possibility the ruling could influence smaller powers. </p>
<p>Small to middle powers that rely on international rules to further their interests may be moved to support the cause for a ceasefire more vocally. </p>
<p>The Australian government would find itself in a particularly awkward position. </p>
<p>After all, the Australian government <a href="https://www.themandarin.com.au/230764-australia-backs-icj-action-against-russia-for-ukraine-invasion/">supported Ukraine’s case </a> against Russia, also about genocide. </p>
<p>It has already made a public statement <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2023/nov/04/penny-wong-israel-must-listen-to-calls-for-restraint-from-its-friends-or-it-risks-gaza-conflict-spreading">calling for restraint</a> from Israel. </p>
<p>Australia would face a decision between unequivocal support for a country it sees as a partner, or support for a court it would otherwise see as a key arbiter in the international order.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221017/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dean Aszkielowicz has received funding from the Army Research Scheme. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paul Taucher does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The International Court of Justice has heard arguments from each side of an extraordinary genocide case. What was said, and what happens now?Paul Taucher, Lecturer in History, Murdoch UniversityDean Aszkielowicz, Senior Lecturer in History and Politics, Murdoch UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2203302024-01-11T22:01:41Z2024-01-11T22:01:41ZLess than 10% of Australian scorpions are known to science. We’ve added two new species to the list<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568742/original/file-20240110-23-mw4aqy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=137%2C0%2C1713%2C1170&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://inaturalist.ala.org.au/photos/32190014">Mark Newton/iNaturalist</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Scorpions are among the most ancient of land animals. Fossils indicate they were roaming the Earth more than 400 million years ago. For perspective, the non-bird dinosaurs became extinct <a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/extinction.html">about 65 million years ago</a>.</p>
<p>Scorpions trivialise the 100-million-year reign of the dinosaurs — they saw them come and go and are still here today. In fact, the external anatomy of scorpions has changed little, based on what we’ve seen from <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/worlds-oldest-scorpions-437-million-year-old-fossils-180973975/">400 million-year-old fossils</a>.</p>
<p>While formally describing a new scorpion species from the Pilbara region of Western Australia, we discovered another species with identical external morphology (shape and structure). The only way to tell the two species apart was by looking at the morphology of the male reproductive organs.</p>
<p>You’d think that is a very small difference, but it’s not uncommon for telling apart species in other groups, like spiders and millipedes. But these are the first scorpion species distinguished solely by male reproductive anatomy.</p>
<p>Our find, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1071/ZO23018">published in the Australian Journal of Zoology</a>, hints significantly more scorpion species await discovery in Australia than previously suspected.</p>
<h2>A widespread and popular group</h2>
<p>Most Australians think of scorpions as exotic desert animals. But they are fairly widespread, ranging from salt lakes in central Australia to ancient rain forests in Tasmania.</p>
<p>Surprisingly, our estimates (based largely on unpublished DNA sequence data we have access to), indicate that less than 10% of Australia’s scorpion species have been scientifically described or named. Describing them means scientifically documenting and applying a unique scientific name to a new species while following the <a href="https://code.iczn.org/">International Code of Zoological Nomenclature</a>.</p>
<p>The scorpion genus <em>Urodacus</em> is endemic to mainland Australia and represents one of the largest <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_radiation">radiations</a> (increases in diversity) of scorpion species on the continent. Most <em>Urodacus</em> species live in deep spiralling burrows, enabling them to survive in arid ecosystems. In some habitats, these scorpions are a significant part of the ecosystem and comprise much of its biomass.</p>
<p>Despite their reclusive habits, <em>Urodacus</em> are popular exotic “pets” and are among the most popular invertebrates offered by online stores in Australia. There’s also a large community of scorpion enthusiasts.</p>
<p>Trading of scorpions is dependent on an unknown level of harvesting from natural populations. Some <em>Urodacus</em> species are known to live for 15–20 years, but in captivity, their longevity is usually less than a year.</p>
<p>With minimal knowledge about the diversity and distributions of Australian scorpions, the potential for serious impacts to their conservation is high. Traded scorpion species are often unnamed, and some may also live in very small areas.</p>
<p>For example, the two new species we described, <em>Urodacus uncinus</em> and <em>Urodacus lunatus</em>, are restricted to creeks and drainage lines, with a known area of as little as 50 square kilometres. Such small distributions make species particularly vulnerable to habitat loss, which is a growing threat in Australia.</p>
<p>Surprisingly, there is no regulation for scorpion ownership in most Australian states, although you need a permit to keep them as pets in the <a href="https://nt.gov.au/environment/animals/keeping-wildlife-as-pets/keeping-scorpions">Northern Territory</a> and <a href="https://www.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0021/134373/keeping-protected-scorpians-spiders.pdf">Queensland</a>. Collecting them from the wild is only regulated in conservation areas.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568532/original/file-20240110-19-vyxk2z.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A red field with green tufts of grass and a bright blue sky above" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568532/original/file-20240110-19-vyxk2z.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568532/original/file-20240110-19-vyxk2z.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568532/original/file-20240110-19-vyxk2z.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568532/original/file-20240110-19-vyxk2z.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568532/original/file-20240110-19-vyxk2z.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568532/original/file-20240110-19-vyxk2z.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568532/original/file-20240110-19-vyxk2z.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">An example of the type of habitat where the newly described species were collected.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Huon L Clark</span></span>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/buying-bugs-and-beetles-or-shopping-for-scorpions-and-snails-australias-pet-trade-includes-hundreds-of-spineless-species-207932">Buying bugs and beetles, or shopping for scorpions and snails? Australia's pet trade includes hundreds of spineless species</a>
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<h2>We don’t know enough about our scorpions</h2>
<p>The two new species we just described are large (more than 7cm long) yellow scorpions. Males of both species have a striking enlargement in the tip of their “tails”, with a swollen venom gland and a sting that is more strongly curved than in any other known species of the genus.</p>
<p>The task to fully document and understand the diversity of Australian scorpions is colossal. Approximately 3,000 scorpion species are known worldwide, but in Australia only 47 species are currently described and named. Based on our estimates, we think there could be at least 500 scorpion species here.</p>
<p>Only 13 new Australian scorpion species have been described in the last 45 years. At this rate, many are likely to become extinct before they are even named. </p>
<p>Further research on Australian scorpions will also reveal more of these animals’ incredible biology. One example is their curious reproduction. Scorpion mating rituals include a dance during which males of some species even sting the females as part of the courtship. </p>
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<p>Sperm transfer occurs via what could be described as a “detachable penis”, placed on the ground by the male. During mating, part of this organ breaks off in the female reproductive tract and functions as a “mating plug” that prevents the female from remating until the babies from the last mating are born.</p>
<p>Burrowing scorpions give birth to live young that are gestated for up to 18 months within an organ somewhat like a uterus. After birth, mother scorpions carry their babies on their back until they disperse to live a largely solitary life.</p>
<h2>Undiscovered secrets</h2>
<p>These fascinating behaviours are only a small portion of scorpion natural history discovered to date and they are likely to harbour many more as yet undiscovered secrets.</p>
<p>Next to nothing is known about Australian scorpions, which is surprising given their diversity and ecological importance. More research on Australia’s scorpions is urgently needed to help recognise and protect threatened species and their habitats.</p>
<p>Expanding our knowledge about native scorpions would also help with the regulation of wild collections and allow captive breeding to further develop more responsible pet ownership as a force for conservation, rather than a risk.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/ever-wondered-whod-win-in-a-fight-between-a-scorpion-and-tarantula-a-venom-scientist-explains-155138">Ever wondered who'd win in a fight between a scorpion and tarantula? A venom scientist explains</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220330/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bruno Alves Buzatto currently works for Flinders University. He has previously been funded by the University of Western Australia, Macquarie University, the Australian Research Council, Australian Geographic and National Geographic. Bruno has also previously worked as a principal biologist for Bennelongia Environmental Consultants in Western Australia.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Erich S. Volschenk owns Alacran Environmental Science, an environmental consultancy business specialising in the diagnoses of terrestrial invertebrates. He has previously received funding from Australian Biological Resources Study. </span></em></p>Most Australians think of scorpions as exotic desert animals, but they are fairly widespread across the continent. Still, next to nothing is known about most local scorpion species.Bruno Alves Buzatto, Lecturer, Flinders UniversityErich S. Volschenk, Senior Research Associate, Murdoch UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2167342023-11-22T19:09:37Z2023-11-22T19:09:37ZIf we do it right, we can replant trees and shrubs to store carbon – and restore biodiversity<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557658/original/file-20231106-17-b5hxrg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C6%2C1024%2C676&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Cristina Ramalho</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>This is how carbon farming works. Farmers plant trees on abandoned farmland. The trees take in carbon from the atmosphere as they grow, acting as a natural sink to offset some emissions. For farmers, these carbon-storing plants pay off with carbon credits. </p>
<p>It sounds simple. But in recent years, the technique has <a href="https://theconversation.com/chubb-review-of-australias-carbon-credit-scheme-falls-short-and-problems-will-continue-to-fester-197401">come under fire</a> over claims the approach is not delivering the carbon credits required to offset Australia’s carbon emissions.</p>
<p>This comes amid a <a href="https://www.wsj.com/science/environment/he-pioneered-carbon-offsets-to-save-tropical-forests-now-the-market-is-collapsing-18a5bc54">broader crisis of confidence</a> in carbon offsets and credits. </p>
<p>As a restoration scientist, I believe it’s good the industry gets more scrutiny. But we should not write off carbon farming. If done properly, carbon farming can also restore lost habitat and help tackle the global biodiversity crisis. As Earth loses more and more species, large-scale restoration is now essential.</p>
<p>We know keeping existing habitat and restoring degraded land to habitat <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S000632072200386X">will benefit 86%</a> of the over 1,300 threatened species in Australia. At one well-run carbon farming initiative in southwestern Australia, for instance, we saw a rare malleefowl – a bird that is exceptionally fussy about where it lives. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557657/original/file-20231106-28-avgbsi.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="two scientists looking at their revegetation project" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557657/original/file-20231106-28-avgbsi.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557657/original/file-20231106-28-avgbsi.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557657/original/file-20231106-28-avgbsi.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557657/original/file-20231106-28-avgbsi.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557657/original/file-20231106-28-avgbsi.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557657/original/file-20231106-28-avgbsi.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557657/original/file-20231106-28-avgbsi.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Restoration scientists Suzanne Prober and Tina Parkhurst contemplate a biodiverse carbon project 10 years after planting in south-western Australia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Rachel Standish</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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<h2>Carbon farming can be a win-win – if done right</h2>
<p>There are good and bad ways to do carbon farming. It’s wrong to claim credits for the growth of native remnant vegetation caused by rainfall, for instance, rather than regrowth after ending livestock grazing or other deliberate human intervention. It’s also wrong to claim credits for “avoided deforestation” – leaving vegetation intact when it was never intended to be cleared. We should also avoid planting trees in grasslands, which have their own set of species and should not be replaced. </p>
<p>Some carbon farming efforts have been run like plantations, where you plant a single fast-growing species such as blue mallee. The <a href="https://www.csiro.au/en/work-with-us/services/consultancy-strategic-advice-services/csiro-futures/innovation-business-growth/australian-national-outlook">assumption here</a> is monocultures like this store more carbon than a mix of species. </p>
<p>But we and other researchers have found this isn’t the case. Planting a diverse range of trees – like in a real forest – <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112722004911">can store just as much carbon</a> as monocultures. </p>
<p>Shrubs store less carbon than trees but play an important role in restoration. Their tangle of branches and leaves can offer safe harbour for smaller birds, for instance. Shrubs also <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/2688-8319.12097#:%7E:text=Our%20results%20show%20that%20active,similar%20to%20the%20fallow%20cropland.">boost projects’ resilience</a> to drought and fire as they respond differently, which helps in recovery. </p>
<p>There would be no penalty to farmers for planting shrubs if the government’s planned <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/environmental-markets/nature-repair-market">nature repair market</a> comes into force. Biodiverse projects could earn both carbon and biodiversity credits. </p>
<p>This would open the door to a win-win. Carbon-farming efforts could double as nature restoration projects, if we avoid tree monocultures and focus on restoring biodiversity while storing carbon. Australia has <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1365-2664.14008">13 million hectares of degraded land</a>, meaning there’s plenty of room for restoration without taking farmland or compromising agricultural production. </p>
<h2>Australia could benefit</h2>
<p>As critics of carbon farming have pointed out, carbon credits from tree planting can be rubbery. But we shouldn’t tar all projects with the same brush. </p>
<p>Tree planting is one of four methods of farming with native vegetation for carbon credits. Of 540 vegetation projects registered with the Emissions Reduction Fund between 2012 and 2019, 118 were tree and shrub planting projects.</p>
<p>In Australia, a number of companies are offering high-integrity carbon credits from biodiverse native tree planting projects, such as <a href="https://carbonpositiveaustralia.org.au/learn/about-us/">Carbon Positive Australia</a> and <a href="https://www.greeningaustralia.org.au/">Greening Australia</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.bkconnection.com/static/The_Restoration_Economy_EXCERPT.pdf">Nature restoration</a> is likely to become more attractive to investors because of the potential for growth in natural capital and employment. </p>
<p>As much as restoration is needed, so too is ongoing care such as feral animal control and leaving <a href="https://grist.org/article/leaving-trees-standing-might-be-more-important-than-planting-new-ones/?utm_campaign=site-share-button-email">remnant vegetation intact</a>. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australias-central-climate-policy-pays-people-to-grow-trees-that-already-existed-taxpayers-and-the-environment-deserve-better-186900">Australia’s central climate policy pays people to grow trees that already existed. Taxpayers – and the environment – deserve better</a>
</strong>
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<p>Climate change is, unfortunately, threatening the environmental restoration which can help reduce its effects. In dryland Australia, drought makes it harder for <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11258-011-9922-2">seedlings to survive</a> and for trees or shrubs to <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/geb.12962">grow well even once established</a>. </p>
<p>While many of Australia’s native plants are tough enough to weather fires, more frequent fires make it harder to bounce back. Plants need time between fires to grow rootstock and develop seed banks. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557656/original/file-20231106-17-9kbikp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="vista of tree revegetation and blue sky" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557656/original/file-20231106-17-9kbikp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557656/original/file-20231106-17-9kbikp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=280&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557656/original/file-20231106-17-9kbikp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=280&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557656/original/file-20231106-17-9kbikp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=280&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557656/original/file-20231106-17-9kbikp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=352&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557656/original/file-20231106-17-9kbikp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=352&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557656/original/file-20231106-17-9kbikp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=352&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">We have been researching how mixed-species revegetation efforts store carbon at the University of Western Australia’s research farm Ridgefield.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Rachel Standish</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Biodiversity matters</h2>
<p>When we talk about biodiversity, we’re talking about the richness of life. </p>
<p>To date, Australia’s carbon farming efforts vary a great deal in how they protect biodiversity. Think of the difference in walking through a blue mallee or sugar gum plantation – where there are few birds or other species – compared to walking through a patch of native forest. Some carbon farms <a href="https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ppp3.10329#:%7E:text=Research%20suggests%20that%20the%20reforestation,et%20al.%2C%202007">can be diverse</a>. </p>
<p>Restoration efforts which attract more species <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/emr.12426">will come to function</a> more like a true native ecosystem typical of their region. </p>
<p>This is not to say restoration work is easy. Turning a weed-filled paddock worn down by decades of agricultural use <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/eap.2547">is tough</a>. Even native species such as kangaroos and emus can become challenges by eating seedlings.</p>
<p>Treating experimentation as part of practice and publicly reporting successes and failures can help the industry progress. For instance, our restoration research has found <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/2688-8319.12097">native shrubs return</a> if given the chance – but not understorey species. </p>
<h2>In defence of carbon farming</h2>
<p>Carbon farming is new. While some efforts may well be aimed at gaming the system, there are many others genuinely seeking ways of using nature to store the carbon we’ve released into the atmosphere. As this new approach progresses, there will be failures. But a failure is not necessarily greenwashing. </p>
<p>And as Australia, like <a href="https://www.decadeonrestoration.org">many other nations</a>, sets ambitious restoration targets to <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-historic-cop15-outcome-is-an-imperfect-game-changer-for-saving-nature-heres-why-australia-did-us-proud-196731">protect 30% of land and sea</a> by 2030, we will need to experiment, innovate, work alongside Traditional Owners and plan to be there for the long term. </p>
<p>We are already seeing hopeful signs restoration work does yield benefits for at least some species, such as <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/rec.13605">ants</a> and <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.14148">woodland birds</a>. </p>
<p>Restoration can work: for us, for climate and for our species. Let’s make sure it does work. </p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/heres-how-to-fix-australias-approach-to-soil-carbon-credits-so-they-really-count-towards-our-climate-goals-210880">Here's how to fix Australia's approach to soil carbon credits so they really count towards our climate goals</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216734/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rachel Standish receives funding from the ARC and the Transformation in Mining Economies CRC. She has worked on Greening Australia properties but has not received funding for this work.
</span></em></p>Carbon farming has its problems, but we shouldn’t write it off. After all, good projects can store carbon – and bring back habitat.Rachel Standish, Associate Professor, Murdoch UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2174382023-11-10T07:14:08Z2023-11-10T07:14:08ZThe High Court has decided indefinite detention is unlawful. What happens now?<p>This week, the High Court of Australia <a href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/viewdoc/au/cases/cth/HCATrans/2023/154.html">ordered</a> the release of a Rohingya man from immigration detention where he had been for the last five and a half years. </p>
<p>Commentators and human rights groups have been <a href="https://x.com/KaldorCentre/status/1722171447702077881?s=20">celebrating</a> this decision, which indicates the court will overturn a 20-year-old precedent.</p>
<p>The court has stated it will release its decision at a later time. It is important to wait for that judgement to determine the full implications of the decision and how it may limit the government’s power to detain non-citizens. </p>
<p>But here’s a brief rundown on the background of the case and some considerations of what could happen next.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/i-have-no-rights-what-happens-to-stateless-people-in-australia-after-the-high-courts-ruling-217363">'I have no rights': what happens to stateless people in Australia after the High Court's ruling?</a>
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<h2>What laws did the case focus on?</h2>
<p>The laws in question are in the Migration Act, which <a href="https://classic.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/ma1958118/s189.html">states</a> a non-citizen who does not hold a visa must be detained. </p>
<p>Currently people in immigration detention do not have the right to have a court determine whether their detention is necessary, reasonable, and/or proportionate. These assessments are undertaken by departmental officials and the minister. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1722171447702077881"}"></div></p>
<p>The law considers detention mandatory, irrespective of the individual’s circumstances. </p>
<p>In the case of <a href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/viewdoc/au/cases/cth/HCA/2004/37.html">Al-Kateb v Godwin</a>, the chief justice of the High Court described the need for detention:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>A person […] might be young or old, dangerous or harmless, likely or unlikely to abscond, recently in detention or someone who has been there for years, healthy or unhealthy, badly affected by incarceration or relatively unaffected. The considerations that might bear upon the reasonableness of a discretionary decision to detain such a person do not operate.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The detained person must remain so until granted a visa or is removed. </p>
<p>Removal, if it’s needed, must occur as soon as “reasonably practicable”. </p>
<p>Over the years, many cases have tested these laws, and until now, the High Court has upheld them.</p>
<p>The lack of time limits on detention, and the inability to challenge it, have made Australia an outlier internationally.</p>
<p>The laws have also been <a href="https://reliefweb.int/report/australia/new-un-report-torture-urges-changes-australian-refugee-policy#:%7E:text=The%20Committee%20noted%20a%20number,%2Dtreatment%20and%20suspicious%20deaths%E2%80%9D.">heavily criticised</a>, both domestically and globally. </p>
<p>Such has been the egregious nature of the system that the High Court allowed the UNSW Kaldor Centre for International Refugee Law and the Human Rights Law Centre to argue the <a href="https://www.kaldorcentre.unsw.edu.au/news/indefinite-immigration-detention-unlawful-high-court-rules">international human rights</a> dimensions of the case.</p>
<p>Despite this, the policy has had bipartisan political support for decades. </p>
<hr>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/futile-and-cruel-plan-to-charge-fees-for-immigration-detention-has-no-redeeming-features-183035">'Futile and cruel': plan to charge fees for immigration detention has no redeeming features</a>
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<h2>Who was at the centre of the case?</h2>
<p>The Rohingya refugee at the centre of the case is referred to as “NZYQ”. He’s around 30 years old.</p>
<p>As a Rohingya, he had <a href="https://www.hrw.org/news/2023/11/09/landmark-australian-ruling-rejects-indefinite-immigration-detention">not been able to</a> obtain citizenship of Myanmar and was stateless. </p>
<p>He had arrived in Australia by boat in 2012. He had been granted a temporary visa, but this was cancelled in 2015 after he committed <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2023/nov/09/high-court-indefinite-immigration-detention-coalition-safety">a criminal offence</a> and was sentenced to a term in prison. </p>
<p>Still unable to get a visa, he was transferred to immigration detention once he’d served his sentence. </p>
<p>Australia accepted the man could not be sent to Myanmar, and instead tried unsuccessfully to have a number of other countries take him via their refugee or humanitarian programs. </p>
<p>Having found there was no country he could be removed to in the “reasonably foreseeable future” and his visa refused, the man was facing the prospect of remaining in detention indefinitely. </p>
<p>In light of this, the High Court found his ongoing detention was unlawful and they ordered his immediate release from detention.</p>
<h2>Law that comes with a cost</h2>
<p>There is an increasing number of people in detention who remain there for long periods of time. Some are stateless, and others who can’t be returned to their home countries due to risk of persecution.</p>
<p>Over the past five years, the average length of detention has increased from <a href="https://www.homeaffairs.gov.au/research-and-stats/files/immigration-detention-statistics-31-august-2017.pdf%20to%20708%20dayshttps://www.homeaffairs.gov.au/research-and-stats/files/immigration-detention-statistics-31-august-2023.pdf">445 days</a> to <a href="https://www.homeaffairs.gov.au/research-and-stats/files/immigration-detention-statistics-31-august-2023.pdf">708 days</a>. Some people have been detained for more than 10 years. </p>
<p>One of the many criticisms levelled at this system is that it’s extremely expensive.</p>
<p>Between 2020 and 2021, the <a href="https://www.refugeecouncil.org.au/detention-australia-statistics/10/">average cost</a> to the Australian taxpayer for one person in an immigration detention facility was $428,542.</p>
<p>That’s not to mention the significant physical and mental health toll on people.</p>
<p>There have been close to <a href="https://www.refugeecouncil.org.au/detention-australia-statistics/10/">3,000 incidents of self-harm</a>, real and threatened, in detention over the past five years.</p>
<h2>So what happens in the short term?</h2>
<p>As a first step, the government may be facing the prospect of releasing a number of people who have been detained for several years. </p>
<p>It is estimated there may be <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2023/nov/08/australia-high-court-indefinite-detention-ruling-government">92 people</a> impacted by the judgement. </p>
<p>The government has stated the Rohingya man in the case has been released <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2023/nov/09/high-court-indefinite-immigration-detention-coalition-safety">on “strict conditions”</a>, but we don’t know what sort of visa he might be on.</p>
<p>It is not clear what those conditions are, but legally, a person can be released from detention on a temporary “bridging visa”. </p>
<p>The Department of Home Affairs can impose conditions on a bridging visa which could include: </p>
<ul>
<li><p>where the person lives</p></li>
<li><p>reporting regularly to the Department of Home Affairs</p></li>
<li><p>that the person “not engage in criminal conduct”</p></li>
<li><p>that they comply with a specific “Code of Behaviour”.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>This, of course, should be accompanied by a range of psychological and social support services, which are currently <a href="https://immi.homeaffairs.gov.au/what-we-do/status-resolution-service/status-resolution-support-services">very limited</a>.</p>
<p>There will need to be consideration for better pathways to more visa certainty and permanent residency, especially for <a href="https://theconversation.com/i-have-no-rights-what-happens-to-stateless-people-in-australia-after-the-high-courts-ruling-217363">stateless people</a>.</p>
<h2>Legislative reform on the cards</h2>
<p>We need to wait for the judgement to determine what, if any, legislative reform may be needed, but the government will be considering a number of options. </p>
<p>We should use this opportunity to ensure our laws comply with our human rights obligations.</p>
<p>International standards specify that a person detained for immigration purposes must be brought before a judicial authority “promptly” and that their detention must be subject to “regular periodic reviews”. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/new-immigration-detention-bill-could-give-australia-a-fresh-chance-to-comply-with-international-law-188519">New immigration detention bill could give Australia a fresh chance to comply with international law</a>
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<p>There is a substantial <a href="https://www.kaldorcentre.unsw.edu.au/publication/immigration-detention-australia">body of evidence</a> demonstrating that hasn’t been the case for far too long.</p>
<p>A key legislative reform should be to make detention discretionary instead of mandatory. People should also have access to independent review of their detention.</p>
<p>There has been a wealth of <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/binaries/house/committee/mig/detention/report/fullreport.pdf">inquiries</a>, <a href="https://idcoalition.org/cap/">submissions</a> and examples from overseas which the government could look to, for a start. </p>
<p>More will be revealed about this case in the coming weeks and months, but there are many things the government can start doing immediately to better balance this unfair and punitive system.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/217438/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mary Anne Kenny has previously received funding from the Australian Research Council and sitting fees from the Department of Home Affairs</span></em></p>This week, the High Court made an order which overturns the laws on which much of Australia’s immigration system is based. What happens to the law, and those most affected by it, now?Mary Anne Kenny, Associate Professor, School of Law, Murdoch UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2157112023-10-30T19:11:21Z2023-10-30T19:11:21ZThe Beetaloo gas field is a climate bomb. How did CSIRO modelling make it look otherwise?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556529/original/file-20231030-17-lipsnt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=32%2C27%2C3617%2C2046&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Even as Australia braces for a summer of projected extreme heatwaves and bushfires amid the intensifying climate crisis, the fossil gas industry is gearing up for a truly enormous new fracking project in the Northern Territory’s Beetaloo Basin. </p>
<p>In February, a <a href="https://gisera.csiro.au/research/greenhouse-gas-and-air-quality/offsets-for-life-cycle-greenhouse-gas-emissions-of-onshore-gas-in-the-northern-territory/">CSIRO-backed report</a> was published, stating Beetaloo could be developed without adding to Australia’s net emissions. In May, the Northern Territory government gave the green light to the project, <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-02-11/nt-csiro-gisera-report-offsets-beetaloo-basin-emissions/101948768">citing the report</a> as evidence emissions could be “mitigated, reduced or in some cases eliminated”. </p>
<p>This report is important. It was produced by CSIRO’s Gas Industry Social and Environmental Research Alliance in response to a <a href="https://hydraulicfracturing.nt.gov.au/action-items/9.8">key recommendation</a> from the NT’s <a href="https://frackinginquiry.nt.gov.au/inquiry-reports/final-report">Pepper Inquiry</a> into fracking. That recommendation? Territory and federal governments should “seek to ensure” no net increase in life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions in Australia from fracking in the NT. </p>
<p>How could it find a massive new fossil fuel field won’t add to emissions? Our <a href="https://climateanalytics.org/media/emissions_impossible.pdf">forensic analysis</a> of the report found it made the most optimistic assumptions about emissions at every stage, and placed far too much faith in Australia’s ability to offset emissions. </p>
<h2>Remind me – how big is Beetaloo?</h2>
<p>Big. The fossil fuel basin 500 kilometres south of Darwin is bigger than any current gas project on Western Australia’s North-West Shelf. </p>
<p>We estimate 1.2 billion tonnes of greenhouse gas emissions would be emitted over 25 years to 2050 – a figure 45% higher than in the report. </p>
<p>Our analysis shows annual domestic emissions from fracking in the Beetaloo and processing at Darwin’s Middle Arm industrial precinct would produce up to 49 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent, 11% of Australia’s total emissions in 2021. That means a single project would produce more emissions than the <a href="https://theconversation.com/australias-safeguard-mechanism-deal-is-only-a-half-win-for-the-greens-and-for-the-climate-202612">entire reduction goal</a> under Labor’s revised safeguard mechanism.</p>
<p>Our deep dive into the CSIRO report found its cumulative domestic emissions projections are underestimates of up to 84% in some cases. Emissions are underestimated at almost every stage, from how emissions-intensive fracked gas is to how much methane is lost to the atmosphere and how much is emitted in manufacturing LNG. We have submitted our report to the <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Environment_and_Communications/MiddleArm">Senate Inquiry into Middle Arm</a>. </p>
<p>The report also underestimates upstream emissions – emissions created by actually fracking the gas and transporting it to Darwin – by up to 110%, and emissions from turning gas into LNG at the plant by up to 89%. </p>
<p>A CSIRO spokesperson told The Conversation: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>CSIRO scientists have delivered a robust and detailed technical analysis, confirmed through an intensive peer review process, of the greenhouse gas emissions associated with onshore gas production scenarios in the Beetaloo Sub-basin, and <a href="https://www.csiro.au/en/news/All/Articles/2023/March/mitigating-and-offsetting-greenhouse-gas-emissions-in-the-northern-territory">important information</a> about realistic mitigation and offset options. CSIRO stands behind the quality of its research and the integrity of its peer review process.</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>No net increase – by the power of offsets?</h2>
<p>Any large new fossil gas project would, of course, add more greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. So how could it represent “no net increase”? </p>
<p>The answer: offsets. The report recommends sequestering carbon in Australia’s soils and forests to offset the global warming caused by burning Beetaloo’s single product, gas. </p>
<p>As we and many <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-02-11/nt-csiro-gisera-report-offsets-beetaloo-basin-emissions/101948768">other experts</a> have demonstrated, offsets are <a href="https://climateanalytics.org/publications/2023/why-offsets-are-not-a-viable-alternative-to-cutting-emissions">riddled with flaws</a>. Every tonne of fossil carbon we emit stays in the atmosphere <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-tonne-of-fossil-carbon-isnt-the-same-as-a-tonne-of-new-trees-why-offsets-cant-save-us-200901">far longer</a> than the 100 years a land-based offset might store carbon. Around 40% of our emissions remain in the atmosphere after 100 years. Up to a quarter is still there after 1,000 years. And up to 20% is still there after 10,000 years. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-tonne-of-fossil-carbon-isnt-the-same-as-a-tonne-of-new-trees-why-offsets-cant-save-us-200901">A tonne of fossil carbon isn't the same as a tonne of new trees: why offsets can't save us</a>
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<p>Offsets often don’t work over the short term, because many are simply not real or not additional to what would otherwise have happened. Their problems are <a href="https://theconversation.com/now-we-know-the-flaws-of-carbon-offsets-its-time-to-get-real-about-climate-change-181071">now well known</a>, but not broadly accepted by Australian policymakers. </p>
<p>CSIRO’s report uses overly optimistic estimates of how many offsets are likely to be available. If they could be realised, the offsets required for Beetaloo would take up very large areas of land in Australia – up to 2.9 million hectares, 12 times the size of the Australian Capital Territory. </p>
<h2>The problem with blue hydrogen</h2>
<p>Blue hydrogen is touted as another use for Beetaloo gas. Here, hydrogen is made from fossil gas, with emissions captured and stored to reduce the climate impact of Beetaloo. </p>
<p>CSIRO’s report assumes fossil gas facilities can capture 90% of the carbon from the project. This is way too optimistic. To date, no commercial blue hydrogen facility in the world has achieved anything close.</p>
<p>Even with carbon capture and storage <a href="https://ccep.crawford.anu.edu.au/sites/default/files/publication/ccep_crawford_anu_edu_au/2021-03/ccep_2103_clean_hydrogen_0.pdf">research shows</a> blue hydrogen is very carbon intensive. Energy experts project that green hydrogen – made by breaking water apart with clean energy – <a href="https://about.bnef.com/blog/2023-hydrogen-levelized-cost-update-green-beats-gray">will undercut blue hydrogen</a> on cost by around 2030. </p>
<h2>What about the Middle Arm LNG project?</h2>
<p>After the gas is extracted by hydraulic fracturing, it would be transported to the Middle Arm precinct in Darwin to get ready for shipping. We analysed the total cumulative emissions, including exports. The result? 25 years of emissions from this project and its large LNG plant in Darwin would be more than three times the entire country’s emissions in 2021. </p>
<p>One of the companies looking to profit from Beetaloo, Tamboran Energy, has already announced plans to <a href="https://twitter.com/Tamboran_TBN/status/1668800685402468354">expand after 2030</a>. If this gets up, it would add the equivalent of another 30–38 million cars (10–13% of Australia’s 2021 emissions). Given there are only 15 million cars in Australia, this would wipe out the benefit of making our entire light vehicle fleet electric by the mid 2030s.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/in-a-win-for-traditional-owners-origin-is-walking-away-from-the-beetaloo-basin-but-the-fight-against-fracking-is-not-over-190906">In a win for Traditional Owners, Origin is walking away from the Beetaloo Basin. But the fight against fracking is not over</a>
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<p>The International Energy Agency <a href="https://www.iea.org/reports/net-zero-roadmap-a-global-pathway-to-keep-the-15-0c-goal-in-reach/a-renewed-pathway-to-net-zero-emissions">has shown</a> we have to slash demand for fossil fuels 25% by 2030 and 80% by 2050 to keep heating under 1.5°C and limit the worst effects of climate change. </p>
<p>If it is allowed to proceed, this single project could undo all of our efforts to cut emissions. Beetaloo and Middle Arm are a climate bomb. They will produce vast volumes of emissions which cannot be offset. The atmosphere doesn’t respond to clever accounting, overly optimistic projections and reliance on offsets – only on how many tonnes of emissions end up there.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215711/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Climate Analytics was commissioned to do this research by the Nurrdalinji Native Title Aboriginal Corporation. Climate Analytics is a non-profit global science and policy institute engaged around the world in driving and supporting climate action aligned to the 1.5°C warming limit.</span></em></p>In May, the Northern Territory government greenlit the mammoth Beetaloo Basin fracking project. But they did so based on a report with optimistic projections on offsets and emissions.Bill Hare, Adjunct Professor, Murdoch UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2163512023-10-29T19:11:42Z2023-10-29T19:11:42ZWe discovered three new species of marsupial. Unfortunately, they’re already extinct<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555979/original/file-20231026-21-r47n91.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=4%2C1%2C994%2C664&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Crest-tailed mulgara (_Dasycercus cristicauda_) from the Simpson Desert, Queensland.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Crest-tail_Mulgara.jpg">Bobby Tamayo / Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australia is famous for its diverse and unique marsupials, and infamous for its <a href="https://theconversation.com/gut-wrenching-and-infuriating-why-australia-is-the-world-leader-in-mammal-extinctions-and-what-to-do-about-it-192173">world-leading rate of mammal extinctions</a>.</p>
<p>In our latest research, we have added new names to the list of Australian marsupials – and at the same time, new entries to the grim catalogue of species driven to extinction since European colonisation.</p>
<p>Our new study, published in <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03115518.2023.2262083">Alcheringa</a>, has identified three previously unknown species of small carnivores called mulgaras, which live in the dry country of Australia’s west and north. </p>
<p>The species were “hiding” in museums, among specimens collected since the 19th century, and none of them survive today.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1513329781395574784"}"></div></p>
<h2>A deeper look at mulgaras</h2>
<p><a href="https://australian.museum/learn/animals/mammals/mulgara/">Mulgaras</a> (<em>Dasycercus</em>) are small, ferocious carnivorous marsupials that are so well adapted to their arid habitats that they <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/bi/pdf/bi9620683">do not need to drink water</a>. They play important roles in maintaining the health of their environments by controlling populations of insects and small rodents, and turning over desert soils through foraging. </p>
<p>Until recently, it was thought there were only two species of mulgara, the brush-tailed mulgara (<em>D. blythi</em>) and the crest-tailed mulgara (<em>D. cristicauda</em>). </p>
<p>Earlier efforts to classify mulgaras focused on external differences, such as the hair on their tail or the number of nipples. Our new work looked deeper, through an analysis of skulls and teeth.</p>
<p>Mammals use their teeth for many things, most obviously as offensive or defensive weapons, for eating, and for manipulating the environment. If the shape of a species’ teeth changes in some way, this could indicate an adaptation to a change in diet or environment. With enough adaptions and changes, a new species emerges.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-biological-classification-10691">Explainer: what is biological classification? </a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>In our investigation, we examined “<a href="https://www.samuseum.sa.gov.au/subfossils">subfossils</a>” – skeletal remains that are not old enough to be true fossils – from sites around Australia where mulgaras are no longer found. </p>
<p>We trawled through animal trapping and subfossil collections made since the 19th century in museums across every mainland state and territory in Australia, and even the Natural History Museum of London. Subfossil specimens from the Nullarbor Plain, the Great Victoria Desert, and the northern Swan Coastal Plain were of particular interest as they had not been attributed to a particular species until now. </p>
<p>We also mounted an expedition to <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-nullarbors-rich-cultural-history-vast-cave-systems-and-unique-animals-all-deserve-better-protection-212262">the caves of the Nullarbor Plain</a> to collect additional mulgara skulls. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A photo of a man wearing a helmet with a torch, crouching in a dark cave and inspecting the ground." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555968/original/file-20231026-28-qkd5sp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555968/original/file-20231026-28-qkd5sp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555968/original/file-20231026-28-qkd5sp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555968/original/file-20231026-28-qkd5sp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555968/original/file-20231026-28-qkd5sp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555968/original/file-20231026-28-qkd5sp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555968/original/file-20231026-28-qkd5sp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Jake Newman-Martin collecting subfossils in a Nullarbor cave.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kenny Travouillon</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Not one, two or three species, but six</h2>
<p>Once we had assembled our collection, we measured the skulls and teeth of the mulgaras to find differences in their overall shape and size. The particular diets and habitats of particular species are expected to leave distinct patterns in their skulls and teeth.</p>
<p>We found differences in the skulls and teeth of mulgaras that completely revised our understanding of their diversity and recent history. Our most remarkable discoveries were found in subfossil deposits that had previously not been classified.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555971/original/file-20231026-17-v5txix.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Skulls of the six identified species are shown from above, the side and below" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555971/original/file-20231026-17-v5txix.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555971/original/file-20231026-17-v5txix.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555971/original/file-20231026-17-v5txix.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555971/original/file-20231026-17-v5txix.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555971/original/file-20231026-17-v5txix.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=711&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555971/original/file-20231026-17-v5txix.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=711&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555971/original/file-20231026-17-v5txix.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=711&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Skulls of each of the mulgara species identified; A - <em>D. hillieri</em>, B - <em>D. woolleyae</em>, C - <em>D. blythi</em>, D - <em>D. archeri</em>, E - <em>D. cristicauda</em>, and F - <em>D. marlowi</em>. Specimens are shown in dorsal (top row), ventral (middle row), and lateral (bottom row) views. All specimens shown are male.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03115518.2023.2262083">Newman-Martin et al. / Alcheringa</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Previously, researchers disagreed about whether there are one, two, or even three species of mulgara. We found a total of <em>six</em> species, living in different habitats across central and western Australia. Two of these were already accepted to exist, another had been proposed in the past but dismissed, and three were entirely new. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555972/original/file-20231026-32800-166yms.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A map of Australia dotted with locations across the west and north where different specimens were found." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555972/original/file-20231026-32800-166yms.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555972/original/file-20231026-32800-166yms.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555972/original/file-20231026-32800-166yms.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555972/original/file-20231026-32800-166yms.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555972/original/file-20231026-32800-166yms.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555972/original/file-20231026-32800-166yms.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555972/original/file-20231026-32800-166yms.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Map of the geographic distribution of mulgara specimens examined in this study.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03115518.2023.2262083">Newman-Martin et al. / Alcheringa</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We also found that some of the external features previously proposed for identifying species of mulgara were actually shared by multiple species. </p>
<p>For instance, the brush-tailed mulgara (<em>D. blythi</em>) and the crest-tailed mulgara (<em>D. cristicauda</em>) were separated based on the shape of the hairs on the end of their tails. However, it now seems that four of the six mulgara species have crested tails, while the other two have brush tails.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Photos showing preserved pelts of five of the examined mulgara species." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555976/original/file-20231026-21-8b1udg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555976/original/file-20231026-21-8b1udg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=317&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555976/original/file-20231026-21-8b1udg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=317&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555976/original/file-20231026-21-8b1udg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=317&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555976/original/file-20231026-21-8b1udg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555976/original/file-20231026-21-8b1udg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555976/original/file-20231026-21-8b1udg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dorsal views of the preserved skins of five of the examined mulgara species. A - <em>D. hillieri</em>, B - <em>D. archeri</em>, C - <em>D. woolleyae</em>, D - <em>D. blythi</em>, and E - <em>D. marlowi</em>.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03115518.2023.2262083">Newman-Martin et al. / Alcheringa</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Just as you cannot judge a book by its cover, you cannot judge the importance of a mulgara by its size, or its taxonomy by its tail!</p>
<h2>Four modern extinctions</h2>
<p>Our research is not all good news. Of the six mulgara species, we determined that four are already extinct, likely as a result of the introduction of foxes and cats to Australia. </p>
<p>The extinction of these mulgara species may represent the first extinction in modern Australia within the broader family of Dasyurid marsupials, which also includes quolls and Tasmanian devils.</p>
<p>These newly identified mulgara disappeared with even less recognition than the now infamous extinction of their marsupial relative the thylacine, or Tasmanian tiger.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/extinct-but-not-gone-the-thylacine-continues-to-fascinate-us-201865">Extinct but not gone – the thylacine continues to fascinate us</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>These historical extinctions and lack of awareness exemplify the current ecological crisis facing Australian mammals.</p>
<p>Prior to our research, it was known that mulgaras are threatened and their population and distribution across Australia has decreased. </p>
<p>Our research shows these declines are far greater than we thought. It also shows the importance of using subfossil records to understand the relatively recent history of marsupials for conservation. To protect Australia’s ecosystems, we will need to invest in much broader taxonomic understanding.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-good-the-bad-and-the-ugly-research-funding-flows-to-big-and-beautiful-mammals-in-australia-56143">The good, the bad and the ugly: research funding flows to big and beautiful mammals in Australia</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216351/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Milo Barham receives funding from the Minerals Research Institute of Western Australia. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alison Blyth, Jake Newman-Martin, Kenny Travouillon, and Natalie Warburton do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>We found three previously unknown species of mulgaras hiding in museum collections – but all three have been driven to extinction since European colonisation of Australia.Jake Newman-Martin, PhD candidate, Curtin UniversityAlison Blyth, Senior Lecturer, Curtin UniversityKenny Travouillon, Curator of Mammals, Western Australian MuseumMilo Barham, Associate Professor, Earth and Planetary Sciences, Curtin UniversityNatalie Warburton, Associate Professor in Anatomy, Murdoch UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2158942023-10-24T02:56:24Z2023-10-24T02:56:24ZA migration review could close some disability discrimination loopholes – but not for people already waiting or refused visas<p>The government and the Greens have <a href="https://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/governments-ability-to-deport-migrants-with-disability-to-face-review-after-greens-push/ajdz6o0gk">agreed to a review</a> of the significant cost threshold. It is the backbone of Australia’s migration health requirement, which all applicants for Australian visas are required to meet. </p>
<p>The threshold is used to refuse visas if an applicant or their child has a health condition or disability likely to incur “a significant cost to the Australian community” to treat or support. </p>
<p>Those who recall the many recommendations of the <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/parliamentary_business/committees/house_of_representatives_committees?url=mig/disability/report.htm">2010 Inquiry into the Migration Treatment of Disability</a>,
which were never implemented, will question whether yet another review will bring change. An <a href="https://alhr.org.au/wp/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/Welcoming-Disability-Open-Letter-March-2023-Final4.docx.pdf">open letter</a> signed by more than 100 disability and human rights advocates earlier this year called for immediate reform rather than further review. </p>
<p>But Home Affairs Minister Clare O'Neil and Immigration Minister Andrew Giles both acknowledge <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-11-07/federal-government-calls-for-inquiry-broken-immigration-system/101623496">the current migration health framework is broken</a>. Community consultation with disability advocates is underway – so there is reason to hope this review might be different.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-once-rejected-feeble-minded-immigrants-while-the-language-has-changed-discrimination-remains-158872">Australia once rejected 'feeble-minded' immigrants. While the language has changed, discrimination remains</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How much is too much?</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://immi.homeaffairs.gov.au/help-support/meeting-our-requirements/health/protecting-health-care-and-community-services">significant cost threshold</a> is set at $51,000 over a maximum period of ten years. Visa applicants whose costs are predicted to exceed that limit will fail the migration health requirement and may be told to leave Australia.</p>
<p>Other countries are more generous. </p>
<p>The Canadian significant cost threshold is set at <a href="https://www.immigration.ca/medical-inadmissibility-canada-makes-higher-cost-threshold-for-immigration-candidates-permanent/">three times the Canadian average cost for health and social services</a>. In 2022, the amount was C$120,285 (A$138,692) over five years, or C$24,057 (A$27,738) per year. </p>
<p>New Zealand’s significant cost threshold is now NZ$81,000 (A$74,792) over five years.</p>
<p>The Australian Institute of Health and Welfare’s most recent report into our national health expenditure (made up of medical and hospital costs) suggests it is currently about <a href="https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/australias-health/australias-health-2022-in-brief/summary">A$7,900</a> per person per year. </p>
<p>That figure does not include disability services or other community services such as education support, which are all included in assessment of the significant cost threshold.</p>
<p>On that basis, $51,000, or just 64.5% of the average community cost of health care for Australians over a ten-year period, seems extraordinarily meagre and certainly not “significant”.</p>
<p>Education support is where many applicants with a child with disability hit a brick wall. Whereas the cost of both “regular” education and English as a second language is deemed a community investment, “special” education support is considered a cost. Any child assessed as requiring such support for more than two years will fail the migration health requirement. The fresh review will address this inequity. </p>
<p>The review will also look at the situation of families living in Australia on temporary visas who then have a child born with a disability or health issue. They are subsequently refused a permanent visa for which they would otherwise be eligible. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-disability-royal-commission-heard-horrific-stories-of-harm-now-we-must-move-towards-repair-214479">The disability royal commission heard horrific stories of harm – now we must move towards repair</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Arguing for waivers</h2>
<p>Some visas enable an applicant to argue for a “waiver” or to set aside the migration health requirement, on the grounds that the social and economic benefits they bring to Australia outweigh the costs. The process is protracted and painful. One <a href="https://www.welcomingdisability.com/stories/#story6">applicant</a> wrote:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>This process was incredibly invasive, for me, my immediate family and my broader family. I was forced to ask my wider family for very intimate financial information, and then supply that information to the government […] The very fact that my family and I had to go through this process was quite demeaning.</p>
</blockquote>
<p><a href="https://www.welcomingdisability.com/stories/#story1">Another applicant</a>, whose child was born here, noted:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>The whole process is emotionally draining and is constantly at the back of our minds […] Having our child being seen as burden in the very community that we are actively contributing in is very unfortunate.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Waivers are available for a select range of visas and to about half of all visa applicants. For the other 50% of applicants – including people applying for general skilled migration visas and even those invited by state governments to fill jobs in high demand – there is no opportunity to argue for a waiver; the visa is simply refused. </p>
<p>Aneesh Kollikkara and Krishna Aneesh, both working in Western Australia in critical industries, were <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-03-02/perth-family-faces-deportation-over-son-s-down-syndrome-diagnos/102046834">refused permanent visas</a> because their son has Down syndrome. They were finally granted visas after the federal immigration minister intervened in 2023.</p>
<p>Similarly, Qasim Butt was on track for a permanent skilled visa until his son was born with a life-threatening health condition. The family’s visa was <a href="https://www.sbs.com.au/language/urdu/en/article/obscene-family-faces-deportation-from-australia-to-pakistan-due-to-childs-medical-condition/9ergweaii">refused in 2017</a>. Their son was unable to depart Australia because of his condition and the family requested ministerial intervention. This was acted upon days before the federal election and granted more than five years later.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1714479068639617298"}"></div></p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/heres-why-we-need-a-disability-rights-act-not-just-a-disability-discrimination-one-214715">Here's why we need a disability rights act – not just a disability discrimination one</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Too late for some</h2>
<p>The 2010 inquiry argued all visa applicants should have the opportunity to demonstrate that the benefits they bring to Australia outweigh their notional community costs. The government <a href="https://www.homeaffairs.gov.au/reports-and-pubs/files/joint-standing-comm-enabling-australia.pdf">committed to this
“in principle”</a> but failed to see it through. </p>
<p>Minister Giles has <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/hope-for-families-facing-deportation-for-having-disabled-children-20231017-p5eczl.html">said</a> “any child born in Australia and adversely affected by the migration health rules can apply for ministerial intervention after merits review”. He has promised to prioritise such cases. But under current guidelines, ministerial intervention cannot take place until an obligatory, tedious and expensive journey through refusal at the department level and then an appeal. Long <a href="https://www.aat.gov.au/resources/migration-and-refugee-division-processing-times">Administrative Appeals Tribunal</a> delays might mean families spend years in limbo, waiting for a decision. </p>
<p>This review has great potential to improve the circumstances of future applicants for visas. For that reason alone is to be welcomed. However, it does not help those applicants still waiting for a decision or whose visas have already been refused. </p>
<p>While we do not yet know the full terms of reference, a review which fails to address the fact that the Migration Act is exempt from the Disability Discrimination Act and is at odds with the <a href="https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/convention-rights-persons-disabilities">United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disability</a> still leaves gaping loopholes.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215894/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jan Gothard is affiliated with the Welcoming Disability Campaign and Down Syndrome Australia. She is an adjunct Associate Professor at Murdoch University and a Registerd Migration Agent (MARN 1569102) specialising in health and disabilty with Estrin Saul Lawyers. </span></em></p>Currently, when a visa applicant or their child has a health condition or disability likely to incur ‘a significant cost to the Australian community’ they can be deported.Jan Gothard, Adjunct Associate Professor, Murdoch UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2122622023-10-09T19:08:57Z2023-10-09T19:08:57ZThe Nullarbor’s rich cultural history, vast cave systems and unique animals all deserve better protection<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/551975/original/file-20231004-23-3dp7ry.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=340%2C5%2C3186%2C2124&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The Nullarbor is one of Australia’s iconic natural places. It’s renowned as a vast and mostly treeless plain. But hidden beneath this ancient landscape is an immense network of caves. </p>
<p>These caves are part of the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-37097-2">world’s largest contiguous limestone karst system</a>. This karst landscape, created by water dissolving the limestone, spans some 200,000 square kilometres. </p>
<p>The caves are as important for their geological value and what they can teach us about Australia’s past, as they are for the unique animals they house, the fossils they hold and their beautiful and unusual cave decorations. </p>
<p>The Nullarbor Plain is the land of the Mirning people. Their Dreaming, associated with the Great Australian Bight, recalls oral histories of changing sea levels. </p>
<p>The Mirning have actively traversed the plain for millennia. Their artwork in its caves, extensive flint mining and artefacts scattered over its surface provide evidence of their presence. </p>
<p>But it’s only in modern times that the plain’s natural values have been threatened. The threats include invasive species, such as foxes, cats, camels and buffel grass, climate change and, perhaps most detrimentally, human activities. Mining, wildlife poaching, uncontrolled tourism and large-scale development, for example a proposed <a href="https://wgeh.com.au/news/minister-bill-johnstons-media-statement">green energy project</a>, could impact much of what makes the Nullarbor Plain so precious.</p>
<p>Greater recognition of the Nullarbor’s superlative natural features is needed to change a common perception that there is nothing out there, and to ensure the preservation of unprotected areas in the region.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549306/original/file-20230920-17-57u1tv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549306/original/file-20230920-17-57u1tv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549306/original/file-20230920-17-57u1tv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549306/original/file-20230920-17-57u1tv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549306/original/file-20230920-17-57u1tv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549306/original/file-20230920-17-57u1tv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549306/original/file-20230920-17-57u1tv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cavers prepare to head underground on the Nullarbor Plain.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Photo: Garry K. Smith</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-giant-bullseye-on-the-nullarbor-plain-was-created-by-ancient-sea-life-189125">A giant 'bullseye' on the Nullarbor Plain was created by ancient sea life</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>A place of spectacular cliffs and caves</h2>
<p>Sloping gently seawards, the Nullarbor terminates spectacularly at the Great Southern Scarp, possibly the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08120099.2020.1742202">world’s longest cliff line</a>.</p>
<p>The caves scattered across the plain vary from small caves to those that extend for many kilometres. </p>
<p>The smaller caves include blowholes, narrow smooth-walled vertical tubes named for the breathing in and out of air as atmospheric pressure changes. Sometimes the air movement feels like a gale. </p>
<p>Some of the deep caves contain lakes of clear, salty, blue-green water. Flooded passages lead away from these lakes. Only cave divers can reach these passages, which include the longest underwater cave systems in Australia. </p>
<p>Dating of <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-37097-2">stalactites and stalagmites</a> confirms most of the caves were formed in the Early Pliocene, around 5 million to 3 million years ago. At this time, the region was much wetter and home to forests of eucalypts. It was very different from the sparse plain we see now.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549295/original/file-20230920-17-9vtqg4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549295/original/file-20230920-17-9vtqg4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549295/original/file-20230920-17-9vtqg4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549295/original/file-20230920-17-9vtqg4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549295/original/file-20230920-17-9vtqg4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549295/original/file-20230920-17-9vtqg4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549295/original/file-20230920-17-9vtqg4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">One of the many stunning stalagmites that decorate the caves.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Photo: Steve Milner</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-found-out-when-the-nullarbor-plain-dried-out-splitting-australias-ecosystems-in-half-203052">We found out when the Nullarbor Plain dried out, splitting Australia's ecosystems in half</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Home to unique and vulnerable life</h2>
<p>With low light levels and relatively stable temperatures and humidities, caves are extreme environments. </p>
<p>In remote sections of some caves fragile curtains of bacterial colonies known as <a href="https://www.australiangeographic.com.au/news/2013/03/mystery-slime-found-in-nullarbor-cave-system/">slime curtains</a> hang from the roof and walls. These are unique to the Nullarbor. </p>
<p>Many animals found in caves can survive above ground. But some, known as troglobites, have become so specialised they can only survive underground. They often lack pigment, have elongated limbs and highly reduced or absent eyes.</p>
<p>One such group of cave specialists are the <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/14/5/449">blind cave spiders</a> of the genus <em>Troglodiplura</em>. These large, enigmatic spiders occur only on the Nullarbor Plain. And most species are known from single caves. </p>
<p>They are the only cave-adapted mygalomorph spiders (the primitive spiders, such as the funnel-web and trapdoor spiders) known from Australia. As with many cave-dwelling animals, we know very little about them. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549284/original/file-20230920-21-ggj4d9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549284/original/file-20230920-21-ggj4d9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549284/original/file-20230920-21-ggj4d9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549284/original/file-20230920-21-ggj4d9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549284/original/file-20230920-21-ggj4d9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549284/original/file-20230920-21-ggj4d9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549284/original/file-20230920-21-ggj4d9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549284/original/file-20230920-21-ggj4d9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Little known and rare, a blind cave spider, <em>Troglodiplura beirutpakbarai</em>, in her natural environment.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Photo: Steve Milner</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The highly <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/is/Fulltext/IS10038">specialised and diverse</a> animals that live in underground water, known as stygofauna, are a good example of this. Only a very small fraction of the species have been scientifically described. </p>
<p>Many such animals are restricted to tiny geographic areas. Some occur only in a single cave. </p>
<p>This means these species are at exceptionally high risk from threats to them or the fragile cave environment they rely on. These threats include predation by foxes, changes to water availability within the cave, or damage to the cave structure. </p>
<p>Given how little we know about cave fauna, it’s unfortunately likely extinctions are occurring unrecorded and undocumented. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/scientist-at-work-ive-dived-in-hundreds-of-underwater-caves-hunting-for-new-forms-of-life-88851">Scientist at work: I've dived in hundreds of underwater caves hunting for new forms of life</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Nature’s time capsules</h2>
<p>Not only do the caves give us a tantalising glimpse into life underground, they also preserve fossils of animals that were once abundant on the surface. Scattered across the floors of some caves are thousands of bones from animals that fell prey to roosting owls or were trapped after falling in. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A shaft of sunlight penetrates a cave" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549293/original/file-20230920-25-dsmzsn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549293/original/file-20230920-25-dsmzsn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549293/original/file-20230920-25-dsmzsn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549293/original/file-20230920-25-dsmzsn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549293/original/file-20230920-25-dsmzsn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549293/original/file-20230920-25-dsmzsn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549293/original/file-20230920-25-dsmzsn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A shaft of sunlight penetrates a cave.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Photo: Steve Milner</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These “sub-fossil” deposits are geologically young. As a result, they give us insights into the scale of biodiversity loss that followed European colonisation of Australia. </p>
<p>A tragic example of recent extinctions is the <a href="https://museum.wa.gov.au/about/latest-news/new-research-tracks-evolution-bilbies-and-bandicoots-new-species-discovered">Nullarbor barred bandicoot</a>. The species died out a century ago as feral predators spread across the region.</p>
<p>There are also much older fossils that reveal an extraordinary aspect of the Nullarbor’s distant past. </p>
<p>In 2002, cave explorers found large deposits of fossil bones in the “<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature05471">Thylacoleo caves</a>”. Among these was a near-complete skeleton of Australia’s largest extinct marsupial predator, <em>Thylacoleo carnifex</em>. Hundreds of thousands of years old, these fossils also revealed previously undescribed species of <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-worlds-biggest-cuckoos-once-roamed-the-nullarbor-plain-54050">giant cuckoos</a> , <a href="https://theconversation.com/tall-turkeys-and-nuggety-chickens-large-megapode-birds-once-lived-across-australia-79111">megapodes</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/giant-tree-kangaroos-once-lived-in-unexpected-places-all-over-australia-according-to-major-new-analysis-205759">tree kangaroos</a>. </p>
<p>Looking at the dry, treeless landscape today it is hard to believe tree kangaroos once called the Nullarbor home. Analysis of <a href="https://www.jenolancaves.org.au/visitor-info/limestone-cave-geology/cave-formations-speleothems/">speleothems</a> (mineral deposits formed from dripwater) shows why they were found there. The region’s climate was <a href="https://pursuit.unimelb.edu.au/articles/the-not-so-plain-nullarbor">wetter</a> during the Pliocene, paving the way for diversification of forest-dwelling vertebrates.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-worlds-biggest-cuckoos-once-roamed-the-nullarbor-plain-54050">The world's biggest cuckoos once roamed the Nullarbor Plain</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>A delicate balance</h2>
<p>The geology, palaeontology, cultural history and biology of the Nullarbor caves reveal a wealth of distinctive features, but the Nullarbor is much more than the sum of its parts.</p>
<p>Karst landscapes are integrated systems, with the surface, caves and deep aquifer intrinsically linked. An impact on any one aspect affects all others. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549457/original/file-20230920-27-nl3sxq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549457/original/file-20230920-27-nl3sxq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549457/original/file-20230920-27-nl3sxq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549457/original/file-20230920-27-nl3sxq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549457/original/file-20230920-27-nl3sxq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549457/original/file-20230920-27-nl3sxq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549457/original/file-20230920-27-nl3sxq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Beautiful and fragile cave decorations.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Photo: Garry K. Smith</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Any changes to the land surface, through road building and large-scale development will alter forever the character of this globally significant and iconic landscape. In the era of human-driven climate change, we do need to find alternative energy sources and materials to reduce our impact, but not at the expense of our epic landscapes and biodiversity.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/212262/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jess Marsh is a Councilor on the Biodiversity Council, Conservation Manager for Invertebrates Australia, and Honorary Researcher at the South Australian Museum. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Clare Buswell is the Chair of the Australian Speleological Federation's Conservation Commission.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Liz Reed is affiliated with the South Australian Museum. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Susan White is affiliated with Australian Speleological Federation inc., Victorian Speleological Association Inc. </span></em></p>Most of us see only the dry treeless plain and spectacular sea cliffs. But beneath the surface there’s a precious world of caves and unique species that could be lost without better protection.Jess Marsh, Research Fellow, Harry Butler Institute, Murdoch UniversityClare Buswell, Adjunct Lecturer, History, Archaeology, Indigenous Studies and Geography, Flinders UniversityLiz Reed, Senior Lecturer, School of Biological Sciences, University of AdelaideSusan White, Adjunct Research Fellow, Environment, La Trobe UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2111272023-08-28T20:03:56Z2023-08-28T20:03:56ZA battlefield for ants? New study on ant warfare shows we could manipulate their fights<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542462/original/file-20230813-108238-w4bkeb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C903%2C3234%2C1887&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Bruce Webber</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Humans are not the only animals <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10407413.2020.1846456">that go to war</a>. Ants do so too, and on a similarly catastrophic scale.</p>
<p>Battles play out daily – in human conflicts, among animals in nature, and across the virtual worlds of video games. How these battles progress depends on the combatants involved and what their battlefields are like.</p>
<p>In a new study <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2217973120">published in PNAS today</a>, we used mathematical models on video game simulations to test how battlefield dynamics change warfare outcomes. We then confirmed these concepts in the real world – using ant battles.</p>
<h2>The mathematics of a battle</h2>
<p>Despite the horror of war, it occupies a prominent place in public imagination. In the early 1900s, English engineer Frederick William Lanchester developed a mathematical model that described the outcome of battles as dependent on the individual strength of each soldier in opposing armies, and on the size of each army. </p>
<p>To this day, <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10407413.2020.1846456">Lanchester’s laws</a> remain valuable tools for evaluating battles. Investing in a few strong soldiers should be more effective when battles resemble a series of one-on-one duels. On the other hand, investing in large armies should be more effective when they can surround their enemies and concentrate their attacks.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/11.6.686">Later research</a> by evolutionary biologists Nigel Franks and Lucas Partridge revealed it’s not just the soldiers. The complexity of the battlefield itself can also tip the balance in favour of one strategy over another.</p>
<p>When fighting in tunnels, alleyways, or difficult terrain, it’s harder for large armies to surround their opponents, so small forces of strong or savvy soldiers can succeed. Such tactics are the basis for the story of Spartans holding off hundreds of thousands of Persian soldiers at the <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.co.uk/history-and-civilisation/2022/01/betrayal-crushed-spartas-last-stand-at-the-battle-of-thermopylae">Battle of Thermopylae</a> in 480 BCE.</p>
<h2>Age of Empires II versus ants</h2>
<p>In our study, we first used the video game <a href="https://www.ageofempires.com/">Age of Empires II</a> to assess the importance of battlefield complexity.</p>
<p>This game allows players to arrange different soldier types, build maps and fight against computer-driven enemies. In featureless battlefields, small armies of strong infantry units (Teutonic Knights) could defeat up to 50 weaker units (Two-Handed Swordsmen), but no more.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542468/original/file-20230813-101760-mirg3t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="In a video game, a group of nine soldiers in blue are surrounded by a larger group of soldiers in red" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542468/original/file-20230813-101760-mirg3t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542468/original/file-20230813-101760-mirg3t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=292&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542468/original/file-20230813-101760-mirg3t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=292&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542468/original/file-20230813-101760-mirg3t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=292&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542468/original/file-20230813-101760-mirg3t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=367&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542468/original/file-20230813-101760-mirg3t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=367&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542468/original/file-20230813-101760-mirg3t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=367&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A small army of Teutonic Knights (blue) are surrounded and overwhelmed by 60 Two-Handed Swordsmen in a simple battlefield in the strategy game, Age of Empires II.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Age of Empires II</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>However, in complex battlefields, nine Knights could slay up to 70 Swordsmen. We found that video game wars, even though not explicitly programmed to do so, clearly followed Lanchester’s laws. But how relevant are these laws to real-world battles?</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542469/original/file-20230813-196116-xbiy6a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="In a video game, groups of soldiers in red move down narrow alleyways of land between strips of water. Facing them in the alleyways are small groups of soldiers in blue" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542469/original/file-20230813-196116-xbiy6a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542469/original/file-20230813-196116-xbiy6a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=291&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542469/original/file-20230813-196116-xbiy6a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=291&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542469/original/file-20230813-196116-xbiy6a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=291&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542469/original/file-20230813-196116-xbiy6a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=365&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542469/original/file-20230813-196116-xbiy6a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=365&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542469/original/file-20230813-196116-xbiy6a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=365&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In a complex battlefield, the same army of Swordsmen are unable to surround the Knights, and are instead funnelled between barriers of water. Now, the Knights have fewer Swordsmen to face at any one time.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Age of Empires II</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Most animals do not engage in warfare on the same scale as humans. This is because there’s no evolutionary incentive in risking their lives for a cause in which they don’t necessarily have a direct stake.</p>
<p>Social insects such as ants <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10407413.2020.1846456">are an exception</a>, because through warfare, the evolutionary future of the sterile worker ants who do the fighting is invested in the greater good of the colony.</p>
<p>Testing Lanchester’s laws required two ant species that clearly differed in their fighting prowess. Our first combatant was the Australian meat ant, <em>Iridomyrmex purpureus</em>. These large and beautiful ants, with their conspicuous gravelly nests, are familiar to many people in regional Australia as they are dominant in undisturbed or remnant bushland habitats.</p>
<p>As their enemies, we selected the notorious Argentine ant, <em>Linepithema humile</em>. These aggressive invasive ants are comparatively tiny but live in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2009.01.013">extremely large, hyper-cooperative colonies</a>.</p>
<p>Because of the size difference, meat ants always defeat Argentine ants in one-on-one duels. We formed small armies of 20 meat ants, and opposed them in the lab to increasingly large armies of up to 200 Argentine ants.</p>
<p>These battles took place either in simple arenas (featureless plastic containers) or complex arenas (the same containers with narrow wooden strips glued to the floor).</p>
<p>As predicted by Lanchester’s laws and by our video gaming, fewer large meat ants died in battle in complex arenas compared to simple ones.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542467/original/file-20230813-29-sz0e9o.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A large ant is being attacked by two smaller ants, while another large ant stands to the side" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542467/original/file-20230813-29-sz0e9o.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542467/original/file-20230813-29-sz0e9o.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542467/original/file-20230813-29-sz0e9o.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542467/original/file-20230813-29-sz0e9o.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542467/original/file-20230813-29-sz0e9o.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542467/original/file-20230813-29-sz0e9o.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542467/original/file-20230813-29-sz0e9o.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A meat ant grapples with two smaller Argentine ant adversaries, while a fellow meat ant watches on.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Bruce Webber</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Understanding ant invasions</h2>
<p>Experiments like this can inform us about the dynamics between native and non-native invasive ants. <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-red-fire-ants-and-yellow-crazy-ants-have-given-themselves-a-green-light-to-invade-australia-208479">Non-native invasive ants</a> are some of the worst pests on the planet, costing the global economy <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-022-02791-w">tens of billions of dollars per year</a>. Ecosystem managers are keenly interested in new ways to manipulate the competitive success of these invaders.</p>
<p>One of the unifying features of non-native invasive ants is that, like our Argentine ants, they are generally individually <a href="https://doi.org/10.1086/303270">smaller than non-invasive species</a> in the areas they invade, while living in extremely large colonies. It has also been observed that non-native invasives are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1603/0013-8746(2004)097%5b0513:COFCFN%5d2.0.CO;2">particularly dominant in disturbed environments</a>. </p>
<p>While there are many possible reasons for this, disturbed environments are often simplified at ground level, with the removal of undergrowth and natural debris creating open battlefields.</p>
<p>The fact that small but numerous non-native invasive ants are more successful against their large native competitors in simplified environments makes sense, in light of our experimental study of ant warfare.</p>
<p>It also suggests that adding ground-level complexity, such as natural debris, may tip the balance in favour of larger native species. Just like for humans (and in computer games), the outcome of ant wars depends on the nature of the battlefield.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-know-if-were-winning-the-war-on-australias-fire-ant-invasion-and-what-to-do-if-we-arent-121367">How to know if we’re winning the war on Australia’s fire ant invasion, and what to do if we aren't</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/211127/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Samuel Lymbery was supported by a Forrest Prospect Fellowship from the Forrest Research Foundation.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bruce Webber is supported by CSIRO Health & Biosecurity. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Raphael Didham does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Mathematical models, video games and experiments with ants can all further our understanding of the dynamics of war.Samuel Lymbery, Postdoctoral Fellow in Biosecurity, Murdoch UniversityBruce Webber, Principal Research Scientist, CSIRORaphael Didham, Professor of Ecology, The University of Western AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2074182023-07-30T20:08:31Z2023-07-30T20:08:31ZSecrets wrapped in fabric: how our study of 100 decomposing piglet bodies will help solve criminal cases<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539908/original/file-20230728-23-ku5ia8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=19%2C3%2C1274%2C857&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Photo by Stevie Ziogos</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Until the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780081018729000042">late 19th century</a>, the success of criminal investigations largely hung on witness reports and (often extorted) confessions. A lack of scientific tools meant investigators needed advanced <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/deductive-reasoning">deductive reasoning</a> abilities – and even then they’d often hit a dead end.</p>
<p>Today, investigations demand an interdisciplinary and <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00414-022-02846-6">high-tech</a> approach, involving experts from diverse scientific disciplines. Stabbing investigations are particularly important, as fatal stabbings are the leading cause of homicide in countries with restricted access to firearms, including <a href="https://www.aic.gov.au/sites/default/files/2020-05/tbp045.pdf">Australia</a>.</p>
<p>Carefully interpreting <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-camera-never-lies-our-research-found-cctv-isnt-always-dependable-when-it-comes-to-murder-investigations-199828">CCTV footage</a> can be useful, but sometimes the crime scene won’t have surveillance cameras. The victim’s body may be discovered days, weeks, or months after the event. By then it may be partially consumed by insects – or rain may have washed away the blood stains, or potentially even the murder weapon.</p>
<p>In such a case, analysing damage to a <a href="https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/comparing-alleged-weapon-damage-clothing-value-multiple-layers-and">victim’s clothing</a> can provide crucial insight. But how does clothing on a decomposing body react to environmental and biological factors?</p>
<p>This was our question as we conducted research using the decomposing bodies of more than 100 stillborn piglets. Our findings from this <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/14/7/618">first-of-its-kind experiment</a> could help investigators solve future (and past) crimes in which stabs, tears or other damages to clothing are in question.</p>
<h2>Pigs wrapped in fabric</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1355030618301680">Textile analysis</a> has a significant role in forensic investigation. Clothes can preserve crucial information about the events leading up to someone’s death. Evidence might come in the form of fibres under a victim’s fingernails, <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1917222117">tears in the clothing</a> resulting from movement or traction, or cuts and holes caused by weapons. </p>
<p>However, the decomposition process itself will also alter the fabric and existing damages. It may even introduce new damages that complicate the analysis.</p>
<p>To understand how clothing might change throughout this process, we conducted an experiment in the summer heat of Western Australia. We used more than 100 stillborn piglets (simulating human remains) wrapped in common fabrics including cotton, stretchy synthetic material, and a fabric blend. Some piglets were left unclothed as control samples.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539902/original/file-20230728-25-grpb0x.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539902/original/file-20230728-25-grpb0x.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539902/original/file-20230728-25-grpb0x.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539902/original/file-20230728-25-grpb0x.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539902/original/file-20230728-25-grpb0x.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539902/original/file-20230728-25-grpb0x.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539902/original/file-20230728-25-grpb0x.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539902/original/file-20230728-25-grpb0x.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The experiment was conducted at a facility in Western Australia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/14/7/618">Photo by Stevie Ziogos</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We intentionally inflicted cuts and tears on most of the fabrics, before leaving the carcasses to decompose naturally in a bushland environment until only bones remained. The bodies were shielded from <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20171028/">large scavengers</a>, but not from <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19836175/">carrion insects</a>. </p>
<p>While previous research has explored the impact <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21602003/">of clothing on decomposition</a>, we were focused on the other side of the coin: how do insects impact the fabric on a decomposing carcass? And in what ways could this jeopardise an investigation? </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/flies-maggots-and-methamphetamine-how-insects-can-reveal-drugs-and-poisons-at-crime-scenes-176981">Flies, maggots and methamphetamine: how insects can reveal drugs and poisons at crime scenes</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Exposed to natural elements</h2>
<p>It wasn’t long before the fabrics started to transform due to exposure to bacteria, fungi, insects and other environmental factors. </p>
<p>They changed in shape and texture, and became stretched as a result of the natural bloating of the carcasses. Less than a week after the carcasses were placed, new holes appeared in the fabric – especially in cotton – as the fibres broke down.</p>
<p>There were also chemical changes due to potential exposure to body fluids and the chemical products of bacteria and fungi.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539897/original/file-20230728-27-48r2yd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539897/original/file-20230728-27-48r2yd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539897/original/file-20230728-27-48r2yd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539897/original/file-20230728-27-48r2yd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539897/original/file-20230728-27-48r2yd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539897/original/file-20230728-27-48r2yd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539897/original/file-20230728-27-48r2yd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539897/original/file-20230728-27-48r2yd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Experimental fabrics observed with a ‘scanning electron microscope’ (SEM) showed fungal colonisation.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/14/7/618">Photo by Stevie Ziogos</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Insects were particularly active in areas where body fluids were present. Of twenty insect groups collected and identified, blowflies and carrion beetles were the most common antagonists. </p>
<p>Throughout the 47 days of the experiment, we managed to collect a range of data on fabric degradation throughout the decomposition process. It’s the first time this has been documented in such detail in a controlled experiment. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539893/original/file-20230728-19-9x88ao.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539893/original/file-20230728-19-9x88ao.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539893/original/file-20230728-19-9x88ao.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539893/original/file-20230728-19-9x88ao.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539893/original/file-20230728-19-9x88ao.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539893/original/file-20230728-19-9x88ao.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539893/original/file-20230728-19-9x88ao.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Insects visited the bloodstains of the fabric during the early stages of the experiment.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Photo by Stevie Ziogos, Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>New tools to solve new (and old) mysteries</h2>
<p>Although textile damage analysis is vital for forensics, there has been limited research on how it overlaps with forensic entomology and taphonomy (the study of how organisms decompose). Our research shows fabrics can hold significant evidence, and this evidence changes as bodies decompose while being exposed to the environment.</p>
<p>There are myriad examples of crimes where evidence related to clothing has been crucial to solving the case. </p>
<p>In the 1980 <a href="https://www.injustice.law/2021/07/05/the-shameful-tale-of-what-happened-to-lindy-chamberlain/">Chamberlain case</a>, a jury wrongly found Lindy Chamberlain and her husband Michael guilty of murdering their nine-week-old daughter Azaria, who had disappeared. </p>
<p>It was only when Azaria’s clothing was recovered a week after her disappearance that investigators had evidence of a dingo having snatched her (as the clothes showed signs of having been dragged through sand). The Chamberlains were exonerated as a result.</p>
<p>More recently, a person of interest was arrested in New York as the “<a href="https://7news.com.au/news/crime/architect-charged-over-murders-after-pizza-crust-leads-to-craigslist-ripper-breakthrough-c-11284691">Craigslist ripper</a>”, a serial killer responsible for the murder of more than ten people. Investigators obtained DNA evidence from strands of hair found in <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/world/hunt-for-ripper-as-new-york-beach-body-count-mounts-20111202-1obc7.html">burlap sacks</a> used to hide and transport the bodies. </p>
<p>Although many details of this particular case remain undisclosed, such investigations will most likely use insect-related evidence and other trace evidence on textiles to help make important inferences, including about time of death.</p>
<p>More generally, our work will help investigators avoid misinterpreting evidence from clothing. For instance, if investigators aren’t aware holes in fabric can form through exposure to insects and natural elements, they might incorrectly attribute them to an animal or human attacker. </p>
<p>Similarly, by gauging which portion of clothing has the most insect damage, they might be able to understand where the most fluid was present on the body (if it’s found as skeletal remains). This could help them figure out where and how damage was inflicted.</p>
<p>This year we published <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37367352/">guidelines</a> to help other forensic professionals in the process of observing and collecting insects at a crime scene, and in considering how insect activity may be connected with a victim’s clothing. We hope our work can help future investigations, and maybe even reopen some cold cases.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207418/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>This research has been conducted in collaboration with Stevie Ziogos (PhD candidate, Murdoch University) and Kari Pitts (ChemCentre). Forensic entomology guidelines have been updated in collaboration with Tharindu Bambaradeniya (PhD candidate, Murdoch University).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ian Dadour does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Fatal stabbings are the leading cause of homicide in countries with restricted access to firearms, including Australia. New research could help solve these cases.Paola A. Magni, Senior Lecturer in Forensic Science, Murdoch UniversityIan Dadour, Adjunct professor, Murdoch UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2084642023-06-27T06:06:16Z2023-06-27T06:06:16ZThe Titan disaster investigation has begun. An expert explains what might happen next<p>The United States Coast Guard is now <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2023/06/26/us/submersible-titanic-implosion-deaths-monday/index.html">leading the investigation</a> into the Titan submersible, looking for answers about why it imploded, and what actions should be taken next.</p>
<p>A multinational search for the Titan came to a halt on Thursday, when a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) found five pieces of debris sprawled across the seabed, some 500 metres from the Titanic shipwreck. The vessel experienced a catastrophic implosion at some point during its journey, with all five passengers presumed dead. </p>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-was-the-catastrophic-implosion-of-the-titan-submersible-an-expert-explains-208359">What was the 'catastrophic implosion' of the Titan submersible? An expert explains</a>
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<p>For now, details elude us – and it could be days, or even weeks, before we receive meaningful updates on the investigation’s progress. Similar past events, such as the 2019 <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/20/world/europe/russian-submarine-fire-losharik.html">fire in the Russian submarine Losharik</a>, have shown how sensitively the details of such investigations should be treated. </p>
<p>The Titan disaster happened in international waters, in a commercially operated vessel, and with victims of different nationalities. Officials will likely want to be certain about any details released – and some may not be disclosed at all.</p>
<h2>What happens next?</h2>
<p>The Titan, a research and exploration sub <a href="https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/stockton-rush-manned-submersibles-science-exploration/id1515818448?i=1000493347762">owned by US company OceanGate</a>, lost contact with its surface vessel on Sunday morning, about one hour and 45 minutes after its departure.</p>
<p>Chief investigator Jason Neubauer said the US Coast Guard will receive help from Canada, France and the United Kingdom. He said authorities had already mapped the accident site, and the inquiry will aim to address several questions, including:</p>
<ul>
<li>what may have happened to cause the implosion?</li>
<li>how can safety be improved for future submersible voyages?</li>
<li>what civil or criminal charges should be laid in relation to the events, if any?</li>
</ul>
<p>Recovery operations in remote parts of the ocean are painstakingly complex, with myriad variables to consider. We can expect the Titan investigation will <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/06/22/us/titanic-submersible-search-rescue-costs.html">cost millions of dollars</a>.</p>
<h2>Harsh conditions</h2>
<p>The investigation is being carried out at depths of about 3,800m, some 600km from the nearest coastline. The same vessel that identified the initial debris – a deep-sea ROV called <a href="https://pelagic-services.com/web2/index.php/odysseus-rov-system/">Odysseus 6K</a> – is <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/newfoundland-labrador/titan-submerisble-investigation-1.6889066">reportedly also being used</a> to look for the vessel’s remaining parts. </p>
<p>Manufacturer Pelagic Research Services <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2023/06/26/us/submersible-titanic-implosion-deaths-monday/index.html">told CNN</a> the ROV’s lifting capabilities had “been utilised and continue to be utilised”, and that missions would continue for about a week. However, we don’t know whether any debris has been recovered yet.</p>
<p>ROVs can collect vast amounts of data for deep-sea operations, including video footage and sensor readings. Ideally, an ROV will be able to reliably and quickly transmit data back to a support vessel or onshore facility, since real-time data transfer is often needed to make important decisions on the fly. </p>
<p>That said, even if Odysseus 6K delivers on this, some parts of the Titan may never be found. They may have disintegrated during the implosion, drifted too far away from the search area, or be obscured by other debris. </p>
<p>Underwater hazards, harsh weather and strong currents all add to the challenge – especially by <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37249969/">limiting visibility</a>. In the deep ocean, turbidity (haziness) and the absence of natural light means visibility is close to zero. Here, only sonar technology (which uses sound waves) may be used for navigation, mapping and locating objects of interest.</p>
<p>Any debris recovered will undoubtedly be valuable. Debris is physical evidence of the implosion, so analysing it will provide information (such as damage patterns and fractures) that can be used to infer the source of the implosion and the forces involved. </p>
<p>Experts can also conduct chemical analyses of the residue on the wreckage. However, this is affected by seawater, so a prompt recovery will be important.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/an-expert-explains-what-safety-features-a-submersible-should-have-208187">An expert explains what safety features a submersible should have</a>
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<p>The Titan’s remote location means investigators won’t have the luxury of having the quick support offered by coastal rescue stations that can rapidly deploy search and rescue assets and diving teams. </p>
<p>They’ll have to rely on specialised resources, such as large vessels and aircraft with extended range capabilities. Aircraft can provide an elevated platform for visual observation and aerial mapping, as well as remote sensing technologies including radar systems and thermal imaging sensors. </p>
<h2>Finding the remains</h2>
<p>Chief investigator Neubauer has said <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/66015811">searching for victims’</a> remains is on the agenda. But the chances of actually finding them will depend on various factors, including the cause of the implosion, the depth at which it happened, and the surrounding conditions. </p>
<p>A severe implosion may have resulted in extensive fragmentation and scattering of both the submersible’s structure and human remains. Remains can be swept away in currents, or tampered with by marine life.</p>
<p>They also behave differently depending on whether they’re recovered from <a href="https://www.proquest.com/openview/a65eb1a2d459fb92ea04605ef098497a/1.pdf?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=47323">non-sequestered environments</a> (exposed in the water) or <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23232544/">sequestered environments</a> (enclosed in a vessel). In the former scenario, bodies are often <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15166773/">consumed by animals</a> and decomposition causes <a href="https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Disappearance-of-soft-tissue-and-the-of-human-from-Haglund/5f5ec4ccf2ebabce7b9bd3106df77a4f78ecf1db">disarticulation</a>, wherein the bones gradually separate at the joints. However, garments can sometimes help to <a href="https://thehill.com/changing-america/well-being/569067-doctor-explains-why-21-human-feet-in-sneakers-may-have-washed-on/">keep things together</a>.</p>
<p>The effort to locate remains may involve observation from long-range aircraft and patrol vessels, or may even rely on radar, sonar or satellite imagery. If remains are located deep underwater, recovering them may involve using a specialised hoisting system designed to handle the challenges of a deep-sea environment.</p>
<h2>Sharing responsibility</h2>
<p>The Titan investigation will involve coordination between multiple entities, including maritime authorities, coast guard services and search and rescue organisations. </p>
<p>It will be subject to international agreements such as the <a href="https://www.imo.org/en/About/Conventions/Pages/International-Convention-on-Maritime-Search-and-Rescue-(SAR).aspx">International Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue</a>, as well as international law such as
the <a href="https://onboard.sosmediterranee.org/knowledge-base/article-98-duty-to-render-assistance/#">duty to render assistance</a>, which is enshrined in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. This requires that all vessels, regardless of their flag, have a legal obligation to render assistance to any person in distress at sea.</p>
<p>For now, we can only speculate on what the Titan investigation might produce. All we can do is wait, and hope that whatever answers do emerge will be put to good use to make sure something like this never happens again. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-is-extreme-frontier-travel-booming-despite-the-risks-208201">Why is extreme 'frontier travel' booming despite the risks?</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/208464/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paola A. Magni does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The Titan disaster happened in international waters, in a commercially operated vessel, and with victims of different nationalities. Any details that emerge will likely be treated with sensitivity.Paola A. Magni, Senior Lecturer in Forensic Science, Murdoch UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2076152023-06-14T20:09:13Z2023-06-14T20:09:13ZStripping medals from soldiers is murky territory, and must not distract from investigating alleged war crimes<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531833/original/file-20230614-29-dxqwmr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dave Hunt/AAP</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>It could be years before Ben Roberts-Smith and others are stripped of military awards for their service in Afghanistan and face Australian criminal court on war crimes charges, if in fact that ever happens. </p>
<p>Investigations of war crimes are <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-investigating-potential-war-crimes-in-afghanistan-just-became-much-harder-and-could-take-years-171412">difficult and time-consuming</a>. In the meantime, calls for the Defence Department to continue to address the allegations against Australian Defence Force personnel have grown louder. </p>
<p>In the case of Roberts-Smith, the investigation is now being undertaken by a <a href="https://www.theage.com.au/national/massive-blow-afp-war-crimes-probe-collapses-over-risk-of-tainted-evidence-20230613-p5dg7c.html">joint taskforce</a> from the Office of the Special Investigator and the Australian Federal Police, rather than the AFP on its own. The decision to move the investigation resulted from issues with how evidence that could be used in a criminal case was collected in the Brereton inquiry. Such problems with evidence are difficult for investigation teams and courts that are not specifically designed to deal with war crimes. </p>
<p>Debate has also arisen in Australia over whether commanders as well as direct perpetrators ought to be held <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-australian-commanders-need-to-be-held-responsible-for-alleged-war-crimes-in-afghanistan-151030">responsible</a> for war crimes, and what the leadership failings in Afghanistan were. Such debates are relevant to the issue of individual and unit awards and honours.</p>
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<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Over 26,000 Australian security personnel served in the Afghanistan war.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Alex Ellinghausen</span></span>
</figcaption>
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<h2>Australia’s obligations under the Rome Statute</h2>
<p>The public debate – and even <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2023/jun/09/australias-military-should-be-held-to-account-but-its-the-individual-soldier-who-pulls-the-trigger">expert opinion</a> – has tended to overlook the fact that Australia’s response to the alleged war crimes in Afghanistan is governed primarily by its international obligations. These obligations outweigh any views about war crimes that may be held within the defence community or the general public.</p>
<p>Administrative measures undertaken by Defence cannot substitute for war crimes prosecutions. Australia is a full party to the <a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/sites/default/files/RS-Eng.pdf">1998 Rome Statute</a>, which is the cornerstone of international war crimes law and is reflected in Australia’s <a href="https://www.ag.gov.au/about-us/publications/attorney-generals-department-annual-report-2017-18/appendixes/appendix-3-international-criminal-court">own domestic law</a> covering war crimes. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-investigating-potential-war-crimes-in-afghanistan-just-became-much-harder-and-could-take-years-171412">Why investigating potential war crimes in Afghanistan just became much harder – and could take years</a>
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<p>The Rome Statute requires that Australia fully investigate and punish war crimes committed by its forces, at all ranks. Australia has conducted war crimes trials of enemy combatants <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-australian-commanders-need-to-be-held-responsible-for-alleged-war-crimes-in-afghanistan-151030">in the past</a>, in which it has found direct perpetrators, their local commanders and their senior officers guilty of war crimes and has punished them accordingly. </p>
<p>To fail to comprehensively prosecute alleged war crimes now, because the defendants would be Australian, is a morally and politically untenable position. Comprehensive trials also offer the only path to the public understanding where culpability for war crimes sits along the military chain of command.</p>
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<h2>Removing medals and citations</h2>
<p>The prompt removal of medals and citations, however, would provide Defence with an opportunity to condemn war crimes immediately, rather than waiting until formal trials can be held.</p>
<p>Defence honours and awards in Australia are awarded through an administrative process. Though awards have been revoked in the past for dishonourable conduct, it remains an unusual step. The process of conferring or revoking a high-level award needs the support of the government. </p>
<p>The Australian Defence Force has been criticised for <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2023/mar/01/adf-taking-too-long-to-enact-reforms-after-afghanistan-war-crimes-inquiry-watchdog-warns">moving too slowly</a> to address public concerns over its record in Afghanistan. However, some attempts have been made. </p>
<p>In the aftermath of the <a href="https://www.defence.gov.au/about/reviews-inquiries/afghanistan-inquiry">Brereton Report</a>, Chief of the Defence Force General Angus Campbell announced the Special Operations Task Group would be stripped of a Meritorious Unit Citation for conduct in Afghanistan. The announcement caused a media and political uproar, and then Prime Minister Scott Morrison <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-11-30/defence-says-no-decision-yet-on-meritorious-citation-afghanistan/12935302">reversed</a> the decision. </p>
<p>It has since emerged that at least three <a href="https://insidestory.org.au/breretons-unfinished-business/">senior officers</a>, including <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/defence-chief-angus-campbell-tried-to-hand-back-his-afghanistan-medal-but-was-refused-20230612-p5dfs6.html">Campbell</a>, have attempted to return their own medals, awarded for distinguished command and leadership in action. In all three cases, the Coalition government denied this request. </p>
<p>Campbell has reportedly asked a group of former commanding officers to <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/drive/jacqui-lambie-fury-over-defence-chief-letters/102423354">return their medals</a>. In Senate Estimates, he stated such a move would represent a step towards accountability for the command failures in the Afghanistan operation.</p>
<p>The Labor government has appeared <a href="https://www.canberratimes.com.au/story/7997036/defence-chief-cleared-to-strip-medals/">more willing</a> for medals and awards to be handed back or stripped than its Coalition predecessor was. </p>
<p>The problems that Campbell has encountered in attempting to revoke honours, and in trying to hand his own back, highlight the fact that commendations have both military and political significance – which makes any decision to revoke honours particularly difficult.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531834/original/file-20230614-21-zdp3hb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531834/original/file-20230614-21-zdp3hb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531834/original/file-20230614-21-zdp3hb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531834/original/file-20230614-21-zdp3hb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531834/original/file-20230614-21-zdp3hb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531834/original/file-20230614-21-zdp3hb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531834/original/file-20230614-21-zdp3hb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">ADF chief Angus Campbell has attempted to strip officers of their medals, and to hand back his own, both to no avail.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Lukas Coch/AAP</span></span>
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<h2>Will the minister strip Roberts-Smith of his VC?</h2>
<p>Ben Roberts-Smith is the public figurehead of Australia’s war crimes saga, so it is no surprise questions have been raised over whether he ought to keep his Victoria Cross. He was awarded the VC for an earlier action that is not connected with allegations of war crimes against him. </p>
<p>No Australian has ever had a VC revoked. </p>
<p>While a number of VCs were revoked in the United Kingdom, mostly during the 19th century, revocation has since been the subject of <a href="https://insidestory.org.au/double-edged-sword/">high-level debate</a>.</p>
<p>In the defamation case, a civil court found on the balance of probabilities that Roberts-Smith had committed war crimes, but these actions do not technically erode the validity of his VC. At the same time, his earlier bravery did not protect him from allegations of war crimes, and there remains a moral and legal obligation for him to face criminal justice.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australian-defence-force-must-ensure-the-findings-against-ben-roberts-smith-are-not-the-end-of-the-story-206749">Australian Defence Force must ensure the findings against Ben Roberts-Smith are not the end of the story</a>
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<p>At face value, Roberts-Smith and his VC seem to be a different case – the medal was awarded to one soldier, for one action. To some, however, the medal seems also to mark out the recipient as a hero, or at least as a person of superior character. In this light, calls for the VC to be revoked in the wake of the defamation case are understandable.</p>
<p>As Australians reckon with this new and dark chapter of the country’s military history, the public will continue to ask who is most to blame for alleged war crimes committed by Australian forces in Afghanistan, until the question is comprehensively examined in the criminal court.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207615/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dean Aszkielowicz has previously received funding from the Army Research Scheme.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paul Taucher does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The awarding, and revoking, of military medals is more complex than it appears, and is no replacement for the proper investigation of alleged war crimes.Dean Aszkielowicz, Senior Lecturer in History and Politics, Murdoch UniversityPaul Taucher, Lecturer in History, Murdoch UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1998862023-06-14T20:09:07Z2023-06-14T20:09:07ZThe type of school does matter when it comes to a child’s academic performance<p>School choice is enormously important to families. Some spend <a href="https://www.canberratimes.com.au/story/8042455/heres-how-much-canberra-private-school-fees-will-cost-in-2023/">tens of thousands of dollars</a> per year to send their children to private schools, in the belief this will provide a better education and future. </p>
<p>Figures released in <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/parents-opt-for-religious-schools-as-student-enrolments-soar-20230427-p5d3vh.html">May 2023</a> noted Australia’s private school enrolments have grown by 35% over the past decade. We also know families <a href="https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/popular-schools-slapped-with-restrictions-to-control-runaway-demand-20230531-p5dcoi.html">seek out areas</a> where there are high-status public schools. </p>
<p>Recent <a href="https://theconversation.com/going-to-private-school-wont-make-a-difference-to-your-kids-academic-scores-175638">research has argued</a> once you account for socioeconomic factors, private schools don’t outperform public schools. In other words, the school does not really matter, it’s a student’s family background that counts. </p>
<p>My <a href="https://largescaleassessmentsineducation.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40536-022-00142-8">research</a> shows the type of school does matter. And the way Australia’s school system is structured is especially unfair on students from disadvantaged backgrounds.</p>
<h2>Why school segregation is a problem</h2>
<p>Decades of <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.3102/00346543075003417">research</a> has shown how family social background is a strong predictor of a child’s educational outcomes. Parents’ education and occupation are associated with student learning differences in Australia and many other countries. </p>
<p>Governments across the world have responded with policies directing resources to students from disadvantaged backgrounds. An example is Australia’s “Gonski” school funding model, which targets additional resources to First Nations, rural and remote, and low socioeconomic students. </p>
<p>But the issue of school segregation is largely ignored by Australian governments. </p>
<p>School segregation occurs when socially disadvantaged students are not evenly spread across schools. Rather, students tend to enrol in different types of schools according to their social backgrounds. This means advantaged children are concentrated in certain schools and disadvantaged students are concentrated in others. </p>
<p>Research has <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/016146810510700905">also shown</a> the social background of a student’s peers influences their learning just as much as their own social background. So when disadvantaged students are concentrated into disadvantaged schools, they are doubly disadvantaged.</p>
<p>Australian secondary schools are the <a href="https://www.oecd.org/pisa/publications/pisa-2018-results-volume-ii-b5fd1b8f-en.htm">ninth</a> most socially segregated among wealthy countries. We also have the <a href="https://www.oecd.org/pisa/publications/pisa-2018-results-volume-v-ca768d40-en.htm">fourth-highest</a> proportion of private school attendance in the OECD. </p>
<h2>Our research</h2>
<p>Last year, my colleagues and I <a href="https://largescaleassessmentsineducation.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40536-022-00142-8">examined</a> the effects of school segregation on students in Australia. </p>
<p>We used NAPLAN results from a nationally representative sample of students in years 5 and 9 to explore the relationship between average school socioeconomic status and an individual students’ academic growth. This involved students from public, private and Catholic schools.</p>
<p>We also examined the effects of parental education and occupation, Indigenous status, language, gender, school sector and the academic achievement of peers on a students’ academic growth.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australian-students-in-rural-areas-are-not-behind-their-city-peers-because-of-socioeconomic-status-there-is-something-else-going-on-207007">Australian students in rural areas are not 'behind' their city peers because of socioeconomic status. There is something else going on</a>
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<h2>Our findings</h2>
<p>We found a school’s socioeconomic status predicts the likelihood a student will achieve minimum literacy and numeracy benchmarks. </p>
<p>This means a disadvantaged student attending a disadvantaged school is unlikely to achieve minimum academic benchmarks. The same type of student attending an advantaged school is twice as likely to reach minimum standards. </p>
<p>Attending a disadvantaged primary school costs half a term of learning per year for every student. This grows to one term of learning per year in secondary schools. </p>
<p>The stronger high school effect is likely due to higher levels of segregation at the secondary level (that is, more students go to private high schools than private primary schools). </p>
<p>This shows going to a private school can benefit a students’ academic performance when it has higher concentrations of socioeconomically advantaged students than nearby public schools. </p>
<p>The outcome is a schooling system that excludes many students from academic excellence. In other words, Australia’s schooling system exacerbates social inequality. </p>
<iframe src="https://flo.uri.sh/visualisation/14071421/embed" title="Interactive or visual content" class="flourish-embed-iframe" frameborder="0" scrolling="no" style="width:100%;height:600px;" sandbox="allow-same-origin allow-forms allow-scripts allow-downloads allow-popups allow-popups-to-escape-sandbox allow-top-navigation-by-user-activation" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
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<h2>What now?</h2>
<p>The federal government is currently reviewing school reform approaches as part of the next National School Reform Agreement, which is due to begin in 2025. </p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="A jar of pencils." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531821/original/file-20230613-1792-3up398.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531821/original/file-20230613-1792-3up398.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=903&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531821/original/file-20230613-1792-3up398.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=903&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531821/original/file-20230613-1792-3up398.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=903&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531821/original/file-20230613-1792-3up398.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1135&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531821/original/file-20230613-1792-3up398.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1135&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531821/original/file-20230613-1792-3up398.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1135&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The next National School Reform Agreement provides an opportunity to look at fairness in the school system.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Pixabay/Pexels</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This is an opportunity to begin to address socioeconomic achievement gaps caused by Australia’s schooling system. </p>
<p>This could be achieved by the National Assessment Program (the body that runs NAPLAN testing) reporting the impact of segregation on learning outcomes. The MySchool website could publish how well schools are contributing to the education of disadvantaged children in their communities. </p>
<p>Students disadvantaged by Australia’s schooling system should also be compensated for the public policy failure. Students enrolled in schools with high concentrations of disadvantaged students could have their tertiary entrance ranks increased. A similar policy occurs in some US <a href="https://news.rice.edu/news/2022/automatic-admissions-policies-increased-diversity-rural-texas-high-schools-says-report">states</a> where students in racially segregated schools are guaranteed places in high status colleges.</p>
<p>But much more substantial reforms are needed to ensure every school is playing its part in educating all young Australians. </p>
<p>This would require schools to be representative of their communities in proportion to their public funding. Secondary private schools <a href="https://www.acara.edu.au/reporting/national-report-on-schooling-in-australia/national-report-on-schooling-in-australia-data-portal/school-funding/school-income-and-capital-expenditure-for-government-and-non-government-schools-(calendar-year)">receive</a> 80-90% of the government funding public schools receive. They should enrol a similar percentage of the disadvantaged students that nearby public schools enrol. </p>
<p>Government regulation of enrolment and exclusion procedures should also remove discrimination against poverty, religion, disability, gender, and sexuality. </p>
<p>Some of the highest performing education systems in the world are also the most <a href="https://www.oecd.org/publications/pisa-2015-results-volume-i-9789264266490-en.htm">equitable</a>. No education system has achieved excellence for all students by separating them by family backgrounds. </p>
<p>Australia’s schooling system requires substantial structural reforms if it is going to lift the achievement of disadvantaged students.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-the-national-school-reform-agreement-and-what-does-it-have-to-do-with-school-funding-202847">What is the National School Reform Agreement and what does it have to do with school funding?</a>
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</p>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/199886/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Sciffer works for the NSW Department of Education. He is a member of the executive of the NSW Teachers Federation. This analysis is based on his academic work as a PhD candidate of Murdoch University and is not associated with his employer. </span></em></p>The way Australia’s school system is structured is especially unfair on students from disadvantaged backgrounds.Michael Sciffer, PhD candidate, Murdoch UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2057592023-06-07T00:49:44Z2023-06-07T00:49:44ZGiant tree-kangaroos once lived in unexpected places all over Australia, according to major new analysis<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529536/original/file-20230601-28-j6qu5h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=287%2C296%2C5236%2C3565&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Dendrolagus goodfelowi, or Goodfellow's tree-kangaroo.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Kangaroos are an enduring symbol of Australia’s uniqueness. To move, they do what no other large mammals do: they hop along on oversized hind legs. So you may be surprised to learn that some kangaroos live in trees, and are among the most endearing and threatened of all marsupials.</p>
<p>Today, biologists recognise ten tree-kangaroo species, all in the genus <em>Dendrolagus</em>. Two species inhabit tropical forest in far northern Queensland. The other eight live in New Guinea.</p>
<p>Studying them is difficult because their habitats are hard to access, they live high in trees and are increasingly rare due to human impacts.</p>
<p>The evolutionary history of tree-kangaroos is even more obscure. In a new study <a href="https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5299.1.1">published today in Zootaxa</a>, we pull together all the evidence on fossil tree-kangaroos and show giant tree-kangaroo species were widespread across Australia, and lived in habitats that were a long way from tropical forest – their modern-day home.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Illustration of several maruspials in an ancient landscape" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527321/original/file-20230519-7659-rz8ynn.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527321/original/file-20230519-7659-rz8ynn.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527321/original/file-20230519-7659-rz8ynn.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527321/original/file-20230519-7659-rz8ynn.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527321/original/file-20230519-7659-rz8ynn.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=544&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527321/original/file-20230519-7659-rz8ynn.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=544&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527321/original/file-20230519-7659-rz8ynn.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=544&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Reconstruction of the giant tree-kangaroo <em>Bohra illuminata</em>, Nullarbor region, 250,000 years ago.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Peter Schouten, Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Tree-kangaroos from the Treeless Plain</h2>
<p>In 2002, a team of explorers found three new caves in the middle of the arid Nullarbor Plain of south-central Australia. The cave floors were littered with the bones of the extinct marsupial “lion” <em>Thylacoleo carnifex</em> and short-faced kangaroos, as well as those of several mammals, birds and reptiles that still live in drier parts of Australia.</p>
<p>Given the high diversity of herbivores, we <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05471">concluded</a> the Nullarbor had to have been more than just arid shrubland some 200–400 thousand years ago, even if it was still very dry. This is because a few shrubs would not have been enough for such a range of herbivores to live on.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-found-out-when-the-nullarbor-plain-dried-out-splitting-australias-ecosystems-in-half-203052">We found out when the Nullarbor Plain dried out, splitting Australia's ecosystems in half</a>
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<p>In this light, it was hard to believe when we discovered partial skeletons of two new species of giant tree-kangaroo in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1671/0272-4634(2008)28%5b463:ANPTDM%5d2.0.CO;2">2008</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.18195/issn.0312-3162.25(2).2009.165-179">2009</a>. They belong to the extinct genus <em>Bohra</em>, first named in 1982 on the basis of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1071/AM82010">leg bones found in the Wellington Caves</a> in New South Wales.</p>
<p>Like the picture on a jigsaw box, we used the Nullarbor skeletons as a guide to search for isolated pieces in museum collections. We discovered more than 100 teeth and bones belonging to a total of at least seven species of extinct tree-kangaroos.</p>
<p>These come from fossil sites extending from southern Victoria to central Australia to the New Guinea highlands, and range in age from 3.5 million (late Pliocene) to a few hundred thousand years old (middle Pleistocene).</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Side by side image of two similar looking skulls" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527324/original/file-20230519-21-9zk2gg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527324/original/file-20230519-21-9zk2gg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=296&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527324/original/file-20230519-21-9zk2gg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=296&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527324/original/file-20230519-21-9zk2gg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=296&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527324/original/file-20230519-21-9zk2gg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527324/original/file-20230519-21-9zk2gg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527324/original/file-20230519-21-9zk2gg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Skull of the extinct <em>Bohra illuminata</em> alongside that of a modern tree-kangaroo (scaled to same length).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A big leap forwards – and then upwards</h2>
<p>Anatomical and molecular evidence shows that, among living marsupials, kangaroos are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/sysbio/syx076">most closely related to possums</a>. No one is sure exactly when the kangaroo ancestor made the descent to the forest floor, due to big gaps in the Australian fossil record.</p>
<p>Similarly, we do not know whether the distinctive “bipedal” hopping mode of locomotion originated in the trees or on the ground – but we do know it became the enduring hallmark of the kangaroo family. They have longer hind legs and longer feet than their possum ancestors, and the foot bones lock together in such a way as to limit sideways foot movement.</p>
<p>Combined with high tendon elasticity and a large muscular tail, these adaptations make kangaroos among the most <a href="https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.161661">energy-efficient</a> movers on the planet.</p>
<p>The foot bones of tree-kangaroos reveal three stages in the evolutionary “reversal” of these adaptations. Pliocene species of <em>Bohra</em> evolved a broader heel bone and upper ankle joint, allowing them greater mobility. Later, Pleistocene species of <em>Bohra</em> evolved a smoother joint at the front of that heel bone, giving them the ability to roll the soles of their feet inward to wrap around tree trunks and limbs.</p>
<p>As well as shorter feet, modern tree-kangaroos (<em>Dendrolagus</em>) have shorter hindlimbs, in conjunction with powerful forelimbs and claws for grasping and climbing. They can even walk with their hind legs while climbing, whereas ground-dwelling kangaroos only move their hind legs alternately while swimming.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Diagram of a shorter, more splayed foot skeleton and a longer, more focused one" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527327/original/file-20230519-21-yaf53y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527327/original/file-20230519-21-yaf53y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527327/original/file-20230519-21-yaf53y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527327/original/file-20230519-21-yaf53y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527327/original/file-20230519-21-yaf53y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=562&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527327/original/file-20230519-21-yaf53y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=562&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527327/original/file-20230519-21-yaf53y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=562&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Comparison of tree-kangaroo (Dendrolagus) and grey kangaroo (Macropus) foot bones.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why return to the trees?</h2>
<p>As Australia dried out over the past 10 million years, more open vegetation became widespread. This trend was interrupted by a greenhouse phase 5–3.5 million years ago. We speculate that the temporary expansion of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1520188113">forest habitats</a> during this period would have opened new ecological niches that early tree-kangaroos evolved to exploit. </p>
<p>By the time climatic drying returned, tree-kangaroos had become established members of the Australian fauna, with species adapting to expanding woodland and savannah habitats.</p>
<p>As some larger monkeys do today, species of <em>Bohra</em> probably divided their time between living in trees and on the ground, whereas modern tree-kangaroos spend most of their time in the canopy.</p>
<p>So, although we might now think of tree-kangaroos as quintessential rainforest animals, this is because the <em>Bohra</em> species that lived in other habitats have become extinct.</p>
<p>Despite everything we can learn about evolution from studies of modern species, the fossil record holds the potential to flip the script with one discovery. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/an-exciting-possibility-scientists-discover-markedly-different-kangaroos-on-either-side-of-australias-dingo-fence-206752">'An exciting possibility': scientists discover markedly different kangaroos on either side of Australia's dingo fence</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/205759/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gavin Prideaux is a palaeontologist at Flinders University, and receives research grant funding from the Australian Research Council, Australia Pacific Science Foundation, Hermon Slade Foundation, National Geographic and Australian Geographic.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Natalie Warburton receives funding from Australia Pacific Science Foundation and has previously received funding from the Australian Research Council. She is a researcher in the Harry Butler Institute at Murdoch University, a Research Associate of the Western Australian Museum and the current Vice President of the Australian Mammal Society.</span></em></p>The ancestors of kangaroos once lived in the trees – but their evolutionary history is murky. Here’s everything we know so far.Gavin Prideaux, Professor, Flinders UniversityNatalie Warburton, Associate Professor in Anatomy, Murdoch UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2067492023-06-02T02:53:04Z2023-06-02T02:53:04ZAustralian Defence Force must ensure the findings against Ben Roberts-Smith are not the end of the story<p>On Thursday, Justice Anthony Besanko of the Federal Court dismissed defamation proceedings brought by former Special Air Service soldier Ben Roberts-Smith against several Australian news outlets. </p>
<p>The court found that reporting by Nick McKenzie, Chris Masters and David Wroe had satisfactorily established the truth of several serious imputations against Roberts-Smith. These included claims he committed war crimes during his service in Afghanistan. </p>
<p>The judgement is a landmark moment in Australian military history, with implications for the investigation and potential prosecution of other Australians suspected of war crimes. The explosive evidence heard in the case also underlines the need for the Army, the broader defence community and the Australian public to reckon fully with the conduct of Australian forces in the Afghanistan campaign.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-win-for-the-press-a-big-loss-for-ben-roberts-smith-what-does-this-judgment-tell-us-about-defamation-law-206759">A win for the press, a big loss for Ben Roberts-Smith: what does this judgment tell us about defamation law?</a>
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<h2>Standards of proof and evidence</h2>
<p>Roberts-Smith could conceivably face criminal prosecution for the alleged murders at a future war crimes trial. This case was a civil proceeding, meaning the imputations only needed to be proven true on the balance of probabilities, a substantially lower requirement than proof beyond a reasonable doubt, which would be required in a criminal trial.</p>
<p>Because of the different standards of proof, it is not certain Roberts-Smith would be found guilty in a war crimes trial, assuming all the same evidence was called. Prosecutors will be concerned, moreover, that the outcome of the high-profile defamation trial might influence a future war crimes proceeding. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1664385423936835591"}"></div></p>
<p>It is likely any criminal trial for Roberts-Smith will be held before a judge, without a jury. It is not unusual for a war crimes trial to be held without a jury; past Australian trials were held before a panel of three to five judges, all of whom were military officers.</p>
<p>Another way to overcome the problem of the defamation outcome poisoning a future criminal trial in Australia would be for the government to hand Roberts-Smith over to the International Criminal Court in the Hague, a court with long experience in dealing with very high profile war crimes cases. However, doing so would probably be deeply unpopular and signal to the world that Australia cannot dispense its own military justice.</p>
<h2>Contextual truth</h2>
<p>Some imputations against Roberts-Smith were not substantiated at the defamation trial. However, Justice Besanko found that these defamatory statements, which concerned threatening a fellow soldier and domestic violence, were nonetheless contextually true. This ruling means the newspapers are not liable for these imputations because the more injurious claims, including war crimes, were found to be true, so the defendant would suffer no further reputational damage.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1664157726656839680"}"></div></p>
<h2>Broader implications</h2>
<p>It remains to be seen what the full reaction to Thursday’s judgement will be. Roberts-Smith still holds the Victoria Cross, the country’s highest military honour. He received financial support for the case from Kerry Stokes – who, from 2015 to 2022, was chair of the Australian War Memorial. Stokes allegedly referred to McKenzie and Masters as “<a href="https://www.smh.com.au/business/companies/seven-billionaire-kerry-stokes-blasts-scumbag-journalists-over-roberts-smith-coverage-20221110-p5bx6g.html">scumbag journalists</a>”. </p>
<p>While the memorial as an institution did not support Roberts-Smith with the case, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2021/apr/12/kerry-stokes-to-remain-war-memorial-chair-despite-criticism-of-his-support-for-ben-roberts-smith">Stokes remained as chair</a> even after his role was publicly questioned. The interpretation from some quarters that reporting on Roberts-Smith constitutes unfair criticism of a war hero will persist. Others, of course, will see it as exactly the job investigative reporting is meant to do.</p>
<p>The Australian Defence Force has taken the allegations brought forward by journalists and other sources seriously. It commissioned Paul Brereton’s Afghanistan inquiry and appears to accept that the conduct of some Australian personnel was potentially illegal.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-investigating-potential-war-crimes-in-afghanistan-just-became-much-harder-and-could-take-years-171412">Why investigating potential war crimes in Afghanistan just became much harder – and could take years</a>
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<p>While the findings in the defamation case support the ADF’s position that an inquiry was needed, the case was not a “<a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/australian-defamation-court-proxy-war-crimes-trial-nears-judgement-2023-05-30/">proxy war crimes trial</a>”. It does not deliver justice for alleged war crimes. Only properly convened war crimes trials can answer the questions that hover over Australian conduct in Afghanistan, <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-australian-commanders-need-to-be-held-responsible-for-alleged-war-crimes-in-afghanistan-151030">including the role of commanding officers</a>.</p>
<p>War crimes trials, however, take significant institutional momentum to convene and sustain: they are costly, long-running and controversial. The challenge for the ADF now is to continue to support the thorough investigation of alleged war crimes and to pursue criminal prosecution where it is warranted. </p>
<p>Since the second world war, Australia has positioned itself internationally as a champion of the laws and proper conduct of war. Australian forces have been deployed to many difficult conflicts, where they have largely been trusted operators. </p>
<p>The judgement in this case ought to have minimal impact on Australian forces who are deployed overseas, as following the rules of war is assumed to be part of any mission they undertake. If the case does come as a wake-up call to some, then the ADF will have to further assess its training on the laws of war, its leadership, and its culture. </p>
<p>The Roberts-Smith case, the finding against him and the graphic detail in the publicly available evidence made headlines around the world. If public faith in the ADF is to be restored, together with its international reputation, there must now be an exhaustive process of investigation and prosecution of any war crimes committed in Afghanistan.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/206749/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dean Aszkielowicz has previously received funding from The Army Research Scheme.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paul Taucher does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The explosive evidence heard in the case also underscores the need for the Army and the Australian public to reckon fully with the conduct of Australian forces in the Afghanistan campaign.Dean Aszkielowicz, Lecturer, Murdoch UniversityPaul Taucher, Lecturer, Murdoch UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2057452023-05-25T01:41:41Z2023-05-25T01:41:41ZWhat can we learn from the marriage equality vote about supporting First Nations people during the Voice debate?<p>In recent months in Australia, we have seen <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2023/may/09/rockhampton-mob-ringleader-was-head-of-patriots-group-that-posted-anti-islam-content">vigilante racism</a> in Rockhampton, <a href="https://www.sbs.com.au/nitv/article/we-are-tired-swans-legend-slams-booing-of-buddy-franklin/u2vlwkbcy">booing</a>, <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-05-19/lawyer-for-ex-hawthorn-players-speaks-after-clarkson-takes-leave/102370598">abuse</a> and <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-australia-65095927">vitriol</a> directed at First Nations footy players, and the <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-05-14/rally-at-banksia-hill-detention-centre-conditions/102341648">appalling treatment</a> of First Nations children jailed in adult prisons.</p>
<p>Racism is a <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2023/apr/05/indigenous-voice-no-campaign-event-reinforced-racist-stereotypes-watchdog-says">major issue</a> in the debate over the proposed First Nations Voice to Parliament – and it will likely only continue to get worse.</p>
<p>Regardless of how First Nations people intend to vote, racist <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2023/may/22/linda-burney-blasts-peter-dutton-for-spreading-misinformation-on-indigenous-voice">public commentary</a> has a harmful impact on the mental health and wellbeing of people and their communities. <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-05-19/stan-grant-media-target-racist-abuse-coronation-coverage-enough/102368652">Stan Grant’s decision to step away</a> from his role with the ABC is a high profile example of this. </p>
<p>Recognising these likely impacts, the federal Labor government has <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-05-10/budget-allocates-millions-to-support-indigenous-mental-health/102326916">committed $10.5 million</a> to support mental health services for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in the lead-up to the referendum vote later this year. </p>
<p>This is a welcome initiative that will enable Aboriginal community-controlled organisations to provide further support for their respective communities.</p>
<p>We can also learn from the experiences of LGBTQIA+ people during Australia’s marriage equality plebiscite how a national vote like this can affect the mental health of a historically marginalised community.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/new-research-shows-how-indigenous-lgbtiq-people-dont-feel-fully-accepted-by-either-community-161096">New research shows how Indigenous LGBTIQ+ people don't feel fully accepted by either community</a>
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<h2>Mental health impacts of the marriage equality plebiscite</h2>
<p>Studies found that increased exposure to the “no” campaign messaging in the lead-up to the marriage equality plebiscite, as well as the harmful public debate, led to <a href="https://theconversation.com/new-research-reveals-how-the-marriage-equality-debate-damaged-lgbt-australians-mental-health-110277">greater levels</a> of <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/ajpy.12245?needAccess=true&role=button">psychological stress</a>, depression and anxiety among the queer community.</p>
<p>Our research focusing on the wellbeing of Indigenous and LGBTQIA+ communities suggests the Voice to Parliament debate will also disproportionately affect Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. </p>
<p>We have found that while people who identified as both Indigenous and LGBTQIA+ experienced frequent sex and gender discrimination, <a href="https://theconversation.com/new-research-shows-how-indigenous-lgbtiq-people-dont-feel-fully-accepted-by-either-community-161096">the impact of racism</a> was more profoundly felt. As a result, it’s important to protect Indigenous people against racism in the very public debate over the Voice.</p>
<p>During the marriage equality plebiscite, mental health services catering to LGBTQIA+ clients saw a <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-09-18/same-sex-marriage-survey-lgbtqi-mental-health-support/8955956">dramatic increase</a> in demand. This led to longer wait-lists and increased stress on the healthcare system. The mental health of LGBTQIA+ people in electorates recording a high “no” vote <a href="https://doi-org.ezproxy.ecu.edu.au/10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.05.015">was also more affected</a> than people in electorates voting “yes”. </p>
<p>This would suggest that funding support for Indigenous people in communities associated with higher levels of racism is a priority. Pre-polling and post-referendum analysis would help establish which areas require this. </p>
<p>A supportive community also matters. LGBTQIA+ people with a close social circle they perceived as supporting marriage equality suffered less severe <a href="https://theconversation.com/new-research-reveals-how-the-marriage-equality-debate-damaged-lgbt-australians-mental-health-110277">negative mental health outcomes</a> from the “no” campaign. For those who didn’t receive support from their friends and family, public messages of support helped. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, not all Indigenous LGBTQA+ peoples <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2673-995X/3/1/5.%20Conceptualising%20Wellbeing%20for%20Australian%20Aboriginal%20LGBTQA+%20Young%20People.%20Youth,%203(1),%2070-92.">have access</a> to social supports. </p>
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<h2>How could the Voice referendum affect First Nations people?</h2>
<p>According to various surveys, a <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2023/apr/27/a-majority-of-first-nations-people-support-the-voice-why-dont-non-indigenous-australians-believe-this">majority</a> of Indigenous people support constitutional recognition. But unlike the <a href="https://doi-org.ezproxy.ecu.edu.au/10.2104/ha080044">1967 referendum</a>, the Voice to Parliament referendum faces an organised “no” campaign. </p>
<p>There is opposition to the Voice from some media and social media sources that purposefully confuse the case for constitutional recognition. This makes the task ahead more difficult for “yes” campaigners and Indigenous people more broadly. </p>
<p>Racialised stressors that come with the referendum are an additional burden to First Nations communities. One example of this is the opposition’s repeated insistence about “insufficient detail” on the Voice, particularly from the more <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-05-22/peter-dutton-says-indigenous-voice-will-re-racialise-the-country/102378700">conservative side</a> of the “no” campaign.
This invalidates and distorts the work, expertise and experience of Indigenous people over decades on all sides of the debate.</p>
<p>This vote will have little adverse impact on the lives of non-Indigenous Australians. However, supporting Indigenous family members, friends and colleagues is important. Like the marriage equality plebiscite, a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5899433/">minority community</a> will face the greatest impact from the vote, not the majority with power.</p>
<p>Being supportive of Indigenous people firstly requires an understanding that we, as First Nations people, are entitled to <a href="https://theconversation.com/for-a-lot-of-first-nations-peoples-debates-around-the-voice-to-parliament-are-not-about-a-simple-yes-or-no-199766">diverse</a> political views. </p>
<p>We are not here to educate or carry the burden of raising awareness on the referendum. We are also not interested in experiencing increased racial violence under the guise of political debate. This debate is one that non-Indigenous people can walk away from, but will remain felt by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. </p>
<p>Sustained mental health support for Indigenous people after the referendum will hopefully lessen the harm from the racism that will probably follow, irrespective of the outcome. </p>
<p>In order to combat racism and <a href="https://thewest.com.au/news/indigenous-voice-to-parliament/aec-warns-of-increasing-misinformation-over-indigenous-voice-to-parliament-referendum-c-10739488">misinformation</a>, it is vital for non-Indigenous people to have informed conversations about the referendum – <a href="https://togetheryes.com.au/">around the kitchen table</a>, at work, and even at your infamously racist uncle’s house. </p>
<p>Within our <a href="https://nit.com.au/09-05-2023/5891/murdoch-university-leadership-declares-unanimous-support-for-the-uluru-statement-and-yes-for-the-voice-to-parliament">respective</a> <a href="https://www.ecu.edu.au/about-ecu/voice-to-parliament">organisations</a>, non-Indigenous colleagues are also educating themselves and others around them. They are taking the opportunity to elevate the voices of their Indigenous peers and proactively considering ways to support Indigenous communities throughout the campaign and afterwards.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/205745/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bep Uink receives funding from the NHMRC and Australian Research Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Shakara Liddelow-Hunt receives funding from the NHMRC. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sian Bennett receives funding from Pathways of Care Longitudinal Study (POCLS), NSW Government.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Braden Hill does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>In order to combat racism and misinformation, it is vital for non-Indigenous people to have informed conversations about the referendum with those around you.Braden Hill, Deputy Vice Chancellor (Students Equity and Indigenous), Edith Cowan UniversityBep Uink, Research fellow, Murdoch UniversityShakara Liddelow-Hunt, Research assistant, Telethon Kids InstituteSian Bennett, Lecturer, Edith Cowan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2049212023-05-18T02:02:23Z2023-05-18T02:02:23ZForensics are different when someone dies in a body of water. First, you need to locate them<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526663/original/file-20230517-17-ox0x4u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=98%2C44%2C5784%2C3943&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Roxane 134</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/police-diver-wet-suit-employed-emergency-1578479857">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>While the iconic “crime scene – do not cross” tape may be a familiar sight on land, it’s a different story when it comes to water.</p>
<p>With no way to tape off an entire lake or a slice of the vast expanse of the ocean, investigations in, under or beside the water present a unique challenge. This work is not just due to suspicious criminal activity, but also search and recovery operations or accidents. </p>
<p>With the human body not equipped to survive in water, many fatalities are recorded every year as a consequence of <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2022/dec/28/10-australians-dead-in-water-accidents-as-lifesavers-urge-caution-in-heightened-danger-of-holidays">natural death</a> or <a href="https://7news.com.au/news/western-australia-police/womans-body-found-floating-in-fremantle-fishing-harbour-sparking-mystery-death-probe-c-9060847">suspected murder</a>. Bodies can be found not only in the ocean, but also <a href="https://www.thesun.co.uk/tvandshowbiz/12115770/naya-rivera-cause-of-death/">lakes</a>, <a href="https://www.9news.com.au/national/western-australia-news-body-of-man-discovered/8b7769c5-48c2-48a0-a8a1-4e17a3dae3de">rivers</a>, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23568015/">wells</a>, <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/murky-water-hid-dead-body-in-pool-for-2-days/">swimming pools</a> and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/feb/21/body-found-hotel-cistern-water">cisterns</a>.</p>
<p>Sometimes the scenario is more complex, such as a 2021 case when a body was discovered <a href="https://www.9news.com.au/national/wa-murder-human-remains-found-in-wheelie-bin-floating-in-perth-dam/413c4059-491b-4d05-8e9f-33e1e9a0568a">concealed in a wheeled bin at the bottom of a dam</a>, or when the severed foot of fraudster Melissa Caddick was <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2022/sep/29/melissa-caddicks-severed-foot-likely-floated-to-beach-after-93-days-underwater-expert-says">found in a shoe washed up on a beach</a>.</p>
<p>Investigators called to such scenes must rely on specialised techniques and technology to gather evidence and piece together what happened. Sometimes they are supported by experts in the niche and multidisciplinary field of “aquatic forensics”, such as <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-02-15/shipwreck-animal-bones-forensic-science-murdoch-university/100829198">our research team</a>.</p>
<p>The sheer size of a body of water can make it difficult to know where to start, but there are always four main questions to drive the investigators’ work. Who are the victims? How did they die? When did the death occur? And where did it happen?</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-do-police-forensic-scientists-investigate-a-case-a-clandestine-gravesite-recovery-expert-explains-171959">How do police forensic scientists investigate a case? A clandestine gravesite recovery expert explains</a>
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<h2>Finding the body</h2>
<p>Sometimes the first issue is finding the deceased person. Depending on the body of water and the circumstances surrounding the case, teams of divers can be dispatched to conduct a search. </p>
<p>Since investigators and pathologists usually do not experience the actual scene and <a href="https://myjms.mohe.gov.my/index.php/JCHS/article/view/13166">will see the victim only when retrieved</a>, underwater images and memories provided by divers become essential.</p>
<p>However, the safety of the divers always comes first. Divers can operate only for a certain period in an underwater scenario. This is determined by factors such as depth, water temperature, currents and waves that affect the divers’ breathing rate and air consumption from the tank.</p>
<p>Narrowing the search area is a pivotal fist step. <a href="https://phys.org/news/2015-09-cadaver-dogs-underwater-corpses.html">Specially trained dogs</a> can detect the scent of submerged human remains from the surface, if it’s not too deep. Technology can help, too – satellites and <a href="https://www.imarest.org/themarineprofessional/on-the-radar/5693-forensic-oceanography-challenges-in-police-search-operation">oceanographic data</a> can help locate floating objects, and <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-04253-9_182">sonar</a> can scan the water to detect any objects at the bottom, including a body.</p>
<p>Divers can then take what’s known as a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2589871X23000165">visual record of the scene</a> directly, or they can use remotely operated vehicles equipped with cameras. It is also important to use a reference photo scale – in the water objects appear up to 25% closer and 33% larger than their real size.</p>
<p>Despite the best efforts, depth, distance from the target and clarity of the water can affect the quality of the images. Some underwater areas have zero visibility, making the investigation more <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28480488/">challenging and potentially unsafe</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526664/original/file-20230517-27-62vdej.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A sign on the side of a footpath that says police diving is underway and people should stop their boats before proceeding" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526664/original/file-20230517-27-62vdej.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526664/original/file-20230517-27-62vdej.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526664/original/file-20230517-27-62vdej.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526664/original/file-20230517-27-62vdej.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526664/original/file-20230517-27-62vdej.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526664/original/file-20230517-27-62vdej.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526664/original/file-20230517-27-62vdej.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">For searches conducted underwater, such as in this Manchester city canal in 2019, police can employ specially trained divers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/manchester-united-kingdom-12th-nov-2019-1558006295">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Identifying and retrieving the body</h2>
<p>Sometimes, identifying the victim is straightforward, for example in cases with <a href="https://7news.com.au/news/nsw/details-emerge-as-witness-describe-efforts-to-save-sydney-dad-of-two-who-drowned-retrieving-sons-ball-from-lake--c-5188684">witnesses present</a>. However, bodies can be unrecognisable after a time spent underwater. Being submerged causes <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6474513/">several changes</a> due to temperature, currents, and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29445874/">interactions with animals</a> and obstacles.</p>
<p>For example, cold and wet environments like the ocean cause fat tissue to turn into a waxy substance (<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33596512/">adipocere</a>) in less than <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17316224/">40 days</a>. Limb loss is also common – investigators might have to identify a body based only on <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10882826/">some parts</a>. If a body loses a foot, it may be found floating thanks to the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30453176/">buoyancy offered by shoes</a>.</p>
<p>As with cases on dry ground, clothing and personal items such as wallets and <a href="https://www.research.ed.ac.uk/en/publications/forensic-jewellery-a-design-led-approach-to-exploring-jewellery-i">jewellery</a> can assist the identification process. To avoid losing personal items during recovery, <a href="http://www.disastermedtech.com/amphibious-body-bag.html">amphibious body bags</a> have been developed. They allow body collection directly from the water, retaining associated objects but allowing the water to drain away.</p>
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<h2>Drowned or already dead?</h2>
<p>One of the main questions is if the death happened in the water or elsewhere, with the body dumped afterwards. There are an estimated 236,000 annual <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/drowning">drowning deaths worldwide</a>.</p>
<p>Investigators can also be called upon a body found at sea after <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/nov/07/fisherman-lost-at-sea-436-days-book-extract">months gone missing</a>, or <a href="https://www.perthnow.com.au/news/nsw/caucasian-mans-head-washes-up-in-a-bag-on-rottnest-island-beach-ng-ee7ec09b774ea580384c70c8068cba1b">remains washed up on a beach</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16378701/">Drowning is one of the most difficult diagnoses</a> in forensic pathology. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35725698/">It is based</a> on a few scattered findings, such as frothy fluid in the airways, lung damage, and fluid in the upper gastrointestinal tract.</p>
<p>Another tool is the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26256845/">diatom test</a> – it compares microscopic algae found in the tissues of the body with the one present in the water where the body was recovered. For highly decomposed bodies, new <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33147546/">molecular</a>, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35725699/">artificial intelligence</a> and “<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31282630/">virtopsy</a>” (virtual autopsy) technologies are fast developing.</p>
<p>Sometimes drowning is the mechanism of death, but there may have been other underlying causes – such as a cramp, a heart attack, drugs or an accident of some sort. It takes careful interpretation to discern these.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A diver in a wetsuit on the sea floor manipulating instruments" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526750/original/file-20230517-23-6ertl7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526750/original/file-20230517-23-6ertl7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526750/original/file-20230517-23-6ertl7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526750/original/file-20230517-23-6ertl7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526750/original/file-20230517-23-6ertl7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526750/original/file-20230517-23-6ertl7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526750/original/file-20230517-23-6ertl7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Rossella Paba conducting an underwater archaeology survey.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Rossella Paba, Author provided</span></span>
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<h2>Old tools and new technologies are helping</h2>
<p><a href="https://isprs-archives.copernicus.org/articles/XL-5-W5/7/2015/">Photogrammetric surveys</a> developed to map submerged archaeological sites, and underwater drones equipped with multiple sensors, special lights and acoustic imaging technologies to locate submerged targets, can help to create a 3D image of the underwater area. This helps to distinguish large items, such as shipwrecks and vehicles, bodies or <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00414-017-1546-1">bones</a>, and pieces of <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33218795/">clothing</a>.</p>
<p>After retrieval, macro and microorganisms can provide information on the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25538026/">provenance</a>, the <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fvets.2019.00404/full">causes of death</a> and the <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-centuries-old-bones-from-australias-historic-shipwrecks-can-help-us-solve-crimes-174963">submersion time</a>.</p>
<p>Unlike the standardised methods on dry land, procedures in underwater criminal scenarios are still being developed. Forensic scientists are also borrowing the knowledge, techniques and tools from other fields, such as underwater archaeology and marine biology – but without the crime scene tape.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/204921/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>You can’t tape off an entire ocean. But ‘aquatic forensics’ is an emerging field, with techniques borrowed from archaeology, marine biology and more.Paola A. Magni, Adjunct Research fellow, The University of Western Australia; Research Fellow, Harry Butler Institute, Senior Lecturer in Forensic Science, Murdoch UniversityEdda Guareschi, Adjunct Lecturer in Forensic Sciences, Murdoch UniversityRossella Paba, PhD candidate, University of Cagliari, James Cook UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2037582023-05-14T20:07:52Z2023-05-14T20:07:52ZGovernment must use trauma-informed approach to end uncertainty on refugee visa applications<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525769/original/file-20230512-35323-bl396e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Steven Saphore/AAP</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>In February this year, the Albanese government <a href="https://minister.homeaffairs.gov.au/AndrewGiles/Pages/permanent-pathway-for-tpv-holders.aspx">announced</a> that thousands of refugees living in Australia who were on Temporary Protection Visas (TPV) and Safe Haven Enterprise Visas (SHEV) would now be moved onto a permanent visa known as a Resolution of Status Visa (ROS).</p>
<p>When making the announcement, Immigration Minister Andrew Giles said this would end the limbo for refugees after they had “endured ten years of uncertainty”.</p>
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<p>The change was welcomed by an estimated 20,000 refugees who can move to permanent visas. They are part of a larger group of around 31,000 asylum seekers who arrived in Australia by boat before January 2014. Known collectively as the “legacy caseload”, their refugee status was subject to a “fast track” process.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/changes-to-temporary-protection-visas-are-a-welcome-development-and-they-wont-encourage-people-smugglers-199763">Changes to temporary protection visas are a welcome development – and they won't encourage people smugglers</a>
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<h2>The trauma of uncertainty</h2>
<p>The minister’s recognition of the impact of visa uncertainty resonates with recently <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00207640231159297">published</a> research we conducted with lawyers and migration agents who work with this group. They encountered clients in mental health crises, feeling marginalised, defeated and in some cases “<a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/inm.12325">lethal hopelessness</a>”. </p>
<p>This research adds to <a href="https://theconversation.com/refugees-without-secure-visas-have-poorer-mental-health-but-the-news-isnt-all-bad-128456">existing evidence</a> about the negative impact of temporary visas on the mental health of asylum seekers. The research goes further and found that years of delays and the process itself contributed to deteriorating mental health. </p>
<p>This research reveals how the government can use a trauma-informed approach to end visa uncertainty and create a shared future. </p>
<p>What is the new procedure for obtaining permanent residence? What are the options for those who do not have a TPV or a SHEV? How can the government end ongoing uncertainty for them?</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525773/original/file-20230512-33099-jwlap0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525773/original/file-20230512-33099-jwlap0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525773/original/file-20230512-33099-jwlap0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525773/original/file-20230512-33099-jwlap0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525773/original/file-20230512-33099-jwlap0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525773/original/file-20230512-33099-jwlap0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525773/original/file-20230512-33099-jwlap0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Research shows the ongoing uncertainty for refugees about their visa status can have a devastating impact on their mental health.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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<h2>Resolution of Status Visas</h2>
<p>Refugees who currently hold TPVs and SHEVs will be <a href="https://www.sbs.com.au/language/dari/en/article/heres-what-you-need-to-know-about-applying-for-the-new-resolution-of-status-visa/os7rk2c5l">eligible</a> for a permanent Resolution of Status Visa. </p>
<p>Processing is under way and as of late March 2023 <a href="https://minister.homeaffairs.gov.au/AndrewGiles/Pages/law-council-australia-immigration-law-conference.aspx">100 visas</a> have already been granted. The department <a href="https://immi.homeaffairs.gov.au/visas/getting-a-visa/visa-listing/resolution-of-status-851#About">predicts</a> most of these visas will be granted within 12 months. Funding to provide legal assistance to refugees is a welcome step towards facilitating a sense of stability and predictability as they await a visa.</p>
<p>Permanent visas will mean refugees can begin the process of family reunion after over a decade of separation. Last year, the government <a href="https://minister.homeaffairs.gov.au/AndrewGiles/Pages/goodwill-measures-for-tpvshev-holders.aspx">removed policy barriers</a> that meant sponsors who arrived by boat were the lowest priority in the visas queue.</p>
<p>However, processing delays, high visa charges and strict rules around which family can be sponsored to Australia will mean refugees will continue to face ongoing separation from their partners and children.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australias-temporary-visa-system-is-unfair-expensive-impractical-and-inconsistent-heres-how-the-new-government-could-fix-it-185870">Australia's temporary visa system is unfair, expensive, impractical and inconsistent. Here's how the new government could fix it</a>
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<h2>What happens to those who do not hold a TPV or SHEV?</h2>
<p>Giles has <a href="https://minister.homeaffairs.gov.au/AndrewGiles/Pages/law-council-australia-immigration-law-conference.aspx">stated</a> that the February 13 announcement “includes a pathway for all those in the cohort who are ultimately found to be owed protection”.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.homeaffairs.gov.au/research-and-stats/files/uma-legacy-caseload-february-2023.pdf.">Statistics</a> published by the department in February 2023 state there are <a href="https://www.homeaffairs.gov.au/research-and-stats/files/uma-legacy-caseload-march-2023.pdf">9,861 people</a> who have been through the fast-track process and were refused visas. Around 5,000 of those are challenging those refusals in the courts. If successful, their cases will be re-examined by the Immigration Assessment Authority (IAA). If they are then found to be a refugee, they would be eligible for a Resolution of Status Visa.</p>
<p>Others may seek ministerial intervention. In late 2021, <a href="https://www.refugeecouncil.org.au/what-we-have-learnt-from-the-responses-to-2021-22-additional-senate-estimates-questions-on-notice/">almost 200 people from Afghanistan</a> were waiting for the minister to use his personal discretion to allow them to reapply for protection based on the Taliban takeover in 2021. </p>
<p>The minister also has the discretion to grant visas to individuals who may not meet refugee criteria, but may have Australian citizen partners, children or employers – as already done in the case of the Nadesalingham family. </p>
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<p>Flaws in the fast-track process and in particular with the review process of the IAA have been <a href="https://www.kaldorcentre.unsw.edu.au/sites/kaldorcentre.unsw.edu.au/files/Research%20Brief_Fast%20track_final.pdf">documented</a> previously. Dismantling the “fast track” system was part of the <a href="https://www.alp.org.au/about/national-platform">Labor Party platform</a>. But, to date, no announcements have been made and the IAA continues to hear cases. </p>
<p>Reform may come as part of the upcoming overhaul of the administrative review system. What changes, if any, might be made are unclear, but this group of people face ongoing <a href="https://www.sbs.com.au/language/arabic/en/podcast-episode/in-limbo-zainab-was-born-in-australia-but-does-not-qualify-for-fast-tracked-residency-under-new-visa-rules/jzl8y3bbi">limbo</a>. </p>
<h2>Deterioration in mental health is directly linked to treatment</h2>
<p>While the minister has declared there is a pathway for all those who are found to be owed protection, there continues to be <a href="https://www.sbs.com.au/news/video/after-a-decade-living-in-australia-12000-asylum-seekers-remain-in-limbo/iq39en2oc">doubt</a> about what will happen to those whose cases have been refused.</p>
<p>In 2018 and 2019, we <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00207640231159297">surveyed and interviewed</a> lawyers and migration agents who worked directly with clients going through the “fast track” assessment process. They heard stories of overwhelming emotions (for example, despair and anger) as well as witnessing self-harm and suicidal behaviour. </p>
<p>A key driver of people’s mental distress was their inability to apply for a visa for several years. This was followed by a difficult and fast-paced application process in which they were expected to relay their stories of persecution. Many individuals were distressed and destabilised before the process began. </p>
<p>Legal professionals described clients feeling trapped by ongoing visa insecurity and having no control over their future. Family separation combined with uncertainty about their future undermined individuals’ capacity to cope with everyday life and decision-making.</p>
<p>These findings have significant practical implications for how the government handles law reform and policy development with this group. For those who have now found permanency, uncertainty around family reunification will continue to be a significant stressor. There are <a href="https://theconversation.com/australias-temporary-visa-system-is-unfair-expensive-impractical-and-inconsistent-heres-how-the-new-government-could-fix-it-185870">options</a> to amend laws, policies and processes, which would make them more humane.</p>
<p>Clarity and trauma-informed approaches are essential. For those who do not hold a TPV or SHEV, the Australian government should urgently collaborate with community groups, mental health experts and legal providers to co-design pathways and communication on how their cases will be reviewed and progressed. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-high-court-ruling-in-immigration-case-could-impact-hundreds-of-visa-decisions-since-2016-203676">recent</a> High Court decision relating to how the minister’s intervention powers have been exercised will force a review. </p>
<p>The government has an opportunity to amend the guidelines and provide clear guidance for this group, which will allow those who were refused under the “fast track” system to be considered for visas that provide a pathway to certainty.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/203758/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mary Anne Kenny has previous received funding from the Australian Research Council and sitting fees from the Department of Home Affairs</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nicholas Procter has previously received grant funding and sitting fees from from Department of Health and Department of Home Affairs.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Carol Grech does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Research shows uncertainty and delays in visa processing have a terrible affect on applicants’ mental health, and the government must be mindful of this.Mary Anne Kenny, Associate Professor, School of Law, Murdoch UniversityCarol Grech, Professor, University of South AustraliaNicholas Procter, Professor and Chair: Mental Health Nursing, University of South AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.