tag:theconversation.com,2011:/institutions/technical-university-braunschweig-1839/articlesTechnical University Braunschweig2024-03-12T11:46:23Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2239212024-03-12T11:46:23Z2024-03-12T11:46:23ZLagos bans single-use plastics – why I think Nigeria should have taxed them instead<p>Waste pollution is a huge problem in Nigeria, with serious impacts on the environment. In response, the Lagos state government has <a href="https://lagosstate.gov.ng/lagos-announces-ban-on-usage-of-styrofoams-single-use-plastics/">banned</a> styrofoam (a type of plastic widely used as food containers) and <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OPr_5fdI_BQ">other single-use products</a>. </p>
<p>Following a <a href="https://punchng.com/lagos-begins-enforcement-of-single-use-plastics-ban-after-three-weeks/#:%7E:text=Lagos%20begins%20enforcement%20of%20single%2Duse%20plastics%20ban%20after%20three%20weeks,-25th%20January%202024&text=Kindly%20share%20this%20story%3A,which%20full%20enforcement%20will%20start.">three-week moratorium</a> for producers and sellers to mop up styrofoam containers, enforcement <a href="https://moelagos.gov.ng/lasg-commences-full-enforcement-of-ban-on-styrofoam-monday-env-comm/">began</a> on 4 March 2024. </p>
<p>In 2019, Nigeria was estimated to generate about <a href="https://www.voanews.com/a/africa_nigerian-recyclers-reduce-plastic-waste-exchanging-trash-cash/6175035.html">2.5 million tonnes</a> of plastic waste yearly. Lagos State generated <a href="https://www.wacaprogram.org/sites/waca/files/knowdoc/Nigeria_plastics_PWC_final%20%281%29.pdf#page=4">8,400 tonnes of waste daily, of which 11% was plastic</a>. The estimate is higher today. </p>
<p>The habit of residents discarding used plastic wherever it suits them hurts the environment in many ways. Evidence abounds of the impact in <a href="https://youtu.be/m0eu_Bj82TM?si=8Mn4Putp7fnSz0Jg">Lagos</a> and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S277241662400010X">other parts</a> of Nigeria. Yearly, more than 130,000 tonnes of plastic waste <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/gallery/2024/1/31/lagos-ban-on-styrofoam-and-plastics-brings-applause-and-concern">end up</a> in the country’s waterways. Producers of these plastics are not without blame: they are negligent about taking measures to combat the pollution their products cause. </p>
<p>As an <a href="https://iceesr.org.ng/news/introducing-iceesr-uniuyo-cim-and-giz-sponsored-diaspora-scholar-dr-kehinde-allen-taylor/">expert</a> in environmental and sustainability issues, who has <a href="https://macau.uni-kiel.de/servlets/MCRFileNodeServlet/macau_derivate_00002344/Max_Mustermann.pdf">studied</a> the impact of plastic waste on the ecosystem in Lagos State, I have an informed view on how to deal with the problem. I argue that Lagos State would have achieved its objectives better had it taxed single-use plastics instead of banning them. The ban could undermine the potential success of the plastics value chain from a social, economic and environmental perspective. </p>
<p>A plastic ban is a <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3173844">costly measure</a> which turns a small environmental problem into a bigger one. The ban could lead to black market sales, smuggling from neighbouring states, high costs for purchasing environmentally friendly alternatives and unnecessary expenses for monitoring, enforcement, evaluation and assessment. </p>
<p>In contrast, a tax on single-use plastic would create incentives to use less of this material. </p>
<h2>Taxes work better than bans</h2>
<p>Rwanda, Kenya and Uganda’s bans of single-use plastic offer lessons. The policy’s success has been limited by <a href="https://kinder.world/articles/problems/plastic-free-is-not-problem-free-rwanda-struggles-despite-ban-17698">black market sales</a>, <a href="https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/story/how-smuggling-threatens-undermine-kenyas-plastic-bag-ban">smuggling</a> and the <a href="https://rwandatoday.africa/rwanda/news/traders-smuggle-banned-single-use-plastic-bags-to-avoid-costly-packing-envelopes-3728844">high cost of eco-friendly packaging materials</a>. Pollution from single-use plastic bags <a href="https://allianceforscience.org/blog/2023/04/earth-day-east-african-nations-choked-by-single-use-plastic-pollution-because-laws-are-not-enforced">continues</a>.</p>
<p>For example, Rwanda’s plastic bags ban affects traders and consumers who rely on them. Reusable bags offered as an alternative are not affordable, of inferior quality and not durable. This has led to smuggling across the border into Rwanda and an increase in black market sales. </p>
<p>The consequences of being caught are <a href="https://africacheck.org/fact-checks/meta-programme-fact-checks/yes-plastic-bags-illegal-rwanda-punishment-includes-jail">fines and imprisonment</a>. But people are still finding ways to bring these plastic bags into Rwanda. Meanwhile, the resources put into monitoring, enforcement and evaluation cost taxpayers a lot of money.</p>
<h2>Countries where single-use plastic tax has worked</h2>
<p><a href="https://ieep.eu/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/IE-Plastic-Bag-Levy-final-1-1.pdf">Ireland</a>, <a href="https://ceem.ugent.be/publications/tax.pdf">Belgium</a>, <a href="https://www.bdo.de/en-gb/insights/publishments/tax-legal/plastics-tax-in-germany-the-single-use-plastic-fund-act">Spain, the United Kingdom and Germany</a> have successfully introduced a tax on single-use plastic.</p>
<p>In 2002, the Irish government saw a <a href="https://ieep.eu/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/IE-Plastic-Bag-Levy-final-1-1.pdf#page+1">significant decrease</a> in plastic bags after introducing a tax of €0.15 (US$0.16) at points of sale. </p>
<p>In 2007, the tax was increased to €0.22 (US$0.24), aiming to eliminate the use of plastic bags in the country. This approach helped the Irish government to solve part of its plastic waste problem. And the income generated helped to finance environmental projects, clean-up measures, education and awareness-raising measures. The tax also created incentives for alternatives to plastic bags. </p>
<p>In Germany, the city of Tübingen <a href="https://wts.com/wts.com/publications/climate-protection-green-tax-energy/2022/wtsglobal-plastic-taxation-in-europe.pdf#page=7">introduced</a> a packaging tax of €0.20 and €0.50 for disposable containers and cutlery at the municipal level from January 2022. </p>
<p>From January 2023, styrofoam for food packaging was <a href="https://www.thelocal.de/20221230/how-customers-in-germany-can-demand-multi-use-packaging-from-2023">listed</a> among the banned single-use materials in Germany. Food outlets had to provide alternatives. Retailers or consumers who can afford it can still buy styrofoam online, but sustainable alternatives are more affordable. </p>
<p>The German Ministry of the Environment <a href="https://www.thelocal.de/20221230/how-customers-in-germany-can-demand-multi-use-packaging-from-2023">said</a> that a complete ban on single-use packaging was not yet possible under EU law, as there was not yet a completely environmentally friendly alternative. This approach has kept styrofoam producers in business and created opportunities for start-up companies interested in reusable production.</p>
<h2>Plastic tax can check pollution</h2>
<p>In Nigeria, a more effective approach would have been to introduce a plastic tax. It would create incentives by regulating the market costs for single-use plastics. The tax would force producers to switch to sustainable and reusable plastics. Also, consumers would have to decide whether it was worth paying more to use single-use plastics or opt for sustainable and reusable ones. </p>
<p>Income generated from the tax could be used to keep cities clean, raise public awareness, support recycling companies and promote sustainable, reusable and affordable plastics. The plastic tax revenue would be spent on monitoring, enforcement and evaluation.</p>
<p>Plastic tax has the potential to address the harmful effects of styrofoam and other single-use plastics if the <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5a74b84ee5274a3f93b48418/scho0811bucc-e-e.pdf">abatement cost</a> is analysed. <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5a74b84ee5274a3f93b48418/scho0811bucc-e-e.pdf">Abatement costs are measures to reduce or eliminate the release of pollutants into the environment</a>. For plastics, these costs are analysed based on the amount or units of plastic released and eliminated from the environment. Regular consultations, assessments and evaluations are necessary to achieve the targets set.</p>
<p>Plastic tax could serve as a bridge to the <a href="https://www.nesrea.gov.ng/extended-producer-responsibility/">extended producer responsibility policy</a>, which was adopted by the Nigerian Environmental Standards and Regulations Enforcement Agency in 2014 but is not yet fully in place. The policy <a href="https://www.oecd.org/environment/extended-producer-responsibility.htm">requires</a> producers to be responsible for their product until the end of their life cycle, including disposal and recycling.</p>
<p>This way, the true cost of plastic waste is revealed and sustainable alternative products are created within the plastics value chain.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223921/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kehinde Allen-Taylor does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Plastic tax would work better than a ban in Lagos, Nigeria.Kehinde Allen-Taylor, Researcher, Technical University BraunschweigLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2068872023-07-02T09:16:35Z2023-07-02T09:16:35ZWaste disposal in Nigeria is a mess: how Lagos can take the lead in sorting and recycling<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533255/original/file-20230621-21-d9bv72.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2000%2C1488&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Proper waste management would address indiscriminate dumping of refuse in public places across Lagos. Photo: Pius Utomi Ekpei/AFP.
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/road-manager-with-the-lagos-state-waste-management-news-photo/2381445?adppopup=true">Getty Images </a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Nigeria, like many other Sub-Saharan Africa countries, has a waste management problem. The <a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=Nigerian+National+Municipal+Waste+Management+Policy+2020+filetype%3APDF&rlz=1C1GCEA_enZA999ZA999&ei=Cod4ZM_uBsTAxc8Pu5ibuAM&ved=0ahUKEwjPm6jUgaL_AhVEYPEDHTvMBjcQ4dUDCA8&uact=5&oq=Nigerian+National+Municipal+Waste+Management+Policy+2020+filetype%3APDF&gs_lcp=Cgxnd3Mtd2l6LXNlcnAQAzoKCAAQRxDWBBCwAzoFCCEQoAE6CAghEKABEMMEOgcIIRCgARAKSgQIQRgAUMFjWN-XA2DipwNoBXABeACAAZEFiAHCIZIBBzMtNi4yLjKYAQCgAQHAAQHIAQg&sclient=gws-wiz-serp">Nigerian National Municipal Waste Management Policy (2020)</a> gives no estimate but states that “Nigeria produces a large volume of solid waste out of which less than 20% is collected through a formal system”.</p>
<p>This is lower than the <a href="https://datatopics.worldbank.org/what-a-waste/trends_in_solid_waste_management.html">World Bank’s estimate</a> of average waste collection for Sub-Saharan countries, which is 44 percent. It also contrasts with the European and North American collection rate – 90 percent of waste generated.</p>
<p>The problem is not only how much waste is collected but the lack of accurate data about how much waste is being generated in the first place. The Lagos State is a good example. Nigeria’s most populous city <a href="https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/510781468291325887/pdf/E1192.pdf#page=6">generated 10,000 tonnes of waste per day</a> in 2005. And the Lagos State said in 2018 that the amount of waste generated then far <a href="https://lagosstate.gov.ng/blog/2018/02/03/lagos-waste-management-and-the-environment/">“outweighs the official figure of 13,000 tons per day”</a>.</p>
<p>Managing this waste, from collection and transportation to disposal, is a major challenge for Lagos, which accounts for a large proportion of Nigeria’s waste. The population of Lagos state, urbanisation, consumption patterns and the scale of economic activity work together to increase waste generation. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=Nigerian+National+Municipal+Waste+Management+Policy+2020+filetype%3APDF&rlz=1C1GCEA_enZA999ZA999&ei=Cod4ZM_uBsTAxc8Pu5ibuAM&ved=0ahUKEwjPm6jUgaL_AhVEYPEDHTvMBjcQ4dUDCA8&uact=5&oq=Nigerian+National+Municipal+Waste+Management+Policy+2020+filetype%3APDF&gs_lcp=Cgxnd3Mtd2l6LXNlcnAQAzoKCAAQRxDWBBCwAzoFCCEQoAE6CAghEKABEMMEOgcIIRCgARAKSgQIQRgAUMFjWN-XA2DipwNoBXABeACAAZEFiAHCIZIBBzMtNi4yLjKYAQCgAQHAAQHIAQg&sclient=gws-wiz-serp">Nigerian National Municipal Waste Management Policy (2020)</a> has the potential to transform waste management around the country.</p>
<p>The policy proposes a system to separate, recycle and treat waste, conserve natural resources and create opportunities to earn a living from waste. </p>
<p>But the policy hasn’t been fully implemented. </p>
<p>In a recent <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/361548692_REVIEWING_THE_CONCEPT_WASTE_HIERARCHY_GUIDELINE_AND_THE_ENVIRONMENTAL_PROBLEM_OF_WASTE_MANAGEMANET_IN_LAGOS_STATE_NIGERIA">article</a>, my colleagues and I wrote about the need for Lagos State to put in place a strong policy framework that incorporates <a href="https://www.europarl.europa.eu/EPRS/EPRS-Briefing-564398-Understanding-waste-streams-FINAL.pdf">waste hierarchy guidelines</a>. The waste hierarchy is the idea that the things we do to waste aren’t equally desirable. First should be prevention; then reuse, recycling, recovery and (least desirable) disposal. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533150/original/file-20230621-17-s1rh34.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533150/original/file-20230621-17-s1rh34.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533150/original/file-20230621-17-s1rh34.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533150/original/file-20230621-17-s1rh34.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533150/original/file-20230621-17-s1rh34.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=620&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533150/original/file-20230621-17-s1rh34.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=620&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533150/original/file-20230621-17-s1rh34.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=620&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Waste Management Hierarchy.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author </span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We found that in Lagos, this hierarchy wasn’t being followed. Residents generate mixed waste without separation or sorting. Households store their waste primarily in plastic bags, sacks and buckets. Contracted waste collectors collect mixed waste and transport it directly to dumpsites. Waste pickers at dumpsites recover valuable materials and waste is burnt at these sites. </p>
<p>In practice, the waste hierarchy has been turned upside down in Lagos State. Waste is not being collected, transported, recovered and disposed of in a <a href="https://www.conserve-energy-future.com/sustainable-practices-waste-management.php">sustainable way</a> – one that does not endanger the environment, human health and future generations.</p>
<h2>How Lagos collects waste</h2>
<p>The Lagos State Waste Management Authority was set up in 1991 to collect, transport and dispose of municipal and industrial waste.</p>
<p>In recent times, the authority has deployed street sweepers and improved open dumpsites. It introduced 102 waste collection trucks and the <a href="https://lawma.gov.ng/tag/adopt-a-bin/">Adopt-A-Bin</a> programme, under which households and businesses can buy their waste bins. It started the Lagos Recycle initiative using a smart waste collection and reporting software application, and has invested in equipment to manage dumpsites. </p>
<p>It launched the <a href="https://lagosstate.gov.ng/blog/2019/10/09/still-on-the-lawma-blue-box-initiative/">Blue Box Initiative</a>, which aims to promote the culture of sorting waste at the point of generation. However, this initiative has crumbled.</p>
<p>Ongoing initiatives to raise social awareness about environmental issues include <a href="https://www.lawmaacademy.com/summer-school">summer school for students</a> and <a href="https://lawma.gov.ng/sanwo-olus-wife-tasks-market-leaders-on-sanitation-security/">sanitation advocacy</a>.</p>
<p>However, Lagos continues to produce a large quantity of waste without adequate mechanisms for managing it. </p>
<h2>Weaknesses in waste management</h2>
<p>The majority of Lagos residents are not aware of the environmental importance of waste separation and sorting. This should be the first step in a sustainable management system. </p>
<p>The prices of the individual waste bins provided by the Lagos waste authority, which is supposed to promote waste separation and sorting, are too high. For this reason, some residents (especially from low-income families) <a href="https://lawma.gov.ng/at-media-parley-lawma-boss-points-way-forward-for-waste-management-in-lagos/">use plastic bags, sacks and buckets instead of bins</a>.</p>
<p>Also contributing to poor waste management in Lagos State are:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>irregular and sporadic collection</p></li>
<li><p>residents’ unwillingness to pay</p></li>
<li><p>the collapse of the materials recovery and recycling facility (Olusosun buy-back facility) </p></li>
<li><p>open burning at dumpsites, which endangers lives</p></li>
<li><p>dangerous conditions for street sweepers on roads and highways</p></li>
<li><p>inadequate funding</p></li>
<li><p>poor technology</p></li>
<li><p>weak policy framework</p></li>
<li><p>inadequate social development</p></li>
<li><p>inconsistencies in enforcement and monitoring.</p></li>
</ul>
<h2>Improving waste management in Lagos</h2>
<p>The Lagos State Waste Management Authority needs to identify the most appropriate waste streams (multiple, single or dirty recycling) according to the income level of residents. The <a href="https://cycled.no/single-vs-multiple-stream-recycling/">multiple recycling stream</a> means that several bins are provided for the collection of different recyclable materials. A <a href="https://cycled.no/single-vs-multiple-stream-recycling/">single recycling stream</a> involves collecting all recyclable materials in a single bin. <a href="https://www.garbagebinrentals.ca/waste-collection-removal-disposal-blog/755-what-is-dirty-recycling.html">Dirty recycling streams</a> put all waste in a single bin without sorting and separation.</p>
<p>The multiple stream is most suited to high-income areas and the dirty stream more practical for low-income areas.</p>
<p>The dirty recycling system is similar to the practices of cart pushers who collect unsorted waste from households in wheelbarrows. The difference is that residents can dispose of their waste in a bin of their choice for a fixed fee (pay-as-you-throw) in waste collection vehicles assigned to their area.</p>
<p>The Lagos State Waste Management Authority, policy makers, waste collectors, community representatives, residents and other relevant stakeholders decides
which waste belongs in the 3-in-1 and 2-in-1 bins and sets the bin prices for the pay-as-you-throw system after proper consultation.</p>
<p>Street sweepers and waste pickers should become city employees. Sweepers should be replaced by sweeping trucks with appropriate training. </p>
<p>Dumpsites should be upgraded to landfills. Appropriate technologies and digital solutions should be adopted. And people should be made aware of waste separation and sorting through the school curriculum, social media, television, radio and billboards.</p>
<p>Equally important are prudent financial management, bin incentives and government financial aid for private individuals who want to get into waste management. The system also needs consistent enforcement and monitoring.
Above all, this is a template that can be replicated in other parts of the Nigerian state.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/206887/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kehinde Allen-Taylor does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Lagos has a waste problem that can be tackled by adopting a sustainable waste management policy that considers income brackets.Kehinde Allen-Taylor, Researcher, Technical University BraunschweigLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1960202023-01-31T09:39:39Z2023-01-31T09:39:39ZPlastic pollution in Nigeria: whose job is it to clean up the mess?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/503821/original/file-20230110-12-try2xh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C29%2C4928%2C3223&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Companies can do more to reduce plastic waste.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/picture-shows-plastic-waste-and-used-sachets-of-basic-news-photo/1242243575?phrase=plastic%20pollution%20in%20Lagos&adppopup=true\">Pius Utomi Ekpei/AFP via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Take a walk or drive through the streets of most Nigerian cities, and you will see plastic waste everywhere. The country’s rivers, lakes and ocean are also full of discarded plastic. Nigeria is estimated to generate about <a href="https://www.voanews.com/a/africa_nigerian-recyclers-reduce-plastic-waste-exchanging-trash-cash/6175035.html">2.5 million tonnes of plastic waste annually</a>. Plastic accounts for 15% of the total waste generated in Lagos State.</p>
<p>The situation is likely to worsen as Nigeria’s population grows, from more than 220 million people now to an expected <a href="https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/nigeria-population">401 million</a> by the end of 2050.</p>
<p>The production of plastic is growing too. <a href="https://africa.businessinsider.com/local/markets/dangote-refinery-africas-largest-oil-facility-is-97-per-cent-complete/60rd3gq#:%7E:text=The%20Dangote%20Refinery%2C%20situated%20on,biggest%20single%2Dtrain%20petroleum%20facility.">Dangote Refinery</a>, the largest petrochemical refinery in Africa, is starting operations in Nigeria in the first quarter of 2023. Aside from refining fuel, the plant will also <a href="https://punchng.com/2bn-petrochemical-plantll-produce-77-grades-of-plastic-products-dangote/">produce plastic products</a>. </p>
<h2>Who should clean up?</h2>
<p>The question arises as to who is responsible for cleaning up the plastic waste in the Nigerian environment.</p>
<p>Some argue that the onus is on government to make and enforce <a href="https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/docserver/c62069e7-en.pdf?expires=1673535998&id=id&accname=guest&checksum=E93216B59016556D2B7E0ED9CC86AF00">policies and regulations</a>. Others argue that residents ought to take responsibility in the spirit of <a href="https://www.cost.eu/environmental-citizenship/">environmental citizenship</a>.</p>
<p>But what about the manufacturers, who, too often, take no responsibility when the plastic they produce end up as waste in the environment? </p>
<p>In a <a href="https://www.ikprress.org/index.php/JOGEE/article/view/7739">recent article</a>, I explored how companies can reduce plastic waste in Nigeria if they accept all the elements of corporate social responsibility. Doing so also promotes sustainable development. The UN defines this as “<a href="http://www.un-documents.net/ocf-02.htm">development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”</a>. So corporate social responsibility benefits the companies too.</p>
<h2>Dimensions of corporate social responsibility</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.bdc.ca/en/articles-tools/entrepreneur-toolkit/templates-business-guides/glossary/corporate-social-responsibility#:%7E:text=What%20is%20corporate%20social%20responsibility%20(CSR)%3F,-CSR%20includes%20bringing&text=Corporate%20Social%20Responsibility%20(CSR)%20is,social%20impact%20of%20business%20decisions">Corporate social responsibility</a> is the idea that a company should play a positive role in the community and consider the environmental and social impacts of business decisions.</p>
<p>Since the mid-1950s, most of the world’s leading business organisations have come to agree that companies have economic, legal, ethical and philanthropic or discretionary responsibilities. </p>
<p>Economic responsibility is a commitment to making profits, operating efficiently and being competitive. Focusing on this alone can lead to environmental problems unless it considers the long term. One way for economic responsibility and environmental sustainability to meet is by assigning an economic value to waste.</p>
<p>Legal responsibility means that a company must comply with government laws and regulations. These should include rules that protect the environment.</p>
<p>Ethical responsibility means being fair, in accordance with societal expectations. For example, it means a company doing its fair share to prevent and clean up waste.</p>
<p>Philanthropic responsibility is something extra a company can do to make the world a better place. Many companies get involved in volunteering, empowerment and support of innovative programmes to help people. An example would be coordinating voluntary community action to clean up waste.</p>
<h2>Long term solutions</h2>
<p>In Nigeria, most companies focus on the philanthropic dimension of corporate social responsibility. For example, they organise voluntary cleanup campaigns in communities, and advocate for proper disposal of waste. But this is a temporary solution. As huge amounts of plastic waste continue to be deposited in the environment.</p>
<p>Companies also tend to practise “<a href="https://www.investopedia.com/terms/g/greenwashing.asp">green-washing</a>” – claiming that their products are environmentally friendly or have environmental benefits.</p>
<p>These responses ignore the economic, ethical and legal dimensions of corporate social responsibility with regard to the environment. </p>
<p>I suggest that if all dimensions are practised properly, the activities of the Nigerian plastics industry won’t be a threat. Instead they will conform with some of the <a href="https://www.academia.edu/34177766/CSR_AND_THE_UNs_SDGs_THE_ROLE_OF_THE_PRIVATE_SECTOR">UN’s Sustainable Development Goals</a>: combating climate change; protecting marine animals; sustainable environment; and partnerships. </p>
<h2>Plastic value chain</h2>
<p>Policymakers, producers, manufacturers, multinational companies and other stakeholders must work together to combat plastic pollution in Nigeria. </p>
<p>This begins with assigning a monetary value to plastic at each stage of its life cycle, including sorting, collection, and recycling. Disposal practices, monitoring and enforcement, as well as cost management, should not be left out.</p>
<p>Producers, manufacturers and multinational companies should also reduce plastic waste as part of their production processes. The regulators should hold them accountable to eliminate plastic waste in the environment. This policy is known as “extended producer responsibility”. </p>
<p>The concept has already been implemented in some developed countries, including Germany. It has brought improvements in the reuse and recycling economy. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/african-digital-innovators-are-turning-plastic-waste-into-value-but-there-are-gaps-188014">African digital innovators are turning plastic waste into value -- but there are gaps</a>
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<p>Nigeria adopted the <a href="https://www.nesrea.gov.ng/extended-producer-responsibility/">extended producer responsibility</a> policy through its National Environmental Standards and Regulations Enforcement Agency in 2014. But it has not yet been fully implemented in all Nigerian states. Hence, reflecting the current state of plastic waste pollution. </p>
<p>If companies in Nigeria’s plastic and packaging industry can work together to achieve a high standard of environmental sustainability, we can rightly say they are practising corporate social responsibility.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/196020/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kehinde Allen-Taylor does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Plastic pollution can be checked in Nigeria if the government insists that companies integrate corporate social responsibility into their processes.Kehinde Allen-Taylor, Researcher, Technical University BraunschweigLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1576332021-03-28T08:49:48Z2021-03-28T08:49:48ZWhat Madagascar’s amazing mini creatures tell us about evolution<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/392048/original/file-20210327-21-1lcbjx6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Brookesia tedi, described in 2019, is one of the smallest chameleons, and indeed one of the smallest amniote vertebrates, on earth. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Mark D. Scherz</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Madagascar has many “mini” creatures. These include a recently discovered group of miniaturised frogs as well as the discovery earlier this year of the <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-55945948">smallest reptile on earth</a> – the Brookesia nana, or nano-chameleon, which is the size of a paperclip. Moina Spooner, from The Conversation Africa, asked Dr Mark D. Scherz, an amphibian and reptile specialist who focuses on Madagascar, to explain what causes these animals to miniaturise.</em></p>
<h2>Which miniaturised species have been discovered recently?</h2>
<p>Madagascar is famous for its small animals; the mouse lemurs, the smallest primates on earth, for instance, are widely known. There’s also growing awareness that Madagascar is home to a variety of other uniquely miniaturised animals, especially chameleons and frogs. In those groups, researchers have discovered large numbers of tiny species in recent years. </p>
<p>In 2017, researchers described 26 species of <em>Stumpffia</em> – a group of frogs – the smallest of which is not even 1cm long at adult body size. It is one of the smallest frogs in the world. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Frog on a leaf with a human finger next to it to show relative size" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/391646/original/file-20210325-15-1lsr12z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/391646/original/file-20210325-15-1lsr12z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391646/original/file-20210325-15-1lsr12z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391646/original/file-20210325-15-1lsr12z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391646/original/file-20210325-15-1lsr12z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=571&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391646/original/file-20210325-15-1lsr12z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=571&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391646/original/file-20210325-15-1lsr12z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=571&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Stumpffia yanniki, a moderately small narrow-mouthed frog species from northern Madagascar, described in 2017.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Mark D. Scherz</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Then, in 2019, my colleagues and I showed that several different groups of cophyline microhylids – a group of narrow-mouthed frogs that are only found in Madagascar – have become miniaturised independently. One group of these was an entirely new genus. We gave them the fitting name “<em>Mini</em>”, with the three species <em>Mini mum</em>, <em>Mini scule</em>, and <em>Mini ature</em>. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/meet-the-mini-frogs-of-madagascar-the-new-species-weve-discovered-113946">Meet the mini frogs of Madagascar -- the new species we've discovered</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<p>We have also found some new tiny chameleons. In 2019, we described <a href="https://zse.pensoft.net/article/32818/"><em>Brookesia tedi</em></a>, a chameleon that reaches a total length of just 32mm. And then in early 2021, we described <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-80955-1"><em>Brookesia nana</em></a>, the smallest chameleon, which has adult males of just 21.6mm total length, and females 28.9mm.</p>
<h2>Why have they evolved to be so small?</h2>
<p>There are probably many different reasons why these animals have evolved to be so small. For instance, it might be possible for them to exploit new resources that weren’t previously available to them. This may be new food sources, or exploring the space between leaves and tree roots that is inaccessible to larger animals. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/391413/original/file-20210324-23-pwx674.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/391413/original/file-20210324-23-pwx674.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391413/original/file-20210324-23-pwx674.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391413/original/file-20210324-23-pwx674.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391413/original/file-20210324-23-pwx674.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391413/original/file-20210324-23-pwx674.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391413/original/file-20210324-23-pwx674.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Stumpffia madagascariensis is a tiny leaf-litter dwelling frog from northern Madagascar.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Mark D. Scherz</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It could also be driven by competition with other, similar species. Species may diverge into different size categories to partition their resources and avoid direct competition.</p>
<p>In many cases, there may be no strong or single selective force that is driving the miniaturisation at all, but instead it could simply be a process of random change in the population, which occurs in all organisms over time. This is further driven by population bottlenecks as the smaller and smaller animals get cut off from other populations. </p>
<p>The simple answer is that we just don’t know yet in any of the cases, and it is likely that in most it is a combination of factors. We are much better able to say what the correlates of miniaturisation are – that is, the suite of features, behaviours, and ecologies that accompany miniaturisation – than the causes.</p>
<h2>Does Madagascar have an unusually high number of mini creatures?</h2>
<p>Speaking only of reptiles and amphibians, maybe, but it is hard to say for sure. South-East Asia has <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/120111-smallest-frogs-vertebrates-new-species-science-animals">a massive diversity of miniaturised frogs</a>, for instance, but whether the number of major miniaturisation events in that region is greater or less than in Madagascar is difficult to say for sure. </p>
<p>The same goes for Central and South America, where there are plenty of tiny amphibians and reptiles, including salamanders, frogs and lizards. </p>
<p>Ultimately, even though Madagascar may not be the world champion in terms of the number of miniaturised reptiles and amphibians, I think it does stand out as an exceptionally interesting place in which to study their evolution, and we are only just starting to scratch the surface of this.</p>
<h2>What does their tiny size tell us about evolutionary processes?</h2>
<p>This is the question I find the most exciting. From miniaturisation we can learn all kinds of interesting things about physiology, evolution and biomechanics – how organisms move and function.</p>
<p>For instance, there appears to be a pattern where the evolution of miniaturisation is associated with changes in ecology. Almost all miniaturised frogs in Madagascar are terrestrial, irrespective of whether their ancestors were terrestrial arboreal (living in trees). The only conditions under which miniaturised frogs have remained arboreal throughout miniaturisation has been when they reproduce in the water cavities at the base of certain plants’ leaves, such as the <em>Pandanus</em> plant.</p>
<p>We have also learned that the microhylid frogs of Madagascar have mostly miniaturised by retaining juvenile-like characteristics, known as paedomorphosis. For instance, they all have relatively large heads and eyes for their body sizes.</p>
<p>But one species, <em>Rhombophryne proportionalis</em>, has apparently miniaturised by proportional dwarfism. It has the approximate proportions of a non-miniaturised Rhombophryne. So, although paedomorphosis may be the typical way that Malagasy frogs miniaturise, it is by no means the only way that they can miniaturise. </p>
<p>Another particularly interesting finding is that miniaturisation has apparently evolved again and again in different lineages. This was already evident in frogs at the global scale (there are miniaturised frog lineages throughout the tropics). But one group of frogs in Madagascar has done this five or more times alone. This tells us that the evolution of miniaturisation can occur frequently and may be advantageous under certain circumstances. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/391412/original/file-20210324-23-hbq4me.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/391412/original/file-20210324-23-hbq4me.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391412/original/file-20210324-23-hbq4me.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391412/original/file-20210324-23-hbq4me.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391412/original/file-20210324-23-hbq4me.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391412/original/file-20210324-23-hbq4me.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391412/original/file-20210324-23-hbq4me.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Brookesia tuberculata from northern Madagascar was for some time held to be the smallest species of chameleon, but has been repeatedly upstaged. Its real claim to fame, however, is that it has by far the largest hemipenis relative to its body length of any chameleon.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Mark D. Scherz</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>From our work on miniaturised chameleons, we have also found that, as these lizards shrink, their genitals increase in relative size. We think that this is because the females are larger than the males. Because the male genitals must couple with those of the females for successful reproduction, and because the female is not as small as the male, the male’s genitals are constrained to remain proportional to the size of the female, even while his body size evolves to be smaller.</p>
<p>There are hundreds of open questions in the field of tiny vertebrate studies. We are just beginning to understand how widespread and common this trait is, how many species have done it, and how many miniaturised species remain undescribed. There is a whole miniature frontier of interesting research to be had among these tiny vertebrates, and I, for one, am excited to see what we discover next.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/157633/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark D. Scherz does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Madagascar stands out as an exceptionally interesting place in which to study the evolution of “mini” creatures. And we are only just starting to scratch the surface of this.Mark D. Scherz, Research scientist, Technical University BraunschweigLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1357032020-04-21T13:34:08Z2020-04-21T13:34:08ZCurious Kids: can chameleons change colour when they sleep?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/329050/original/file-20200420-152563-vampma.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C137%2C1889%2C1155&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A Furcifer pardalis (panther chameleon) sleeps in a tree in Madagascar.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Mark D. Scherz</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Curious Kids is <a href="https://theconversation.com/africa/topics/curious-kids-36782">a series</a> for children in which we ask experts to answer questions from kids.</em></p>
<p><strong>Can chameleons change colour when they sleep? (Ikechukwu, 6, Lagos, Nigeria)</strong></p>
<p>What a great question, Ikechukwu! It doesn’t have a simple answer, though: yes, chameleons do change colour when they sleep, but we think it happens in a different way to when they’re awake. People like me who study chameleons know quite a lot about chameleons and their colours when they are awake and moving around, but there’s still more to learn about what is going on when they sleep.</p>
<p>Chameleons are really special reptiles, with a whole bunch of special features that make them look very different from all other lizards: they have eyes that can look in two directions at once, a tongue that they shoot out to catch prey, weird grasping hands, and a prehensile tail that they use to hold on while they climb around in trees and bushes.</p>
<p>Around half of all chameleons (there are over <a href="https://www.livescience.com/51061-chameleon.html">200 species</a>) are found on the island of Madagascar, which is where I do <a href="http://www.markscherz.com/">my research</a> and is quite close to the coast of Tanzania in East Africa. The other half are found in mainland Africa, Asia, and in parts of southern Europe. </p>
<p>All chameleons are able to change colour at least a little bit, but some species can do it much more than others. Usually, their colours are quite neutral – plain colours that don’t attract a lot of attention, which is important when they are looking for prey. They don’t want the creatures they eat to see them coming, so they stick to the kinds of colours that are all around them: the browns and greens of sticks and leaves and the sand.</p>
<p>It’s different when the chameleons see predators that want to eat them, or other chameleons of their own species or other species. Then, many chameleon species, especially the big ones, can change to all sorts of colours.</p>
<p>That all happens when they are awake. What about when they sleep? </p>
<h2>Controlling colour</h2>
<p>Chameleons change colour by contracting and relaxing certain cells in their skin that contain either crystals or pigments. The crystals are colourless or slightly yellow, but by lining them up in a certain way, they can be made to reflect certain colours of light, like blue. Pigments, on the other hand, have their own colours, like red or black.</p>
<p>When chameleons are awake (they sleep about as much as we do) they control this process, probably without even thinking about it, like the way the hair on your arms stands on end when you are cold or frightened. That means that when the chameleon sleeps, the colour control is relaxed. Sleeping chameleons become light in colour, probably because certain pigment cells that absorb light relax.</p>
<p>This is actually the best way to find chameleons: if you shine a torch on a sleeping chameleon, its light skin reflects the torchlight, making it easy to see. But while you have the torch on the chameleon, wait a few seconds and you will notice that it gets darker. In fact, if you then move to look at the chameleon close-up, you’ll see that the side you had the torch shining on is darker than the other side. Even better, if you had a leaf covering part of the area that you had the torch shining on, the area of skin behind the leaf would stay light green, while the area exposed to light would darken. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/329077/original/file-20200420-152571-714lpf.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/329077/original/file-20200420-152571-714lpf.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329077/original/file-20200420-152571-714lpf.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329077/original/file-20200420-152571-714lpf.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329077/original/file-20200420-152571-714lpf.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329077/original/file-20200420-152571-714lpf.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329077/original/file-20200420-152571-714lpf.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A sleeping Calumma ambreense, which is a species of chameleon.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Mark D. Scherz</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Chameleons don’t seem to be able to do this – make some parts of their skin lighter than others – when they’re awake. That means the active colour change is different from the one that is used at night. Scientists like myself think that what happens at night might be made possible by light on the skin itself, like the torch you shine on that sleeping chameleon in your garden or at the park.</p>
<h2>More to learn</h2>
<p>Since chameleons are such interesting lizards, you would think that we had already studied them in so much detail that we knew everything there is to know about them. But actually, scientists like me still have lots and lots to learn. One of those things will be to understand more about sleeping chameleons and the ways they change colour. Finding out this new information is one of the things that makes being a scientist so exciting – you never stop learning!</p>
<p><em>Hello, curious kids! Have you got a question you’d like an expert to answer? Ask an adult to send your question to africa-curiouskids@theconversation.com. Please tell us your name, age, and which city you live in. We won’t be able to answer every question but we will do our best.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/135703/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark D. Scherz does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>All chameleons are able to change colour at least a little bit, but some species can do it much more than others.Mark D. Scherz, Research scientist, Technical University BraunschweigLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1227232019-09-17T11:35:28Z2019-09-17T11:35:28ZWhy the global Red List mislabels the risk to many species<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/292453/original/file-20190913-8668-1puc05w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The conservation concern about these _Mantidactylus_ frogs has been underestimated - until now.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Mark D. Scherz</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When we talk about how threatened animals or plants are, we will almost always reference their statuses on the <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/about/regional">Red List</a>. Created by the <a href="https://www.iucn.org/about">International Union for Conservation of Nature</a> – a global organisation that seeks to direct and shape conservation efforts – the Red List uses <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/resources/summary-sheet">a set of criteria</a> to evaluate the extinction risk of thousands of species and subspecies. </p>
<p>On the Red List, species are given a rank on a scale of least concern (no conservation action needed), near threatened (almost qualifies for one of the threatened categories), vulnerable (at risk of falling down the scale), endangered (conservation action needed), and critically endangered (urgent conservation action needed). There are also three kinds of extinct; regionally extinct, extinct in the wild, and extinct. </p>
<p>Finally, there are two more categories that don’t say anything about the threat status of the organisms: data deficient (we don’t know enough) and not evaluated (we haven’t figured it out yet, but wanted to keep its name on the list).</p>
<p>The Red List is the only one of its kind. While there are other organisations that have similar goals of assessing the conservation concern of species, the Red List is the only one to do so across all organisms at a global scale. </p>
<p>But, as my colleagues and I argue in a <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0219437">recent paper</a>, the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List can be inaccurate because it fails to acknowledge uncertainty, specifically taxonomic uncertainty. That is, uncertainty about how organisms are named, defined and classified according to their shared characteristics or how they evolved. </p>
<p>The result is that poor assessments are made on the basis of poor quality data quality. This could lead to the misallocation of resources with widespread costs, including the loss of a species without realising it. </p>
<h2>Species complexes</h2>
<p>One way that taxonomic uncertainty can manifest is in the form of species complexes. Species complexes are when more than one species masquerades under the same name. Sometimes the species are difficult, or impossible, to tell apart.</p>
<p>A huge number of “species” are actually turning out to be species complexes. Giraffes, for example, <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2016/09/wildlife-giraffes-africa-new-species-conservation/">may be four species, not just one</a>. And the African elephant is actually <a href="https://www.livescience.com/9182-african-elephant-separate-species.html">two separate species</a>: the forest and Savannah elephant. They are as evolutionarily different from each other as lions and tigers are from one another. </p>
<p>In smaller, less intensively studied species, complexes are much more frequent.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/292474/original/file-20190913-8653-109puua.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/292474/original/file-20190913-8653-109puua.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292474/original/file-20190913-8653-109puua.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292474/original/file-20190913-8653-109puua.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292474/original/file-20190913-8653-109puua.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292474/original/file-20190913-8653-109puua.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292474/original/file-20190913-8653-109puua.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"><em>Mantidactylus (Hylobatrachus) petakorona</em>, a species that we named in our new paper. It is a member of the <em>Mantidactylus (Hylobatrachus) lugubris</em> species complex, which is widespread in the rainforests of eastern Madagascar.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Mark D. Scherz</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Often, we find out about species complexes more or less by accident; we sequence the DNA of a bunch of animals, only to find out that they are not all the same thing, but in fact two or more different things. This is the surest method to realise that you are working with a species complex, but it’s not the only one. For instance, we can find out we are working with a frog species complex when we realise that they have different mating calls.</p>
<p>Ultimately, species complexes can be resolved but it needs careful taxonomic research, often using more complex methods – like DNA analysis. </p>
<h2>What species complexes mean for the Red List</h2>
<p>How organisms are classified – their taxonomy – is the cornerstone of extinction risk assessments. Because of this, major uncertainties in taxonomy, like the case for species complexes, should be grounds for assessment as data deficient on the IUCN Red List. </p>
<p>But the <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/resources/redlistguidelines">IUCN guidelines</a> strongly discourage the use of data deficient. They encourage the use of even minimal data to assess the species into one of the other categories. This means that even if only one animal of a certain species has ever been found, it can still be assigned a threat category. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/resources/redlistguidelines">The guidelines</a> also suggest that species complexes should be assessed as a single species, even if they are known to actually be several species. As a result a single species within it can go extinct without anyone noticing.</p>
<p>These policies need to be revised. </p>
<p>In our paper we argued that belonging to or constituting a species complex should qualify a “species” as data deficient for the Red List. </p>
<p>By listing species complexes as data deficient, we can highlight the fact that taxonomy is a vital part of the conservation of species; that it is important, and needs to be funded and promoted as a first step in the protection of many species. </p>
<p>Governments must also recognise the importance of taxonomy-focused fieldwork. All too often permitting agencies are refusing permits looking at species complexes, because they perceive the name to be clarified when it appears on the Red List.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/122723/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark D Scherz is a member of the IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group for Madagascar</span></em></p>The Red List ranks species based on how threatened they are. But it can be inaccurate.Mark D. Scherz, Research scientist, Technical University BraunschweigLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1146872019-04-05T07:04:14Z2019-04-05T07:04:14ZKatak mini: Spesies baru dari Madagaskar<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/267066/original/file-20190402-177199-1cmak8x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3072%2C2304&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Kata mini dewasa dari spesies "Mini mum", salah satu katak terkecil di dunia, dapat hinggal di ibu jari, bahkan masih ada area yang tersisa.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dr Andolalao Rakotoarison</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Katak mini adalah jenis amfibi yang menarik tetapi masih menjadi misteri. Perbedaan taksonomi dengan katak biasa cukup terabaikan karena ketika katak mini berevolusi, jenis-jenis katak mini terlihat sangat mirip satu sama lain–sehingga sering terabaikan betapa beragam mereka sebenarnya.</p>
<p>Sebagai bagian dari penelitian doktoral saya, saya telah mempelajari katak dan reptil di Madagaskar, sebuah pulau di Samudra Hindia yang sedikit lebih besar dari daratan Prancis. Wilayah tersebut memiliki lebih dari 350 spesies katak. Wilayah ini bisa jadi memiliki keanekaragaman katak tertinggi dari negara mana pun di dunia. Dan banyak dari katak-katak ini sangat kecil.</p>
<p>Kami telah meneliti spesies kecil ini dengan <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0213314">mendeskripsikan</a> lima spesies baru yang termasuk dalam kelompok katak yang umumnya disebut sebagai katak “bermulut sempit”. Ukuran terbesar dari spesies ini tidak lebih panjang dari ibu jari Anda. Yang terkecil hanya sedikit lebih panjang dari sebutir beras.</p>
<p>Kami telah menamai tiga spesies baru ini “<em>Mini</em>”. Nama baru ini diperlukan agar informasi tentangnya dapat dikumpulkan. Selain itu, kami juga menamai ketiga spesies tersebut sebagai <em>Mini mum</em>, <em>Mini scule</em>, dan <em>Mini ature</em>. <em>Mini mum</em> dan <em>Mini scule</em> berukuran 8-11 milimeter (mm). Sedangkan <em>Mini ature</em> berukuran 15 mm. <em>Mini ature</em> bisa hinggap di ibu jari Anda.</p>
<p>Dua spesies baru lainnya, <em>Rhombophryne proportionalis</em> dan <em>Anodonthyla eximia</em>, juga hanya berukuran 11-12 mm, dan jauh lebih kecil dari kerabat terdekat mereka.</p>
<p>Katak yang kami identifikasi berasal dari tiga kelompok berbeda yang tidak berhubungan dekat dengan spesies lainnya, dan mereka telah berevolusi secara independen menjadi jauh lebih kecil.</p>
<p>Temuan kami ini memberi tahu bahwa evolusi ukuran tubuh pada katak mini Madagaskar lebih dinamis daripada yang dipahami sebelumnya. Dan studi di masa depan diharapkan akan menjelaskan interaksi antara ekologi dan evolusi katak yang sangat beragam ini.</p>
<h2>Katak mini</h2>
<p>Spesies katak “bermulut sempit” adalah bagian dari jenis hewan yang sangat beragam yang ditemukan di setiap benua kecuali Antartika dan Eropa. Tetapi katak yang kami temukan di pulau Madagaskar berasal dari subfamili <em>Cophylinae</em> yang merupakan ciri khas Madagaskar. Subfamili tersebut memiliki keanekaragaman spesies yang berukuran mini dan sangat beragam. Hal ini secara historis dikaitkan dengan gen tunggal <em>Stumpffa</em>.</p>
<p>Meskipun sebagian besar katak “bermulut sempit” berukuran kecil hingga sedang, namun banyak juga yang berukuran sangat kecil, termasuk katak terkecil di dunia, <em>Paedophryne amauensis</em> dari Papua New Guinea. Ukuran katak dewasanya adalah 7,7 mm. Ukuran tersebut kira-kira sebesar satu permen Tic Tac.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/266295/original/file-20190328-139364-1nmr8vc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/266295/original/file-20190328-139364-1nmr8vc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/266295/original/file-20190328-139364-1nmr8vc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/266295/original/file-20190328-139364-1nmr8vc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/266295/original/file-20190328-139364-1nmr8vc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/266295/original/file-20190328-139364-1nmr8vc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/266295/original/file-20190328-139364-1nmr8vc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"><em>Mini mum</em> hinggap di pelapah daun di hutan dataran rendah di sepanjang garis timur Madagaskar</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Andolalao Rakotoarison</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Yang luar biasa adalah bahwa katak terkecil telah berevolusi menjadi lebih kecil dan terus menjadi kecil. Hal ini sering terjadi beberapa kali dalam satu wilayah, seperti yang disorot dalam penelitian baru ini. Ini berarti semacam ada keuntungan untuk menjadi katak mini atau sesuatu yang memungkinkan katak mini dapat bertahan hidup, berkembang, dan menjadi lebih beragam.</p>
<h2>Apa yang kita temukan</h2>
<p><em>Mini mum</em> berasal dari Manombo di Madagaskar timur. Kata ini adalah salah satu katak terkecil di dunia. Ukuran tubuh dewasa pada katak jantan mencapai 9,7 mm dan 11,3 mm pada betina. Katak tersebut bisa bertengger di paku payung.</p>
<p><em>Mini scule</em> dari Sainte Luce di bagian tenggara Madagaskar sedikit lebih besar dan memiliki gigi di rahang atasnya.</p>
<p><em>Mini ature</em> dari Andohahela di bagian tenggara Madagaskar lebih besar dari kerabatnya tetapi serupa dalam bentuk badan.</p>
<p><em>Rhombophryne proportionalis</em> dari Tsaratanana di Madagaskar bagian utara adalah spesies unik di antara katak mini Madagaskar karena tubuh kecilnya memiliki bentuk tubuh yang proporsional, yang berarti ia memiliki proporsi katak besar, tetapi ukurannya hanya sekitar 12 mm. Ini sangat tidak biasa di antara katak kecil, yang biasanya memiliki mata besar, kepala besar, dan karakter lain yang “mirip bayi”. Fenomena ini disebut “paedomorphisms”.</p>
<p><em>Anodonthyla eximia</em> dari Ranomafana di Madagaskar timur jelas lebih kecil dari spesies <em>Anodonthyla</em> lainnya. Mereka hidup di tanah dan membuktikan bahwa kemampuan mereka yang hidup di permukaan tanah dengan ukuran tubuh yang kecil ini mungkin memiliki hubungan dengan evolusi. Ukuran tubuh mereka yang sangat kecil tersebut membuatnya sulit untuk tetap di atas pohon.</p>
<h2>Mencari katak</h2>
<p>Menemukan katak kecil di pelapah daun bukan hal yang mudah. Kami sering menghabiskan waktu berbulan-bulan di hutan, dalam kondisi yang sangat sulit, mencoba menemukan katak dan reptil. Karena ukurannya, katak-katak kecil itu sangat sulit ditemukan sehingga triknya adalah mendengarkan panggilan mereka, dan kemudian melacaknya.</p>
<p>Tetapi panggilan dari katak jantan sering berada di satu atau dua daun yang sulit dijangkau dan berhenti memanggil jika terdapat sedikit gangguan. Ketika Anda akhirnya menemukan katak, Anda merekam panggilannya dan kemudian mencoba menangkapnya. Benar-benar sebuah pekerjaan yang sulit.</p>
<p>Juga terdapat tantangan lain. Badai sering menghantam pantai timur Madagaskar pada musim hujan Desember-Maret, yang dapat membuat pencarian menjadi lebih sulit. Kami menemukan <em>Anodonthyla eximia</em> di pagi hari setelah malam yang mengerikan, ketika topan menghanyutkan sebagian besar tenda kami. Kondisi yang menyedihkan bagi ahli biologi ternyata menyenangkan buat katak.</p>
<p>Madagaskar adalah harta karun keanekaragaman hayati. Kita sudah mengetahui ratusan spesies reptil dan amfibi dari pulau itu. Dan karena kita memiliki informasi DNA tentang banyak spesies yang belum diidentifikasi, kita juga menyadari tentang seberapa banyak yang kita tidak tahu tentang keanekaragaman itu.</p>
<p>Madagaskar adalah salah satu tempat terbaik di dunia untuk mempelajari reptil dan amfibi dan proses evolusi mereka. Tetapi kami sadar bahwa kami bekerja dalam kerangka waktu yang sangat ketat. Hutan-hutan Madagaskar <a href="https://rainforests.mongabay.com/deforestation/archive/Madagaskar.htm">semakin menyusut</a> dalam kecepatan yang luar biasa. Ini adalah salah satu negara termiskin, dan dengan jumlah penduduk yang terus bertambah, hutan menanggung beban terbesar kebutuhan manusia. Upaya perlindungan hutan di negara ini semakin intensif, tetapi masih jauh sebelum kita dapat memastikan spesies seperti <em>Mini mum</em> dan <em>Mini scule</em> aman untuk masa yang akan datang.</p>
<p><em>Muhammad Gaffar menerjemahkan artikel ini dari bahasa Inggris</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/114687/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark D. Scherz tidak bekerja, menjadi konsultan, memiliki saham, atau menerima dana dari perusahaan atau organisasi mana pun yang akan mengambil untung dari artikel ini, dan telah mengungkapkan bahwa ia tidak memiliki afiliasi selain yang telah disebut di atas.</span></em></p>Katak dewasa paling besar dari kelompok katak mini ini bisa hinggap di ibu jari kita, sedangkan yang paling kecil hanya seukuran sebutir berasMark D. Scherz, PhD candidate, Technical University BraunschweigLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1139462019-03-28T11:55:16Z2019-03-28T11:55:16ZMeet the mini frogs of Madagascar – the new species we’ve discovered<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/266293/original/file-20190328-139356-1es1hv5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">An adult male "Mini mum", one of the world’s smallest frogs, rests on a fingernail with room to spare.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dr Andolalao Rakotoarison</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Miniaturised frogs form a fascinating but poorly understood group of amphibians. They have been exceptionally prone to taxonomic underestimation because when frogs evolve small body size they start to look remarkably similar – so it is easy to underestimate how diverse they really are. </p>
<p>As part of my PhD I have been studying frogs and reptiles on Madagascar, an island in the Indian Ocean that’s a little larger than mainland France. It has more than 350 frog species, giving it possibly the highest frog diversity per square kilometre of any country in the world. And many of these frogs are very small. </p>
<p>We have added to the knowledge of these tiny species by <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0213314">describing</a> five new species as belonging to the group of frogs commonly referred to as “narrow-mouthed” frogs. The largest of them could sit happily on your thumbnail. The smallest is just longer than a grain of rice. </p>
<p>We’ve dubbed three of the new species as “<em>Mini</em>” – a group that is wholly new to science. When a whole group or “genus” like this is new to science, it needs a name, so that information about it can be accumulated with a fixed anchor. We also wanted to have a bit of fun. And so, we named the species <em>Mini mum</em>, <em>Mini scule</em>, and <em>Mini ature</em>. Adults of the two smallest species – <em>Mini mum</em> and <em>Mini scule</em> – are 8–11 mm, and even the largest member of the genus, <em>Mini ature</em>, at 15 mm, could sit on your thumbnail with room to spare.</p>
<p>The other two new species, <em>Rhombophryne proportionalis</em> and <em>Anodonthyla eximia</em>, are also just 11–12 mm, and are much smaller than their closest relatives.</p>
<p>The frogs we identified belong to three different groups that are not closely related to one another, and they have independently evolved to be much smaller in body size. </p>
<p>Our findings tell us that the evolution of body size in Madagascar’s miniature frogs has been more dynamic than previously understood. And future studies will hopefully shed light on the interplay between the ecology and evolution of these remarkably diverse frogs.</p>
<h2>Tiny frogs</h2>
<p>The “narrow-mouthed” frog species is part of a highly diverse family found on every continent except Antarctica and Europe. But the frogs we found on the island belong to the subfamily <em>Cophylinae</em> which is endemic to Madagascar. The subfamily has a particularly large diversity of miniaturised species which, based on their small size, were historically attributed to the single genus <em>Stumpffa</em>. </p>
<p>Although most narrow-mouthed frogs are small to moderately large, many are tiny, including the smallest frog in the world, <em>Paedophryne amauensis</em> from Papua New Guinea. It’s adult body size is 7.7 mm. That’s about the length of your average Tic Tac sweet.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/266295/original/file-20190328-139364-1nmr8vc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/266295/original/file-20190328-139364-1nmr8vc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/266295/original/file-20190328-139364-1nmr8vc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/266295/original/file-20190328-139364-1nmr8vc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/266295/original/file-20190328-139364-1nmr8vc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/266295/original/file-20190328-139364-1nmr8vc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/266295/original/file-20190328-139364-1nmr8vc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Mini mum lives in the leaf litter in the fragmented lowland forest along Madagascar’s east coast.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Andolalao Rakotoarison</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>What’s remarkable is that the smallest frogs have evolved to become tiny again and again, often several times within a single region, as highlighted in this new study. This means there must be some kind of advantage to being a tiny frog or something that allows tiny frogs to survive, thrive, and diversify.</p>
<h2>What we found</h2>
<p><em>Mini mum</em> is from Manombo in eastern Madagascar. It is one of the smallest frogs in the world, reaching an adult body size of 9.7 mm in males and 11.3 mm in females. It could sit on a thumbtack.</p>
<p><em>Mini scule</em> from Sainte Luce in southeastern Madagascar is slightly larger and has teeth in its upper jaw. </p>
<p><em>Mini ature</em> from Andohahela in southeast Madagascar is larger than its relatives but is similar in build. </p>
<p><em>Rhombophryne proportionalis</em> from Tsaratanana in northern Madagascar is unique among Madagascar’s miniaturised frogs because it’s a proportional dwarf, meaning it has the proportions of a large frog, but is only about 12 mm long. This is very unusual among tiny frogs, which usually have large eyes, big heads, and other characters that are “baby-like”; so-called “paedomorphisms”.</p>
<p><em>Anodonthyla eximia</em> from Ranomafana in eastern Madagascar is distinctly smaller than any other <em>Anodonthyla</em> species. It lives on the ground, providing evidence that miniaturisation and terrestriality may have an evolutionary link. Maybe getting really small makes it hard to stay up in the trees. </p>
<h2>Finding frogs</h2>
<p>Finding tiny frogs in the leaf litter is hard work. We often spend months in the forest, under very difficult conditions, trying to find frogs and reptiles. Because of their size, the tiny frogs are exceptionally hard to find so the trick is to listen for their calls, and then track them. </p>
<p>But calling males often sit one or two leaves deep and stop calling at the slightest disturbance. When you eventually find a frog, you record its call and then try to catch it – a very tough exercise. </p>
<p>Then there are other challenges. Cyclones often batter Madagascar’s eastern coast in the December–March rainy season, which can make searching even more difficult. We found <em>Anodonthyla eximia</em> in the early morning after a terrible night, when a cyclone swept away most of the camp. Miserable conditions for biologists can make great conditions for frogs. </p>
<p>Madagascar is a treasure trove of biodiversity. We already know hundreds of species of reptiles and amphibians from the island and, because we have DNA information on a lot of species that are not yet named, we also have a sense for how much we <em>don’t</em> know about that diversity. </p>
<p>It is one of the best places in the world to study reptiles and amphibians and their evolutionary processes. But we are aware that we’re working in a very tight time frame. Madagascar’s forests <a href="https://rainforests.mongabay.com/deforestation/archive/Madagascar.htm">are dwindling</a> at an astounding rate. It is one of the poorest countries, and with growing populations, the forests bear the brunt of human needs. Conservation work in the country is intensifying, but there is still a long way to go before we can consider species like <em>Mini mum</em> and <em>Mini scule</em> safe for the foreseeable future.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/113946/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark D. Scherz does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The largest of these frogs could sit happily on your thumbnail. The smallest is just longer than a grain of rice.Mark D. Scherz, PhD candidate, Technical University BraunschweigLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/315992015-01-26T10:56:45Z2015-01-26T10:56:45ZWhat countries teach children about the Holocaust varies hugely<p>As the world pauses to remember the Holocaust, it is important to at what children around the world are learning about the horrific events of 70 years ago and their aftermath. </p>
<p>A recent <a href="http://www.gei.de/en/research/europe-narratives-images-spaces/international-status-of-education-on-the-holocaust-a-global-mapping-of-textbooks-and-curricula.html">research project</a> between the Georg Eckert Institute and UNESCO attempted to map the status of the Holocaust in secondary school-level history and social studies curricula and textbooks around the world. The <a href="http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002287/228776e.pdf">resulting report</a> can help us to better understand the ways in which information and learning about the past is treated in societies as geographically and historically remote as Brazil, China, Egypt, India, Namibia, Spain and the United States. </p>
<h2>Big disparities in curricula</h2>
<p>The research involved thorough and carefully co-ordinated research which scrutinised 272 currently valid curricula from 139 countries and territories in more than ten different languages, and 89 textbooks published in 26 countries since 2000. Great care was taken to ensure that conceptualisations and narratives of the Holocaust were documented and compared adequately in spite of the variety of languages into which its history has been translated. </p>
<p>The curricula analysis revealed considerable disparities around the world, which have been visualised in various maps. Even the very names of the event differ, ranging from “Shoah”, “Holocaust”, “genocide”, “massacre”, or “extermination” to the “concentration camp” or “final solution”. </p>
<p>In total, 57 curricula clearly stipulate the Holocaust with a direct reference to words such as “Holocaust” or “Shoah”, while 28 do not. The countries which make no reference to the Holocaust in their curricula – shaded in yellow on the maps – include Egypt, Palestine, New Zealand, Iraq and Thailand. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/69909/original/image-20150123-24503-11vqkra.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/69909/original/image-20150123-24503-11vqkra.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/69909/original/image-20150123-24503-11vqkra.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/69909/original/image-20150123-24503-11vqkra.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/69909/original/image-20150123-24503-11vqkra.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/69909/original/image-20150123-24503-11vqkra.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=593&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/69909/original/image-20150123-24503-11vqkra.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=593&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/69909/original/image-20150123-24503-11vqkra.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=593&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The status of the Holocaust on the curricula in Europe, the Middle East and North Africa.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002287/228776e.pdf">UNESCO/Georg Eckert Institute</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The curricula of eight countries address the Holocaust only partially – where it is mentioned to achieve a learning aim that is not specifically related to the Holocaust. In Mexico, for example, the Holocaust is mentioned as one among other aspects of human rights education. A further 46 countries, such as Algeria and Japan, provide only the context in which the Holocaust may be taught and thus refer only to World War II or to National Socialism. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/69908/original/image-20150123-24552-rwh1en.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/69908/original/image-20150123-24552-rwh1en.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=574&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/69908/original/image-20150123-24552-rwh1en.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=574&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/69908/original/image-20150123-24552-rwh1en.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=574&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/69908/original/image-20150123-24552-rwh1en.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=722&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/69908/original/image-20150123-24552-rwh1en.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=722&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/69908/original/image-20150123-24552-rwh1en.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=722&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
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<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002287/228776e.pdf">UNESCO/Georg Eckert Institute</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>The findings of our textbook study reveal that representations of the Holocaust adhered to broadly shared patterns. For example, most textbooks focus on the years of intense killing from 1942 to 1944 or the years of World War II. They name the geographical spaces in which the Holocaust took place in general terms as “Europe” or “Germany”, while neglecting the general government, occupied territories, or satellite and collaborating states.</p>
<p>Images in these books are more likely to depict the perpetrators than victims or bystanders – and the conspicuousness of Adolf Hitler suggests that he was largely responsible for the event. At the same time, there are radical differences in the ways in which the Holocaust is narrated and the didactic methods applied to it when teaching, especially in explanations of its causes and effects.</p>
<h2>Comparisons with local examples</h2>
<p>Most strikingly, Chinese textbooks borrow the language and imagery of the Holocaust and apply them to the <a href="http://www.history.com/topics/nanjing-massacre">Nanjing massacres</a> of 1937 by the Japanese army. Japanese textbooks likewise adopt the language of the Holocaust in presentations of the devastation of cities by atomic bombs at the end of World War II. </p>
<p>Historians thus “tragedise” their own pasts by conspicuously re-contextualising vocabulary customarily used to describe the Holocaust, including “terrible massacres”, “killings”, “mass murders”, “atrocities” and “extermination”. These have been adopted, for example, in Rwandan textbooks to describe the genocide of 1994. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/69910/original/image-20150123-24541-13szzhd.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/69910/original/image-20150123-24541-13szzhd.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/69910/original/image-20150123-24541-13szzhd.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/69910/original/image-20150123-24541-13szzhd.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/69910/original/image-20150123-24541-13szzhd.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/69910/original/image-20150123-24541-13szzhd.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=615&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/69910/original/image-20150123-24541-13szzhd.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=615&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/69910/original/image-20150123-24541-13szzhd.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=615&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The status of the Holocaust on the curricula in Africa.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002287/228776e.pdf">UNESCO/Georg Eckert Institute</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Holocaust is also domesticated, or conceptualised in new idiosyncratic or local ways. For example, Chinese textbooks do not employ the terms “Holocaust” or “Shoah”, but rather “genocide” (datusha) and “kinds of crimes” (zhongzhong zuixing). The Chinese textbooks render the event understandable for local readers in a language which is familiar to them, yet which does not convey the historical specificity traditionally ascribed to the Holocaust by western scholars and teachers. </p>
<p>There is no international standard for talking about the Holocaust. Teaching about it is proof of the divergence of overlapping narratives, dominated by local circumstances in which children learn about it. That said, similarities occur between specific textbooks or between regions, nations and continents without adhering to a singular pattern.</p>
<h2>More systematic approach</h2>
<p>The recommendations, published at the end of our report, acknowledge these local idiosyncrasies while calling for greater historical accuracy and more systematic comparisons of genocides. As the maps show, few countries already include the Holocaust in their history teaching while others refer only indirectly to the event or to its historical context.</p>
<p>In Africa, further inclusion of the Holocaust in curricula would constitute a step towards greater awareness of European history. Likewise, comparisons between genocides both here and there would raise awareness of African history in Europe. Yet it remains to be seen whether lessons of the past will, in practice, entrench humanitarian and human values around the world.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/31599/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The Holocaust curricula mapping project was funded by UNESCO and the Georg Eckert Institute for International Textbook Research, where Eckhardt Fuchs is currently deputy director. He is also President of the International Standing Conference on the History of Education. </span></em></p>As the world pauses to remember the Holocaust, it is important to at what children around the world are learning about the horrific events of 70 years ago and their aftermath. A recent research project…Eckhardt Fuchs, Deputy director of the Georg Eckert Institute for International Textbook Research and Chair for History of Education and Comparative Education, Technical University BraunschweigLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.