tag:theconversation.com,2011:/nz/topics/habitat-loss-6836/articlesHabitat loss – The Conversation2024-03-28T12:21:15Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2265412024-03-28T12:21:15Z2024-03-28T12:21:15ZEarly spring brings a ‘hungry gap’ for bees – here’s how you can help<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584795/original/file-20240327-20-lqgl8m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4430%2C2951&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption"></span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/flight-flying-bumblebee-spring-on-fruit-1390687526">Daniel Pahmeier/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Wild bees pollinate the crops and wild plants that feed us and sustain entire ecosystems, but many of the world’s 20,000 bee species are in decline. <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ee/article/50/3/732/6119323">Loss of habitat</a> is chiefly to blame, especially the loss of plants that provide pollen and nectar for bees to feed themselves and their brood (their eggs, larvae and pupae).</p>
<p>Falling numbers of bees and other insect pollinators have prompted governments to respond. In the UK, Europe and US, “pollinator planting” initiatives have taken root, yet species continue to decline. At least part of the problem seems to be that these schemes, which offer guidance to farmers, gardeners and landowners, recommend planting flowers to feed bees that start blooming much too late.</p>
<p>In <a href="https://resjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/icad.12736">a new study</a>, we modelled the quantity of food available to bees in a computer simulation of a real farm. We found that the plant species recommended for pollinator planting in national initiatives tend to flower up to a month too late for the bees that emerge in the early spring – that’s right now, in March and April. </p>
<p>This “hungry gap” means fewer bee colonies survive to the end of the summer and not enough new queens are produced for the following year. The good news is that expanding these schemes to include plants that bloom very early in the spring could throw a lifeline to struggling bees. </p>
<h2>Why is the early spring so important?</h2>
<p>We wanted to find out when, during a typical season, limited food most threatens the fitness of bumblebees and which plant species are most helpful for remedying this. Our computer model simulations included multiple colonies of the buff-tailed bumblebee (<em>Bombus terrestris</em>) and the common carder bee (<em>Bombus pascuorum</em>), two UK species which emerge in spring. </p>
<p>The computer model simulates the life cycle of bumblebees. In it, digital bees explore a realistic landscape, collecting nectar and pollen, forming colonies and caring for their brood. At the end of a season, males and daughter queens are produced, and over a number of years the population may prosper or decline.</p>
<p>The landscape of a real farm was digitised to make the simulation, and the different areas (hedgerows, meadows, paddocks) marked in a digital map. We could adjust the variety of flowering plants in these areas for different test runs.</p>
<p>Adding plant species to the model that flower between March and April, like ground ivy, red dead-nettle, maple, cherry, hawthorn or willow, improved the survival rate of these bee populations from 35% to 100% over ten years. This meant that all colonies of both species survived each year a decade after these early flowering plants had been introduced.</p>
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<img alt="Fuzzy yellow catkins on slender branches." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584797/original/file-20240327-30-tgwz47.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584797/original/file-20240327-30-tgwz47.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584797/original/file-20240327-30-tgwz47.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584797/original/file-20240327-30-tgwz47.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584797/original/file-20240327-30-tgwz47.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584797/original/file-20240327-30-tgwz47.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584797/original/file-20240327-30-tgwz47.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Willow tends to flower early in the season when we rarely see many bees.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/willow-salix-caprea-branch-coats-fluffy-2244717269">Irina Boldina/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>These plants can fit into existing hedgerows without reducing the area used for crop production, ensuring farmers can continue to grow food and make a living while nourishing pollinators.</p>
<p>We were surprised to find that the bee colony’s demand for nectar and pollen at the start of the spring was driven mainly by the number of larvae rather than the number of adult workers. But if we look at the life cycle of a typical social bee colony, this finding makes sense. </p>
<p>In the spring, a queen emerges from hibernation, finds a suitable nest site, collects nectar and pollen and raises a first generation of brood. This founding stage of the colony is followed by the social phase, when enough pupae have matured into adult workers that they can take over foraging and brood care for the colony. The founding stage can last several weeks, and during this time, there are very few adult bees foraging to meet the needs of a large number of brood. This explains why, for our spring-emerging species, we observed high food demand in March and April, before we normally see large numbers of adult worker bees foraging outside the colony.</p>
<h2>Filling the hungry gap</h2>
<p>Some bee species emerge in the early spring and some emerge later; in the northern hemisphere, a species can emerge any time between March and July. Across <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-019-1062-4">Europe</a> and <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.1115559108">North America</a> there are plenty of early-spring bees which appear at the beginning of this range. In fact, somewhere between a third and a quarter of bee species in temperate regions may appear around the start of spring.</p>
<p>But government guidance in the UK and the EU misses this critical March-April hungry gap. EU guidance is to allow wild plants to flower during the summer, when most pollinators are on the wing, by cutting grass or grazing in early spring and autumn. In the US, land managers are encouraged (depending on the state) to plant a minimum of three species that bloom between April and June 15. These recommendations overlook the need for early spring forage. </p>
<p>Our critical finding is that bees need flowers for food up to a month before we even see the adults flying around. If different species of bee are active from April through October, then we need flowers blooming from March onward. </p>
<p>Providing flowers across the whole season, with an emphasis on early spring flowers, would make pro-pollinator schemes more effective. To supplement the <a href="https://www.plantlife.org.uk/campaigns/nomowmay/">“No Mow May”</a> campaign, we need a “plant early spring flowers” drive. Or even better: make sure you have flowers blooming every month from March through October.</p>
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<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Matthias Becher works for RIFCON GmbH, Germany. He received funding from UKRI NERC for supporting the development of BEESTEWARD (project NE/P016731/1).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tonya Lander does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Check that something is blooming every week, March through October, to help bees.Tonya Lander, Stipendiary Lecturer in Biology, University of OxfordMatthias Becher, Affiliate, Environment and Sustainability Institute, University of ExeterLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2235492024-02-19T03:46:27Z2024-02-19T03:46:27ZScientists shocked to discover new species of green anaconda, the world’s biggest snake<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576419/original/file-20240219-26-4pucih.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5294%2C3532&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The green anaconda has long been considered one of the Amazon’s most <a href="https://content.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1916160_1916151_1916136,00.html">formidable and mysterious</a> animals. Our <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1424-2818/16/2/127">new research</a> upends scientific understanding of this magnificent creature, revealing it is actually two genetically different species. The surprising finding opens a new chapter in conservation of this top jungle predator.</p>
<p>Green anacondas are the world’s heaviest snakes, and among the longest. Predominantly found in rivers and wetlands in South America, they are renowned for their lightning speed and ability to asphyxiate huge prey then swallow them whole.</p>
<p>My colleagues and I were shocked to discover significant genetic differences between the two anaconda species. Given the reptile is such a large vertebrate, it’s remarkable this difference has slipped under the radar until now. </p>
<p>Conservation strategies for green anacondas must now be reassessed, to help each unique species cope with threats such as climate change, habitat degradation and pollution. The findings also show the urgent need to better understand the diversity of Earth’s animal and plant species before it’s too late.</p>
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<img alt="snake on branches above water" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576390/original/file-20240219-30-pwv50z.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576390/original/file-20240219-30-pwv50z.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576390/original/file-20240219-30-pwv50z.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576390/original/file-20240219-30-pwv50z.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576390/original/file-20240219-30-pwv50z.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576390/original/file-20240219-30-pwv50z.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576390/original/file-20240219-30-pwv50z.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Scientists discovered a new snake species known as the northern green anaconda.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Bryan Fry</span></span>
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<h2>An impressive apex predator</h2>
<p>Historically, four anaconda species have been recognised, including green anacondas (also known as giant anacondas).</p>
<p>Green anacondas are true behemoths of the reptile world. The largest females can grow to more than <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/anaconda#ref708759">seven metres long</a> and weigh <a href="https://taronga.org.au/news/2018-07-11/green-anaconda-weighs">more than 250 kilograms</a>.</p>
<p>The snakes are well-adapted to a life lived mostly in water. Their nostrils and eyes are on top of their head, so they can see and breathe while the rest of their body is submerged. Anacondas are olive-coloured with large black spots, enabling them to blend in with their surroundings.</p>
<p>The snakes inhabit the lush, intricate waterways of South America’s Amazon and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Orinoco-Basin">Orinoco</a> basins. They are known for their stealth, patience and surprising agility. The buoyancy of the water supports the animal’s substantial bulk and enables it to move easily and leap out to ambush prey as large as capybaras (giant rodents), caimans (reptiles from the alligator family) and deer. </p>
<p>Green anacondas are not venomous. Instead they take down prey using their large, flexible jaws then crush it with their strong bodies, before swallowing it.</p>
<p>As apex predators, green anacondas are vital to maintaining balance in their ecosystems. This role extends beyond their hunting. Their very presence alters the behaviour of a wide range of other species, influencing where and how they forage, breed and migrate.</p>
<p>Anacondas are highly sensitive to environmental change. Healthy anaconda populations indicate vibrant ecosystems, with ample food resources and clean water. Declining anaconda numbers may be harbingers of environmental distress. So knowing which anaconda species exist, and monitoring their numbers, is crucial.</p>
<p>To date, there has been little research into genetic differences between anaconda species. Our research aimed to close that knowledge gap.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/stop-killing-brown-snakes-they-could-be-a-farmers-best-friend-222142">Stop killing brown snakes – they could be a farmer's best friend</a>
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<img alt="snake in water eating deer" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576418/original/file-20240219-27-h8efx6.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576418/original/file-20240219-27-h8efx6.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576418/original/file-20240219-27-h8efx6.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576418/original/file-20240219-27-h8efx6.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576418/original/file-20240219-27-h8efx6.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576418/original/file-20240219-27-h8efx6.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576418/original/file-20240219-27-h8efx6.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Green anaconda have large, flexible jaws. Pictured: a green anaconda eating a deer.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">JESUS RIVAS</span></span>
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<h2>Untangling anaconda genes</h2>
<p>We studied representative samples from all anaconda species throughout their distribution, across nine countries.</p>
<p>Our project spanned almost 20 years. Crucial pieces of the puzzle came from samples we collected on a 2022 expedition to the Bameno region of Baihuaeri Waorani Territory in the Ecuadorian Amazon. We took this trip at the invitation of, and in collaboration with, Waorani leader Penti Baihua. Actor Will Smith also joined the expedition, as part of a series he is filming for National Geographic. </p>
<p>We surveyed anacondas from various locations throughout their ranges in South America. Conditions were difficult. We paddled up muddy rivers and slogged through swamps. The heat was relentless and swarms of insects were omnipresent. </p>
<p>We collected data such as habitat type and location, and rainfall patterns. We also collected tissue and/or blood from each specimen and analysed the samples back in the lab. This revealed the green anaconda, formerly believed to be a single species, is actually two genetically distinct species. </p>
<p>The first is the known species, <em>Eunectes murinus</em>, which lives in Perú, Bolivia, French Guiana and Brazil. We have given it the common name “southern green anaconda”. The second, newly identified species is <em>Eunectes akayima</em> or “northern green anaconda”, which is found in Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Trinidad, Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana.</p>
<p>We also identified the period in time where the green anaconda diverged into two species: almost 10 million years ago. </p>
<p>The two species of green anaconda look almost identical, and no obvious geographical barrier exists to separate them. But their level of genetic divergence – 5.5% – is staggering. By comparison, the genetic difference between humans and apes is <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what-does-the-fact-that-w/#:%7E:text=Most%20studies%20indicate%20that%20when,size%20of%20the%20comparison%20unit.">about 2%</a>.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-forgotten-amazon-as-a-critical-summit-nears-politicians-must-get-serious-about-deforestation-in-bolivia-205263">The forgotten Amazon: as a critical summit nears, politicians must get serious about deforestation in Bolivia</a>
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<img alt="green anaconda underwater" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576399/original/file-20240219-18-42nfsl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576399/original/file-20240219-18-42nfsl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576399/original/file-20240219-18-42nfsl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576399/original/file-20240219-18-42nfsl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576399/original/file-20240219-18-42nfsl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576399/original/file-20240219-18-42nfsl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576399/original/file-20240219-18-42nfsl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">The two green anaconda species live much of their lives in water.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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<h2>Preserving the web of life</h2>
<p>Our research has peeled back a layer of the mystery surrounding green anacondas. This discovery has significant implications for the conservation of these species – particularly for the newly identified northern green anaconda. </p>
<p>Until now, the two species have been managed as a single entity. But each may have different ecological niches and ranges, and face different threats. </p>
<p>Tailored conservation strategies must be devised to safeguard the future of both species. This may include new legal protections and initiatives to protect habitat. It may also involve measures to mitigate the harm caused by climate change, deforestation and pollution — such as devastating effects of <a href="https://news.mongabay.com/2023/05/critics-question-causes-behind-major-oil-spill-in-ecuadorian-amazon/">oil spills</a> on aquatic habitats. </p>
<p>Our research is also a reminder of the complexities involved in biodiversity conservation. When species go unrecognised, they can slip through the cracks of conservation programs. By incorporating genetic taxonomy into conservation planning, we can better preserve Earth’s intricate web of life – both the species we know today, and those yet to be discovered.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223549/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Professor Bryan G. Fry is a National Geographic Explorer and has previously received funding as part of this role.</span></em></p>Green anacondas are the world’s heaviest snakes, and among the longest. it’s remarkable this hidden species has slipped under the radar until now.Bryan G. Fry, Professor of Toxicology, School of the Environment, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2187132023-12-06T03:42:48Z2023-12-06T03:42:48ZCan the government’s new market mechanism help save nature? Yes – if we get the devil out of the detail<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563815/original/file-20231206-29-5dfu85.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C16%2C5607%2C3715&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australians woke up this morning to discover they had a nature repair market, after the legislation <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/dec/05/labor-and-greens-strike-deal-to-establish-nature-repair-market">passed late last night</a>. </p>
<p>Except it won’t be called a market, after <a href="https://parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/search/display/display.w3p;query=Id%3A%22legislation%2Famend%2Fr7014_amend_ed2d86f7-cb59-4caf-b728-f307ec366e18%22;rec=0">amendments by the Greens</a>, and it won’t include biodiversity offsets. </p>
<p>Many experts have been <a href="https://theconversation.com/would-a-nature-repair-market-really-work-evidence-suggests-its-highly-unlikely-199975">highly sceptical</a> of using market forces to reverse the damage we’ve done to nature. There is some truth to this. Markets seek to find the point of exchange between sellers (here, farmers and landholders) and buyers (fund managers, government and philanthropic organisations). When a government invents a market, it can try to make it appealing to politics, principles and buyers, while buyers work to drive prices and standards down, and volumes up. </p>
<p>But as someone who has run nature-based market mechanisms in Australia for 20 years, I regard the passing of this legislation as a tentative step forwards. Market mechanisms can work, if done right. The sheer scale of what we have done to nature means we need large-scale action. Giving nature repair projects a tradeable value and government-backed quality assurance could help – if it works for both nature and investors. </p>
<p>Even though the bill has passed, there is much detail we are yet to see. And as we all know, the devil is in the detail. </p>
<h2>Can a bill like this work without offsets?</h2>
<p>When first proposed, conservationists criticised the nature repair bill’s allowance of offsets – essentially, if you clear land for a development in one place, you have to revegetate or protect a similar amount of land elsewhere. That’s because offsets can be seen as an easy solution – pay money and you can still trash nature. Or a developer might rip out scarce threatened species habitat and replant acacias, of which we have a vast amount. </p>
<p>Now the offsets are gone. Or are they? This bill is not the end of the line. The harder debate is yet to come as the government prepares reform of the far bigger <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2016C00777">Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act</a> – the main environmental protection laws we have at federal level, and <a href="https://epbcactreview.environment.gov.au/resources/final-report">widely regarded</a> as not currently up to the task. </p>
<p>The government is likely to include offsets in this act rather than the Nature Repair Act. Why? Because development of any kind involves making changes to nature – and we will need a lot of new infrastructure as we work towards net zero, such as transmission lines for renewable energy projects.</p>
<p>The government will want to use offsetting to compensate nature for losses from new infrastructure. If there are no offsets available, you either do the development without trying to repair nature, or don’t do the development at all. The fight over offsetting may only have been kicked down the road.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-relies-on-controversial-offsets-to-meet-climate-change-targets-we-might-not-get-away-with-it-in-egypt-193460">Australia relies on controversial offsets to meet climate change targets. We might not get away with it in Egypt</a>
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<h2>So what do we have that we didn’t have yesterday?</h2>
<p>We will now have a <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Bills_LEGislation/Bills_Search_Results/Result?bId=r7014">market framework</a> that will make it possible to buy and sell certificates generated by certified nature repair projects. </p>
<p>For example, for <a href="https://www.bct.nsw.gov.au/new-conservation-tender-targeting-koala-habitat-armidale-and-uralla">koala habitat</a> this could include reducing stock grazing, managing weeds and pest animals and agreeing to a covenant on the land to prevent future habitat loss due to development.</p>
<p>This isn’t the first time we’ve tried to use market forces for nature. Auctions for biodiversity gains, for instance, have <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.13397">worked well in the past</a> and are working <a href="https://www.bct.nsw.gov.au/private-land-conservation-outcomes#conservation_tenders_911">now</a> in New South Wales.</p>
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<em>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-government-hopes-private-investors-will-help-save-nature-heres-how-its-scheme-could-fail-193010">The government hopes private investors will help save nature. Here's how its scheme could fail</a>
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<p>There are lessons to learn from the problems the carbon credit market has <a href="https://theconversation.com/untenable-even-companies-profiting-from-australias-carbon-market-say-the-system-must-change-190232">faced around integrity</a>. But we don’t have to make the same mistakes for a biodiversity market.</p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/absp-marsden-jacob-review.pdf">recent review I coauthored</a> of pilots for the previously proposed biodiversity market points to important lessons from earlier efforts. These include the vital importance of reducing upfront costs for landholders who want to get involved and building trust and confidence in the supporting arrangements.</p>
<p>This will require some public investment to support landholders to meet the measurement and planning costs to participate in the market.</p>
<p>Australia needs to act and act quickly to protect and restore nature where further degradation would be difficult or impossible to reverse. We have recognised the need for action and signed up to <a href="https://www.cbd.int/">international commitments</a> to protect and restore 30% of the continent’s lands and waters by 2030.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/nature-positive-isnt-just-planting-a-few-trees-its-actually-stopping-the-damage-we-do-213075">'Nature positive' isn't just planting a few trees – it's actually stopping the damage we do</a>
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<h2>Why would investors plough money into nature?</h2>
<p>Many reasons. The main one is the growing recognition of how the health of nature underpins the global economy and traditional investment assets such as agriculture. The <a href="https://www.weforum.org/publications/biodiversity-credits-demand-drivers-and-guidance-on-early-use/">World Economic Forum</a> estimates biodiversity credit values could reach A$3 billion by 2030 and $104 billion by 2050. </p>
<p>Demand is rising, driven by regulation, corporate reputation and mission, market edge and attractiveness to investors. Organisations like the <a href="https://tnfd.global/Global">Taskforce on Nature-related Financial Disclosures</a> are driving work on nature-related risks and opportunities for finance globally. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563825/original/file-20231206-17-py2kcp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="greenhouse with berries, bush in background" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563825/original/file-20231206-17-py2kcp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563825/original/file-20231206-17-py2kcp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563825/original/file-20231206-17-py2kcp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563825/original/file-20231206-17-py2kcp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563825/original/file-20231206-17-py2kcp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563825/original/file-20231206-17-py2kcp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563825/original/file-20231206-17-py2kcp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Agriculture and other sectors rely on the health of the natural world.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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<p>While there has been scepticism about whether the market really exists for nature repair in Australia, there are some signs investors are ready. For instance, Western Australia’s first <a href="https://www.wa.gov.au/government/media-statements/Cook-Labor-Government/-Western-Australia-issues-inaugural-%241.9-billion-green-bond-20230613">green bond</a> was greatly oversubscribed at its launch this year, promising to invest in projects with environmental benefits such as energy transition. </p>
<p>We won’t see investing in nature repair ramp up until all necessary laws and regulations are in place, projects begin to generate credits and the risks and opportunities are clear. This could take a couple of years, but could take longer if the reforms to the environment act are held up.</p>
<p>The design of the new market remains unclear and its success in channelling private funds into genuine nature repair will depend on the standards and rules still to be set. </p>
<p>We should set the standard high and make the most of our expertise in good governance, technology and innovation to make Australia’s natural world an attractive place to invest.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/can-a-nature-repair-market-really-save-australias-environment-its-not-perfect-but-its-worth-a-shot-203126">Can a ‘nature repair market’ really save Australia’s environment? It’s not perfect, but it’s worth a shot</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/218713/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Patrick O'Connor has received funding from the Australian Research Council, the South Australian, Victorian, New South Wales and Australian governments including the NSW Biodiversity Conservation Trust. He is a board director of the Nature Conservation Society of SA, a committee member of the Restoration Decade Alliance and a councillor of the Biodiversity Council.</span></em></p>Nature, everyone agrees, is in trouble. But can Australia’s new market-based mechanism help?Patrick O'Connor, Associate Professor, University of AdelaideLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2172712023-11-16T19:04:35Z2023-11-16T19:04:35Z5 things we need to see in Australia’s new nature laws<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559816/original/file-20231116-24-u8tdzn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C9%2C6006%2C3998&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/sunrise-over-shady-camp-billabong-mary-1625640262">Shane Bartie, Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australia’s abysmal rates of <a href="https://theconversation.com/gut-wrenching-and-infuriating-why-australia-is-the-world-leader-in-mammal-extinctions-and-what-to-do-about-it-192173">extinctions</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/we-must-assess-cumulative-impacts-to-protect-nature-from-death-by-a-thousand-cuts-215988">land clearing</a> since European colonisation are infamous globally. Our <a href="https://theconversation.com/labors-plan-to-save-threatened-species-is-an-improvement-but-its-still-well-short-of-what-we-need-191845">national environmental legislation has largely failed</a> to protect biodiversity, including many threatened plants, animals and ecological communities. But change is afoot.</p>
<p>The federal government is <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/epbc/epbc-act-reform">reforming our national environmental law</a>. Following a <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-major-report-excoriated-australias-environment-laws-sussan-leys-response-is-confused-and-risky-154254">scathing review</a> in 2021, the legislation is being rewritten. While amendments to the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2016C00777">(EPBC Act)</a> are yet to be tabled in parliament, the government says “<a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/epbc/epbc-act-reform">rolling consultation</a>” has begun. </p>
<p>About 30 <a href="https://twitter.com/tanya_plibersek/status/1718781979070791826">environment, business and industry groups</a> attended “targeted stakeholder workshops” last month. Public consultation begins with two webinars, on November 23 and 28. Government officials are offering to “explain how the proposed changes are designed to work and how they compare to existing laws”. But they are not sharing the draft legislation yet. </p>
<p>How can we assess whether these new laws can prevent further species loss and habitat destruction? Here’s an essential checklist of five things the law must include if we are to avoid calamity and hasten environmental recovery.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/labors-plan-to-save-threatened-species-is-an-improvement-but-its-still-well-short-of-what-we-need-191845">Labor's plan to save threatened species is an improvement – but it's still well short of what we need</a>
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<h2>1. A climate trigger</h2>
<p>The EPBC Act does not explicitly discuss and account for climate change and its impacts. So the federal environment minister is not legally bound to consider – or authorised to refuse – new or expanded coal mines and <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-beetaloo-gas-field-is-a-climate-bomb-how-did-csiro-modelling-make-it-look-otherwise-215711">fossil gas fields</a> based on their future climate impacts. </p>
<p>But climate change clearly <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/oct/14/five-biggest-threats-natural-world-how-we-can-stop-them-aoe">threatens biodiversity</a> and special places such as the <a href="https://theconversation.com/out-of-danger-because-the-un-said-so-hardly-the-barrier-reef-is-still-in-hot-water-210787">Great Barrier Reef</a>, as well as <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-11-08/australian-climate-case-torres-strait-court/103081738">human communities and culture</a>. </p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-should-use-australias-environment-laws-to-protect-our-living-wonders-from-new-coal-and-gas-projects-214211">We should use Australia's environment laws to protect our 'living wonders' from new coal and gas projects</a>
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<h2>2. Habitat means homes for wildlife</h2>
<p>Protection of sufficient and connected habitat must be central to Australia’s national environmental law. If homes for <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/oct/02/australia-swift-parrot-extinction-fears-logging">swift parrots</a>, koalas, <a href="https://theconversation.com/greater-gliders-are-hurtling-towards-extinction-and-the-blame-lies-squarely-with-australian-governments-186469">greater gliders</a> and other threatened species <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2023/nov/13/enough-is-enough-former-coalition-environment-minister-joins-push-for-a-national-ban-on-native-forest-logging?CMP=share_btn_tw">continue to be destroyed</a> and fragmented, it is all but guaranteed Australia will fail in its stated quest to avoid further extinctions. </p>
<p>Northern Australia is home to exceptional but declining biodiversity that is increasingly <a href="https://territoryrivers.org.au/a-fork-in-the-river/?gclid=Cj0KCQjw1_SkBhDwARIsANbGpFvOo6KLE0SjyU54tV8tlZJyU4Xf2vYE0HGhRlI_F897xp-9WqjqDaAaAiBJEALw_wcB">threatened</a> by <a href="https://theconversation.com/land-clearing-and-fracking-in-australias-northern-territory-threatens-the-worlds-largest-intact-tropical-savanna-208028">development of pastoral, cotton and fracking industries</a>. </p>
<p>Significant increases in <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-05-24/nt-agribusiness-strategy-2030-crops-land-clearing-cotton-gins/102382600">land clearing</a> and <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-11-14/nt-water-plan-released-georgina-wiso-oil-gas-cotton-sectors/103099618">water extraction</a> are seldom referred under the EPBC Act, let alone assessed. </p>
<p>Environmental law reform must stem the <a href="https://theconversation.com/existential-threat-to-our-survival-see-the-19-australian-ecosystems-already-collapsing-154077">accelerating loss of biodiversity</a> in this region <a href="https://theconversation.com/this-is-australias-most-important-report-on-the-environments-deteriorating-health-we-present-its-grim-findings-186131">and elsewhere</a>. Reforms must include <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-10-16/water-trigger-bill-to-close-fracking-loophole-introduced/102982456">expanding the water trigger to apply to shale gas fracking</a>, and ensuring significant land clearing is referred and assessed. </p>
<p>It is also crucial that federal approval powers are not <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/nov/10/coalition-prepared-transfer-of-environmental-powers-to-states-months-before-epbc-review-reported">devolved to states and territories</a>, particularly in remote regions where so much damage occurs <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-01-11/land-cleared-for-cotton-farming-northern-territory/101651092">out of sight and out of mind</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/land-clearing-and-fracking-in-australias-northern-territory-threatens-the-worlds-largest-intact-tropical-savanna-208028">Land clearing and fracking in Australia's Northern Territory threatens the world's largest intact tropical savanna</a>
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<h2>3. Setting clear objectives and measuring outcomes</h2>
<p>The new laws must state policy objectives such as <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/oct/04/australia-announces-plan-to-halt-extinction-crisis-and-save-110-species">no new extinctions</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/we-should-use-australias-environment-laws-to-protect-our-living-wonders-from-new-coal-and-gas-projects-214211">no actions that accelerate climate change</a>. </p>
<p>Decision-makers must be required to address direct, indirect and <a href="https://theconversation.com/we-must-assess-cumulative-impacts-to-protect-nature-from-death-by-a-thousand-cuts-215988">cumulative</a> threats that undermine these objectives. </p>
<p>The new <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/epbc/epbc-act-reform/standards">National Environment Standards</a> (the centrepiece of this law reform) must stipulate red lines not to be crossed, such as no clearing of any critically endangered ecological communities or critical habitat of threatened species. </p>
<p>We should always seek first to avoid harm, then keep harm to a minimum, and <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118568170.ch7">only as a last resort, offset remaining impacts</a> – and then only with credible offset plans that fully account for <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1526-100X.2008.00382.x">uncertainties in delivering environmental compensation</a>. </p>
<h2>4. An independent umpire</h2>
<p>We need a well-resourced, independent umpire, operating at arms length from government. This “<a href="https://epbcactreview.environment.gov.au/news/media-statement-professor-graeme-samuel-ac-releases-interim-report">independent cop on the beat</a>” will need powers to prevent activities and developments deemed too harmful for biodiversity. </p>
<p>The government has vowed to create a national <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/epbc/epbc-act-reform#toc_2">Environmental Protection Agency</a>. The functioning and powers of such an entity risk being severely undermined if the environment minister of the day has the ability to “call-in” projects and make unilateral decisions over whether they can proceed. That would also create concern regarding industry influence and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/global/2023/nov/14/australias-sea-dumping-legislation-what-is-it-what-does-it-mean-marine-life-changes">pressure on ministers to approve projects</a>.</p>
<p>It’s essential ministers not only have regard for environmental standards but also follow them to the letter of the law.</p>
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<h2>5. A Voice for Country and culture</h2>
<p>Our national environment laws must make room for <a href="https://theconversation.com/another-assault-on-country-and-its-precious-species-has-begun-at-binybara-lee-point-209335">genuine Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders participation</a> in how matters of cultural and environmental significance are managed. </p>
<p>Our new nature laws must interact with federal cultural heritage laws, which are also under reform. Entities of cultural significance, <a href="https://theconversation.com/humpback-whales-hold-lore-for-traditional-custodians-but-laws-dont-protect-species-for-their-cultural-significance-213073">such as humpback whales and dingoes</a>, must be cared for in a way deemed appropriate by Indigenous Australians. Such a mechanism must be co-designed with Aboriginal and Torres Straight Islanders. </p>
<p>Policy must continue to be developed in partnership with Aboriginal and Torres Strait islander people. We suggest a Land and Sea Country Commissioner, “a Voice for Country”, could lead this ongoing collaboration. We also need to ensure groups are adequately resourced and supported to Care for Country. </p>
<h2>We must do better</h2>
<p>The time has come to lift our ambitions and truly protect our nation’s precious environment and biodiversity. </p>
<p>Australians <a href="https://biodiversitycouncil.org.au/media/uploads/2023_6/202305_biodiversity_concerns_survey_report.pdf">want effective, urgent action</a> from government. For cultural, social, economic and environmental reasons, biodiversity conservation should be treated as a public good and receive bipartisan support. It’s not an optional extra. We simply must invest in nature. We cannot <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2023/may/03/federal-budget-2023-australia-being-unable-afford-greater-environmental-protection-myth-refuses-die">afford not to</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/217271/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Euan Ritchie receives funding from the Australian Research Council and the Department of Energy, Environment, and Climate Action. Euan is a Councillor within the Biodiversity Council, and a member of the Ecological Society of Australia and the Australian Mammal Society.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jack Pascoe is Co-Chief Councillor of the Biodiversity Council and a member on the Ecological Society of Australia and the Australasian Wildlife Management Society. He receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kristy Howey is the Executive Director of the Environment Centre NT.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Terry Hughes receives competitive funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Yung En Chee receives funding from an Australian Research Council linkage grant. She also receives funding and research contracts from Melbourne Water through the Melbourne Waterway Research-Practice Partnership 2023-28.</span></em></p>A group of prominent environmental scientists devised this list of 5 things we must see in Australia’s new national environmental laws, if we are to avoid calamity and hasten recovery.Euan Ritchie, Professor in Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, School of Life & Environmental Sciences, Deakin UniversityJack Pascoe, Research fellow, The University of MelbourneKirsty Howey, Charles Darwin UniversityTerry Hughes, Distinguished Professor, James Cook UniversityYung En Chee, Senior Research Fellow, Environmental Science, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2145982023-10-30T16:16:45Z2023-10-30T16:16:45ZNiger delta is rich in resources, but environmental destruction is pushing people into poverty<p>Nigeria’s Niger Delta region is rich in natural resources. Its <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284727294_Review_of_Ecological_Effects_of_Oil_Exploration_in_the_Niger-Delta_Nigeria">vast oil and gas deposits</a> are the mainstay of the country’s economy. </p>
<p>The region, in the southernmost part of the country, features coastal barrier islands, mangroves, freshwater swamp forests and lowland rain forests. The coast offers various ways of making a living, like fishing, tourism, producing salt, and farming coconut and bananas. </p>
<p>Yet it is estimated that over 47% of the population in the region <a href="https://beamexchange.org/uploads/filer_public/73/ff/73ffbabd-2447-4924-8a85-0a43f6f266dc/made-nigeria-poverty-assessment-report-final_compressed.pdf#page=4">lives</a> below the poverty line. </p>
<p>We study the economic aspects of environmental issues, and in a recent <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Otekenari-Elisha/publication/353741948_DESTRUCTION_OF_COASTAL_ECOSYSTEMS_AND_THE_VICIOUS_CYCLE_OF_POVERTY_IN_NIGER_DELTA_REGION/links/610d9423169a1a0103e569f4/DESTRUCTION-OF-COASTAL-ECOSYSTEMS-AND-THE-VICIOUS-CYCLE-OF-POVERTY-IN-NIGER-DELTA-REGION.pdf">paper</a> set out to understand the relationship between the destruction of coastal ecosystems in this region and the economic hardship the people faced.</p>
<p>We found that marine ecosystems had been badly affected by a number of factors, including an increasing population, pollution, over-fishing, damaging fishing techniques and global warming.</p>
<p>The degradation of the environment affects the poor the most as they depend on natural resources like seafood and wood for survival and energy. And they do not earn enough to relocate from polluted areas. </p>
<h2>The destruction of an ecosystem</h2>
<p>We identified a few areas where the Niger Delta ecosystem had been badly affected. The environmental problems in communities like Bille, Andoni, Okirika, Emohua and Ibaa in Rivers State are caused by oil spills, gas flaring, human activities and water pollution, among others. </p>
<p>Between 1976 and 2006, there were at least <a href="http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2017/ph240/nwagbo1/">7,000 oil spills</a> in the region, affecting an area of more than 2,500 square kilometres. These oil spills have polluted the soil, water and air, and they have had a <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2022/9/9/niger-delta-oil-spills-bring-poverty-low-crop-yields-to-farmers">devastating impact</a> on the people who live in the region. The destruction of the ecosystem has led to environmental problems like flooding and soil erosion, which destroys homes and crops, leading to further poverty. The lack of a healthy ecosystem has led to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0013935121000190#:%7E:text=Lung%20and%20skin%20cancers%20are,et%20al.%2C%202015">health problems</a> for the people living in the region. </p>
<p>Gas flaring is the process of burning off excess natural gas that is produced during oil drilling. More than 2.5 billion cubic feet of natural gas are <a href="https://www.amisdelaterre.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/gas-flaring-nigeria.pdf#page=4">flared</a> every day in the Niger Delta. This process <a href="https://www.iea.org/energy-system/fossil-fuels/gas-flaring">emits greenhouse gases</a> and other pollutants into the atmosphere, and it also wastes a valuable resource that could be used to generate electricity or heat homes.</p>
<p>Mangroves are being lost <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Otekenari-Elisha/publication/366371709_Asian_Journal_of_Current_Research_COMMUNITY-BASED_INTERVENTION_IN_THE_CONTROL_OF_ARTISANAL_REFINING_AGAINST_THE_ENVIRONMENT_IN_NIGER_DELTA_REGION_NIGERIA/links/639d793e095a6a77743755d0/Asian-Journal-of-Current-Research-COMMUNITY-BASED-INTERVENTION-IN-THE-CONTROL-OF-ARTISANAL-REFINING-AGAINST-THE-ENVIRONMENT-IN-NIGER-DELTA-REGION-NIGERIA.pdf#page=8">because of water pollution</a>. Mangrove forests are an important source of food and income for local communities, and their loss has led to a decline in fish stocks and other marine resources. This has damaged the livelihoods of fishers and increased the price of fish in local markets. </p>
<p>The environmental consequences of the destruction of mangroves include erosion and increased vulnerability to storms and flooding.</p>
<p>Natural resources such as nutrient-rich soil, water, trees and fossil fuels abound in marine ecosystems. Excessive exploitation of these resources through mining, logging and oil drilling has had a negative impact.</p>
<p>Animals in an ecosystem keep the food chain in balance. Due to overfishing and hunting, many animals are disappearing from the Niger Delta. Manatees, sea turtles, dolphins, monkeys, antelope and others are under threat. </p>
<p>The destruction of the ecosystem in the Niger Delta has led to a cycle of poverty:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>depletion of resources means people can’t make a living</p></li>
<li><p>environmental problems like flooding and soil erosion destroy homes and crops</p></li>
<li><p>human health depends on a healthy ecosystem.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>There is <a href="https://www.es.amnesty.org/fileadmin/noticias/Niger_Delta_Campaign_Digest_01.pdf">evidence</a> that destruction of the ecosystem has led to poverty in the Niger Delta region. Increasing soil sterility and diminishing agricultural output have <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Otekenari-Elisha/publication/353741948_DESTRUCTION_OF_COASTAL_ECOSYSTEMS_AND_THE_VICIOUS_CYCLE_OF_POVERTY_IN_NIGER_DELTA_REGION/links/610d9423169a1a0103e569f4/DESTRUCTION-OF-COASTAL-ECOSYSTEMS-AND-THE-VICIOUS-CYCLE-OF-POVERTY-IN-NIGER-DELTA-REGION.pdf#page=10">forced</a> farmers to move or seek illicit sources of living. The degradation of traditional fishing grounds has worsened hunger and poverty in fishing communities.</p>
<h2>Protecting and restoring ecosystems</h2>
<p>The impact of environmental degradation will only worsen if nothing is done to protect and restore degraded ecosystems.</p>
<p>In our paper we made the following suggestions.</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Regulate human activities: Fishing and hunting in the region should be controlled to prevent the depletion of fish and wildlife. Industrial activities, such as oil drilling and shipping, should also be regulated to prevent further pollution of the air, water and soil.</p></li>
<li><p>Restore degraded ecosystems: Mangrove forests can be replanted in areas where they have been destroyed. Another example is restoring wildlife populations through captive breeding programmes and releasing animals back into their natural habitats.</p></li>
<li><p>Build the capacity of local communities to manage their natural resources: This is essential for the long-term protection of the region. One example is providing training to community members on sustainable fishing and hunting practices. Another example is giving local communities a say in how their natural resources are managed.</p></li>
<li><p>Establish marine protected areas: This would help to conserve marine life and ensure that coastal communities can continue to benefit from the resources they depend on. One example is the Calabar-Oron Marine Protected Area in Cross River and Akwa Ibom states. It is home to a variety of marine life, including dolphins, turtles and whales. The area is used for sustainable fishing, ecotourism and research.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>We also recommend steps to address the root causes of poverty and inequality.</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Provide access to quality education and healthcare: Education can help to create greater awareness about environmental issues, and lead to economic opportunities. Availability of these social services could reduce the appeal of rebel groups that promise economic and social benefits.</p></li>
<li><p>Address marginalisation: Groups like women and ethnic minorities can be given equal access to resources and opportunities through inclusive decision-making at the local, state and national levels. Development programmes should target their specific needs. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>Finally, renewed efforts should be made to address conflict and insecurity in the Niger Delta by strengthening governance and the rule of law. Improved governance can lead to stronger enforcement of environmental laws and regulations, which can protect ecosystems from further degradation. In addition, it can protect land rights and create a more stable environment that offers economic opportunities.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/214598/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Otekenari David Elisha does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Environmental degradation of Nigeria’s Niger Delta region is causing poverty as well as food insecurity, increased crime and conflict.Otekenari David Elisha, Environmental Economist, Ignatius Ajuru University of Education Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2159882023-10-29T19:11:58Z2023-10-29T19:11:58ZWe must assess ‘cumulative impacts’ to protect nature from death by a thousand cuts<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556264/original/file-20231027-19-kul9qc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=165%2C134%2C4332%2C2659&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/red-sand-dunes-ghost-gums-west-1676734210">Cam Laird/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australia’s national environment protection law ignores the big picture. Like a racehorse wearing blinkers, decision-makers focus on a single project in isolation. If they dropped the blinkers and considered the combined effects of multiple projects, they might shy away from allowing so many harmful impacts. </p>
<p>Urgent reform is needed because nature is suffering death by a thousand cuts. We have <a href="https://www.anao.gov.au/work/performance-audit/management-threatened-species-and-ecological-communities-under-the-epbc-act#:%7E:text=As%20of%20February%202022%2C%20there,1595%20items%20of%20conservation%20advice.">more than 2,000</a> threatened species and ecological communities – groups of plants and animals that live together and interact, such as Western Australia’s iconic Banksia woodlands. That number is likely to grow, as hundreds more <a href="https://theconversation.com/its-not-just-victorias-iconic-mountain-ash-trees-at-risk-its-every-species-in-their-community-214582">await assessment for listing</a>. </p>
<p>Today, the <a href="https://wentworthgroup.org/">Wentworth Group of Concerned Scientists</a>, which includes one of the authors of this article, is releasing a <a href="https://wentworthgroup.org/2023/10/preventing-death-by-a-thousand-cuts/">report outlining the practical steps needed to fix the law</a>. It draws on both international and Australian experience to recommend pragmatic solutions that also minimise the administrative burden for landholders.</p>
<p>The report finds <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-beat-rollout-rage-the-environment-versus-climate-battle-dividing-regional-australia-213863">regional planning can help</a>. But rolling out regional planning won’t happen fast, nor will it alone fix this problem. Addressing cumulative impacts on already threatened biodiversity means every impact must be counted, and countered.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-should-use-australias-environment-laws-to-protect-our-living-wonders-from-new-coal-and-gas-projects-214211">We should use Australia's environment laws to protect our 'living wonders' from new coal and gas projects</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Our national environmental laws are lagging</h2>
<p>“Cumulative impacts” arise when multiple actions or environmental conditions together cause greater overall impact than threats considered in isolation. </p>
<p>When it comes to regulating the cumulative environmental impacts of new developments, <a href="https://www.unswlawjournal.unsw.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/2-Nelson.pdf">our national environmental law is lagging</a>. </p>
<p>Around the world, <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/transnational-environmental-law/article/latent-potential-of-cumulative-effects-concepts-in-national-and-international-environmental-impact-assessment-regimes/2219738FCAA04243F83CAFEE02DB4610#fig01">almost two-thirds of national environmental laws</a> require a decision-maker to consider cumulative impacts. This includes laws in high-income economies in Europe and North America, as well as our Asia-Pacific neighbours such as Papua New Guinea, Fiji, Indonesia and the Solomon Islands. First Nations peoples often lead the charge for <a href="https://www.icce-caec.ca/about-icce/">more focus on cumulative impacts</a>. </p>
<p>Recent legal reforms in some Australian states, such as <a href="https://www.allens.com.au/insights-news/insights/2020/04/10-key-things-about-proposed-changes-to-the-wa-epa/#anchor3">Western Australia</a>, <a href="https://law.unimelb.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/4772747/03-Lindsay,-Marsh-and-Nelson-422.pdf">Victoria</a> and the <a href="https://www.edo.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/Environmental-impact-assessment-under-the-EP-Act-2019.pdf">Northern Territory</a>, and <a href="https://www.planning.nsw.gov.au/sites/default/files/2023-03/cumulative-impact-assessment-guidelines-for-ssp.pdf">policy advances in New South Wales</a>, do the same. But they are not set up to protect matters of national environmental significance. That’s a job for national law. </p>
<p>Tasmanian environmentalists sought to fix this major flaw in a legal challenge that ended in the Full Federal Court in 2015. They argued that, in approving a haematite mine that would harm the habitat of vulnerable Tasmanian devils, the federal environment minister had unlawfully failed to consider cumulative impacts. </p>
<p>But <a href="https://jade.io/article/398617">the challenge failed</a>. The court decided there was no requirement to consider cumulative impacts. The then environment minister Tony Burke could continue to ignore how serious the mine’s impacts really were for the devils when combined with other major projects such as logging and neighbouring mines.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556259/original/file-20231027-15-zt2j9s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A stout black animal with a white band across its chest and a pointy snout looks at the camera" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556259/original/file-20231027-15-zt2j9s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556259/original/file-20231027-15-zt2j9s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556259/original/file-20231027-15-zt2j9s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556259/original/file-20231027-15-zt2j9s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556259/original/file-20231027-15-zt2j9s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556259/original/file-20231027-15-zt2j9s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556259/original/file-20231027-15-zt2j9s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Tasmanian devil habitat is impacted by logging and mining.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/tasmanian-devil-australia-659406127">Oleksii G/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Both big and small cuts matter</h2>
<p>Cumulative impacts are not just about major projects (such as mines) that already reach decision-makers’ desks, but also small projects that are rarely scrutinised. </p>
<p>Notably, <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/epbc/publications/review-interactions-epbc-act-agriculture-final-report">very few agricultural developments</a> seek approval. Yet for koalas, which are endangered, the cumulative effects of many land–clearing operations – <a href="https://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/species/pubs/85104-conservation-advice-12022022.pdf">mostly for grazing</a> – is a major ongoing threat, <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/recovery-plan-koala-2022.pdf">compounded further by disease and climate change</a>. </p>
<p>The federal environment department’s <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/biodiversity/threatened/publications/referral-guidelines-endangered-koala#:%7E:text=This%20guidance%20has%20been%20developed%20to%20support%20proponents%2C,Protection%20and%20Biodiversity%20Conservation%20Act%201999%20%28EPBC%20Act%29.">own advice</a> is “even small areas of habitat loss (as little as 1 hectare) can have a significant impact” on koalas. But more than a million hectares of potential koala habitat have disappeared since the law came into force in 2000 - most with no consideration under environment law. <a href="https://www.wilderness.org.au/protecting-nature/watch-on-nature#:%7E:text=In%20November%20last%20year%2C%20Watch%20on%20Nature%20users%20identified%20broadscale%20deforestation%20of%20likely%20koala%20habitat%20taking%20place%20in%20Far%20North%20Queensland.">Most land clearing continues</a> unscrutinised. </p>
<p>Without attention to cumulative impacts, policy commitments to “<a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/environmental-markets/nature-repair-market">repair nature</a>” or be “<a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/epbc/publications/nature-positive-plan">nature positive</a>” can’t work. It’s like trying to fill a bucket while gaping holes at the bottom are draining it.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556260/original/file-20231027-22-qzcvvj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A grey animal asleep high up on a eucalyptus tree" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556260/original/file-20231027-22-qzcvvj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556260/original/file-20231027-22-qzcvvj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556260/original/file-20231027-22-qzcvvj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556260/original/file-20231027-22-qzcvvj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556260/original/file-20231027-22-qzcvvj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556260/original/file-20231027-22-qzcvvj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556260/original/file-20231027-22-qzcvvj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Koalas are threatened by agricultural land clearing, disease and the effects of climate change.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/australian-koala-asleep-on-branch-gum-1800418618">Jackson Stock Photography/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/land-clearing-and-fracking-in-australias-northern-territory-threatens-the-worlds-largest-intact-tropical-savanna-208028">Land clearing and fracking in Australia's Northern Territory threatens the world's largest intact tropical savanna</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>In a crisis, change is possible</h2>
<p>In some cases, public pressure and ecological catastrophe have forced national action on cumulative impacts. </p>
<p>In response to international concern for the Great Barrier Reef, a <a href="https://elibrary.gbrmpa.gov.au/jspui/bitstream/11017/3389/9/Reef-2050-cumulative-impact-mngt-policy.pdf">cumulative impact policy</a> was introduced - but it only relates to the reef. </p>
<p>Public protests and inquiries drove Commonwealth <a href="https://rebeccanelsonorg.files.wordpress.com/2021/01/nelson_bigtime_authorversion.pdf">regulation of the impact of coal seam gas and coal mining projects on water</a>. This is currently the only “matter of national environmental significance” that requires cumulative impact assessment. </p>
<p>And the Commonwealth <a href="https://www.unswlawjournal.unsw.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/2-Nelson.pdf">capped cumulative withdrawals of water</a> in the Murray-Darling Basin during the Millennium Drought. For the first time across the basin, total withdrawals could not exceed an “environmentally sustainable level”. Implementation <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-09-08/rivers-missing-environment-flows-in-murray-darling-basin-plan/102805636">is not easy</a>, but at least there’s now a crucial legal safeguard in place. </p>
<p>Overall, though, our current law is failing. The <a href="https://epbcactreview.environment.gov.au/resources/final-report">2020 statutory review</a> of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Act confirmed “cumulative impacts on the environment <a href="https://epbcactreview.environment.gov.au/resources/final-report/executive-summary">are not systematically considered</a>” and that this contributes to environmental decline.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/get-the-basics-right-for-national-environmental-standards-to-ensure-truly-sustainable-development-201092">Get the basics right for National Environmental Standards to ensure truly sustainable development</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What’s holding us back?</h2>
<p>Assessing cumulative impacts can be complex, so some developers and politicians will resist. But other developers will welcome better environmental performance. They know cumulative impacts can threaten an industry’s social licence to operate. </p>
<p>Globally, diverse industry sectors support considering cumulative impacts, from <a href="https://tethys.pnnl.gov/sites/default/files/publications/Cumulative-Impact-Assessment-Guidelines.pdf">offshore wind farms in the United Kingdom</a>, to the <a href="https://wsdot.wa.gov/sites/default/files/2021-10/ENV-NSEPA_AASHTOCummHndbk.pdf">transport sector in the United States</a> and the <a href="https://minerals.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/Cumulative_Environmental_Impact_Assessment_Industry_Guide_FINAL_0.pdf">mining industry in Australia</a>.</p>
<p>Dealing with cumulative impacts will also mean scrutinising types and sizes of impacts that currently fly under the national radar, but seriously impact nationally important environments.</p>
<p>That means cooperating with states and territories to avoid duplication of assessment and creating innovative approaches – beyond simple regulatory “sticks” – for small but cumulatively significant impacts.</p>
<h2>Now is the time</h2>
<p>Once-in-a-decade reforms to our national environmental law present an opportunity to protect nationally important species and places from cumulative impacts. </p>
<p>We know the Commonwealth can regulate cumulative impacts when the pressure is on. Now is the time for the Commonwealth to step up and join Australia’s states – and most of the world’s nations – in taking the legal blinkers off decision-makers assessing developments under our national law. Nature depends on it.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>The authors acknowledge the contributions of Debbie Medaris, Wentworth Group of Concerned Scientists, and expert attendees of a workshop on cumulative impacts held by the Wentworth group, which have informed this article.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215988/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rebecca Louise Nelson receives funding from Watertrust Australia, and has previously received funding from the Australian Research Council and the National Native Title Council. She is a member of the Murray-Darling Basin Authority's Social and Economic Advisory Group, and has been a member of its Advisory Committee on Social, Economic and Environmental Sciences. She is a director of the Board of Bush Heritage Australia. The views expressed in this Editorial are her own.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Martine Maron is a member of the Wentworth Group of Concerned Scientists and co-authored the report mentioned in this article. She has received funding from various sources including the Australian Research Council, the Queensland Department of Environment and Science, and the Australian Government's National Environmental Science Program, and has advised both state and federal government on conservation policy. She is a director of BirdLife Australia and the Australian Wildlife Conservancy, a councillor with the Biodiversity Council, a governor of WWF-Australia, and leads the IUCN's thematic group on Impact Mitigation and Ecological Compensation under the Commission on Ecosystem Management.</span></em></p>Australia has a once-in-a-decade opportunity to fix environmental law. A new Wentworth Group report says the cumulative impacts from multiple projects must be considered.Rebecca Louise Nelson, Associate Professor in Law, The University of MelbourneMartine Maron, Professor of Environmental Management, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2102632023-08-30T12:15:57Z2023-08-30T12:15:57ZGiraffes range across diverse African habitats − we’re using GPS, satellites and statistics to track and protect them<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544746/original/file-20230825-17-am7gat.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=11%2C0%2C3768%2C2345&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">An average giraffe has a home range almost as large as Philadelphia.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Michael Brown</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Nearly 6,000 years ago, our ancestors climbed arid rocky outcrops in what is now the Nigerian Sahara and carved spectacularly intricate, larger-than-life renditions of giraffes into the exposed sandstone. The remarkably detailed Dabous giraffe rock art petroglyphs are among <a href="https://journals.co.za/doi/pdf/10.10520/AJA00382353_1067">many ancient petroglyphs featuring giraffes across Africa</a> – a testament to early humans’ fascination with these unique creatures. </p>
<p>We are still <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0199149">captivated by giraffes today</a>, but many of these animals are at risk, largely due to habitat loss and illegal hunting. Some <a href="https://giraffeconservation.org/programmes/giraffe-conservation-status-assessment/">are critically endangered</a>. </p>
<p>To understand how giraffes are faring across Africa, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=f3D2QOcAAAAJ&hl=en">conservation ecologists like me</a> are studying how they interact with their habitats across vast geographic scales. We use space-age technology and advanced statistical approaches that our ancient ancestors could have scarcely imagined to understand how giraffes can better coexist with people. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542627/original/file-20230814-22-vdxtbu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Image of a giraffe carved in red rock." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542627/original/file-20230814-22-vdxtbu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542627/original/file-20230814-22-vdxtbu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542627/original/file-20230814-22-vdxtbu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542627/original/file-20230814-22-vdxtbu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542627/original/file-20230814-22-vdxtbu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542627/original/file-20230814-22-vdxtbu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542627/original/file-20230814-22-vdxtbu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Giraffes are featured prominently in ancient petroglyphs across Africa, such as this one in Twyfelfontein, Namibia, which dates back thousands of years.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Michael Brown</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Many habitats and challenges</h2>
<p>Giraffes may all look similar to the casual viewer, but in fact there are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2021.04.033">four distinct species</a>. By our best estimates, there are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-821139-7.00139-2">roughly 117,000 giraffes remaining in the wild</a>, living in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/mam.12165">21 African countries</a>. </p>
<p>Across this huge expanse, giraffes make their homes in many different environments with varied levels of human influence. For example, in the relatively arid Sahel region of Niger, they live among communal farmers entirely outside of formally protected areas. In contrast, along the Nile in Uganda’s national parks, they browse through lush savannas that are formally protected by dedicated rangers. </p>
<p>Each of these areas has unique bioclimatic conditions and conservation philosophies. There is <a href="https://giraffeconservation.org/programmes/conservation-strategies/">no one-size-fits-all approach</a> for protecting giraffe habitats and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10871209.2021.1885768">promoting coexistence with people</a>. </p>
<p>Researchers are taking advantage of these diverse conditions to learn how giraffes move throughout this range. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2023.0912">In a recently published paper</a>, I worked with colleagues from academia and conservation organizations to conduct the largest ever tracking study to better understand how and why giraffes move at large scales. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542628/original/file-20230814-24-pw6hay.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Four images of giraffes in diverse African settings." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542628/original/file-20230814-24-pw6hay.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542628/original/file-20230814-24-pw6hay.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542628/original/file-20230814-24-pw6hay.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542628/original/file-20230814-24-pw6hay.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542628/original/file-20230814-24-pw6hay.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542628/original/file-20230814-24-pw6hay.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542628/original/file-20230814-24-pw6hay.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The four species of giraffes inhabit remarkably different habitats across Africa, from lush savannas to desert.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Michael Brown</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Tracking wide-ranging animals</h2>
<p>Over the past decade, our collaborative conservation research team, spearheaded by the <a href="https://giraffeconservation.org/">Giraffe Conservation Foundation</a>, has embarked on an ambitious pan-African giraffe-tracking study to better understand giraffes’ movements across these diverse landscapes. </p>
<p>Each tracking operation contributes to local studies by telling us something interesting about giraffe behavior. For example, we published the first description of <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2019.00524">partial migration in a Ugandan giraffe population</a>, showing that giraffes can have complicated seasonal movements. </p>
<p>These studies also are important for guiding local management of giraffes. Partnering with organizations like <a href="https://www.earthranger.com/">EarthRanger</a>, which develops software to support conservation initiatives, we have pioneered the use of animal movement data to inform active conservation management. </p>
<p>We share giraffe location data in real time with rangers in protected areas to guide day-to-day conservation actions. As an example, we run continuous analytics on the giraffe data that alert teams on the ground when a giraffe stops moving or leaves the boundaries of a national park. With this information, teams can follow up quickly and address risks, such as when giraffes might be straying into dangerous areas.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/Bry-gJU-cis?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">In October 2021, conservation scientists and local wildlife officials translocated 10 South African giraffes over 1,600 miles (2,600 kilometers) from South Africa to Malawi. There they joined 13 giraffes already in Majete Wildlife Reserve, helping to expand the group into a sustainable population.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>To look at these patterns at a larger scale in our recent study, we analyzed GPS tracking data from 148 giraffes, representing all four species from across 10 countries. We wanted to understand how giraffes may change their movements in response to human pressures and the availability of vegetation.</p>
<p>We used environmental data from satellite imagery, linking the giraffes’ locations to the exact conditions that the animals were moving through. Since the work drew from information collected across Africa through different GPS devices, we developed statistical techniques to harmonize the datasets and make the results directly comparable across ecosystems. </p>
<p>Overall, we found that giraffes cover impressively large areas. On average, each animal has a home range of about 140 square miles (360 square kilometers) – <a href="https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/philadelphiacitypennsylvania/PST045222">nearly equivalent to the surface area of Philadelphia</a> – and travels about 8.5 miles (14 kilometers) every day. One of the biggest movers in our study, a female northern giraffe in Niger that navigated among communities raising livestock in the dry Sahel, covered a home range of nearly 1,500 square miles (3,860 square kilometers) – larger than the <a href="https://www.ri.gov/facts/history.php">land area of Rhode Island</a>. </p>
<p>Giraffes’ movements changed significantly based on the availability of woody vegetation and the level of human presence. Those in areas with plenty of woody vegetation didn’t cover as much ground as their counterparts in more barren zones, since the former had most of the resources they needed close by. Giraffes also tended to move less in places with significant human development – probably because of man-made barriers to their movements, like settlements, fences and roads.</p>
<p>In mixed areas with some development and some open spaces, we observed that giraffes covered more ground as they navigated these patchy environments. They traveled faster and covered larger areas when they were moving between resource-rich zones and more heavily developed areas.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540456/original/file-20230801-21-xj7o8h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two giraffes at the edge of a road watch a car pass." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540456/original/file-20230801-21-xj7o8h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540456/original/file-20230801-21-xj7o8h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540456/original/file-20230801-21-xj7o8h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540456/original/file-20230801-21-xj7o8h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540456/original/file-20230801-21-xj7o8h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540456/original/file-20230801-21-xj7o8h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540456/original/file-20230801-21-xj7o8h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Across their range, giraffes are navigating increasingly developed landscapes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Michael Brown, GCF</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Giraffe movements inform conservation</h2>
<p>Understanding how giraffes respond to changes in environmental conditions is critical for their conservation. Climate change is making the availability of vegetation less predictable, and human populations in these areas are continuing to grow. Conservation strategies will need to account for giraffes’ changing movements as the animals respond to these shifts. </p>
<p>It also is important to develop principles for giraffe movement so that we can better predict how they might move in new environments. Conservation groups and governments are increasingly using <a href="https://giraffeconservation.org/programmes/conservation-translocations/">conservation translocations</a> – capturing wild giraffes and moving them to new habitats – as a tool to reestablish populations in areas where giraffes had previously become extinct. </p>
<p>Our movement data from giraffes across Africa is casting new light on their responses to different conditions and providing important information for conserving these iconic animals in a rapidly changing world.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/210263/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Brown works for the Giraffe Conservation Foundation and is an affiliated researcher for the Smithsonian National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute. He receives funding from the Giraffe Conservation Foundation and its many supporters and is affiliated with the Smithsonian National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute.</span></em></p>The largest ever giraffe tracking study shows how these massive animals are responding to human pressures across many different habitats throughout Africa.Michael Brown, Conservation Science Fellow, Smithsonian InstitutionLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2120142023-08-24T02:03:32Z2023-08-24T02:03:32ZLeakage or spillover? Conservation parks boost biodiversity outside them – but there’s a catch, new study shows<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544193/original/file-20230823-23-fvjmxw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=146%2C0%2C1514%2C1005&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A Southern Red Muntjac deer peering at a camera trap.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Authors</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s easy to assume protected areas such as national parks conserve wildlife – that seems obvious. But what is the proof? And how does park success vary across different ecosystems – in deserts versus tropical rainforests, or wetlands versus oceans? </p>
<p>While we can use satellite imagery to measure the effect of protected areas in reducing human impacts such as logging, you can’t see the animals from space. In particularly dense tropical rainforests, it was nearly impossible to accurately monitor wildlife, until remotely triggered camera traps became available in the past decade.</p>
<p>There is a longstanding conservation debate on the benefits that protected areas such as national parks have for biodiversity. </p>
<p>Some scientists have argued that conservation success inside park boundaries may come at the expense of neighbouring unprotected habitats. Essentially, they suggest parks displace impacts such as hunting and logging to other nearby areas. The technical term for this is <a href="https://rest.neptune-prod.its.unimelb.edu.au/server/api/core/bitstreams/018f26e0-7629-51b3-8bf4-5b3b4323c91d/content">leakage</a>. </p>
<p>On the other hand, marine parks have often reported higher biodiversity nearby. Fish reproduce successfully inside park boundaries and their offspring disperse, benefiting surrounding habitats in a “<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1617138116300255">spillover</a>” effect. </p>
<p>We set out to see which of those effects actually prevails in protected land areas and their surrounds. Our <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06410-z">new study</a>, published today in Nature, shows parks do enhance bird diversity inside their borders. Large parks also support higher diversity of both birds and mammals in nearby unprotected areas.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/JQQ_5puMPy8?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Rare rainforest species captured by camera traps used by the research team in protected areas across South-East Asia.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-new-major-players-in-conservation-ngos-thrive-while-national-parks-struggle-199880">The new major players in conservation? NGOs thrive while national parks struggle</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What did the study look at?</h2>
<p>We recruited an international team of scientists to conduct a comprehensive analysis of bird and mammal diversity inside and outside parks across South-East Asia. We used more than 2,000 cameras and bird surveys across the region.</p>
<p>South-East Asia is one of the <a href="https://www.wildcru.org/news/south-east-asias-hotspots-of-biodiversity/">most biodiverse regions</a> on Earth, but <a href="https://rdcu.be/dkacH">hunting is a key concern</a>. It’s a prime suspect for why diversity has often been assumed to decline outside protected park areas. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Three people attaching a camera trap to a tree" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544154/original/file-20230823-23-c916v8.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544154/original/file-20230823-23-c916v8.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544154/original/file-20230823-23-c916v8.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544154/original/file-20230823-23-c916v8.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544154/original/file-20230823-23-c916v8.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544154/original/file-20230823-23-c916v8.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544154/original/file-20230823-23-c916v8.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Members of the research team set up a camera trap in Sumatra.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Authors</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544167/original/file-20230823-21-2hnt2u.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Pheasant in a rainforest clearing" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544167/original/file-20230823-21-2hnt2u.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544167/original/file-20230823-21-2hnt2u.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=598&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544167/original/file-20230823-21-2hnt2u.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=598&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544167/original/file-20230823-21-2hnt2u.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=598&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544167/original/file-20230823-21-2hnt2u.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=751&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544167/original/file-20230823-21-2hnt2u.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=751&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544167/original/file-20230823-21-2hnt2u.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=751&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A Silver Pheasant eyes the camera.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Authors</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Hunters are mobile, so hunting bans within park boundaries may only displace these activities to nearby unprotected areas, undermining their net benefit. To be honest, we were surprised mammal diversity was higher outside large parks. It’s common to see hunters both inside and outside parks in many countries. </p>
<p>We expected hunters’ removal of game animals would reduce diversity outside parks. However, it appears large parks limit the impacts of hunting so it does not completely remove these animals. Specifically, when comparing unprotected areas near large reserves to unprotected areas that didn’t border large reserves, we found large reserves boosted mammal diversity in unprotected areas by up to 194%.</p>
<p>However, a sad note from our study was the finding that only larger parks significantly enhanced mammal diversity, casting doubt on the effectiveness of smaller parks for mammal conservation. Recent work in the region suggests many <a href="https://science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abq2307">large mammals persist in small parks</a>, but our study shows the presence of a few resilient animals in small parks doesn’t scale up to higher biodiversity overall.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A wild cat in a rainforest clearing" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544195/original/file-20230823-15-65e55z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544195/original/file-20230823-15-65e55z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=315&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544195/original/file-20230823-15-65e55z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=315&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544195/original/file-20230823-15-65e55z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=315&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544195/original/file-20230823-15-65e55z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544195/original/file-20230823-15-65e55z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544195/original/file-20230823-15-65e55z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A Marbled Cat looks back at the camera.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Authors</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/in-protecting-land-for-wildlife-size-matters-heres-what-it-takes-to-conserve-very-large-areas-201848">In protecting land for wildlife, size matters – here's what it takes to conserve very large areas</a>
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</p>
<hr>
<h2>Not all parks are equal</h2>
<p>These findings are especially timely for the United Nations, which recently announced more ambitious biodiversity targets, including significant expansions of global protected areas. The <a href="https://www.unep.org/resources/kunming-montreal-global-biodiversity-framework">UN strategy</a> is to conserve 30% of Earth’s lands and waters by 2030 – the so-called “<a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/global-environment-summit-idAFL8N32R3GW">30 by 30 goal</a>”. Massive expansions of the global area of protected land will be difficult and expensive, but our results support this approach.</p>
<p>The work provides a clear case for park design to consider size. Larger parks routinely had higher bird diversity. Large mammals such as tigers and elephants travel huge distances and don’t see park boundaries drawn on maps. Larger parks support these wide-ranging animals that move across entire landscapes.</p>
<p>Considering the UN’s goal of increasing protected area to 30% of the world’s surface, our findings support the creation of fewer larger parks, rather than many smaller ones. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Elephant's foot and trunk in a rainforest clearing" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544161/original/file-20230823-23-kgl0vl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544161/original/file-20230823-23-kgl0vl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=315&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544161/original/file-20230823-23-kgl0vl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=315&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544161/original/file-20230823-23-kgl0vl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=315&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544161/original/file-20230823-23-kgl0vl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544161/original/file-20230823-23-kgl0vl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544161/original/file-20230823-23-kgl0vl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A Thai elephant captured by the camera trap moments before destroying it.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Authors</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/protecting-30-of-australias-land-and-sea-by-2030-sounds-great-but-its-not-what-it-seems-187435">Protecting 30% of Australia's land and sea by 2030 sounds great – but it's not what it seems</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Next steps in South-East Asia and Australia</h2>
<p>Our findings also provide a much-needed conservation “win” for South-East Asia. Despite being a biodiversity hotspot, the region suffers from <a href="https://earth.org/deforestation-in-southeast-asia/">high rates of forest loss</a> and hunting, which pose threats to birds and mammals.</p>
<p>Our team built a collaborative network and massive database to conduct the analysis, and this can also be used to answer other questions. Our next project will quantify shifts in abundance – the numbers of animals rather than numbers of species – inside and outside parks. We suspect parks will support increased mammal and bird abundances, even more than increased in wildlife diversity.</p>
<p>Based on the success of the Asian collaborative network project, a related team is now building a domestic collaborative network and database to conduct similar analyses, called <a href="https://www.ecologicalcascades.com/wildobs">Wildlife Observatory of Australia</a>. Key questions will include the impact of fire and climate change on Australia’s wildlife diversity and abundance.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/212014/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The research discussed in this article was supported by the United Nations Development Programme, NASA grants NNL15AA03C and 80NSSC21K0189, the National Geographic Society’s Committee for the Research and Exploration award #9384–13, the Australian Research Council Discovery Early Career Researcher Award DECRA #DE210101440, the Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, the Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia, Nanyang Technological University Singapore, the Darwin Initiative, Liebniz-IZW, and the Universities of Aberdeen, British Columbia, Montana and Queensland. Mammal data collection in one study area (out of 65) was funded by Sarawak Energy Berhad; no personnel from that agency participated in the data collection or analysis or reviewed the manuscript before it was submitted.</span></em></p>The UN ‘30 by 30’ biodiversity strategy aims to set aside 30% of land as protected areas. New research shows these areas do support biodiversity, but big parks also increase it outside their borders.Matthew Scott Luskin, Researcher and Lecturer in Conservation Science, The University of QueenslandJedediah Brodie, Research Fellow, Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak; Associate Professor and John Craighead Endowed Chair of Conservation, University of MontanaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2069072023-06-26T16:14:05Z2023-06-26T16:14:05ZDog detectives can sniff out protected great crested newts and reduce costly construction delays<p>Construction projects often find themselves at odds with the <a href="https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/amphibians/great-crested-newt">great crested newt</a>. In 2020, the then UK prime minister, Boris Johnson, referred to them as a <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-53276461">drag on the economy</a>, citing their presence on development sites as a cause for costly delays. These creatures even <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/06/11/ed-sheeran-launches-hunt-great-crested-newts-objections-plan/">put a stop</a> to Ed Sheeran’s proposal to build a wedding chapel on his Suffolk estate.</p>
<p>Great crested newts play crucial ecological roles. They breed in ponds and ditches during the spring and early summer, before emerging to spend most of their time on land. This behaviour means they are able to recycle nutrients from water to land.</p>
<p>They are also an important part of the food chain. These newts eat small invertebrates and are prey for many species of reptile, mammal and bird. </p>
<p>But great crested newt populations are dwindling due to the widespread loss of suitable habitat, changes in farming practices and climate change. There are now only 478,000 ponds remaining in the UK’s countryside – a <a href="https://freshwaterhabitats.org.uk/news/great-crested-newt-habitat-report/">50% decline compared to a century ago</a> – and only 20% of the remaining ponds are suitable for breeding great crested newts. </p>
<p>So it’s no surprise that harming these creatures or their habitats <a href="https://www.gov.uk/guidance/great-crested-newts-protection-surveys-and-licences#:%7E:text=Great%20crested%20newts%20are%20a,places%20are%20protected%20by%20law.">is now illegal</a>. Developments that may harm great crested newts can proceed only if suitable new habitats are made for them. </p>
<p>But the current methods for relocating newts, which include the installation of drift fencing, pitfall traps (sunken buckets in the ground) and searching by hand, are time-consuming, restricted to certain seasons, expensive and are often hampered by the weather. Great crested newts also tend to hide underground in mammal burrows and other inaccessible refuges, where they are hard to locate. </p>
<p>However, my colleagues and I <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0285084">have discovered</a> that detection dogs can be a valuable addition to the existing toolkit for managing great crested newt populations. </p>
<p>A trained English springer spaniel, called Freya, was highly accurate at detecting great crested newts, even at distances of up to 2 metres above the ground (87% accuracy) and through 20cm of soil (88% accuracy). This approach offers a non-invasive method for locating this species in inaccessible underground shelters.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A female great crested newt." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533471/original/file-20230622-21-sxlihp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533471/original/file-20230622-21-sxlihp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533471/original/file-20230622-21-sxlihp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533471/original/file-20230622-21-sxlihp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533471/original/file-20230622-21-sxlihp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533471/original/file-20230622-21-sxlihp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533471/original/file-20230622-21-sxlihp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Great crested newts have a reputation for holding up construction projects.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/greatcrested-newt-triturus-cristatus-single-female-168592301">Erni/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Dog detectives</h2>
<p>Over 128 trial runs, we conducted experiments to investigate the impact of various distances between target newts and Freya on her ability to locate them. We also tested how well Freya could detect the newts through two different soil types: clay and sand. In some instances, we placed a vent within the soil to mimic a mammal burrow. </p>
<p>Freya accurately located all individual great crested newts across the entire range of tested distances (0.25 metres–2 metres). When Freya detected the smell of a great crested newt, she would lie down and point at where the scent was emerging from. </p>
<p>Freya could locate individual newts both in soils with and without vents. But she was significantly faster and more accurate at detecting newts under clay soil compared to sand. This finding contrasts with previous research that found dogs were able to <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299522945_The_Effects_of_Soil_Texture_on_the_Ability_of_Human_Remains_Detection_Dogs_to_Detect_Buried_Human_Remains">detect human remains</a> under sandy soil much faster and more accurately than in clay soil. </p>
<p>Our results are likely to do with the type of odour that is emitted and how it reacts with the soil. Great crested newts are amphibians and use moisture to transport pheromones (a chemical that is secreted into the environment to attract a mate for breeding) during their aquatic life phase. The presence of moisture within clay soil may transport their odour to the surface more readily than in sandy soil.</p>
<p>We also found that air temperature influenced how quickly and accurately Freya could detect the newts. Moisture will evaporate at the surface when it’s hot, making it harder for dogs to locate the scent.</p>
<h2>Not so fast</h2>
<p>Using detection dogs to locate great crested newts underground offers valuable insights into the habitat that newts prefer. It also serves practical purposes. Finding and relocating newts is costly and time-consuming at present, but a legal requirement prior to construction activities.</p>
<p>Our findings provide a better understanding of the factors, such as temperature and soil type, that can hinder or improve the chance of detecting these newts. But they also highlight the need for detection dog handlers to be aware of their environmental surroundings and how these factors may impact the dispersal of the newts’ odour.</p>
<p>Furthermore, training dogs and handlers to find great crested newts takes a long time. In fact, it can take up to two years for a dog and its handler to become operational. </p>
<p>This is due to the complexity of the newts’ lifecycle. Great crested newts spend time both above and below the ground, as well as in inaccessible underground hiding places. As a result, the dogs must be exposed to all different types of scenarios during training to ensure they can accurately distinguish between a scent that is accessible above the ground, and a more diluted scent at a distance. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Freya the spaniel and her handler being trained." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534003/original/file-20230626-23-2smybj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534003/original/file-20230626-23-2smybj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534003/original/file-20230626-23-2smybj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534003/original/file-20230626-23-2smybj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534003/original/file-20230626-23-2smybj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534003/original/file-20230626-23-2smybj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534003/original/file-20230626-23-2smybj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">It can take up to two years to train a dog and its handler to detect great crested newts.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nick Upton/Wessex Water</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Using detection dogs to locate hidden great crested newts has the potential to protect this rare species and reduce costly construction delays. But the complexity of the newts’ life phases and the time-consuming training process for dogs and handlers means it will take time before this effective new method becomes commonplace.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/206907/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nikki Glover does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Great crested newts cause expensive delays to construction – trained sniffer dogs may offer a solution.Nikki Glover, PhD Candidate in Environmental Biology, University of SalfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2053442023-05-17T16:23:54Z2023-05-17T16:23:54ZMelting glaciers in the Alps will eradicate some invertebrates that are crucial for alpine ecosystems – new research<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526783/original/file-20230517-13420-fhpzvb.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=306%2C180%2C2463%2C1661&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A glacier-fed river from the Odenwinkelkees glacier, Austria.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jonathan Carrivick</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Glaciers across the European Alps are melting at an alarming rate. Between 2000 and 2014, glaciers in the region <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-020-16818-0">thinned by up to 0.9 metres</a> on average each year. Over the entire mountain range, this rate of melting produces around 1.3 gigatonnes of lost ice mass annually. </p>
<p>The rapid decline of these glaciers poses a significant threat to the many animal species that live in or around the glacial meltwater rivers of the Alps. Invertebrates that are specially adapted to living in these rivers, for example, will face widespread habitat loss in the future should these rivers decline.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526784/original/file-20230517-25-7w0x3f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A multi-panel image of the invertebrate species included in the study." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526784/original/file-20230517-25-7w0x3f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526784/original/file-20230517-25-7w0x3f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=914&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526784/original/file-20230517-25-7w0x3f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=914&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526784/original/file-20230517-25-7w0x3f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=914&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526784/original/file-20230517-25-7w0x3f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1149&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526784/original/file-20230517-25-7w0x3f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1149&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526784/original/file-20230517-25-7w0x3f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1149&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The invertebrate species included in the study.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Bertrand Launay</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>And invertebrates are crucial for wider alpine ecosystems. They perform <a href="https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/49/2/119/239602">vital roles in nutrient cycling</a> and, as prey for fish, amphibians, birds and mammals, they transfer organic matter from lower to higher levels of the food chain.</p>
<p>In our <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-023-02061-5">new study</a>, we projected glacial losses between 2020 and 2100 to assess what impact the changing input of meltwater into alpine rivers would have on the distribution of 15 species of invertebrate, such as stoneflies, non-biting midges, flatworms and mayflies.</p>
<p>We found that some species will lose most of their habitat and disappear from the Alps entirely. Several other species will have to move to cold water habitats at higher elevations where glaciers still persist to survive. </p>
<h2>Future melting</h2>
<p>To generate our projections, we used glacier, landscape and biodiversity mapping data collected across 34,000 sq km of the Alps. We <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feart.2015.00054/full">modelled glacier evolution</a> based on the greenhouse gas emissions scenario that is currently targeted by governments and international treaties (limiting global warming to 2°C).</p>
<p>We then developed 3D landscape models for each decade, and mapped how changes to glaciers will affect river flow conditions as the input of glacial melt decreases. Water temperature increases as glacier melt inputs to rivers fall and river banks become less prone to erosion. Both of these are important factors in determining aquatic species abundance and <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-017-0426-x">diversity in glacier-fed rivers</a>.</p>
<p>Using our models, we simulated key invertebrate populations for each decade between now and 2100. We then predicted the future distribution of these species across the Alps by using data from previous invertebrate monitoring studies, as well as key environmental characteristics of the glacier-fed rivers.</p>
<h2>Consequences for invertebrates</h2>
<p>Our results, recently published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-023-02061-5">Nature Ecology and Evolution</a>, show that rivers across the Alps will experience major change by the end of the century. Until 2040, some will carry more water and new tributary rivers will form. But after that, most glacial rivers will become drier, warmer, flow slower and less prone to erosion. Some streams could even endure periods in a year where there is no water flow at all. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A meltwater river flowing out of a glacial valley." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526782/original/file-20230517-11997-4mx9pf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526782/original/file-20230517-11997-4mx9pf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=599&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526782/original/file-20230517-11997-4mx9pf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=599&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526782/original/file-20230517-11997-4mx9pf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=599&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526782/original/file-20230517-11997-4mx9pf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=753&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526782/original/file-20230517-11997-4mx9pf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=753&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526782/original/file-20230517-11997-4mx9pf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=753&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Meltwater flow from a glacier in the Sulzbach valley, Austria.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Lee Brown</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These changes will all have severe consequences for aquatic invertebrates. </p>
<p>Our models suggest that the hardest-hit species will be some non-biting midges, stoneflies and mayflies. The habitat conditions in which some of these species thrive will become very rare and small in extent. To avoid extinction, it is likely that cold water specialists such as the non-biting midge species <em>Diamesa steinboecki</em> will have to migrate to higher parts of the Alps where glaciers persist.</p>
<p>Some of these species may be lost from the rivers entirely. Invertebrates that live on the rivers that flow into the Danube river basin are particularly vulnerable. Our projections suggest the glaciers that feed these rivers will be lost completely in the future. </p>
<p>But it’s far from a simple picture. Several species, including the flatworm <em>Crenobia alpina</em>, could benefit from the habitat changes because they thrive in warmer and more stable river flows. </p>
<p>Some mayflies, such as <em>Rhithrogena loyolaea</em>, are less at risk of habitat loss because they can tolerate mixtures of glacial- and groundwater-fed river conditions. However, a closely related mayfly species, <em>Rhithrogena nivata</em>, appears to be at higher risk if glaciers are lost completely.</p>
<h2>Competing interests</h2>
<p>Higher and colder parts of the Alps will provide refuge for some invertebrate species in the future. However, it is these areas that are also likely to see increasing pressure from <a href="https://doi.org/10.1659/0276-4741(2001)021%5B0335:TVOTSI%5D2.0.CO;2">skiing</a> and other winter activities, as finding cold and snow becomes harder. As glacial rivers decline, higher parts of the mountain range could also become hotspots for hydropower.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A skier skiing on fresh powder snow." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526764/original/file-20230517-27-qe6olr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526764/original/file-20230517-27-qe6olr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526764/original/file-20230517-27-qe6olr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526764/original/file-20230517-27-qe6olr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526764/original/file-20230517-27-qe6olr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526764/original/file-20230517-27-qe6olr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526764/original/file-20230517-27-qe6olr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pockets of ice in the high Alps will be subject to intense competition.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/full-length-skier-skiing-on-fresh-144827767">sirtravelalot/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Some of the invertebrate species that will seek refuge in these areas may have pharmaceutical or commercial applications that are at present unknown. Invertebrate species that specialise in cold water habitats, for example, have evolutionary adaptations (such as antifreeze proteins) that enable them to survive low temperatures. </p>
<p>Conservation strategies are thus needed to protect this threatened alpine biodiversity from human interference in the future. At present, these important high alpine areas are often not included within national park boundaries.</p>
<p>Predicting how invertebrate populations respond to climate change is key to understanding how biodiversity in high mountain areas will be affected. We focused on just a handful of species and entirely on the European Alps. But the techniques we used could be applied to other mountain environments, while advances in environmental DNA sample collection and analysis offer the promise of understanding how glacier loss will affect thousands of other species – from bacteria and fungi to invertebrates, fish and birds.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/205344/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The UK’s Natural Environment Research Council contributed to the funding of this study.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lee Brown receives funding from NERC, Royal Geographical Society, EU</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Martin Wilkes does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Meltwater rivers in the European Alps will change as glaciers melt – threatening animals that are vital for alpine ecosystems with habitat loss.Jonathan L. Carrivick, Senior Lecturer in Geomorphology, University of LeedsLee Brown, Professor of Aquatic Science, University of LeedsMartin Wilkes, Senior Lecturer of Life Sciences, University of EssexLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2029202023-04-27T15:07:05Z2023-04-27T15:07:05ZHuman activities in Asia have reduced elephant habitat by nearly two-thirds since 1700, dividing what remains into ever-smaller patches<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/522859/original/file-20230425-26-oskryk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=3%2C0%2C2492%2C1511&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Habitat loss has driven Asian elephants, like these foraging at a garbage dump in Sri Lanka, into human areas.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/in-this-photograph-taken-on-may-11-wild-elephants-rummage-news-photo/958346764">Lakruwan Wanniarachchi/AFP via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Despite their iconic status and long association with humans, Asian elephants are one of the most endangered large mammals. Believed to number between 45,000 and 50,000 individuals worldwide, they are at risk throughout Asia due to human activities such as deforestation, mining, dam building and road construction, which have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/ecs2.1624">damaged numerous ecosystems</a>. </p>
<p>My colleagues and I wanted to know when human actions started to fragment wildlife habitats and populations to the degree seen today. We quantified these impacts by considering them through the needs of this species. </p>
<p>In a <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-30650-8">newly published study</a>, we examined the centuries-long history of Asian landscapes that once were suitable elephant habitat and often were managed by local communities prior to the colonial era. In our view, understanding this history and restoring some of these relationships may be the key to living with elephants and other large wild animals in the future. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/522847/original/file-20230425-14-twwigb.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Several elephants walk along a path parallel to a road with cars on it." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/522847/original/file-20230425-14-twwigb.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/522847/original/file-20230425-14-twwigb.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522847/original/file-20230425-14-twwigb.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522847/original/file-20230425-14-twwigb.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522847/original/file-20230425-14-twwigb.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522847/original/file-20230425-14-twwigb.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522847/original/file-20230425-14-twwigb.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Although elephants can cross roads and other infrastructure, elephant habitats across Asia are increasingly hemmed in, with firm boundaries between human and wildlife spaces. These elephants are in Sri Lanka.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shermin de Silva</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How have humans affected wildlife?</h2>
<p>It isn’t easy to measure human impacts on wildlife across a region as large and diverse as Asia and more than a century ago. Historical data for many species is sparse. Museums, for instance, only contain specimens collected from certain locations. </p>
<p>Many animals also have very specific ecological requirements, and there often isn’t sufficient data on these features at a fine scale going far into the past. For instance, a species might prefer particular microclimates or vegetation types that occur only at particular elevations.</p>
<p>For nearly two decades <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=wPzBt-EAAAAJ&hl=en">I’ve been studying Asian elephants</a>. As a species, these animals are breathtakingly adaptable: They can live in seasonally dry forests, grasslands or the densest of rain forests. If we could match the habitat requirements of elephants to data sets showing how these habitats changed over time, we knew that we could understand how land-use changes have affected elephants and other wildlife in these environments.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/5GmzakE1yRc?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Fewer than 50,000 Asian elephants remain in the wild across 13 countries. Habitat loss is one of the main reasons for their decline.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Defining elephant ecosystems</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7140/45818198">home-range sizes</a> of Asian elephants can vary anywhere from a few hundred square miles to a few thousand. But since we couldn’t know exactly where elephants would have been centuries ago, we had to model the possibilities based on where they occur today. </p>
<p>By identifying the environmental features that correspond to locations where wild elephants live now, we can distinguish places where they could potentially have lived in the past. In principle, this should represent “good” habitat.</p>
<p>Today many scientists are using this kind of model to identify particular species’ climatic requirements and predict how areas suitable for those species might shift under future climate change scenarios. We applied the same logic retrospectively, using land-use and land-cover types instead of climate change projections. </p>
<p>We drew this information from the <a href="https://luh.umd.edu/">Land-Use Harmonization (LUH2)</a> data set, released by a research group at the University of Maryland. The group mapped historical land-use categories by type, starting in the year 850 – long before the advent of nations as we know them today, with fewer large population centers – and extending up to 2015.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/522857/original/file-20230425-18-9z1dzq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Map showing active, possible and potential elephant range across Asia." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/522857/original/file-20230425-18-9z1dzq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/522857/original/file-20230425-18-9z1dzq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522857/original/file-20230425-18-9z1dzq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522857/original/file-20230425-18-9z1dzq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522857/original/file-20230425-18-9z1dzq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522857/original/file-20230425-18-9z1dzq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522857/original/file-20230425-18-9z1dzq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Asian elephants live in countries with large human populations, and their range has been shrunk and fragmented. Their future depends on human attitudes toward elephants and their conservation.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.trunksnleaves.org/status-threats.html">Hedges et al., 2008, via Trunks & Leaves</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>My co-authors and I first compiled records of where Asian elephants have been observed in the recent past. We limited our study to the 13 countries that today still contain wild elephants: Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Vietnam. </p>
<p>We excluded areas where elephant populations are prone to <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2021/06/20/asia/human-elephant-conflict-india-krithi-karanth-c2e-spc-intl-hnk/index.html">clashing with people</a>, such as intensively farmed landscapes and plantations, in order to avoid classifying these zones as “good” elephant habitat. We included areas with lighter human influence, such as selectively logged forests, because they actually contain great food for elephants.</p>
<p>Next, we used a machine-learning algorithm to determine what types of land use and land cover existed at our remaining locations. This allowed us to map out where elephants could potentially live as of the year 2000. By applying our model to earlier and later years, we were able to generate maps of areas that contained suitable habitat for elephants and to see how those areas had changed over the centuries.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/522862/original/file-20230425-24-dz2yar.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A line of elephants drinking at a reservoir." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/522862/original/file-20230425-24-dz2yar.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/522862/original/file-20230425-24-dz2yar.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=282&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522862/original/file-20230425-24-dz2yar.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=282&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522862/original/file-20230425-24-dz2yar.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=282&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522862/original/file-20230425-24-dz2yar.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=354&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522862/original/file-20230425-24-dz2yar.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=354&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522862/original/file-20230425-24-dz2yar.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=354&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some human-made features, like this reservoir in Sri Lanka, can also be resources for wildlife.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shermin de Silva</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Dramatic declines</h2>
<p>Land-use patterns <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1466-8238.2010.00540.x">changed significantly on every continent</a> starting with the Industrial Revolution in the 1700s and extending through the colonial era into the mid-20th century. Asia was no exception. </p>
<p>For most areas, we found that suitable elephant habitat took a steep dive around this time. We estimated that from 1700 through 2015 the total amount of suitable habitat decreased by 64%. More than 1.2 million square miles (3 million square kilometers) of land were converted for plantations, industry and urban development. With respect to potential elephant habitat, most of the change occurred in India and China, each of which saw conversion in more than 80% of these landscapes.</p>
<p>In other areas of Southeast Asia – such as a large hot spot of elephant habitat in central Thailand, which was never colonized – habitat loss happened more recently, in the mid-20th century. This timing corresponds to logging concurrent with the so-called <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/green-revolution">Green Revolution</a>, which introduced industrial agriculture to many parts of the world. </p>
<h2>Could the past be the key to the future?</h2>
<p>Looking back at land-use change over centuries makes it clear just how drastically human actions have reduced habitat for Asian elephants. The losses that we measured greatly exceed estimates of “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2016.08.049">catastrophic” human impacts on so-called wilderness</a> or forests within recent decades.</p>
<p>Our analysis shows that if you were an elephant in the 1700s, you might have been able to range across 40% of the available habitat in Asia with no problem, because it was one large, contiguous area that contained many ecosystems where you could live. This enabled gene flow among many elephant populations. But by 2015, human activities had so drastically fragmented the total suitable area for elephants that the largest patch of good habitat represented less than 7% of it.</p>
<p>Sri Lanka and peninsular Malaysia have a disproportionately high share of Asia’s wild elephant population, relative to available elephant habitat area. Thailand and Myanmar have smaller populations relative to area. Interestingly, the latter are countries known for their large captive or semi-captive elephant populations.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1649084703272517636"}"></div></p>
<p>Less than half of the areas that contain wild elephants today have adequate habitat for them. Elephants’ resulting use of increasingly human-dominated landscapes leads to <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/research-topics/25165/human-elephant-conflict-and-coexistence-in-asia">confrontations that are harmful</a> for both elephants and people. </p>
<p>However, this long view of history reminds us that protected areas alone are not the answer, since they simply <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-22989-1">cannot be large enough</a> to support elephant populations. Indeed, human societies have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2023483118">shaped these very landscapes for millennia</a>. </p>
<p>Today there is a pressing challenge to balance human subsistence and livelihood requirements with the needs of wildlife. Restoring <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/gch2.202200051">traditional forms of land management</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-021-00815-2">local stewardship</a> of these landscapes can be an essential part of protecting and recovering ecosystems that serve both people and wildlife in the future.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/202920/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Shermin de Silva receives funding from the US Fish & Wildlife Asian Elephant Conservation Funds. She is president and founder of Trunks & Leaves Inc. a non-profit organization that works to facilitate evidence-based conservation of Asian elephants and their habitats. de Silva also directs the Udawalawe Elephant Research Project in Sri Lanka, which she initiated in 2005, and is a member of the Asian Elephant Specialist Group of the IUCN Species Survival Commission. </span></em></p>A new study looks back into history to assess human impacts on the range of Asian elephants and finds sharp decline starting several centuries ago.Shermin de Silva, Assistant Professor of Ecology, Behavior and Evolution, University of California, San DiegoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2023862023-04-13T20:07:45Z2023-04-13T20:07:45ZConnecting to culture: here’s what happened when elders gifted totemic species to school kids<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520685/original/file-20230413-22-niu3io.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=62%2C44%2C4796%2C3943&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nicolas Rakotopare</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>In Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander culture, a <a href="https://www.qcaa.qld.edu.au/downloads/approach2/indigenous_res012_0804.pdf">totem</a> is a spiritual emblem from the natural world, such as a plant or animal. The totem is gifted to an individual by a parent or elder, usually around the time of their birth. Some people have several totems. </p>
<p>The connection is mutually beneficial: the totem is a protector of the person, who in turn shows their respect for the totem by caring for it. </p>
<p>We wanted to find out if totemic species, when gifted to schools by Traditional Custodians, could generate care for threatened species - while also embedding cultural awareness and Indigenous knowledge in the Australian science curriculum. </p>
<p>We ran a <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/csp2.12904">pilot program</a> to test the idea and build an evidence base. The program was successful. Care for the totemic species increased and students expressed enthusiasm for this approach. And there were other benefits too.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/oWLabAlDJOA?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Connecting kids with nature and culture: A totemic species for Carlton North Primary School.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/first-peoples-knowledge-of-mysterious-fairy-circles-in-australian-deserts-has-upended-a-long-standing-science-debate-202956">First Peoples' knowledge of 'mysterious fairy circles' in Australian deserts has upended a long-standing science debate</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Caring for the matted flax-lily</h2>
<p>The matted flax-lily (<em>Dianella amoena</em>) is culturally significant to the Wurundjeri people. The berries and leaves are used for food and tea, weaving and making whistles to deter snakes. </p>
<p>But the species is critically endangered in Victoria and listed as <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/biodiversity/threatened/recovery-plans/national-recovery-plan-matted-flax-lily-dianella%C2%A0amoena">endangered nationally</a>. After land clearing for urban development, it is thought only <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/dianella-amoena.pdf">1,400 plants remain</a>. </p>
<p>Students in all year levels at Carlton North Primary School in Melbourne worked with Uncle Dave Wandin, a Wurundjeri Elder, to create habitat for the flax-lily and learn about the species. </p>
<p>The program sought to embed both Indigenous and Western knowledge in a balanced and holistic way. Over ten weeks, the biology curriculum addressed sustainability and the environment, incorporating interactive and outdoor activities. </p>
<p>In one activity, students helped to construct a grassland ecosystem habitat with plantings of the flax-lily. Other activities included interactive food web role play, scientific drawing, seed planting, learning about Indigenous land management and the use of native ingredients in modern baking. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520689/original/file-20230413-20-g0bm7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Native Australian dianella grass with flowers in a sunny backyard shot at shallow depth of field" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520689/original/file-20230413-20-g0bm7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520689/original/file-20230413-20-g0bm7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520689/original/file-20230413-20-g0bm7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520689/original/file-20230413-20-g0bm7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520689/original/file-20230413-20-g0bm7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520689/original/file-20230413-20-g0bm7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520689/original/file-20230413-20-g0bm7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The grassland flax-lily has blue, star-shaped flowers from spring through autumn followed by purple berries.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/native-australian-dianella-grass-flowers-plant-2041026290">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Connecting to nature</h2>
<p>We used surveys of students, teachers and parents to understand the outcomes of the program. </p>
<p>After participating in the program, students had a better understanding of the matted flax-lily and its ecology. They also felt more connected with nature and indicated that they had learned about the Traditional Custodians and the importance of the totemic species. One student said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I really enjoyed science this term (and) I feel much closer to our Indigenous culture than I ever have.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Students told the lead teachers that they wanted to bring the blue-banded bee back and plant native species in their own gardens: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>I never knew about the matted flax-Lily and that it was going extinct and now I’m planning to plant some in my backyard!</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Teachers also told us they felt better equipped to teach students about traditional ecological knowledge in a culturally appropriate manner. The main educators in the program thought the approach could be extended to other disciplines, including engineering, art and mathematics.</p>
<p>Parents and guardians also felt positive, referencing their child’s high engagement as well as their own interest in learning more about Indigenous culture and totemic species. One parent stated their child started to ask regularly if they could “plant native plants because of how important they are”. </p>
<p>Students went beyond the project team’s expectations and began to take care of the garden themselves, protecting their species during break times at school, showing the garden to their families and teaching them about the different species within it.</p>
<p>Overall, the program improved student engagement with nature and science. This permeated through to parents and guardians.</p>
<h2>Weaving into the curriculum</h2>
<p>Our research has the potential to improve teaching of Indigenous content across Australia. The program shows how Indigenous science can be embedded into the existing curriculum in a holistic way. </p>
<p>Student engagement with nature and science also increased along with personal feelings of connection and responsibility to the environment. </p>
<p>Additional benefits included the creation of habitat for threatened species. Imagine if every school in Australia contributed in this way to the conservation of biodiversity? </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520687/original/file-20230413-24-xts6q5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Closeup of a yam daisy or murnong, including the roots, held by a person with beautiful painted nails" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520687/original/file-20230413-24-xts6q5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520687/original/file-20230413-24-xts6q5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520687/original/file-20230413-24-xts6q5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520687/original/file-20230413-24-xts6q5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520687/original/file-20230413-24-xts6q5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520687/original/file-20230413-24-xts6q5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520687/original/file-20230413-24-xts6q5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">The murnong or yam daisy has white tuberous roots that may be eaten raw or baked.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nicholas Rakotopare</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>There’s also evidence that children playing in biodiverse schoolyards have <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1503402112">improved cognitive function</a> and reduced behavioural issues. Finally, greening our schoolyards can provide a critical <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0360132317303773">cooling function</a>.</p>
<p>Key to the program’s success was recognition of the time commitment from teachers and Wurundjeri Elders and recompensing them appropriately. This was crucial for facilitating deep involvement. </p>
<p>The school curriculum is already crowded with many competing demands. Expecting that an additional body of material can be incorporated without appropriate time and resources would have been impractical. Likewise, the time and knowledge of Traditional Owners is in high demand, so adequate provision of resources was an important feature of the program. </p>
<p>Further, embedding the material into an existing subject school-wide meant the program did not impose further demands on the curriculum. Instead, it was an efficient and effective way to deliver the material. </p>
<p>This also generated a sense of the topic being “core” to the curriculum, rather than an optional “add-on”. This alignment of the program with existing curriculum and the fact that the budget – while critical - was modest, mean it is entirely feasible to imagine implementation of similar programs in many other schools. </p>
<p>We hope that the <a href="https://icon-science.org/totemic-species/">program will be picked up</a> and implemented in other schools across Australia. Ideally, the concept of totemic species will ultimately become integrated into the Australian curriculum. </p>
<p><em>The authors would like to acknowledge Emily Gregg, Benjamin May, Dave Wandin, Michael Harrison, Marnie Pascoe, Fiona McConachie and Alex Kusmanoff for their contribution to the research that underpins this article. Thanks also to the principal, staff, students and parents of Carlton North Primary School for supporting the project.
<a href="https://icon-science.org/totemic-species/">Visit our website</a> to download the Totemic Species in Schools resources, including the program curriculum, findings factsheet, and evaluation survey.</em></p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A student crouching in the native garden planted at her school" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520711/original/file-20230413-28-oidxe4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520711/original/file-20230413-28-oidxe4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520711/original/file-20230413-28-oidxe4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520711/original/file-20230413-28-oidxe4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520711/original/file-20230413-28-oidxe4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520711/original/file-20230413-28-oidxe4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520711/original/file-20230413-28-oidxe4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Zadie was one of 283 students involved in the pilot Totemic Species in Schools program at Carlton North Primary School, which culminated in the planting of a native garden.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sarah Bekessy</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/indigenous-spiritual-teaching-in-schools-can-foster-reconciliation-and-inclusion-194324">Indigenous spiritual teaching in schools can foster reconciliation and inclusion</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/202386/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Natasha Ward research cited in this article was undertaken by the Threatened Species Recovery Hub with funding from the Australian Government's National Environmental Science Program (Phase 1).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bradley J. Moggridge is affiliated with the University of Canberra, is a Governor with WWF Australia and a Member of the Wentworth Group of Concerned Scientists </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Georgia Garrard receives funding from the Australian Research Council. Research cited in this article was undertaken by the Threatened Species Recovery Hub with funding from the Australian Government's National Environmental Science Program (Phase 1). She is chair of Birdlife Australia's Research and Conservation Committee, a member of Zoos Victoria's Scientific Advisory Committee and a member of the Sustainable Subdivisions Framework advisory group for the Council Alliance for a Sustainable Built Environment.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sarah Bekessy receives funding from the Australian Research Council, the National Health and Medical Research Council, the Ian Potter Foundation and the European Commission. Research cited in this article was undertaken by the Threatened Species Recovery Hub with funding from the Australian Government's National Environmental Science Program (Phase 1) and the Victorian Department of Land, Water, Environment and Planning. She is a Lead Councillor of the Biodiversity Council, a Board Member of Bush Heritage Australia, a member of WWF's Eminent Scientists Group and a member of the Advisory Group for Wood for Good.</span></em></p>The 10-week pilot program Totemic Species in Schools shows how Indigenous science can be woven into the existing curriculum. Students, teachers and parents provided positive feedback.Natasha Ward, Lead Researcher, RMIT UniversityBradley J. Moggridge, Associate Professor in Indigenous Water Science, University of CanberraGeorgia Garrard, Senior Lecturer, School of Ecosystem and Forest Sciences, The University of MelbourneSarah Bekessy, Professor in Sustainability and Urban Planning, Leader, Interdisciplinary Conservation Science Research Group (ICON Science), RMIT UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2031262023-04-06T03:57:44Z2023-04-06T03:57:44ZCan a ‘nature repair market’ really save Australia’s environment? It’s not perfect, but it’s worth a shot<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519715/original/file-20230406-20-4a74vi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=59%2C83%2C7928%2C4407&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/small-plants-that-grow-bottle-money-1907851891">Mee Ko Dong/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australia has embarked on an experiment to create a market for biodiversity. No, we’re not talking about buying and selling wildlife, although, sadly, there is a black market for that. This is about repairing and restoring landscapes, providing habitat for threatened species and getting business and philanthropy to help pay for it.</p>
<p>When Environment and Water Minister Tanya Plibersek introduced the <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Environment_and_Communications/NatureRepairMarket">Nature Repair Market Bill</a> to parliament last week, she said: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>Just because something is difficult, doesn’t mean we shouldn’t do it. It means we should do it properly.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>I agree. We have been publishing research on this topic for decades, discussing the issue with scientists, social scientists and economists. Now as chief scientist at the not for profit environmental accounting organisation <a href="https://www.accountingfornature.org/">Accounting for Nature</a> and chief councillor at the <a href="https://biodiversitycouncil.org.au/">Biodiversity Council</a>, we are working hard to help turn the theory into reality. </p>
<p>There is, rightfully, a lot of <a href="https://theconversation.com/would-a-nature-repair-market-really-work-evidence-suggests-its-highly-unlikely-199975">concern about the integrity</a> of biodiversity markets. However, with appropriate processes in place from governments, including independent authorities that verify biodiversity outcomes, and vigilance from the community, there is potential to create a well-behaved, net-positive biodiversity market in Australia.</p>
<iframe src="https://podcasters.spotify.com/pod/show/ecofuturists/embed/episodes/Markets-for-nature--Whats-the-currency-of-biodiversity-e21peum/a-a9k9g49" height="102px" width="100%" frameborder="0" scrolling="no"></iframe>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-historic-cop15-outcome-is-an-imperfect-game-changer-for-saving-nature-heres-why-australia-did-us-proud-196731">The historic COP15 outcome is an imperfect game-changer for saving nature. Here's why Australia did us proud</a>
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<h2>What does a biodiversity market look like?</h2>
<p>Australia has signed up to the United Nations’ <a href="https://www.cbd.int/">Convention on Biological Diversity</a>, which commits us to protecting and restoring 30% of the land for nature. This means 30% of every kind of habitat – it can’t just be deserts and salt lakes, for example.</p>
<p>That’s a big task, and governments can’t do it alone. It’s going to have to be the entire community, every single individual. This isn’t just about protection, a lot will be habitat restoration which <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-new-major-players-in-conservation-ngos-thrive-while-national-parks-struggle-199880">needs serious investment</a>. </p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-new-major-players-in-conservation-ngos-thrive-while-national-parks-struggle-199880">The new major players in conservation? NGOs thrive while national parks struggle</a>
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<p>The general public is increasingly concerned about the decline of nature in their local parks and backyards. One example is a nationwide concern about the <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-07-15/australian-magpies-kookaburras-willie-wagtails-in-decline-report/6620580">disappearance of willie wagtails</a>, a bird many Australians have grown up with. The loss of nature affects everyone, and can harm our <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-018-0092-2">mental health</a>. It is not just about threatened species. </p>
<p>Concern for the cassowarry in the wet tropics region of far north Queensland prompted environmental management organisation Terrain NRM (natural resource management) to create a new biodiversity market scheme called <a href="https://terrain.org.au/what-we-do/biodiversity/cassowary-credit-scheme/">Cassowary Credits</a>. Terrain NRM says this is: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>a mechanism that enables investors such as governments, philanthropists or corporates to pay landholders and land managers to undertake habitat restoration activities. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Australia has well over <a href="https://theconversation.com/about-500-000-australian-species-are-undiscovered-and-scientists-are-on-a-25-year-mission-to-finish-the-job-161793">half a million</a> different species, and <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-09-07/75-per-cent-of-species-unknown-fact-check/5649858?nw=0">about a third</a> of them have a name. You can’t run a market for that many species – so the challenge will be to develop ways of quantifying biodiversity that are credible and simple.</p>
<h2>Trial and error</h2>
<p>A credible market needs a credible biodiversity currency (let’s call it a token). Such a token requires many attributes to make it work. The token should be awarded for measurable outcomes, like an increase in the abundance of hooded robins (a recently listed threatened woodland bird and one of my favourites) on your property, or an improvement in the extent and quality of native vegetation.</p>
<p>These outcomes need to be “additional”, outcomes that would not have otherwise happened without the investment. Ideally outcomes are permanent, and above and beyond what would have happened if we did nothing.</p>
<p>And finally, someone has to want to buy them – there is no point in creating a product when there is no demand. Making a trusted and valuable biodiversity currency is going to take time.</p>
<p>Almost 3,000 years ago the Lydians invented a currency based on metal coins with a ruler’s face stamped on it. That’s still roughly how it works, even with most of our money now being digital, rather than physical in coins and notes. However, even after 3,000 years, money is not yet perfect. Its value constantly changes, and it can collapse, too. There’s still fraud and scams – despite a global army of accountants, financial advisors, mathematicians and lawyers paid to assure integrity. </p>
<p>By comparison, creating a biodiversity market is more complex than stamping a face on a coin. Turning a million-dimensional object – the biodiversity of Australia – into a market will require biodiversity accountants, and biodiversity auditors, and strong laws to govern the new biodiversity markets. However, too much is at stake, and too many species will continue to disappear if we don’t try.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/losing-the-natural-world-comes-with-major-risks-for-your-super-fund-and-bank-198669">Losing the natural world comes with major risks for your super fund and bank</a>
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<h2>Rivers of gold</h2>
<p>The government points to <a href="https://www.pwc.com.au/environment-social-governance/nature-positive-australia-value-of-australian-biodiversity-market.html?icid=biodiversity-ofn-internal-organic-article">a 2022 PricewaterhouseCoopers report</a> that found a biodiversity market could unlock A$137 billion to repair and protect Australia’s environment by 2050.</p>
<p>It sounds fanciful but it could be even bigger than that. The demand is there, internationally, and it’s growing. Can we bring this investment to Australia?</p>
<p>The idea is companies who want to prove they’re “nature positive” will pay for the privilege; some investment could also come from philanthropy. (Notably this is not about “biodiversity offsetting” where people are forced to compensate for the damage they cause.)</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Nature Positive by 2030: The global goal for nature works alongside the UN Convention on Biological Diversity’s Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The most important issue is integrity – it is transparent proof that actions have delivered additional permanent outcomes – much like biting a coin in 500 BCE to check it is really gold. And that’s the system we’re still struggling to create. </p>
<p>We’re getting there. A lot of smart people in the finance sector and the ecology sector are coming together to resolve some of these issues. I find it both exciting and uncertain.</p>
<h2>Time to be bold</h2>
<p>The federal government’s nature repair bill is not perfect. Many submissions have <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-government-hopes-private-investors-will-help-save-nature-heres-how-its-scheme-could-fail-193010">pointed out problems</a>. But it’s a bold effort. And we need bold efforts like this to start taking off. </p>
<p>When you get down to it, everybody really does care a lot - about huge trees, cassowaries and coral reefs, the nature that inspires them, every single day. We all love willie wagtails and want to make a contribution. While governments still need to massively increase investments to repair landscapes and restore habitat for Australian native species, biodiversity markets could be a big part of a zero extinction Australia. So there’s every reason to give biodiversity markets a go. </p>
<p><em><strong>Editor’s Note:</strong> This article has been adapted from an interview with the author published today on the <a href="https://andylowe.org/ecofuturists/">Eco Futurists</a> podcast.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/203126/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hugh Possingham works for The University of Queensland (40%), is Co-chair of the Biodiversity Council (10%) and consults for Accounting for Nature (10%) and the Intervention Risk Review Group (IRRG) for the Reef Restoration and Adaptation Program (RRAP) managed by the Australian Institute of Marine Sciences. He is paid (sitting fees) to Chair the board of The Environment Institute of The University of Adelaide, and was on the Biodiversity Offsets Committee of the Queensland Government. He is also affiliated with, or an advisor to: Conservation International (science advisory council), BirdLife Australia (Board of Directors), Nature Conservation Society of SA, AgForce, Birds Queensland, Birds SA, Invasive Species Council, Australian Network for Plant Conservation, Society for Growing Australian Plants, Friends of Sherwood Arboretum, Friends of Oxley Creek Common, etc. and the list goes on. Relevant to this article, he was a past Chief Scientist of The Nature Conservancy (globally). He is an active and substantial donor to Nature Glenelg Trust, The University of Adelaide, The Nature Conservation Society of SA and BirdLife Australia. He has received numerous (>25) Australian Research Council grants, directed an ARC Centre of Excellence, directed three separate NESP (National Environmental Science Program) centres and received over 80 grants from diverse other sources - three of those ARC grants that have been fellowships (QEII, Professorial, Federation and Laureate) have directly altered his salary. He has provided pro bono advice to a wide diversity of organisations. He indirectly owns shares via UniSuper.</span></em></p>Australia’s plan to create the world’s first nature repair market is a bold move, but it could be a big part of a zero extinction Australia. So there’s every reason to give biodiversity markets a go.Hugh Possingham, Professor, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2009902023-03-21T19:12:10Z2023-03-21T19:12:10ZSpecies don’t live in isolation: what changing threats to 4 marsupials tell us about the future<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516556/original/file-20230321-18-mt36ac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C42%2C1785%2C905&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Once abundant, woylies – or brush-tailed bettongs – are now critically endangered. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/biodivlibrary/9398418767/in/photolist-fjvmsT-Eifg4a-FPsoMq">John Gould</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Conserving native wildlife is a challenging task and Australia’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/gut-wrenching-and-infuriating-why-australia-is-the-world-leader-in-mammal-extinctions-and-what-to-do-about-it-192173">unenviable extinction record</a> shows us we urgently need more sophisticated and effective approaches. </p>
<p>Too often we focus on saving individual threatened species. But in the wild, species do not live neatly in isolation. They are part of rich ecosystems, relying on many other species to survive. To save species often means saving this web of life. </p>
<p>Our <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/gcb.16661">new research</a> models what’s likely to happen to four well-known Western Australian marsupials in the <a href="https://theconversation.com/australias-south-west-a-hotspot-for-wildlife-and-plants-that-deserves-world-heritage-status-54885">biodiversity hotspot</a> of south-western Australia, by identifying key drivers of their populations over time. </p>
<p>In the past, these species were most at risk from habitat loss. But when we ran our models forwards, we found all four species would be at more risk from climate change, which is bringing heightened fire risk and a drying trend to the region. Even better control of foxes – a major predator – did not offset the trend fully.</p>
<p>Our work adds further weight to efforts to protect ecosystems in all their complexity. The way species – including feral predators – interact takes place against a changing climate, fire regimes, and <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.13427">human-made change</a>, like logging and grazing. </p>
<p>To give native species their best chance of survival, we have to embrace ecosystem-based conservation, rather than focusing on rescuing individual species. </p>
<h2>What did we find?</h2>
<p>We looked at long-term monitoring data to find out what was having the most impact on the woylie (brush-tailed bettong), chuditch (western quoll), koomal (western brushtail possum) and the quenda (southern brown bandicoot), four animals living in <a href="https://www.dpaw.wa.gov.au/about-us/science-and-research/animal-conservation-research/535-upper-warren-home-of-threatened-fauna">Upper Warren</a> jarrah forests.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516337/original/file-20230320-24-sbmzh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516337/original/file-20230320-24-sbmzh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516337/original/file-20230320-24-sbmzh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516337/original/file-20230320-24-sbmzh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516337/original/file-20230320-24-sbmzh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516337/original/file-20230320-24-sbmzh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516337/original/file-20230320-24-sbmzh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516337/original/file-20230320-24-sbmzh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Our study species, left to right and clockwise: the koomal (western brushtail possum), chuditch (western quoll), quenda (southern brown bandicoot) and the woylie (brush-tailed bettong).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">The Department of Biodiversity, Conservation and Attractions (DBCA)</span></span>
</figcaption>
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<p>All four have undergone considerable <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jmammal/article/98/2/489/3064949">population change</a> over the last few decades and some are <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/publicthreatenedlist.pl?wanted=fauna">now threatened</a> due to predation by foxes and feral cats, habitat loss and increased frequency of droughts and bushfires. To add to that, controlled burns, lethal fox control and timber harvesting have all taken place in our study region within this time. What we didn’t know was how these threats and conservation efforts interact. </p>
<p>To find out, we built a complex statistical model of the ecosystem to pinpoint what was driving population change geographically and over time. </p>
<p>We found the abundance of these species were affected most by the historical impact of habitat loss, as well as less food in the form of vegetation or prey due to the area’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/drying-land-and-heating-seas-why-nature-in-australias-southwest-is-on-the-climate-frontline-170377">ongoing decline</a> in rainfall. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australias-south-west-a-hotspot-for-wildlife-and-plants-that-deserves-world-heritage-status-54885">Australia's south west: a hotspot for wildlife and plants that deserves World Heritage status</a>
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<p>Of the habitat lost here, most was cleared during the 19th and early 20th centuries. But now it has more or less stopped, the legacies of this change continue through the effects of habitat fragmentation and increased incursion by introduced species. That means the main falls in abundance took place decades ago. </p>
<p>What about fire and foxes? These threats had less effect than habitat loss and rainfall declines, which we attribute to the broad management of both of these in the region. It was also difficult to quantify the effects of fox control because of the lack of control areas – essentially, comparable areas without poison baits in the region. </p>
<p>Our work shows there’s not one simple answer for managing this ecosystem. Everything is connected. We need to embrace this complexity so that we can better pinpoint where our actions can make a difference.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514601/original/file-20230310-17-bilmsi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514601/original/file-20230310-17-bilmsi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514601/original/file-20230310-17-bilmsi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514601/original/file-20230310-17-bilmsi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514601/original/file-20230310-17-bilmsi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514601/original/file-20230310-17-bilmsi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514601/original/file-20230310-17-bilmsi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This jarrah forest is typical of our study region.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">The Department of Biodiversity, Conservation and Attractions (DBCA)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What’s likely to happen?</h2>
<p>While habitat loss was the major historical threat, the future looks to be different. Severe fire is set to increase and rainfall reduce <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-12-28/why-south-west-wa-is-drying-out/100625142">due to</a> climate change. This indicates all four species will see falling populations. </p>
<p>Annual rainfall in south-western Australia has already fallen at least 20% below the historical average and further declines are expected. If severe fires arrive more often – and overlap with reduced rainfall – we could see even greater population loss. </p>
<p>These threats mean local conservation managers will be less able to help. Controlling fox numbers may help at present, but in a drier, fierier future, things will get harder. </p>
<p>Our modelling suggests that for woylie and koomal, lethal fox control could boost their resilience to severe fire and reduced rainfall, but not completely offset the expected losses.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514549/original/file-20230309-305-6d80ec.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514549/original/file-20230309-305-6d80ec.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514549/original/file-20230309-305-6d80ec.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=332&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514549/original/file-20230309-305-6d80ec.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=332&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514549/original/file-20230309-305-6d80ec.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=332&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514549/original/file-20230309-305-6d80ec.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=417&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514549/original/file-20230309-305-6d80ec.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=417&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514549/original/file-20230309-305-6d80ec.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=417&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Jarrah forests are now experiencing more bushfires.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">The Department of Biodiversity, Conservation and Attractions (DBCA)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What does this mean for ecosystem management?</h2>
<p>It’s long been a goal for conservationists to manage ecosystems as a whole. In reality, this is often incredibly difficult, as we need to consider multiple threats (such as fire and invasive species) and conflicting requirements of different species, in the face of <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-020-01298-8">uncertainty</a> about how some ecosystems work, as well as <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/conl.12682">limited budgets</a>. </p>
<p>Ecosystems are complex webs of interacting species, processes and human influences. If we ignore this complexity, we can miss conservation opportunities, or see our actions have less effect than we expected. </p>
<p>Sometimes, well-intended actions can actually produce worse outcomes for some species, such as fox control leading to a <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0069087">boom in wallabies</a> who strip the forest of everything edible. </p>
<p>Studies like ours wouldn’t be possible without the careful collection and synthesis of data over decades. As global climate change <a href="https://theconversation.com/state-of-the-climate-what-australians-need-to-know-about-major-new-report-195136">accelerates</a> and the effects on <a href="https://theconversation.com/existential-threat-to-our-survival-see-the-19-australian-ecosystems-already-collapsing-154077">ecosystems</a> become increasingly unpredictable, conservation managers are flying blind if they do not have <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/book/7720/">long-term monitoring</a> to inform decisions on where and when to act. </p>
<p>So what can our conservation managers do? They can help ecosystems survive by doing two things. First, keep managing the threats within our control – such as invasive predators and ongoing habitat loss – to help reduce damage from other threats. Second, model and anticipate the effects of future change, and use that knowledge to be as prepared as we can. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/drying-land-and-heating-seas-why-nature-in-australias-southwest-is-on-the-climate-frontline-170377">Drying land and heating seas: why nature in Australia's southwest is on the climate frontline</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/200990/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>William Geary is a PhD student at Deakin University, and affiliated with the Victorian Department of Energy, Environment and Climate Action, and a member of the Ecological Society of Australia. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Adrian Wayne receives funding from the Federal Government (National Landcare Program). He is a Research Fellow at the University of Western Australia and an employee of the WA Government Department of Biodiversity, Conservation and Attractions. He is a member of the Ecological Society of Australia and the Australian Mammal Society.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Euan G. Ritchie is a Councillor within the Biodiversity Council, and a member of the Ecological Society of Australia and the Australian Mammal Society.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tim Doherty receives funding from the Australian Research Council, NSW Environmental Trust and WWF Australia. He is a member of the Society for Conservation Biology and Ecological Society of Australia.</span></em></p>To give native species their best chance of survival, we have to embrace ecosystem-based conservation – rather than trying to rescue individual species in isolation.William Geary, PhD Student, Deakin UniversityAdrian Wayne, Adjunct Senior Research Fellow, The University of Western AustraliaEuan Ritchie, Professor in Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, School of Life & Environmental Sciences, Deakin UniversityTim Doherty, ARC DECRA Fellow, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2012262023-03-13T02:13:33Z2023-03-13T02:13:33ZOrange-bellied parrot shows there’s more to saving endangered species than captive breeding<p>Captive breeding of threatened species for release into the wild is an important conservation tool. But where threats to wild populations remain unresolved, this tool may not guarantee population recovery in the long term. </p>
<p>Our <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10531-023-02568-0">new research</a> on one of the most endangered birds in the world shows we need to tackle underlying threats to survival if we are to save species from extinction in the wild. </p>
<p>Captive breeding and release is sustaining the population of orange-bellied parrots, holding extinction at bay. But most of the young born into the population each year die during their migration and winter. </p>
<p>Our modelling shows that if captive breeding and release stopped tomorrow, orange-bellied parrots would soon become extinct. The natural birth rate is too low to compensate for the high death rates of juveniles. So we’re locked into releasing captive-bred parrots until we can solve the underlying problems afflicting the wild population. Unfortunately, it’s not clear exactly what those problems are.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/regent-honeyeaters-were-once-kings-of-flowering-gums-now-theyre-on-the-edge-of-extinction-what-happened-174538">Regent honeyeaters were once kings of flowering gums. Now they're on the edge of extinction. What happened?</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>No guarantees when threats remain</h2>
<p>Globally, captive breeding has prevented the extinction of iconic species such as the <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/california-condor-nearly-went-extinct-now-1000th-chick-recovery-program-has-hatched-180972698/">California condor</a>. </p>
<p>However, despite the benefits of captive breeding, success is <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/brv.12913">not guaranteed</a>. This is especially so when captive-bred animals are released into habitats where threats remain unresolved. In such cases, captive-bred animals will succumb to the same threats as their wild counterparts. </p>
<p>For some species, identifying and correcting threats is straightforward. For example, <a href="https://lhirodenteradicationproject.org/">removing introduced predators from islands</a> may be a way to eliminate a threat and optimise the benefit of releases from captivity. </p>
<p>But the exact nature of threats is often not clear-cut, especially for species that move over large areas. This can create uncertainty about what the threats are, where they occur, and how to resolve them. </p>
<p>Inability to mitigate threats may result in lost opportunities for released animals to learn crucial behaviours such as <a href="https://airandspace.si.edu/stories/editorial/operation-migration">migration</a> or <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kJhU_NdrsJ0">song</a>, and ultimately, the decline of wild populations. </p>
<p>Conservationists may sometimes need to “buy time” and prevent extinction in the wild by releasing animals to ensure the continuity of animal cultures in landscapes where threats persist. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Orange-bellied parrot male." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/513817/original/file-20230306-20-9pdmuy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/513817/original/file-20230306-20-9pdmuy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513817/original/file-20230306-20-9pdmuy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513817/original/file-20230306-20-9pdmuy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513817/original/file-20230306-20-9pdmuy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=548&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513817/original/file-20230306-20-9pdmuy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=548&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513817/original/file-20230306-20-9pdmuy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=548&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Orange-bellied parrots are among the most endangered birds in the world, and they are dependent on intensive conservation efforts to prevent extinction.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dejan Stojanovic</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Locked into a cycle of dependency</h2>
<p>The orange-bellied parrot is one of the most endangered birds in the world. In 2016, just <a href="https://theconversation.com/there-are-14-wild-orange-bellied-parrots-left-this-summer-is-our-last-chance-to-save-them-69274">four females returned to Tasmania</a> from migration, and only one of them produced a surviving <a href="https://static1.squarespace.com/static/582ea0d1579fb3ef8b09706d/t/6230d692846c9f0a27cd39f4/1647367830536/1-s2.0-S000632072200057X-main.pdf">descendant</a>. (The species migrates from its summer breeding ground in southwestern Tasmania to the coasts of southeastern mainland Australia, but these movements take a toll on the population.)</p>
<p>Fortunately, despite ongoing uncertainty about reducing threats, intensive conservation efforts have grown the population. More than 30 females have returned from migration annually over the past two years. Despite this success, most juvenile parrots (both captive-bred and wild-born) that leave Tasmania on their <a href="https://static1.squarespace.com/static/582ea0d1579fb3ef8b09706d/t/5f39c92c57da8940e9dac29c/1597622576959/Final+published.pdf">northward migration die</a>. </p>
<p>Overcoming the unresolved threats that drive this high mortality is crucial for making this population self-sustaining. Unfortunately due to the practical limitations of studying a small, scattered population across remote areas, it is unlikely that this knowledge gap can be addressed in the short term. In the meantime, there are several options available.</p>
<p>We used <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10531-023-02568-0">simulations</a> to compare the benefits of different management scenarios on the orange-bellied parrot. We showed that of all the potential intervention options available to the recovery project, releasing captive juveniles in autumn – to learn from wild adults, and increase the size of migrating flocks – was the most beneficial. </p>
<p>However, none of the interventions available to managers can directly address the underlying problem of high juvenile mortality, so their benefits were temporary. When we simulated stopping captive releases, the populations rapidly went extinct. Without addressing the underlying threats faced by the species, we found the natural birth rate too low to compensate for high juvenile mortality rates. </p>
<p>Until a solution is found for high migration and winter mortality rates, orange-bellied parrots will remain dependent on captive breeding and release to prevent extinction and grow the population.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/513818/original/file-20230306-2602-kco62o.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Researcher holds an orange-bellied parrot mother." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/513818/original/file-20230306-2602-kco62o.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/513818/original/file-20230306-2602-kco62o.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513818/original/file-20230306-2602-kco62o.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513818/original/file-20230306-2602-kco62o.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513818/original/file-20230306-2602-kco62o.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513818/original/file-20230306-2602-kco62o.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513818/original/file-20230306-2602-kco62o.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Orange-bellied parrot ‘red red D’ is a descendant of the last truly wild born lineage of mothers, and was one of the longest-lived mothers in the contemporary population.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dejan Stojanovic</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Lulled into a false sense of security</h2>
<p>Orange-bellied parrots provide a stark reminder that there is no “quick fix” for most threatened species. Although captive breeding for release can effectively prevent extinction in the short term, long-term self-sustaining populations in the wild depend on <a href="https://theconversation.com/regent-honeyeaters-were-once-kings-of-flowering-gums-now-theyre-on-the-edge-of-extinction-what-happened-174538">finding solutions</a> for the threats that caused their decline in the first place. Until solutions can be found, management agencies may be locked into a cycle of conservation dependency aimed at preventing extinction, but struggle to address the threats that cause the underlying problems. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australias-red-goshawk-is-disappearing-how-can-we-save-our-rarest-bird-of-prey-from-extinction-200339">Australia’s red goshawk is disappearing. How can we save our rarest bird of prey from extinction?</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Given the global popularity and visibility of captive breeding programs, it is easy to be lulled into a false sense of security that they are a quick fix for the extinction crisis. However, identifying the threats to wild populations early is crucial because re-establishing “extinct in the wild” species from captivity is extremely difficult, <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.add2889#.Y_e5gYn5pIk.twitter">albeit not impossible</a>. </p>
<p>In the case of the orange-bellied parrot, we hope preventing extinction of the wild population through releases of captive-bred birds may buy enough time to identify and mitigate the causes of high juvenile migration/winter mortality. But we also hope our study is a reminder to policymakers that conservation of wild populations should focus on identifying and preventing threats, negating the need for captive breeding in the first place. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/get-the-basics-right-for-national-environmental-standards-to-ensure-truly-sustainable-development-201092">Get the basics right for National Environmental Standards to ensure truly sustainable development</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/201226/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dejan Stojanovic received funding for this project from the Australian Government Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment, via NRM South. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Carolyn Hogg receives funding from the Australian Research Council, and was a member of the Orange-bellied Parrot recovery team from 2011 to 2021.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rob Heinsohn does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>New research shows that if captive breeding stopped tomorrow, orange-bellied parrots would soon become extinct. So we’re locked into breeding programs until we can solve the underlying problems.Dejan Stojanovic, Postdoctoral Fellow, Australian National UniversityCarolyn Hogg, Senior Research Manager, University of SydneyRob Heinsohn, Professor of Evolutionary and Conservation Biology, Australian National UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2005542023-03-02T14:25:20Z2023-03-02T14:25:20ZRoads and power lines put primates in danger: South African data adds to the real picture<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511943/original/file-20230223-703-kx83eg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=11%2C17%2C3982%2C2886&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Samango monkey choosing to use a pole bridge instead of a ladder bridge.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Birthe Linden</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>About 25 million kilometres of new roads are expected to be built around the world by <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature13717">2050</a>. Along with power lines and railways, roads cut through the landscape everywhere, disrupting ecosystems. This linear infrastructure prevents animals from moving safely around their habitat. It also reduces access to the resources they need, like food, sufficient space and mating partners. </p>
<p>This threat to biodiversity is a conservation issue globally, but especially in developing nations, where <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature13717">90%</a> of new road construction is expected. </p>
<p>The African continent is home to unique biodiversity and extraordinary landscapes. Planned <a href="https://au.int/en/videos/20190101/agenda2063-infrastructure-and-energy-initiatives">infrastructure developments</a> will certainly <a href="https://theconversation.com/kenyas-huge-railway-project-is-causing-environmental-damage-heres-how-159813">threaten</a> some of the last, unspoilt wildernesses on the continent.</p>
<p>We’re particularly concerned about the future of primates. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) lists <a href="http://www.primate-sg.org/primate_diversity_by_region/">half of the continent’s 107 primate species as threatened</a>.</p>
<p>According to the <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/search?query=Primates&searchType=species">IUCN</a> 18% of the world’s primates are directly affected by roads and railroads and 3% by utility and service infrastructure. These figures are based on limited research, though. The true impact is likely to be higher.</p>
<p>South Africa’s case shows why. None of the South African primate species currently have linear infrastructure listed as a threat under the IUCN. But this doesn’t mean they are not negatively affected. It just means that the lists need to be better informed.</p>
<p>South Africa is the only African country that has long-term, country-wide mortality datasets for both <a href="https://ewt.org.za/what-we-do/saving-species/wildlife-and-transport/">wildlife roadkill</a> and <a href="https://ewt.org.za/what-we-do/saving-species/wildlife-and-energy/">wildlife electrocution</a>. It’s collected by patrol staff, scientists and the general public (<a href="https://theconversation.com/tracking-science-a-way-to-include-more-people-in-producing-knowledge-159587">citizen scientists</a>). </p>
<p>Using this data, <a href="https://brill.com/view/journals/ijfp/93/3-6/article-p235_4.xml">we investigated</a> how roads and power lines affect South Africa’s five primate species: the chacma baboon (<em>Papio ursinus</em>), the vervet monkey (<em>Chlorocebus pygerythrus</em>), the samango monkey (<em>Cercopithecus mitis</em>), the lesser bushbaby (<em>Galago moholi</em>) and the greater or thick tailed bushbaby (<em>Otolemur crassicaudatus</em>).</p>
<p>All species were affected, mostly by roads. We found a total of 483 deaths captured in the databases between 1996 and 2021. The number of deaths is likely to be a lot higher, due to under-reporting. Targeted species- and area-specific surveys are needed to refine this dataset. </p>
<p>The more mortality data is available, the better we will understand impacts, know where to focus interventions and inform future infrastructure developments to lessen the human impact on biodiversity.</p>
<p>We recommend that infrastructure like roads and power lines be more prominently recognised as a direct threat when developing Red List assessments.</p>
<h2>Primate deaths</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511944/original/file-20230223-24-c9wbuu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Furry black body of monkey on the verge with trees on either side of the road" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511944/original/file-20230223-24-c9wbuu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511944/original/file-20230223-24-c9wbuu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=344&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511944/original/file-20230223-24-c9wbuu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=344&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511944/original/file-20230223-24-c9wbuu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=344&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511944/original/file-20230223-24-c9wbuu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511944/original/file-20230223-24-c9wbuu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511944/original/file-20230223-24-c9wbuu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Samango monkey lying dead at the side of a road.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Birthe Linden</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Most of the electrocution data used in our study was accessed from the <a href="https://www.eskom.co.za/">Eskom</a> Central Incident Register.</p>
<p>Roadkill data for our study was available from two sources: the national database from the Endangered Wildlife Trust’s Wildlife and Transport Programme and our own observations. </p>
<p>Since 2011, the Endangered Wildlife Trust has received records from systematic patrols on certain highways and species -and area-specific expert research surveys. Citizen science data comes from all over the country including national and regional roads, with differing speed limits, widths and vehicle usage.</p>
<p>The area surveyed by systematic patrols amounts to 1,370 km, covering 0.2% of the country’s entire road network and 0.9% of the paved road network.</p>
<p>The highest number of deaths recorded was for vervet monkeys. This was to be expected as vervet monkeys have a much wider geographic range in South Africa than both bushbaby species and the samango monkey, so they have a greater chance of encountering roads and power lines. The greater (or thick tailed) bushbaby and the samango monkey are forest associated and forests cover only about 0.1% of South Africa’s land surface area.</p>
<p>Although the total of 483 primate deaths over 25 years may not appear very high, we can assume that many remain undetected. For example scavengers might remove the dead animals, or they could be hidden by dense vegetation on road verges. They could be in remote places, in the case of power lines, or severely injured animals might die later, a distance away from the road. For roads, the actual mortality rate could be <a href="https://we.copernicus.org/articles/3/33/2002/we-3-33-2002.html">12–16 times higher</a> than the detection rate.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/statistical-ecology-can-unlock-the-power-of-biodiversity-data-in-africa-171513">Statistical ecology can unlock the power of biodiversity data in Africa</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<h2>Solutions</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511945/original/file-20230223-703-ly4rn4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Person facing away from the camera looks at a monkey walking along a pole in the tree canopy." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511945/original/file-20230223-703-ly4rn4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511945/original/file-20230223-703-ly4rn4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511945/original/file-20230223-703-ly4rn4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511945/original/file-20230223-703-ly4rn4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511945/original/file-20230223-703-ly4rn4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511945/original/file-20230223-703-ly4rn4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511945/original/file-20230223-703-ly4rn4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Samango monkey using a pole canopy bridge while observer looks on.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Horta Lacueva</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Encouragingly, there is more and more <a href="https://brill.com/display/post/news/special-issue-of-folia-primatologica-highlights-the-importance-of-canopy-bridges-to-habitat-connectivity-globally.xml">research</a> showing that primates, as well as many other tree-dwelling species, accept man-made canopy bridges as a means to cross gaps in their habitat. </p>
<p>In South Africa we conducted an <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320719319172">experiment in the field</a> to test what kind of canopy bridge primates would use to cross gaps between trees. We found that all five South African primate species used the canopy bridges offered to them. The design they preferred was a solid pole bridge, rather than a ladder bridge. </p>
<p>More and more canopy bridges of various kinds are being provided in different countries. But <a href="https://brill.com/view/journals/ijfp/93/3-6/article-p197_1.xml">research</a> shows that Africa is lagging behind other continents in doing this, and there are no canopy bridges in South Africa. We suggest that all infrastructure development projects should try to give attention to maintaining the integrity of landscapes, for example by providing bridges for animals.</p>
<h2>Public participation</h2>
<p>We all need and use linear infrastructure in our day to day lives, so we all carry some level of responsibility. Hence, we encourage people to record wildlife mortalities and submit them to publicly available repositories such as <a href="https://www.inaturalist.org/">iNaturalist</a> or the <a href="https://www.gbif.org/">Global Biodiversity Information Facility</a>. </p>
<p>A new <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/13/10/1692">Global Primate Roadkill Database</a> has been developed by Laura Praill at Oxford Brookes University and colleagues and is <a href="https://gprd.mystrikingly.com/">available to the public</a>.</p>
<p>Public awareness and participation is essential to lessen the human impact on biodiversity.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/200554/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Birthe (Bibi) Linden is affiliated with the SARChI Chair on Biodiversity Value and Change in the Faculty of Science, Engineering and Agriculture at the University of Venda and the Lajuma Resesarch Centre. She receives funding from the South African National Research Foundation (NRF).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Wendy Collinson is affiliated with The Endangered Wildlife Trust and the South African Research Chair in Biodiversity Value & Change, School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, University of Venda, Thohoyandou, South Africa. She is also a member of the IUCN: Transport Working Group.</span></em></p>Researchers encourage citizen scientists to contribute to datasets on animal deaths caused by infrastructure. This will inform efforts to reduce the human impact on biodiversity.Birthe (Bibi) Linden, Postdoctoral Researcher (University of Venda) & Associated Researcher (Lajuma Research Centre), University of VendaWendy Collinson, Research Fellow: South African Research Chair in Biodiversity Value & Change, University of VendaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2001502023-02-27T17:15:13Z2023-02-27T17:15:13ZWhat Denmark’s dead hedgehogs tell us about their lives – and how we can help them<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512429/original/file-20230227-28-81w410.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=5%2C0%2C3876%2C2572&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Many hedgehogs are killed when crossing roads.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/hedgehog-crossing-street-front-oncoming-car-489006694">Photo-SD/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The European hedgehog is in decline all over Europe. In Britain, the species is already deemed <a href="https://www.mammal.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/MS_RL20_Britain.pdf">vulnerable to extinction</a> having seen its population fall by at least 46% in the past 13 years to an estimated 500,000 animals. </p>
<p>I have <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Sophie-Rasmussen">researched</a> what is causing their disappearance for a decade. This has involved several <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Sophie-Rasmussen/publications">research projects</a> at the University of Oxford’s <a href="https://www.wildcru.org/members/dr-sophie-lund-rasmussen/">Wildlife Conservation Research Unit</a> focused on optimising conservation strategies to protect wild hedgehogs. </p>
<p>One of these projects – the “Danish Hedgehog Project” – involved more than 400 volunteers collecting 697 dead hedgehogs from all over Denmark, where my research is based. My colleagues and I then <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/13/4/626">studied</a> how long these hedgehogs typically lived for and why they died.</p>
<p>The method for ageing a dead hedgehog is similar to counting growth rings on trees. When hedgehogs hibernate over winter, their calcium metabolism slows down, which shows as a line of arrested growth in their jawbones. This allowed us to determine how old 388 of these hedgehogs were when they died.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Eight images of stained sections of hedgehog jaws showing year rings." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512408/original/file-20230227-20-t2s8nz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512408/original/file-20230227-20-t2s8nz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=304&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512408/original/file-20230227-20-t2s8nz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=304&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512408/original/file-20230227-20-t2s8nz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=304&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512408/original/file-20230227-20-t2s8nz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512408/original/file-20230227-20-t2s8nz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512408/original/file-20230227-20-t2s8nz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Researchers can determine the age of a hedgehog by looking at growth rings on a hedgehog’s jaw bone.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Thomas Bjørneboe Berg</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We found the world’s oldest scientifically-confirmed European hedgehogs. The oldest, called Thorvald, was 16 years old and surpassed the previous record by seven years. Thorvald died in 2016 after being attacked by a dog, a sadly rather common cause of death for hedgehogs, but alongside the other hedgehogs we studied, he now contributes important knowledge on the mysterious lives of these animals. </p>
<h2>The state of Denmark’s hedgehogs</h2>
<p>A few more surprisingly old hedgehogs, aged ten, 11 and 13 years, were also collected. But on average, the Danish hedgehogs we studied only lived to around the age of two.</p>
<p>The male hedgehogs tended to live longer than females. Males lived to 2.1 years on average compared to just 1.6 years for the average female. This finding is uncommon in mammals and is likely caused by the fact that it is simply easier being a male hedgehog. </p>
<p>Hedgehogs are not territorial, so males rarely fight, and females raise their offspring alone. The high fitness cost of raising offspring alone may partly explain why the risk of death for female hedgehogs increases with age compared with a constant risk of death for male hedgehogs throughout their life.</p>
<p>Over half (216) of the hedgehogs had been killed when crossing roads. These deaths, 70% of which were males, also peaked in July during the mating season. Male hedgehogs tend to have larger home ranges than females and as they expand their range during the mating season, they will frequently cross roads. <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ece3.5764">Research</a> that I co-authored in 2019 found that the home range size of male hedgehogs in suburban areas around Copenhagen in Denmark increased fivefold during the mating season.</p>
<p>Of the animals not killed by road traffic, 22.2% (86) died in wildlife rehabilitation centres after having been found by the public either sick or injured and a further 21.6% (84) died from natural causes in the wild. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A person with blue gloves holding a dead hedgehog." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512406/original/file-20230227-20-pnggpe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512406/original/file-20230227-20-pnggpe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=453&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512406/original/file-20230227-20-pnggpe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=453&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512406/original/file-20230227-20-pnggpe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=453&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512406/original/file-20230227-20-pnggpe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=570&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512406/original/file-20230227-20-pnggpe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=570&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512406/original/file-20230227-20-pnggpe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=570&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">One of the dead hedgehogs collected for the Danish Hedgehog Project.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Tue Sørensen</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Low genetic diversity</h2>
<p>We also investigated the impact of inbreeding on the life expectancy of European hedgehogs. <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0227205">My previous research</a> found that the Danish hedgehog population has low genetic diversity, indicating a high degree of inbreeding. Low genetic diversity can reduce the fitness of an individual animal and may lead to several potentially lethal hereditary conditions. </p>
<p>Inbreeding can occur when hedgehogs are restricted in their search for suitable mates. The likelihood of inbreeding increases as their habitats become fragmented by roads, buildings, fences and railway tracks, and as population decline restricts the pool of potential mates. </p>
<p>Surprisingly, we found no association between the degree of inbreeding and age at death in our hedgehogs. This is interesting, as there is a general lack of knowledge on the effects of inbreeding in wildlife. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A woman looking into a microscope with a hedgehog jawbone printed on a computer screen in front of her." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512425/original/file-20230227-18-sbkd1w.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512425/original/file-20230227-18-sbkd1w.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512425/original/file-20230227-18-sbkd1w.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512425/original/file-20230227-18-sbkd1w.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512425/original/file-20230227-18-sbkd1w.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512425/original/file-20230227-18-sbkd1w.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512425/original/file-20230227-18-sbkd1w.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sophie Lund Rasmussen studying a hedgehog jawbone.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Thomas Degner</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How you can help</h2>
<p>Hedgehogs are increasingly <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169204611002118?casa_token=nkdIsEwl4roAAAAA:8Z3bdj1jUrK1si1G_ygwSrK1gLIvjpECh7Uuk_cs1UFu2wwpQbrEcZXtvkI483_pO0Gpw__wiIA">inhabiting areas</a> that are occupied by humans. But our study reveals that humans are the major drivers behind the decline of hedgehogs. </p>
<p>Many hedgehogs will only live long enough to take part in one or two breeding seasons. Yet our discovery of Thorvald and several other old hedgehogs suggests that their ability to avoid dangers such as cars and predators will improve if they manage to survive a minimum of two years. </p>
<p>There are several steps that you can take to help hedgehogs navigate the dangers they face. <a href="https://www.hedgehogstreet.org/">Hedgehog Street</a>, a conservation campaign jointly funded by <a href="https://ptes.org/">People’s Trust for Endangered Species</a> (PTES) and the <a href="https://www.britishhedgehogs.org.uk/">British Hedgehog Preservation Society</a> (BHPS), offers some useful advice.</p>
<p>For example, removing barriers between our gardens to create <a href="https://www.hedgehogstreet.org/help-hedgehogs/link-your-garden/">hedgehog highways</a> will allow hedgehogs to move freely between gardens in search for food, nest sites and mates. This may reduce the need for hedgehogs to cross roads so often.</p>
<p>Making sure our gardens are <a href="https://www.hedgehogstreet.org/help-hedgehogs/helpful-garden-features/">hedgehog-friendly</a> is another option. Log and leaf piles, or purpose-designed boxes called <a href="https://www.hedgehogstreet.org/help-hedgehogs/hedgehog-homes/">hedgehog houses</a> provide safe and secure sites for breeding and nesting. Ensuring your garden has plenty of greenery will also attract insects, slugs, earthworms and snails for hedgehogs to feed on. </p>
<p>But it’s important to remove anything from your garden that can harm hedgehogs. This includes poisons, netting, garden tools, aggressive dogs, deep holes and steep edges around pools or ponds.</p>
<p>Any improvement in our knowledge of hedgehogs in the wild will also be important. The Zoological Society of London surveys Greater London’s hedgehog populations through its <a href="https://www.zsl.org/what-we-do/projects/london-hogwatch">London Hogwatch</a> project. And the BHPS funds the <a href="https://www.hedgehogfriendlycampus.co.uk/">Hedgehog Friendly Campus</a> initiative which offers universities, colleges and primary schools awards for completing actions to help hedgehogs thrive on their campus. </p>
<p>The BHPS and the PTES’ latest report on the <a href="https://www.hedgehogstreet.org/about-our-hedgehog-street-campaign/stateof/">state of Britain’s hedgehogs</a> indicates that the decline in UK hedgehog populations may be stabilising in the urban areas. This could be due to the efforts of the public that have been inspired by these campaigns.</p>
<p>The fact that Thorvald lived to the age of 16 offers hope for the future of European hedgehogs. If we work together, we can save this charismatic species.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/200150/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sophie Lund Rasmussen receives funding from Carlsberg Foundation</span></em></p>Research on Denmark’s hedgehogs offers insight into their cause of death – and how to help them.Sophie Lund Rasmussen, Postdoctoral fellow, University of OxfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2003392023-02-26T19:04:30Z2023-02-26T19:04:30ZAustralia’s red goshawk is disappearing. How can we save our rarest bird of prey from extinction?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511625/original/file-20230222-28-yy4h34.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=15%2C9%2C2011%2C1827&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Patrick Webster</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australia’s red goshawk once ruled the skies. But now this almighty raptor, affectionately known as The Red, has become our nation’s rarest bird of prey.</p>
<p>Concern for the species prompted our new research. We completed the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/01584197.2023.2172735">first comprehensive population assessment</a> of the red goshawk using a dataset of all known records (1978–2020). The results were even worse than expected. </p>
<p>We were shocked to discover The Red had completely disappeared from more than a third (34%) of its range. The species is almost certainly extinct in New South Wales and the southern half of Queensland. </p>
<p>This bird is declining – and probably just barely hanging on – in a further 30% of its range, spanning northern Queensland from the Gulf to the Wet Tropics. The rest of northern Australia is the last stronghold for the species. </p>
<p>Although nationally listed as vulnerable, we argue this species requires urgent uplisting to endangered. High priority must be given to conservation action now, before it’s too late. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511621/original/file-20230222-26-fj93hf.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511621/original/file-20230222-26-fj93hf.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511621/original/file-20230222-26-fj93hf.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511621/original/file-20230222-26-fj93hf.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511621/original/file-20230222-26-fj93hf.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=520&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511621/original/file-20230222-26-fj93hf.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=520&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511621/original/file-20230222-26-fj93hf.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=520&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Adult female red goshawk with kookaburra prey.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Chris MacColl</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A striking bird of prey</h2>
<p>The red goshawk (<em>Erythrotriorchis radiatus</em>) is an evolutionary oddity, with no near relatives in this country. It is a top predator, with rainbow lorikeets, sulphur-crested cockatoos, and blue-winged kookaburras its preferred quarry. </p>
<p>Remarkably, the average female is nearly twice the size of the average male, with this relative size difference making it one of the most dimorphic raptors in the world. </p>
<p>This striking bird first came to the attention of Western scientists around 1790, when a specimen was found nailed to an early settler’s hut near Botany Bay. </p>
<p>Since then, it has captivated birdwatchers with its rich rufous (red) plumage, sharp gaze, and immense feet and talons. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.environment.gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/publicspecies.pl?taxon_id=942">Historically, it was found</a> along Australia’s eastern and northern coastal fringe, from Sydney, north to Cape York Peninsula, and across to the Kimberley region of Western Australia. But over the years, keen observers noticed their occasional glimpses of this almighty hawk became rarer. Then suddenly people were no longer seeing them, in certain regions. </p>
<h2>Slipping towards extinction</h2>
<p>Recording the extinction and ongoing loss of the red goshawk over two thirds of its known range in our lifetime was shocking. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511902/original/file-20230223-2744-uxqf8q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Map of Australia showing the distribution of the red goshawk within the various ecoregions" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511902/original/file-20230223-2744-uxqf8q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511902/original/file-20230223-2744-uxqf8q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511902/original/file-20230223-2744-uxqf8q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511902/original/file-20230223-2744-uxqf8q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511902/original/file-20230223-2744-uxqf8q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511902/original/file-20230223-2744-uxqf8q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511902/original/file-20230223-2744-uxqf8q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Map showing assessment of the red goshawk’s breeding status across its range.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Chris MacColl</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While the destruction of habitat through land clearing, which is still rampant in both <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2022/feb/17/land-clearing-in-nsw-triples-over-past-decade-state-of-the-environment-2021-report-reveals">New South Wales</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-queensland-is-still-ground-zero-for-australian-deforestation-196644">Queensland</a>, is a key reason for this loss, other factors must be at play. </p>
<p>We know that degraded forests, like those that are <a href="https://theconversation.com/native-forest-logging-makes-bushfires-worse-and-to-say-otherwise-ignores-the-facts-161177">logged</a> or suffer from inappropriate fire regimes, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-018-0490-x">lose many</a> of their species, particularly those higher up the food chain. </p>
<p>However, this doesn’t aptly describe the loss of red goshawk from seemingly large areas of intact habitat, such as Shoalwater Bay or Conondale National Park. </p>
<p>More research is needed to unpick why this species has disappeared so quickly and over such an immense area. <a href="https://raresgroup.com.au/red-goshawk/">Current efforts</a> focus on potential disease threats, poor breeding, low juvenile survival rates, and developing a better understanding of how they use the Australian landscape.</p>
<h2>The Red’s last refuge</h2>
<p>Our research reveals northern Australia is the last stronghold for this species. Cape York Peninsula supports the last known breeding population in Queensland. The Top End, Tiwi Islands, and Kimberley regions also sustain vital breeding populations. </p>
<p>This is unsurprising given northern Australia supports the world’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/ecocheck-australias-vast-majestic-northern-savannas-need-more-care-59897">largest intact tropical savanna</a> ecosystem. Yet, despite limited broad scale habitat loss to date, these northern savannas are <a href="https://theconversation.com/ecocheck-australias-vast-majestic-northern-savannas-need-more-care-59897">under threat</a> from inappropriate fire regimes, weeds, cattle, and the onset of climate change. These threats can interact and compound one another, posing increasingly complex challenges for land managers trying to save species like the red goshawk. </p>
<p>For example, the <a href="https://theconversation.com/field-of-nightmares-gamba-grass-in-the-top-end-12178">fire-intensive gamba grass</a>, an invasive weed, is spread by livestock. Climate change may extend the fire season, through lengthier dry spells. Hot treetop fires incinerate nests and the chicks inside them. The intensity and seasonality of storms is also increasing, as well as thermal extremes, threatening young during the nesting season. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511623/original/file-20230222-18-o1hp5b.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511623/original/file-20230222-18-o1hp5b.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511623/original/file-20230222-18-o1hp5b.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511623/original/file-20230222-18-o1hp5b.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511623/original/file-20230222-18-o1hp5b.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511623/original/file-20230222-18-o1hp5b.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511623/original/file-20230222-18-o1hp5b.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Two small red goshawk nestlings, the maximum this species can have.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Chris MacColl</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Tropical savannas may be increasingly compromised through large scale vegetation clearing and fragmentation. Preparing land for <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-01-15/federal-government-investigating-land-clearing-nt/101852502#:%7E:text=The%20federal%20government%20is%20investigating,way%20for%20a%20cotton%20industry">crops such as cotton</a> or mines for minerals such as bauxite can remove big swathes of habitat. Efforts to obtain other natural resources such as timber and gas also fragment otherwise intact landscapes. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Large trees being felled as native forest is cleared in Queensland" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512140/original/file-20230224-28-awdcga.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512140/original/file-20230224-28-awdcga.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512140/original/file-20230224-28-awdcga.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512140/original/file-20230224-28-awdcga.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512140/original/file-20230224-28-awdcga.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512140/original/file-20230224-28-awdcga.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512140/original/file-20230224-28-awdcga.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Land clearing remains rife in Queensland, undermining efforts to conserve wildlife and reduce carbon emissions.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://theconversation.com/queensland-moves-to-control-land-clearing-other-states-need-to-follow-58291">Kerry Trapnell/The Wilderness Society</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The Red deserves better protection</h2>
<p>Australia is blessed with unique bird life. Nearly half of our birds are found nowhere else on Earth. </p>
<p>But the nation’s rarest bird of prey is in trouble. The red goshawk deserves better protection. At the very least, the species needs to be uplisted from <a href="https://www.environment.gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/publicthreatenedlist.pl">vulnerable</a> to endangered by the federal government. This will more accurately reflect current extinction risk and prioritise conservation action. And there’s no time to waste, because red goshawk habitat continues to be cleared – permission was granted to clear a total of <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/csp2.12860">15,689 hectares</a> of red goshawk habitat between 2000 and 2015, which is more than any other threatened species had to contend with. </p>
<p>The Red needs to be recognised as a flagship species for northern Australia, to promote conservation of its remaining habitat. Intervention would benefit many other threatened species, because what’s good for them is good for many others. In this way, the red goshawk is one of the most <a href="https://news.mongabay.com/2020/01/cost-effective-conservation-study-identifies-key-umbrella-species/">cost-effective</a> ‘umbrella species’ for conservation action. </p>
<p>To secure the longterm survival of this beautiful bird, we need better protection across the tropical north, expanding both <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/land/indigenous-protected-areas">Indigenous Protected Areas</a> and national parks. These areas can be managed directly for conservation, but working with the agricultural and extractive industry is also critical. Low numbers of red goshawks are distributed across a vast area, covering multiple tenures, so all parties need to work together if this species is to persist in the north.</p>
<p>We must not repeat past mistakes and allow habitat in the tropical north to be fragmented, rendering the landscape unable to support native predators like the red goshawk. This means rigorously assessing developments and implementing protections commensurate with the large areas that The Red requires. </p>
<p>If we can’t look after such an ecologically important, charismatic, and iconic species such as The Red, what hope do we have for <a href="https://theconversation.com/just-ten-mps-represent-more-than-600-threatened-species-in-their-electorates-83500">Australia’s many other threatened species</a>?</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/native-birds-have-vanished-across-the-continent-since-colonisation-now-we-know-just-how-much-weve-lost-176239">Native birds have vanished across the continent since colonisation. Now we know just how much we’ve lost</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/200339/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christopher MacColl receives funding and support from Rio Tinto Weipa, the Australian Wildlife Conservancy, the Queensland Department of Environment and Sciences, and the University of Queensland. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>James Watson has received funding from the Australian Research Council and National Environmental Science Program and receives funding from South Australia's Department of Environment and Water. He serves on scientific committees for Bush Heritage Australia, SUBAK Australia, BirdLife Australia and has a long-term scientific relationship with the Wildlife Conservation Society. He serves on the Queensland Government's Land Restoration Fund's Investment Panel.</span></em></p>The first comprehensive population assessment of the raptor affectionately known as The Red reveals a species in trouble. Australia’s rarest bird of prey needs our help.Christopher MacColl, PhD Candidate, The University of QueenslandJames Watson, Professor, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1996372023-02-10T17:01:52Z2023-02-10T17:01:52ZBahamas songbird is under threat of extinction – but preserving old pine forests will help save it<p>The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahama_warbler">Bahama warbler</a>, a small songbird found exclusively on Grand Bahama and Abaco, two islands in the north-east <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucayan_Archipelago#/media/File:Map_of_the_Caribbean-Lucayan_Archipelago.png">Bahama archipelago</a> only “became” a species in 2010. But due to its <a href="https://academic.oup.com/auk/article/127/4/932/5148703">limited range</a> and increasingly <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/John-Lloyd-15/publication/228394066_Taxonomy_and_population_size_of_the_Bahama_Nuthatch/links/0912f50d45df51b40d000000/Taxonomy-and-population-size-of-the-Bahama-Nuthatch.pdf">fragmented habitat</a>, the warbler was immediately treated as a species of conservation concern.</p>
<p>In 2016, these islands were devastated by a category five storm called <a href="https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/data/tcr/AL142016_Matthew.pdf">Hurricane Matthew</a>. Storms of this strength pose a serious threat to the Bahamas’s unique <a href="https://theconversation.com/hurricane-dorian-was-also-a-catastrophe-for-the-bahamas-unique-birds-123493">birdlife</a>. So as conservation biologists, we wanted to determine how well the warbler had fared.</p>
<p>In 2018, our University of East Anglia Masters’ students, David Pereira and Matthew Gardner, spent three months <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bird-conservation-international/article/abs/distribution-and-habitat-requirements-of-the-bahama-warbler-setophaga-flavescens-on-grand-bahama-in-2018/2068B09FA0293A394DCF7A80F2F04376">researching</a> birds on Grand Bahama island. They chose Grand Bahama because this island was the sole home of another newly recognised species, the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/William-Hayes-9/publication/238112811_Grand_Bahama's_Brown-headed_Nuthatch_A_Distinct_and_Endangered_Species/links/02e7e52c27788d6b43000000/Grand-Bahamas-Brown-headed-Nuthatch-A-Distinct-and-Endangered-Species.pdf">Bahama nuthatch</a>. Both species are tied closely to the native Caribbean pine forests that cover (or covered) the islands.</p>
<p>Matthew and David played a recording of the nuthatch’s call in order to attract and observe it. They covered all of the island this way and measured habitats everywhere to work out what particular characteristics are preferred by the two species. The fieldwork went well for the warbler, but much less so for the nuthatch. </p>
<h2>Preferred habitat</h2>
<p>The Lucayan estates, an area in the middle of the island where there are the most remaining pine trees, proved to be the best place for both birds. They recorded 233 warblers there and 94 further east. But at the island’s west and east extremities, where the pines were smallest and their condition poor, they found none. They only recorded a nuthatch on six separate occasions.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509424/original/file-20230210-14-kicqoq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Grand Bahama's pine forests." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509424/original/file-20230210-14-kicqoq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509424/original/file-20230210-14-kicqoq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509424/original/file-20230210-14-kicqoq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509424/original/file-20230210-14-kicqoq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509424/original/file-20230210-14-kicqoq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509424/original/file-20230210-14-kicqoq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509424/original/file-20230210-14-kicqoq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Daniel Pereira carrying out fieldwork in Grand Bahama’s pine forests.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Matthew Gardner</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>On analysing their data, Matthew and David found that the warbler was most likely to be encountered in areas of forest where fewer pines had lost their needles. Pine trees losing their needles is a sign of environmental stress and is induced by wind damage and saltwater penetration. The warbler also lived where <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrinax_radiata">thatch palms</a>, a small tree but the largest beneath the forest canopy, were taller.</p>
<p>The warbler forages among pine needles, on thatch palms, and also on tree bark. So naturally, bigger pines and palms will have larger areas in which the species can forage.</p>
<p>Areas that had suffered a degree of burning were also favoured by the Bahama warbler. Pinewoods in the Americas tend to burn every few years. This often occurs when lightning strikes following a period of drought.</p>
<p>Yet these fires are usually “cool”, meaning they affect tree bark and surrounding undergrowth, but rarely the canopy. The larger pine trees and thatch palms survive these fires well.</p>
<p>Bark that has been damaged by fire cracks and lifts. This offers a niche habitat for insects to hide in and breed, meaning there are probably more insects per foraging patch in these areas than elsewhere on the island. This is how David explains the warbler’s use of areas where fires have created such conditions.</p>
<h2>Species under threat</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A satellite image of a large hurricane in the Caribbean Sea" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509410/original/file-20230210-27-rcvo7i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509410/original/file-20230210-27-rcvo7i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509410/original/file-20230210-27-rcvo7i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509410/original/file-20230210-27-rcvo7i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509410/original/file-20230210-27-rcvo7i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509410/original/file-20230210-27-rcvo7i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509410/original/file-20230210-27-rcvo7i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hurricane Dorian in the Caribbean Sea on its way to US mainland in August 2019.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/hurricane-dorian-carribean-sea-on-way-1492317566">lavizzara/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But a year after the survey, another category five storm completely obliterated Grand Bahama’s forests with winds of up to 185 mph. This storm, called <a href="https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/data/tcr/AL052019_Dorian.pdf">Hurricane Dorian</a>, was one of the most powerful hurricanes ever to make landfall on the Bahama’s and inflicted <a href="https://nypost.com/2019/11/16/damaged-caused-by-hurricane-dorian-totals-3-4b-in-the-bahamas/">US$3.4 (£2.8) billion</a> in damage.</p>
<p>Since the hurricane, there have been no reports of Bahama warblers or nuthatch on Grand Bahama. The <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/2215361-hurricane-dorian-may-have-made-a-species-of-bird-go-extinct/">Bahama nuthatch</a> may now be extinct. But birders have more recently reported sightings of the warbler on the neighbouring island of Abaco. We predict that the warbler now only survives there.</p>
<p>Our research may help to conserve the remaining Bahama warbler populations on Abaco. Ensuring habitats include large old pines and tall thatch palms, preferably managed for fire, will be crucial to ensuring the species’ survival.</p>
<p>But climate models show that global warming is <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-34321-6">increasing</a> hurricane frequency and raising the probability that tropical storms grow into intense, damaging hurricanes in just a few hours. Other <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo779">research</a>, carried out in 2010, indicates that tropical storms may become stronger and 2–11% more intense by 2100.</p>
<p>Abaco’s pine forest habitats could be affected by these more intense hurricanes in the future. Surveying the Abaco population of Bahama Warblers is now a matter of urgency to determine the species’ status on the island.</p>
<p>What this sad episode tells us is that conservationists will have to move warblers to other pine islands to establish reserve populations in case the next hurricane makes landfall on Abaco. This has saved other island bird species in the past.</p>
<p>In 2011, 59 <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/David-Wright-60/publication/264309452_Translocation_of_the_Seychelles_warbler_Acrocephalus_sechellensis_to_establish_a_new_population_on_Denis_Island_Seychelles/links/53d7d7da0cf2631430bfc5b6/Translocation-of-the-Seychelles-warbler-Acrocephalus-sechellensis-to-establish-a-new-population-on-Denis-Island-Seychelles.pdf">Seychelles warblers</a> were captured on Cousin Island and released on Frégate Island. By 2013, the population of the Seychelles warbler on Frégate had increased to 80 individuals including 38 of the original birds. However, this method is expensive as it must be determined whether the new region is a suitable host for the new species and would require significant funding and support in the Bahamas.</p>
<p>But time must not be wasted as the threat of extinction to the Bahama Warbler grows with each passing hurricane season. We must now try to secure the most threatened species from extinction.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/199637/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The Bahama warbler favours large pine trees and palms, fieldwork shows.Diana Bell, Professor of Conservation Biology, University of East AngliaNigel Collar, Honorary Professor of Biological Sciences, University of East AngliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1993622023-02-09T16:18:08Z2023-02-09T16:18:08ZEarth has lost one-fifth of its wetlands since 1700 – but most could still be saved<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509148/original/file-20230209-28-572jb3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4454%2C2967&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A capybara in the Iberá Wetlands (Esteros del Iberá) of northeast Argentina.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/capybara-sticks-head-plantcovered-waters-ibera-1189374100">Kylie Nicholson/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Like so many of the planet’s natural habitats, wetlands have been systematically destroyed over the past 300 years. Bogs, fens, marshes and swamps have disappeared from maps and memory, having been drained, dug up and built on. </p>
<p>Being close to a reliable source of water and generally flat, wetlands were always prime targets for building towns and farms. Draining their waterlogged soils has produced some of the most fertile farmland available. </p>
<p>But wetlands also offer some of the best natural solutions to modern crises. They can clean water by removing and filtering pollutants, displace floodwater, shelter wildlife, improve our mental and physical wellbeing and capture climate-changing amounts of carbon. </p>
<p>Peatlands, a particular type of wetland, store <a href="https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/story/peatlands-store-twice-much-carbon-all-worlds-forests">at least twice</a> the carbon of all the world’s forests.</p>
<p>How much of the Earth’s precious wetlands have been lost since 1700 was recently addressed by <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-05572-6">a major new study</a> published in Nature. Previously, it was feared that <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.energy.30.050504.144248">as much as 50%</a> of our wetlands might have been wiped out. However, the latest research suggests that the figure is actually closer to 21% - an area the size of India. </p>
<p>Some countries have seen much higher losses, with Ireland losing more than 90% of its wetlands. The main reason for these global losses has been the drainage of wetlands for growing crops.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A waterlogged wilderness with tufts of vegetation growing amid the water." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509159/original/file-20230209-18-ehsihr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509159/original/file-20230209-18-ehsihr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509159/original/file-20230209-18-ehsihr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509159/original/file-20230209-18-ehsihr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509159/original/file-20230209-18-ehsihr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509159/original/file-20230209-18-ehsihr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509159/original/file-20230209-18-ehsihr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A wetland is, like this peat bog, a terrestrial habitat where water is held on the land.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/peat-bog-national-park-sumava-europe-357530972">Kuttelvaserova Stuchelova/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Wetlands are not wastelands</h2>
<p>This is the most thorough investigation of its kind. The researchers used historical records and the latest maps to monitor land use on a global scale.</p>
<p>Despite this, the new paper highlights some of the scientific and cultural barriers to studying and managing wetlands. For instance, even identifying what is and isn’t a wetland is harder than for other habitats. </p>
<p>The defining characteristic of a wetland – being wet – is not always easily identified in each region and season. How much is the right amount of wetness? Some classification systems list <a href="https://www.ramsar.org/sites/default/files/documents/library/info2007-01-e.pdf">coral reefs</a> as wetlands, while others argue this is too wet. </p>
<p>And for centuries, wetlands were seen as unproductive wastelands ripe for converting to cropland. This makes records of where these ecosystems used to be sketchy at best.</p>
<p>The report shows clearly that the removal of wetlands is not spread evenly around the globe. Some regions have lost more than average. Around half of the wetlands in Europe have gone, with the UK losing 75% of its original area. </p>
<p>The US, central Asia, India, China, Japan and south-east Asia are also reported to have lost 50% of their original wetlands. It is these regional differences which promoted the idea that half of all the world’s wetlands had disappeared.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Farmers bend over to extract rice from a paddy field." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509153/original/file-20230209-28-wy0hh3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509153/original/file-20230209-28-wy0hh3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509153/original/file-20230209-28-wy0hh3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509153/original/file-20230209-28-wy0hh3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509153/original/file-20230209-28-wy0hh3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509153/original/file-20230209-28-wy0hh3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509153/original/file-20230209-28-wy0hh3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Farming has driven the destruction of wetlands globally.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/farmer-working-plant-rice-farm-thailand-460809358">Tridsanu Thopet/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This disparity is somewhat hopeful, as it suggests there are still plenty of wetlands which haven’t been destroyed – particularly the vast northern peatlands of Siberia and Canada.</p>
<h2>An ecological tonic</h2>
<p>Losing a wetland a few acres in size may not sound much on a global or even national scale, but it’s very serious for the nearby town that now floods when it rains and is catastrophic for the specialised animals and plants, like curlews and swallowtail butterflies, living there.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A herd of flamingoes in a lagoon with a city skyline in the distance." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509162/original/file-20230209-27-y5g44x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509162/original/file-20230209-27-y5g44x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509162/original/file-20230209-27-y5g44x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509162/original/file-20230209-27-y5g44x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509162/original/file-20230209-27-y5g44x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509162/original/file-20230209-27-y5g44x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509162/original/file-20230209-27-y5g44x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Wetlands offer food and habitat for a diverse range of species.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/thousands-greater-flamingos-phoenicopterus-roseus-ras-1922566502">Aleksandra Tokarz/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Fortunately, countries and international organisations are beginning to understand how important wetlands are locally and globally, with some adopting “no-net-loss” policies that oblige developers to restore any habitats they destroy. The UK has promised to <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/sale-of-horticultural-peat-to-be-banned-in-move-to-protect-englands-precious-peatlands#:%7E:text=All%20sales%20of%20peat%20to,in%20a%20near%2Dnatural%20state.">ban the sale</a> of peat-based composts for amateur growers by 2024. </p>
<p>Wetland habitats are being conserved around the world, often at huge expense. Over US$10 billion (£8.2 billion) has been spent on a 35-year plan to restore the <a href="https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/IF/IF11336">Florida Everglades</a>, a unique network of subtropical wetlands, making it the largest and most expensive ecological restoration project in the world. </p>
<p>The creation of new wetlands is also underway in many places. The reintroduction of beavers to enclosures across Britain is expected to increase the nation’s wetland coverage, bringing with it all the advantages of these habitats. </p>
<p>Beaver dams and the wetlands they create reduce the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/hyp.14017">effects of flooding</a> by up to 60% and can boost the area’s wildlife. One study showed the number of local <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2351989419302732">mammal species</a> shot up by 86% thanks to these furry engineers. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An aerial view of a coastal wetland." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509150/original/file-20230209-24-wy0hh3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509150/original/file-20230209-24-wy0hh3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509150/original/file-20230209-24-wy0hh3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509150/original/file-20230209-24-wy0hh3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509150/original/file-20230209-24-wy0hh3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509150/original/file-20230209-24-wy0hh3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509150/original/file-20230209-24-wy0hh3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Wetlands hold and slowly release water, helping to ease flooding and stall drought.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/aerial-view-lush-coastal-wetlands-uk-1489113977">Steved_np3/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/beavers-and-oysters-are-helping-restore-lost-ecosystems-with-their-engineering-skills-podcast-198573">Beavers and oysters are helping restore lost ecosystems with their engineering skills – podcast</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Even the sustainable drainage system ponds developers create on the fringes of new housing estates could see pocket wetlands appearing in towns and cities across the UK. By mimicking natural drainage regimes instead of removing surface water with pipes and sewers, sustainable drainage systems can create areas of plants and water that have been shown to increase biodiversity, especially <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169204611000648">invertebrates</a>.</p>
<p>Whether the total global loss of wetlands is 20% or 50% doesn’t really matter. What does matter is that people stop looking at wetlands as wastelands, there for us to drain and turn into “useful” land. </p>
<p>As the UN recently pointed out, an <a href="https://unfccc.int/news/wetlands-disappearing-three-times-faster-than-forests">estimated 40%</a> of Earth’s species live and breed in wetlands and a billion people depend on them for their livelihoods. Conserving and restoring these vital habitats is key to achieving a sustainable future.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christian Dunn does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The swamp has not yet been drained everywhere.Christian Dunn, Senior Lecturer in Natural Sciences, Bangor UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1978502023-02-06T12:20:00Z2023-02-06T12:20:00ZThree surprising reasons human actions threaten endangered primates<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/506834/original/file-20230127-25-sl362z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=9%2C18%2C2994%2C1976&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A baby chimpanzee enjoys his food. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/little-gourmet-adorable-baby-chimpanzee-enjoying-1986791387">Michaela Pilch/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Monkeys, apes and lemurs are cute, familiar and lovable. But an estimated 60% of all primate species are listed as <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.1600946">vulnerable, threatened or endangered</a>, according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature, a network of environmental organisations. </p>
<p>You’ve probably heard about the main problems, like <a href="https://theconversation.com/deforestation-on-indonesian-island-of-sulawesi-destroys-habitat-of-endemic-primates-147189">deforestation</a> and the loss of habitat. But primates are a diverse group of animals with a wide geographical range, so there are many more subtle ways our actions as humans put these wonderful animals at risk.</p>
<h2>1. Dogs</h2>
<p>Everywhere we go, our best friends are likely to go with us. <a href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-031-11736-7">Our review</a> shows that dogs are present in many primate habitats. These predators sometimes kill and injure primates, but they also may simply chase and harass them, disrupting their socialising or foraging. </p>
<p>Being on the lookout for harassing dogs is stressful and causes primates to use more energy. Reducing these potentially lethal encounters depends on conservationists communicating with dog owners, <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-031-11736-7_5">who often don’t recognise</a> the danger their dogs pose to such wildlife.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A black and white dog stands over a monkey in the street. The monkey has its mouth open." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/506836/original/file-20230127-7614-6vw6f7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/506836/original/file-20230127-7614-6vw6f7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=373&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506836/original/file-20230127-7614-6vw6f7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=373&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506836/original/file-20230127-7614-6vw6f7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=373&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506836/original/file-20230127-7614-6vw6f7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=469&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506836/original/file-20230127-7614-6vw6f7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=469&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506836/original/file-20230127-7614-6vw6f7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=469&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ma. Czarita A. Aguja/Shutterstock</span></span>
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<p>When diseases jump between animal species, they can cause serious harm to a species that does not have the necessary resistance. Dog diseases such as <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9179186/">canine heartworm </a>and <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rspb.2018.2772">parvovirus</a> can be passed from dogs to primates, and could potentially be fatal. There’s also the possibility that pathogens – viruses, bacteria or parasites – could evolve to spread more easily or become more deadly. </p>
<h2>2. Depictions</h2>
<p>If you live outside a country where primates live, you may never see a live primate outside of a zoo. Nevertheless, your media choices can still affect their conservation. </p>
<p><a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0118487">Researchers have discovered</a> that our choices of what we watch on YouTube, Instagram or TikTok can end up fuelling the use of primates as pets or in entertainment. Primates are cute, and we love to watch videos of them. However, many of these pictures and videos show them in artificial contexts, such as primates wearing clothes or interacting with office equipment.</p>
<p>When people view such content, <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0022050">they often say</a> they want a primate as a pet and are less likely to believe that these animals are endangered. </p>
<p>We can help to protect primates by not viewing or sharing videos that show animals in unnatural situations. The <a href="https://human-primate-interactions.org/resources/">responsibility</a> for interacting with primates respectfully is even higher for those who live near primates or those who embark on <a href="https://theconversation.com/five-ways-to-be-a-responsible-wildlife-tourist-118869">wildlife tourism</a>.</p>
<p>People’s activities can affect where primates live, what food they eat, and how they live their lives. Many tourist destinations in these types of locations cater to people’s desire to interact and take pictures with primates by keeping them as pets or encouraging feeding or similar interactions. </p>
<p><a href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-031-11736-7">Our research found</a> that these practices harm the animals, increase the poaching or the trade of primates, and can lead to dangerous situations for both the primates and people. Photographs that show monkeys posing with humans alarm primatologists because we understand the risks of being bitten or of passing on diseases. But the wider public may be unaware of these dangers.</p>
<h2>3. Disease</h2>
<p>The potential for disease transmission between humans and primates is high, partly because of our closely related biology. When diseases move from animals to humans they are known as “zoonoses”. And when they are transferred from animals to human beings, they are known as “anthroponoses”.</p>
<p>The African apes – chimpanzees, bonobos and gorillas – seem to be particularly <a href="https://www.science.org/content/article/primatologists-work-keep-great-apes-safe-coronavirus">vulnerable to human respiratory infections</a>. Protecting these endangered animals from infectious disease is an important conservation goal.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A silverback gorilla sits within thick, green vegetation" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/506845/original/file-20230127-26-x0cl2i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/506845/original/file-20230127-26-x0cl2i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506845/original/file-20230127-26-x0cl2i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506845/original/file-20230127-26-x0cl2i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506845/original/file-20230127-26-x0cl2i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506845/original/file-20230127-26-x0cl2i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506845/original/file-20230127-26-x0cl2i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An endangered silverback mountain gorilla.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Denys Kutsevalov/Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The risk of disease transmission between humans and nonhuman primates is worsened by close contact. Some primate species have always lived near people. But as human need for space grows and primate habitats become more fragmented, these encounters become more common. </p>
<p>Primate tourism also brings humans closer to wildlife, with people sometimes even holding the animals or sharing food with them. The <a href="https://theconversation.com/putting-primates-on-screen-is-fuelling-the-illegal-pet-trade-91995">pet trade</a> goes further and brings wild primates into our homes, where animals can contract illness from their owners and vice versa. </p>
<p><a href="https://humanprimateinteractions.files.wordpress.com/2022/10/primate-as-pets.pdf">Preventing the primate pet trade</a> and encouraging safe and respectful interactions with wildlife are vital for both human and nonhuman primate health.</p>
<p>These are only a few examples of the ways humans impact wild primates. And animal biologists are increasingly interested in such human-generated issues for wildlife conservation.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/197850/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tracie McKinney is affiliated with the IUCN SSC Primate Specialist Group's Section for Human-Primate Interactions (SHPI).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michelle Rodrigues is affiliated with the IUCN SSC Primate Specialist Group's Section for Human-Primate Interactions (SHPI).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sian Waters is affiliated with the IUCN SSC Primate Specialist Group's Section for Human-Primate Interactions (SHPI)</span></em></p>Most of us have heard of the dangers of deforestation but there are other more subtle ways that human beings can endanger monkeys, apes and lemurs.Tracie McKinney, Senior Lecturer in Biological Anthropology, University of South WalesMichelle Rodrigues, Assistant Professor, Marquette UniversitySian Waters, Honorary Research Fellow, Durham UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1988772023-02-01T05:04:24Z2023-02-01T05:04:24ZHybrid future? Interbreeding can make heat-averse species more resilient to climate change<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/507513/original/file-20230201-19-z60u59.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=32%2C38%2C4249%2C2805&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>As the climate heats up rapidly, many species will struggle to avoid extinction. If they had time, they could evolve to the new environmental conditions. But they don’t. That’s where hybridisation could help. When related species interbreed, the flow of new genetic diversity could help them adapt to warmer environments. </p>
<p>Hybridisation can often be a cause for concern for species conservation. Our <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-022-01585-1">new research</a> suggests genetic mixing across species may, in fact, offer better chances of survival for some species – especially those that don’t tolerate much environmental variation and are likely to be the worst hit by a hotter climate. </p>
<p>Some species won’t have to face a very uncertain future wholly alone. Related species may well be able to help. </p>
<p>We looked at what happened when cold-adapted and warm-adapted rainbowfish interbred. We found the welcome infusion of new <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_diversity">genetic diversity</a> was a boon, bringing down the risk of extinction for threatened species and potentially making them more resilient.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/507517/original/file-20230201-14-c316l3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/507517/original/file-20230201-14-c316l3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/507517/original/file-20230201-14-c316l3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/507517/original/file-20230201-14-c316l3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/507517/original/file-20230201-14-c316l3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/507517/original/file-20230201-14-c316l3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=583&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/507517/original/file-20230201-14-c316l3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=583&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/507517/original/file-20230201-14-c316l3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=583&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Upland rainbowfish are less able to adapt to warmer water – but hybrid rainbowfish are better placed.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Diana-Elena Vornicu</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What did we learn?</h2>
<p>Australia’s <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/parks-heritage/heritage/places/world/wet-tropics#more-information">wet tropics</a> run roughly from Townsville to Cooktown, including the Daintree Rainforest. Sadly, this spectacular bioregion is expected to be particularly badly hit by climate change. The cooler climates of the mountainous rainforest are likely to vanish. </p>
<p>In the rivers here live many species of tropical rainbowfish (<em>Melanotaenia spp.</em>). Some species live in colder water, higher up in the headwaters. Others live in the warmer waters lower down, but are slowly moving up the rivers as the climate warms. Different rainbowfish species can readily interbreed. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-hybrids-could-help-save-endangered-species-154218">How hybrids could help save endangered species</a>
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</em>
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<p>We collected samples of five species of rainbowfish adapted to life at different elevations. These included a widespread lowland species known for its adaptability, as well as three species only able to live in a narrow range of mountain rivers and one only able to live in the lower reaches. </p>
<p>Using genomic analyses, we found a mixture of pure and hybrid populations of these rainbowfish species. Then, we found the genes enabling rainbowfish to adapt to the region’s varying climates and estimated how vulnerable each of the species was to future climate.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/507508/original/file-20230201-12-x4z76e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="rainbowfish australia" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/507508/original/file-20230201-12-x4z76e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/507508/original/file-20230201-12-x4z76e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/507508/original/file-20230201-12-x4z76e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/507508/original/file-20230201-12-x4z76e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/507508/original/file-20230201-12-x4z76e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/507508/original/file-20230201-12-x4z76e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/507508/original/file-20230201-12-x4z76e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">One of the rainbowfish species we collected from Australia’s wet tropics.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Keith Martin</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>What did we find? That the cooler-water rainbowfish species were better placed to adapt to future climates if they had hybridised with the generalist warm-water species. </p>
<p>Then we modelled the habitats available to cool-water species against the warming expected in climate models. We found upland rainbowfish species would probably lose more than 90% of their habitat within 50 years, while the lowland warm-water species would lose relatively little habitat. </p>
<p>If the upland species are to survive, they have to either find new habitats or adapt to new conditions. Freshwater fish are, of course, extremely limited in their ability to find new habitat. These rainbowfish, in particular, live in Australia’s last remaining cool tropical cloud forests. Even if we wanted to relocate them, there’s not many places for them to go. </p>
<p>The only other option is to adapt <em>in situ</em>. </p>
<p>Luckily for rainbowfish – and potentially, many other species – we found hybrid fish from warm and cool species had more genetic diversity. This was particularly true for genes associated with the ability to live in warmer conditions. </p>
<p>These hybrids also don’t require as much overall genetic change to keep up with climate change compared to the pure populations. Taken together, that means we could be seeing a kind of natural evolutionary rescue, which may help moderate the impact of climate change. </p>
<p>They’ll need every bit of help they can get to escape the hot water they’ll find themselves in. Our climate models suggest pure rainbowfish populations will need to evolve far faster in the coming decades than they did since the arrival of the Holocene era about 11,000 years ago. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/507510/original/file-20230201-14-7k3fh.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="wet tropics stream" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/507510/original/file-20230201-14-7k3fh.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/507510/original/file-20230201-14-7k3fh.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/507510/original/file-20230201-14-7k3fh.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/507510/original/file-20230201-14-7k3fh.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/507510/original/file-20230201-14-7k3fh.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/507510/original/file-20230201-14-7k3fh.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/507510/original/file-20230201-14-7k3fh.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Many species have very restricted ranges, such as the rainbowfish living only in cooler streams in the wet tropics.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Michael Hammer</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How can hybridisation help?</h2>
<p>Genetic diversity is one of the best resources a species can have. Food, water and shelter are immediately important to individual animals. But from a bird’s eye view, genes also matter. </p>
<p>When a species has broad genetic diversity, they’re far better placed to weather changes. If their environment changes, they have a better chance of evolving to cope with new conditions. </p>
<p>That’s especially important now, as millions of species face the existential threat of climate change. If they had enough time to adjust, they could cope. But this is happening at warp speed. Species that can’t handle much variation to their environment are at higher risk of extinction because they often lack genetic diversity for adapting to climate change.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/which-species-will-win-and-lose-in-a-warmer-climate-it-depends-where-they-evolved-141659">Which species will win and lose in a warmer climate? It depends where they evolved</a>
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</p>
<hr>
<p>When you think genetic diversity, you might think of a large population of one species. But in fact, genes can jump across species. </p>
<p>This means both interbreeding and mixing among populations (through migration) or between species (hybridisation) can potentially enable some threatened species to gain welcome infusions of novel genetic diversity from species already adapted to warmer environments.</p>
<h2>Hybrids have often been seen as a problem.</h2>
<p>There’s an old saying in conservation: “local is best”. By that, scientists mean local, often small populations are best managed in isolation to maintain the genetic purity of lineages. But more and more, we have <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320720308429">come to understand</a> this doctrine can be more harmful than good. </p>
<p>Hybrid populations have often been overlooked – or even thought of as threatening the gene pool of endangered species. </p>
<p>What we hope our research demonstrates is that hybridisation may contribute to the persistence of some species. </p>
<p>Of course, mixing between other species may not always produce the same result. We need to find out when hybridisation could be beneficial to conservation. </p>
<p>We hope this work offers rare empirical support for the idea that genetic mixing isn’t always a threat. In fact, it may hold the promise of a new tool for conservation. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/hybrid-species-are-on-the-march-with-the-help-of-humans-59642">Hybrid species are on the march – with the help of humans</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/198877/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Luciano Beheregaray receives funding from the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chris Brauer receives funding from the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p>When species naturally hybridise, the influx of genes can reduce their risk of extinction as climate change shrinks their habitats.Luciano Beheregaray, Matthew Flinders Professor of Biodiversity Genomics, Flinders UniversityChris Brauer, Postdoctoral Fellow Molecular Ecology Lab, Flinders UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1962862022-12-17T03:49:16Z2022-12-17T03:49:16ZChildren born today will see literally thousands of animals disappear in their lifetime, as global food webs collapse<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501198/original/file-20221215-15841-3aidkq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=23%2C23%2C5152%2C3422&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Frida Lannerstrom/Unsplash</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Climate change is one of the <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aaa4984">main drivers</a> of species loss globally. We know more plants and animals will die as heatwaves, bushfires, droughts and other natural disasters worsen.</p>
<p>But to date, science has vastly underestimated the true toll climate change and habitat destruction will have on biodiversity. That’s because it has largely neglected to consider the extent of “<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-35068-1">co-extinctions</a>”: when species go extinct because other species on which they depend die out.</p>
<p>Our <a href="http://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abn4345">new research</a> shows 10% of land animals could disappear from particular geographic areas by 2050, and almost 30% by 2100. This is more than double previous predictions. It means children born today who live to their 70s will witness literally thousands of animals disappear in their lifetime, from lizards and frogs to iconic mammals such as <a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-change-and-wildlife-3-studies-that-reveal-the-devastating-toll-on-africas-animals-192412">elephants</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/stopping-koala-extinction-is-agonisingly-simple-but-heres-why-im-not-optimistic-141696">koalas</a>. </p>
<p>But if we manage to dramatically reduce carbon emissions globally, we could save thousands of species from local extinction this century alone.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500026/original/file-20221209-35163-sgmihk.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500026/original/file-20221209-35163-sgmihk.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500026/original/file-20221209-35163-sgmihk.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500026/original/file-20221209-35163-sgmihk.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500026/original/file-20221209-35163-sgmihk.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500026/original/file-20221209-35163-sgmihk.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500026/original/file-20221209-35163-sgmihk.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ravages of drought will only worsen in coming decades.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">CJA Bradshaw</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/this-is-australias-most-important-report-on-the-environments-deteriorating-health-we-present-its-grim-findings-186131">This is Australia's most important report on the environment's deteriorating health. We present its grim findings</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>An extinction crisis unfolding</h2>
<p>Every species depends on others in some way. So when a species dies out, the repercussions can ripple through an ecosystem.</p>
<p>For example, consider what happens when a species goes extinct due to a disturbance such as habitat loss. This is known as a “primary” extinction. It can then mean a predator loses its prey, a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms2723">parasite loses its host</a> or a <a href="http://doi.org/10.1126/science.1232728">flowering plant loses its pollinators</a>. </p>
<p>A real-life example of a co-extinction that could occur soon is the potential loss of the critically endangered <a href="https://www.zoo.org.au/fighting-extinction/local-threatened-species/mountain-pygmy-possum/">mountain pygmy possum</a> (<em>Burramys parvus</em>) in Australia. Drought, habitat loss, and other pressures have caused the rapid decline of its primary prey, the <a href="https://australian.museum/learn/animals/insects/bogong-moth/">bogong moth</a> (<em>Agrotis infusa</em>).</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500021/original/file-20221209-26397-b9fnz3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500021/original/file-20221209-26397-b9fnz3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=605&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500021/original/file-20221209-26397-b9fnz3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=605&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500021/original/file-20221209-26397-b9fnz3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=605&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500021/original/file-20221209-26397-b9fnz3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=760&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500021/original/file-20221209-26397-b9fnz3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=760&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500021/original/file-20221209-26397-b9fnz3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=760&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">All species are connected in food webs. The spider shown here is an elongated St. Andrews cross spider <em>Argiope protensa</em> from Calperum Reserve, South Australia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">CJA Bradshaw</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Research suggests co-extinction was a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S016953470800195X">main driver</a> of past extinctions, including the five previous <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-a-mass-extinction-and-are-we-in-one-now-122535">mass extinction events</a> going back many hundreds of millions of years. </p>
<p>But until now, scientists have not been able to interconnect species at a global scale to estimate how many co-extinctions will occur under projected climate and land-use change. Our research aimed to close that information gap.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500177/original/file-20221211-64867-ft8xxk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500177/original/file-20221211-64867-ft8xxk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500177/original/file-20221211-64867-ft8xxk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500177/original/file-20221211-64867-ft8xxk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500177/original/file-20221211-64867-ft8xxk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500177/original/file-20221211-64867-ft8xxk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500177/original/file-20221211-64867-ft8xxk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The unprecedented bushfires of 2019/2020 on Kangaroo Island killed thousands of individuals in many different wildlife populations.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">CJA Bradshaw</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/our-laws-fail-nature-the-governments-plan-to-overhaul-them-looks-good-but-crucial-detail-is-yet-to-come-196126">Our laws fail nature. The government’s plan to overhaul them looks good, but crucial detail is yet to come</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>The fate of wildlife</h2>
<p>Using one of Europe’s <a href="https://www.csc.fi">fastest supercomputers</a>, we built a massive <a href="http://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abn4345">virtual Earth</a> of interconnected food-web networks. We then applied scenarios of projected climate change and land-use degradation such as deforestation, to predict biodiversity loss across the planet. </p>
<p>Our virtual Earths included more than 15,000 food webs that we used to predict the interconnected fate of species to the end of the 21st Century.</p>
<p>Our models applied three scenarios of projected climate change based on future pathways of global carbon emissions. This includes the high-emissions, business-as-usual scenario that predicts a mean global temperature increase of <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_SPM.pdf">2.4°C by 2050, and 4.4°C by 2100</a>. </p>
<p>If this scenario becomes reality, ecosystems on land worldwide will lose 10% of current animal diversity by 2050, on average. The figure rises to 27% by 2100. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/worried-about-earths-future-well-the-outlook-is-worse-than-even-scientists-can-grasp-153091">Worried about Earth's future? Well, the outlook is worse than even scientists can grasp</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Adding co-extinctions into the mix causes a 34% higher loss of biodiversity overall than just considering primary extinctions. This is why previous predictions have been too optimistic.</p>
<p>Worse still is the fate of the most vulnerable species in those networks. For species highest in food chains (<a href="https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/omnivores">omnivores</a> and <a href="https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/carnivores">carnivores</a>), the loss of biodiversity due to co-extinctions is a whopping 184% higher than that due to primary extinctions.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500018/original/file-20221209-35075-n77srn.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500018/original/file-20221209-35075-n77srn.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500018/original/file-20221209-35075-n77srn.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500018/original/file-20221209-35075-n77srn.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500018/original/file-20221209-35075-n77srn.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500018/original/file-20221209-35075-n77srn.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500018/original/file-20221209-35075-n77srn.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Without enough prey, predators like this African lion, will perish.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">CJA Bradshaw</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We also predict that the greatest relative biodiversity losses will occur in areas with the highest number of species already – a case of the rich losing their riches the fastest. </p>
<p>These are mainly in areas recognised as “<a href="https://www.conservation.org/priorities/biodiversity-hotspots">biodiversity hotspots</a>” — 36 highly threatened areas of the Earth containing the most unique species, such as <a href="https://www.cepf.net/our-work/biodiversity-hotspots/southwest-australia">Southwest Australia</a> and South Africa’s <a href="https://www.cepf.net/our-work/biodiversity-hotspots/cape-floristic-region">Cape Floristic region</a>. This is because the erosion of species-rich food webs makes biological communities more susceptible to future shocks.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/3IeU8L9CaFk?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Tropical forest is the main ecosystem found in many biodiversity hotspots worldwide.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We also detected that these networks of interacting species themselves will change. We used a measure of “connectance”, which refers to the density of network connections. Higher connectance generally means the species in a food web have more links to others, thereby making the entire network more resilient.</p>
<p>Connectance, we learnt, will decline between 18% and 34% by the end of this century in the worst-case climate scenario. </p>
<p>This reduction in connectance was also driven by the loss of some key species occupying the most important positions in their local networks. These could be top predators such as wolves or lions keeping plant eaters in check, or an abundant insect eaten by many different insectivores.</p>
<p>When such highly connected species go extinct, it makes the network even less resilient to disturbance, thereby driving even more loss of species than would otherwise have occurred under a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms12462">natural ecological regime</a>. This phenomenon illustrates the unprecedented challenges biodiversity faces today.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500017/original/file-20221209-33845-ws570q.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500017/original/file-20221209-33845-ws570q.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500017/original/file-20221209-33845-ws570q.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500017/original/file-20221209-33845-ws570q.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500017/original/file-20221209-33845-ws570q.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500017/original/file-20221209-33845-ws570q.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500017/original/file-20221209-33845-ws570q.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Adieu, koala?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">CJA Bradshaw</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Can we minimise the threat?</h2>
<p>As the <a href="https://www.unep.org/events/conference/un-biodiversity-conference-cop-15">United Nations Biodiversity Conference</a> winds up this week in Montreal, Canada, governments are trying to agree on a new set of global actions to <a href="https://www.unep.org/un-biodiversity-conference-cop-15">halt and reverse nature loss</a>. </p>
<p>It follows the recent <a href="https://unfccc.int/event/cop-27">COP27</a> climate change summit in Egypt, where the resulting agreement was <a href="https://theconversation.com/cop27-one-big-breakthrough-but-ultimately-an-inadequate-response-to-the-climate-crisis-194056">inadequate</a> to deal with the global climate crisis.</p>
<p>We hope our findings will, in future, help governments identify <a href="https://theconversation.com/avoiding-climate-breakdown-depends-on-protecting-earths-biodiversity-can-the-cop15-summit-deliver-195902">which policies</a> will lead to fewer extinctions.</p>
<p>For example, if we manage to achieve a lower carbon-emissions pathway that limits global warming to <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_SPM.pdf">less than 3°C</a> by the end of this century, we could limit biodiversity loss to “only” 13%. This would translate into saving thousands of species from disappearing.</p>
<p>Clearly, humanity has so far underestimated its true impacts on the diversity of life on Earth. Without major changes, we stand to lose much of what sustains our planet.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/cop27-one-big-breakthrough-but-ultimately-an-inadequate-response-to-the-climate-crisis-194056">COP27: one big breakthrough but ultimately an inadequate response to the climate crisis</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/196286/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Corey J. A. Bradshaw receives funding from the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Giovanni Strona does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>New research finds nearly 30% of land animals could disappear form their local area by 2100 due to climate change and habitat destruction. This is more than double previous predictions.Corey J. A. Bradshaw, Matthew Flinders Professor of Global Ecology and Models Theme Leader for the ARC Centre of Excellence for Australian Biodiversity and Heritage, Flinders UniversityGiovanni Strona, Doctoral program supervisor, University of HelsinkiLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1959662022-12-15T19:07:19Z2022-12-15T19:07:19ZAboriginal people have spent centuries building in the Darling River. Now there are plans to demolish these important structures<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501221/original/file-20221215-14-ap036o.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=26%2C3%2C2525%2C1695&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Deal Lewis/AAP</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Apart from managing the land, Indigenous people have also managed waterways, including the Murray River and the Darling/Baaka River, for thousands of years. </p>
<p>Like many Indigenous <a href="https://www.budjbim.com.au/?gclid=EAIaIQobChMInLvSl_v0-wIVRZ_CCh0RsgsEEAAYASAAEgIz8_D_BwE">peoples of Australia</a>, the Barkandji people of the Baaka manipulated and enhanced the river and floodplain ecosystems of their country.</p>
<p>Now, our <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/arco.5279">research</a> on stone, wood and earthen fish traps and fish weirs on the Baaka and its floodplains reveals how these aquatic resources were managed, grown and stored by the Barkandji.</p>
<p>These structures, and the cultural practices that sustain them, are still significant to the Barkandji people – but they’ve been severely affected by colonisation, and remain at risk from government commitments to irrigation. </p>
<h2>Reconstructing the Baaka’s Aboriginal past</h2>
<p>To study the structures in the Baaka we relied on archaeological methods, Barkandji knowledge and oral history, and written accounts from early settlers and explorers. </p>
<p>We found most of the wooden or earthen fish traps on the Baaka’s floodplains have not endured and aren’t archaeologically visible. There are, however, some existing and remnant stone traps – which were once common along the 1,200km channel. </p>
<p>These structures were encountered by explorers, ship pilots, graziers and other settlers who travelled along the Baaka between Wentworth and Bourke.</p>
<h2>The first threat to the traps were paddle steamers</h2>
<p>The first paddle steamer travelled in 1861 up the Baaka from Wentworth at the Murray-Darling junction to Brewarrina on the Barwon River. It was piloted by Captain <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Randell">William Randell</a>, and was unable to pass over the fish traps due to a lack of draught over the rocks. </p>
<p>This voyage initiated the famous paddle steamer trade that continued into the 1940s. Rocks in the river often stopped these vessels from navigating at low water levels, and they occasionally even sank. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501215/original/file-20221215-23-lu4eme.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501215/original/file-20221215-23-lu4eme.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501215/original/file-20221215-23-lu4eme.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501215/original/file-20221215-23-lu4eme.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501215/original/file-20221215-23-lu4eme.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501215/original/file-20221215-23-lu4eme.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=470&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501215/original/file-20221215-23-lu4eme.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=470&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501215/original/file-20221215-23-lu4eme.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=470&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A photo published in 1926 of the ‘P.S. Colonel’ and barges drifting downstream at Christmas Rocks.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">PRG 1258/2/2260 Godson Collection, State Library South Australia</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This prompted government-resourced teams to force a passage through by blasting the rocks with dynamite. This blasted rock can still be seen at some outcrops, including areas that have the remains of fish traps or are known to have once had them. Indigenous people built new traps in these areas, often using the blasted rock.</p>
<p>During the 20th century, a series of low-level weirs were built at the small towns along the river to secure water supplies. Settlers sought the same river features to build weirs that Indigenous people did when choosing sites for stone fish traps, so many weirs were built on outcropping rock. </p>
<p>These weirs tended to have loose boulders on the downstream side to hold the weir wall in place. At Wilcannia, the Indigenous workers who carted and placed the rocks at the weir later made them into stone fish traps, which are still used today. </p>
<p>They are made in steps going up the weir wall, helping fish climb the wall like a modern fish ladder.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500959/original/file-20221214-18-u73s9p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500959/original/file-20221214-18-u73s9p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500959/original/file-20221214-18-u73s9p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500959/original/file-20221214-18-u73s9p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500959/original/file-20221214-18-u73s9p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500959/original/file-20221214-18-u73s9p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500959/original/file-20221214-18-u73s9p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500959/original/file-20221214-18-u73s9p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Wilcannia weir stone fish traps are still used by young Barkandji people.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sarah Martin</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Taking too much water for irrigation</h2>
<p>During the last two decades an increasing amount of water has been removed for large-scale irrigation from the Baaka and its northern tributaries. By 2019, excessive water extraction had virtually dried the Baaka and Barwon rivers from Wentworth to Collarenebri – a route more than 2,000km long. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/excessive-water-extractions-not-climate-change-are-most-to-blame-for-the-darling-river-drying-192621">Excessive water extractions, not climate change, are most to blame for the Darling River drying</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The mass fish kills at Menindee in 2018–2019 showed the devastating effects of removing so many of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-murray-darling-basin-plan-is-not-delivering-theres-no-more-time-to-waste-91076">small to medium flows</a> that kept the ecosystem functioning. </p>
<p>This extended dry river resulted in the near extinction of many species, including river snails, mussels, catfish and silver bream. Also, without water in the river, the Barkandji could not use their fish traps or pass along knowledge of their history and significance.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501214/original/file-20221215-19-lu4eme.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A dry, rocky riverbed stretches out." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501214/original/file-20221215-19-lu4eme.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501214/original/file-20221215-19-lu4eme.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501214/original/file-20221215-19-lu4eme.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501214/original/file-20221215-19-lu4eme.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501214/original/file-20221215-19-lu4eme.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501214/original/file-20221215-19-lu4eme.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501214/original/file-20221215-19-lu4eme.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Baaka dried up due to excessive water extraction. Pictured here is an area at Wilcannia in 2019.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sarah Martin</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
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<p>The New South Wales government’s response to the crisis now presents a new threat to the fragile fish traps. In 2019 the government <a href="https://legislation.nsw.gov.au/view/html/inforce/current/act-2019-016#">passed legislation</a> to fast-track new water infrastructure, despite <a href="https://www.science.org.au/supporting-science/science-policy-and-sector-analysis/reports-and-publications/fish-kills-report">strong evidence</a> it needs to reduce the amount of water allocated to irrigation. </p>
<p>The legislation enables new dams and new (higher) weirs. The old weir at Wilcannia, which has been used by Indigenous people as a series of fish traps for at least 60 years, will be partly demolished and will no longer function as a fish trap. This is despite the Indigenous community’s strong opposition. </p>
<p>The legislation also allows for the “re-establishment of natural rock weirs on the Darling River between Bourke and its junction with the Murray River”. This suggests all the rock outcrops in the Darling Baaka were originally weirs that stretched like a wall across the river and held water back (before being blasted to allow paddle steamers to pass).</p>
<p>But our field survey coupled with historical material indicates most rock outcrops were originally uneven, with openings and numerous loose rocks. This allowed water to flow through and over the rocks at different river heights, enabling the fish traps to work and helping sustain the ecosystem.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/bushfire-arson-prevention-is-the-cure-11506">Bushfire arson: prevention is the cure</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How should the river be managed?</h2>
<p>Fish traps set by Aboriginal people along the Baaka offer valuable insight into how this precious body of water could be managed. The first thing is the river needs its “low and medium flows” protected.</p>
<p>Historically, Aboriginal people have held ceremonies (and to some extent still do) to mark mass migrations of fish such as golden perch and silver bream that travel upstream to spawn. These fish have to be able to travel up and down the river unimpeded. As seen at the Wilcannia weir, fish traps assist with this.</p>
<p>There are also several benefits from water flowing over and through fish trap stone walls. The walls increase flow turbulence, reduce silting, improve water quality and are “keyed” to let small fish through. They also provide a rocky habitat that effectively forms “multi-storey apartments” for invertebrates such as yabbies and river snails.</p>
<p>Stone fish traps are also often found in association with shallow aquifer springs, with one recorded trap built around a spring. This is evidence of fish management; the fresh spring water attracts fish and acts as a refuge during drought.</p>
<p>Local Indigenous people also understand the necessity of regularly filling floodplain lakes, swamps and billabongs. They previously enhanced these water bodies by using temporary wooden and earthen weirs – providing fish reserves, fish nurseries and rich and diverse habitats for aquatic life.</p>
<p>These structures kept aquatic plants and animals safe to seed the river with life when floods came down after dry periods. They held water to replenish the shallow aquifers that create springs and soaks in the river.</p>
<p>Water managers have so far largely ignored the potential for Indigenous knowledge to facilitate the sustainable management of the Baaka. Yet Indigenous people living along the Baaka have known about how its water moves long before scientists did.</p>
<p>The NSW government’s proposed infrastructure will not only endanger the remnants of culturally significant fish trap structures, but also impact the river’s ecology. Unless Indigenous people’s experience and knowledge are taken seriously, the Baaka and its precious resources may be depleted beyond the point of saving.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Acknowledgment: we would like to thank our colleague Sarah Martin, who led the research paper this article is based on, and whose contributions were invaluable in gathering these findings.</em></p>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Westaway receives funding from the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sue Jackson receives funding from the Australian Research Council and the Commonwealth Government's Murray Darling Basin Water and Environment Program. Sue is a member of the Murray Darling Basin Authority's scientific advisory committee.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Badger Bates does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Indigenous engineering and care for Country points to a better way to manage the Baaka.Michael Westaway, Australian Research Council Future Fellow, Archaeology, School of Social Science, The University of QueenslandBadger Bates, Indigenous knowledge holder, Indigenous KnowledgeSue Jackson, Professor, Australian Rivers Institute, Griffith UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1946342022-11-16T19:02:51Z2022-11-16T19:02:51ZTo stop new viruses jumping across to humans, we must protect and restore bat habitat. Here’s why<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495554/original/file-20221116-21-drd21f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=40%2C28%2C3803%2C2224&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Grey headed flying fox (Pteropus poliocephalus)</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Vivien Jones</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Bats have lived with coronaviruses for millennia. Details are still hazy about how one of these viruses evolved into SARS-CoV-2, which causes COVID in humans. Did it go directly from bats to humans or via another animal species? When? And why? If we can’t answer these questions for this now-infamous virus, we have little hope of preventing the next pandemic.</p>
<p>Some bat species are <a href="https://theconversation.com/bats-are-hosts-to-a-range-of-viruses-but-dont-get-sick-why-139056">hosts for other viruses</a> lethal to humans, from rabies to <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/nipah-virus">Nipah</a> to <a href="https://www.who.int/health-topics/hendra-virus-disease#tab=tab_1">Hendra</a>. But their supercharged immune systems allow them to co-exist with these viruses without appearing sick. </p>
<p>So what can we do to prevent these viruses emerging in the first place? We found one surprisingly simple answer in our <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-05506-2">new research</a> on flying foxes in Australia: protect and restore native bat habitat to boost natural protection.</p>
<p>When we destroy native forests, we force nectar-eating flying foxes into survival mode. They shift from primarily nomadic animals following eucalypt flowering and forming large roosts to less mobile animals living in a large number of small roosts near agricultural land where they may come in contact with horses. </p>
<p>Hendra virus is carried by bats and can spill over to horses. It doesn’t often spread from horses to humans, but when it does, it’s <a href="https://www.health.nsw.gov.au/Infectious/controlguideline/Pages/hendra-case-summary.aspx">extremely dangerous</a>. Two-thirds of Hendra cases in horses have occurred in heavily cleared areas of northern New South Wales and south-east Queensland. That’s not a coincidence. </p>
<p>Now we know how habitat destruction and spillover are linked, we can act. Protecting the eucalyptus species flying foxes rely on will reduce the risk of the virus spreading to horses and then humans. The data we gathered also makes it possible to predict times of heightened Hendra virus risk – up to two years in advance. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495553/original/file-20221116-17-txxcra.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="grey headed flying fox in flight" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495553/original/file-20221116-17-txxcra.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495553/original/file-20221116-17-txxcra.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495553/original/file-20221116-17-txxcra.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495553/original/file-20221116-17-txxcra.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495553/original/file-20221116-17-txxcra.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495553/original/file-20221116-17-txxcra.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495553/original/file-20221116-17-txxcra.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Grey headed flying foxes prefer to roost in huge groups, feeding on eucalypt nectar. But if there are no eucalypts, they look for food in rural and suburban areas.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Vivien Jones</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What did we find out?</h2>
<p>Many Australians are fond of flying foxes. Our largest flying mammal is often seen framed against summer night skies in cities. </p>
<p>These nectar-loving bats play a vital ecosystem role in pollinating Australia’s native trees. (Pollination in Australia isn’t limited to bees – flies, moths, birds and bats do it as well). Over winter, they rely on nectar from a few tree species such as forest red gums (<em>Eucalyptus tereticornis</em>) found mostly in southeast Queensland and northeast NSW. Unfortunately, most of this habitat has been cleared for agriculture or towns. </p>
<p>Flying foxes are typically nomadic, flying vast distances across the landscape. When eucalypts burst into flower in specific areas, these bats will descend on the abundant food and congregate in lively roosts, often over 100,000 strong. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/its-wrong-to-blame-bats-for-the-coronavirus-epidemic-134300">It's wrong to blame bats for the coronavirus epidemic</a>
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</em>
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<hr>
<p>But Australia is a harsh land. During the severe droughts brought by El Niño, eucalyptus trees may stop producing nectar. To survive, flying foxes must change their behaviour. Gone are the large roosts. Instead, bats spread in many directions, seeking other food sources, like introduced fruits. This response typically only lasts a few weeks. When eucalypt flowering resumes, the bats come back to again feed in native forests. </p>
<p>But what happens if there are not enough forests to come back to? </p>
<p>Between 1996 and 2020, we found large winter roosts of nomadic bats in southeast Queensland became increasingly rare. Instead, flying foxes were forming small roosts in rural areas they would normally have ignored and feeding on introduced plants like privet, camphor laurel and citrus fruit. This has brought them into closer contact with horses.</p>
<p>In related research <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.14007">published last month</a>, we found the smaller roosts forming in these rural areas also had higher detection rates of Hendra virus – especially in winters after a climate-driven nectar shortage. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495507/original/file-20221115-10481-529eus.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="flying fox" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495507/original/file-20221115-10481-529eus.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495507/original/file-20221115-10481-529eus.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495507/original/file-20221115-10481-529eus.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495507/original/file-20221115-10481-529eus.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495507/original/file-20221115-10481-529eus.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495507/original/file-20221115-10481-529eus.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495507/original/file-20221115-10481-529eus.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Flying foxes are social, intelligent – and play a key role in pollinating native trees.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Vivien Jones</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>An early warning system for Hendra virus</h2>
<p>Our models confirmed strong El Niño events caused nectar shortages for flying foxes, splintering their large nomadic populations into many small populations in urban and agricultural areas. </p>
<p>Importantly, the models showed a strong link between food shortages and clusters of Hendra virus spillovers from these new roosts in the following year. </p>
<p>This means by tracking drought conditions and food shortages for flying foxes, we can get crucial early warning of riskier times for Hendra virus – up to two years in advance. </p>
<p>Biosecurity, veterinary health and human health authorities could use this information to warn horse owners of the risk. Horse owners can then ensure their horses are protected with the vaccine. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495559/original/file-20221116-20-hv7kdm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Flying fox asleep" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495559/original/file-20221116-20-hv7kdm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495559/original/file-20221116-20-hv7kdm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495559/original/file-20221116-20-hv7kdm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495559/original/file-20221116-20-hv7kdm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495559/original/file-20221116-20-hv7kdm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495559/original/file-20221116-20-hv7kdm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495559/original/file-20221116-20-hv7kdm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Habitat destruction makes winter flowering and nectar production unreliable, and means congregations of flying foxes in large roosts are increasingly rare.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Pat Jones</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How can we stop the virus jumping species?</h2>
<p>Conservationists have long pointed out human health depends on a healthy environment. This is a very clear example. We found Hendra virus never jumped from flying foxes to horses when there was abundant winter nectar. </p>
<p>Protecting and restoring bat habitat and replanting key tree species well away from horse paddocks will boost bat health – and keep us safer. </p>
<p>Flying foxes leave roosts in cities or rural areas when there are abundant flowering gums elsewhere. It doesn’t take too long – trees planted today could start drawing bats within a decade. </p>
<p>SARS-CoV-2 won’t be the last bat virus to jump species and upend the world. As experts plan ways to better respond to next pandemic and work on <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41541-021-00284-w">human vaccines</a> built on the <a href="https://www.csiro.au/en/research/animals/livestock/hendra">equine Hendra vaccines</a>, we can help too. </p>
<p>How? By restoring and protecting the natural barriers which for so long kept us safe from bat-borne viruses. It is far better to prevent viruses from spilling over in the first place than to scramble to stop a possible pandemic once it’s begun. </p>
<p>Planting trees can help stop dangerous new viruses reaching us. It really is as simple as that. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/bats-are-hosts-to-a-range-of-viruses-but-dont-get-sick-why-139056">Bats are hosts to a range of viruses but don't get sick – why?</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/194634/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alison Peel has received funding from Australian Research Council (DE190100710), the US National Science Foundation (DEB1716698) and the US Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (D18AC00031). She is a member of the Wildlife Health Australia Bat Health Focus Group and the Human Animal Spillover and Emerging Diseases Scanning (HASEDS) working group.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peggy Eby has received funding from the US National Science Foundation (DEB1716698) and the US Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (D18AC00031). </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Raina Plowright has received funding from the US National Science Foundation (DEB1716698), the US Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (D18AC00031) and the U.S. National Institute of Food and Agriculture (1015891)</span></em></p>Bats host many viruses dangerous to humans. But it’s only when their habitats are destroyed that we’re at risk.Alison Peel, Senior Research Fellow in Wildlife Disease Ecology, Griffith UniversityPeggy Eby, Adjunct Senior Lecturer, Centre for Ecosystem Science, UNSW SydneyRaina Plowright, Professor, Cornell UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.