tag:theconversation.com,2011:/nz/topics/nigeria-2186/articlesNigeria – The Conversation2024-03-26T11:39:36Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2260302024-03-26T11:39:36Z2024-03-26T11:39:36ZNigerian bandits strategically target school children for kidnappings – here’s why<p>It is every parent’s worst nightmare: armed criminals attacking their child’s school, kidnapping students and teachers. </p>
<p>In some parts of Nigeria, this scenario is not just the stuff of nightmares – it has become all too common in the past 10 years. The most famous incident was the mass abduction of <a href="https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2023/04/nine-years-after-chibok-girls-abducted/">276 students</a> from a girls’ school in Chibok, a town in Borno State, north-east Nigeria, in 2014. That incident led to global outrage and the <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2014/05/08/world/gallery/bring-back-our-girls-movement/index.html">“bring back our girls”</a> campaign. </p>
<p>But it was not the last.</p>
<p>Most recently, on 7 March 2024, criminal groups (commonly described as bandits) attacked in Chikun Local Government Area of Kaduna State in north-west Nigeria. They <a href="https://www.vanguardngr.com/2024/03/kaduna-students-kidnappers-demand-n1bn-ransom-vows-to-kill-school-children-in-20-days/">abducted</a> about 286 students and teachers at the LEA Primary School Kuriga. A few weeks later, Kaduna state authorities <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-68649221">announced</a> the release of 137 of the abducted students. </p>
<p>My <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=146isHUAAAAJ&view_op=list_works&sortby=pubdate">research interests</a> include violence, organised crime, conflict and security governance. In a <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10246029.2024.2327314?src=exp-la">recent study</a> I analysed the dynamics of violence by bandits against educational facilities in north-west Nigeria. My study captured 52 incidents from 2013 to May 2023.</p>
<p>My findings can assist the law enforcement and security agencies to understand the variations in the spatial distribution, extent and intensity of attacks, and to identify alternative strategic responses. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/hundreds-of-nigerian-children-are-being-kidnapped-the-government-must-change-its-security-strategy-226032">Hundreds of Nigerian children are being kidnapped – the government must change its security strategy</a>
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<h2>Why schools and students are targets</h2>
<p>The fieldwork part of my research was carried out in Zamfara, Sokoto, Niger, Kebbi, Katsina and Kaduna states from 9 February to 16 September 2023. </p>
<p>I conducted in-depth qualitative interviews with teachers, education officials, residents, victims, bandits and defectors from banditry. </p>
<p>I also used information from the <a href="https://acleddata.com/">Armed Conflict Location and Event Data project</a>. </p>
<p>Three key reasons emerged for the targeting of schools and students:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>failure of governance</p></li>
<li><p>large forest zones</p></li>
<li><p>children’s vulnerability.</p></li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Failure of governance:</strong> The strategic targeting of educational facilities and students should be viewed and analysed in the context of pervasive failure of governance and diminishing presence of government. This enables a surge in violence against civilians generally.</p>
<p>In remote villages and towns, state security agents are <a href="https://www.hrw.org/news/2024/03/18/armed-groups-kidnap-hundreds-across-northern-nigeria">virtually non-existent</a> and surveillance remains very poor. </p>
<p>A few of the security officials I interviewed confirmed that the situation had degenerated due to negligence by the government. Schools in most of the communities were not guarded. </p>
<p><strong>Large forest zones:</strong> <a href="https://www.thecable.ng/seized-for-pleasure-the-tragic-plight-of-girls-women-abducted-by-bandits-in-niger">Schools are vulnerable</a> to bandits in the north-west where large forest zones have become safe havens for armed groups. </p>
<p>Most schools are located at the outskirts of villages and in remote parts of the forests where bandits operate freely. The bandits keep the abducted students in the nearby forest. </p>
<p><strong>Children’s vulnerability:</strong> Their physical and mental immaturity, limited abilities and dependence on adults makes students vulnerable. Kidnappers are known to demand ransom payments. </p>
<p>The bandits also carry out mass attacks and kidnapping of students to foster a climate of fear and propaganda. The large-scale kidnapping captures significant media spotlight, painting the government as incapable and emboldening the bandits. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-children-are-prime-targets-of-armed-groups-in-northern-nigeria-156314">Why children are prime targets of armed groups in northern Nigeria</a>
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<h2>Real and potential impacts of banditry on education</h2>
<p>Attacks and kidnapping for ransom by bandits affect learning and students in three principal ways: </p>
<ul>
<li><p>loss of lives</p></li>
<li><p>increasing burden of fear and sexual violence</p></li>
<li><p>forced displacement and decreasing school enrolment. </p></li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Loss of lives:</strong> My study showed violence against educational facilities and students by the bandits began to rise from 2020. From 2013 to 2019, attacks against students and educational facilities by bandits were intermittent. They surged to 25 incidents and 25 fatalities in 2021. </p>
<p>There were 15 reported incidents and three fatalities in 2022. The focus of bandits remains illicit profit from kidnapping and not necessarily the killing of victims. That is why incidents are often higher than fatalities. A total of 51 people have been killed as a result of attacks against schools and students from 2013 to 19 May 2023. </p>
<p><strong>Burden of fear and sexual violence:</strong> School girls are becoming victims of rape by bandits. They bear direct physical harm, trauma and social ostracism as a result. Some lack access to healthcare services. </p>
<p><strong>Forced displacements and decreasing enrolment in school:</strong> These developments raise very serious concerns among most residents in the north-west. They confirmed hundreds of students dropped out of schools due to the activities of bandits in their communities annually. </p>
<p>Others who decided to enrol changed their minds, thereby increasing the population of out-of-school children in those communities. Some school children were forcefully displaced into Kaduna, Zaria, Kano, Sokoto and other cities. They become homeless children living in public spaces. </p>
<p>Out-of-school children could become a recruitment pool for violent extremism groups and criminal gangs, creating another security challenge in years to come.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/nigeria-can-defeat-banditry-by-reconstructing-the-police-system-criminologist-216921">Nigeria can defeat banditry by reconstructing the police system – criminologist</a>
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<h2>Strategic options for resilience</h2>
<p>Addressing the challenges of attacks against educational facilities and students requires at least three strategies: </p>
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<li><p>security sector reform</p></li>
<li><p>safe school initiatives</p></li>
<li><p>social support and healthcare delivery to victims. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>The forest areas and other unregulated spaces that serve as sanctuaries for the armed groups must be made secure. This would be part of the holistic solution government can find by partnering with the affected communities. </p>
<p>The government can revitalise the <a href="https://www.giz.de/en/worldwide/31084.html">Safe School Initiative programme</a>, which was launched by the federal government in 2021, to rebuild, rehabilitate and restore a conducive learning environment. </p>
<p>The initiative <a href="https://punchng.com/nigerias-safe-school-initiative-designed-to-fail-lawan/">failed</a> as originally conceived and implemented between 2014 and 2018 because of the misplaced coordination of the task. It should be led by the education ministry, not the finance ministry.</p>
<p>For the Safe School Initiative to be truly effective, communities must be at the heart of its execution. They possess invaluable knowledge and situational awareness about the dynamics of insecurity in their areas.</p>
<p>Lastly, the state must update its current approach to countering armed banditry to include preventive methods of psychotherapy and primary healthcare support to female students who have become victims.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/226030/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Oluwole Ojewale does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Governance failure and location of schools around large expanses of unprotected forest zones make school children easy targets for bandits in Nigeria’s north-west.Oluwole Ojewale, Regional Coordinator, Institute for Security StudiesLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2260322024-03-22T15:52:33Z2024-03-22T15:52:33ZHundreds of Nigerian children are being kidnapped – the government must change its security strategy<p>School abductions have been a trend in Nigeria. The latest took place in Kaduna and Sokoto states, both in the north-west region, when over <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/3/10/nigeria-school-abductions-more-pupils-snatched-as-army-hunts-for-missing">300 children</a> were abducted at different times in March 2024. </p>
<p>Previous prominent cases have included the <a href="https://theconversation.com/chibok-kidnappings-why-its-important-to-listen-to-the-survivors-of-boko-haram-terrorism-192271">Chibok</a>, <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-43197694">Dapchi</a> and <a href="https://ng.usembassy.gov/the-united-states-condemns-the-kidnapping-of-students-in-kankara-nigeria/">Kankara</a> abductions, which insurgents claimed to have perpetrated.</p>
<p>As a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=aZu3-_MAAAAJ&view_op=list_works&sortby=pubdate">security scholar and analyst</a> who has researched and written extensively on aspects of Nigeria’s security challenges, including <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Banditry-and-Security-Crisis-in-Nigeria/Okoli-Ngom/p/book/9781032395258">kidnapping and allied crimes</a>, I see school abductions as a symptom of government neglect of territorial and human security. </p>
<p>Territorial security refers to keeping the country’s geographical spaces (land, borders, seas, airspace, cyberspace) safe from any internal or external threats. </p>
<p>Human security means protecting the country’s people from all kinds of dangers, be they social, economic, political, ecological or technological.</p>
<p>I argue that there is a need for Nigeria to change the way it attends to territorial and human security.</p>
<p>The government must guard what it is responsible for, and exercise proper control over ungoverned, under-governed and contested spaces. Non-state actors have taken over some of these spaces and violence can flourish there.</p>
<p>Locations occupied by any form of criminal non-state actors need to be reclaimed. The way to do this is through a consolidated, coordinated, multi-tiered security arrangement that enlists local participation and indigenous knowledge.</p>
<p>The national security system needs reform. Options to explore include state policing, community policing and alternative policing based on local people’s know-how. </p>
<p>This should happen within a framework of constitutionally mediated reform. The idea would be to give the regional and sub-regional authorities some constitutional powers to use in security matters.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-nigeria-must-do-to-deal-with-its-ransom-driven-kidnapping-crisis-116547">What Nigeria must do to deal with its ransom-driven kidnapping crisis</a>
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<h2>Reclaiming lost territory</h2>
<p>Hundreds of millions of Nigerians live in grossly <a href="https://reliefweb.int/report/nigeria/disconnected-spaces">undergoverned or contested</a> territories in a dysfunctional state. They are left to live under little or no governmental presence and care. </p>
<p>More than <a href="https://www.theglobaleconomy.com/Nigeria/rural_population_percent/">60%</a> of Nigeria’s over 200 million people live in rural or semi-rural areas. There, the influence of the state is hardly felt at all.</p>
<p>Where there are vulnerable human targets and neglected needs and there’s no competent and credible guardian, crime is bound to happen and to go unpunished. </p>
<p>School abductions will happen again.</p>
<h2>Mobilising Nigerians</h2>
<p>Even in places where the government has a presence, the concept of national security in Nigeria has over the years meant the security of the governing regime. </p>
<p>Successive political administrations have invested in security priorities that look after their own interests. </p>
<p>The state security forces have been equipped and deployed to crush anti-state elements that might rise against the vested interests of the incumbent regime. </p>
<p>Insurgents, rebels, militants, bandits and separatists are seen as dangerous only when they pose a direct threat to the regime and its structures. </p>
<p>Until that point, these anti-state forces are allowed to thrive and maintain spheres of control and governance within the country. </p>
<p>In some instances, government even negotiates with these criminal elements, offering <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0021909621990856?jou">kidnap ransoms and granting amnesty</a>. </p>
<p>Instead, society can be creatively harnessed and mobilised in a manner that profits national growth and development. </p>
<p>The material conditions that drive unrest and criminality, such as inequality, <a href="https://tradingeconomics.com/nigeria/unemployment-rate">unemployment</a> and <a href="https://nigerianstat.gov.ng/elibrary/read/1092#:%7E:text=In%20Nigeria%2040.1%20percent%20of,considered%20poor%20by%20national%20standards">poverty</a>, should be addressed through deliberate social welfare programming that targets the youth, the marginalised and vulnerable groups.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/whos-at-risk-of-being-kidnapped-in-nigeria-184217">Who's at risk of being kidnapped in Nigeria?</a>
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<h2>Conclusion</h2>
<p>Lastly, the government needs to demonstrate that it has capacity to prevent and fight crime and to enable criminal justice. The cost of committing a crime must be made a lot higher than the benefit. </p>
<p>Perpetrators of school abductions and their collaborators must be promptly arrested, prosecuted and punished.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/226032/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr. Al Chukwuma Okoli has consulted for Centre for Democracy and Development, Yaradua Foundation, African Union. He's received funding from Tertiary Education Fund (Nigeria). He is a member of Amnesty International (AI) and Conflict Research Network West Africa (CORN-WA). </span></em></p>Nigeria’s school abductions are a sign of neglect of territorial and human security in the country.Al Chukwuma Okoli, Reader (Associate Professor), Senior Lecturer, Department of Political Science, Federal University of Lafia, Nigeria, Federal University LafiaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2238782024-03-21T14:35:28Z2024-03-21T14:35:28ZPangolins in Africa: expert unpacks why millions have been traded illegally and what can be done about it<p>Pangolins are fascinating creatures known for their unique appearance and distinctive scales. They are mammals belonging to the order Pholidota and are <a href="https://www.savepangolins.org/what-is-a-pangolin">native to Africa and Asia</a>. Due to their primary diet of ants and termites, pangolins are often referred to as “scaly anteaters”.</p>
<p>The African pangolin species are dispersed throughout southern, western, central and east Africa. </p>
<p>Pangolins face rapid declines across Asia and Africa, with all eight species classified as <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/facts/pangolins#:%7E:text=There%20are%20eight%20species%20of,bellied%E2%80%94are%20listed%20as%20vulnerable.">vulnerable, endangered</a>, or critically endangered. They are <a href="https://www.savepangolins.org/threats">threatened</a> by poaching and habitat loss, driven by the demand for their meat and scales.</p>
<p>Pangolins are the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/news/2023-02-17-operation-pangolin-launches-save-world-s-most-trafficked-wild-mammal">most trafficked wild mammal in the world</a>. <a href="https://davidshepherd.org/species/pangolins/trade-statement/">Their meat is considered a delicacy</a> in Asia while their scales are also used in traditional medicines, fetching huge sums on the black market. As many as <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/news/2023-02-17-operation-pangolin-launches-save-world-s-most-trafficked-wild-mammal">8.5 million pangolins</a> are estimated to have been removed from the wild in west and central Africa for the illegal trade between 2014 and 2021. </p>
<p>The trade route analysis of pangolin trafficking <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2665910720300876">points to</a> Lagos as the main connection point both domestically and worldwide, including south-east Asian countries. Malaysia, Laos and Singapore also serve as key transit countries for pangolin-scale shipments from Nigeria.</p>
<p>China and Vietnam are the main <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2665910720300876">destinations for these illegal shipments</a>.</p>
<p>I am a zoologist who’s passionate about the environment and biodiversity conservation. I am also the founder and chair of Pangolin Conservation Guild Nigeria. In my view, effective protection, law enforcement and changes in consumer behaviour are necessary to address the complex drivers of poaching and trafficking.</p>
<h2>What makes pangolins special</h2>
<p>Pangolins are interesting for a number of reasons. </p>
<p><strong>Scales:</strong> Unlike any other mammals, they are covered with keratin scales. This adaptation is a defence against predators. The scales, <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/facts/pangolins">made of the same material as human fingernails</a>, provide armour-like protection as they curl into a ball when threatened, shielding their vulnerable underbelly. The scales can account for up to <a href="https://www.awf.org/blog/5-things-you-didn%E2%80%99t-know-about-pangolin">20% of a pangolin’s total body weight</a>. A pangolin’s scales are a reminder of the incredible diversity of adaptations in the natural world. </p>
<p><strong>Habitats:</strong> Pangolins, as a group, are also adaptable to different environmental conditions. Their habitats include tropical forests, dry woodlands and savannahs. Some pangolin species, like the white-bellied, are adept climbers and spend much of their time in the canopy, foraging for insects among the branches. These arboreal habits provide them with both food and shelter, as well as protection from ground-dwelling predators. Other pangolin species, such as the ground pangolins, live on the forest floor or in grasslands. They may dig burrows underground where they retreat for rest and safety, particularly during the heat of the day or to escape potential threats.</p>
<p><strong>Defence:</strong> The name “pangolin” <a href="https://www.wwf.org.uk/learn/fascinating-facts/pangolins">originates</a> from the Malay word <em>pengguling</em>, which translates to “rolling up”. They tuck in their head and limbs and curl into a tight ball when faced with danger, wrapping their body in a protective layer of overlapping scales. This has helped pangolins survive predators such as big cats, hyenas and humans. </p>
<p><strong>Diet:</strong> <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9686612/#:%7E:text=The%20food%20of%20pangolins%20in,feeding%20%5B15%2C16%5D.">Pangolins primarily feed on ants and termites</a>, making them essential players in controlling insect populations within their ecosystems. They find the insects using their keen sense of smell and their tongues – which are often longer than their bodies. These long tongues are coated with sticky saliva, allowing them to probe deep into ant and termite nests to extract their prey. Their strong claws are also well-suited for tearing open insect nests and breaking through hard soil to uncover hidden prey. Pangolins’ diets play a crucial role in maintaining the health and stability of their environments.</p>
<h2>Pangolins in Africa</h2>
<p>In west and central Africa, the giant pangolin is distributed in a variety of habitats, including primary and secondary forests, swamp forests and wooded savannahs. Temminck’s pangolin (<em>Smutsia temminckii</em>) is the <a href="https://africanpangolin.org/discover/temmincks-ground-pangolin/#:%7E:text=Smutsia%20temminckii,to%20date%20weighing%2019%20kg">most widely distributed African pangolin</a>, occurring mainly in southern and east Africa. The <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128155073000083">black-bellied pangolin</a> (<em>Phataginus tetradactyla</em>) is an arboreal pangolin species, and occurs in west and central Africa. The <a href="https://pangolinsg.org/portfolio/white-bellied-pangolin/#:%7E:text=Distribution,%3B%20Togo%3B%20Uganda%3B%20Zambia">white-bellied pangolin</a> (<em>Phataginus tricuspis</em>) is the most frequently encountered pangolin in Africa. The white-bellied pangolin is <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S277281372200018X?via%3Dihub">found in north-central and south-western Nigeria</a>.</p>
<p>In Nigeria, pangolins are found in various habitats, including <a href="https://www.savepangolins.org/what-is-a-pangolin">forests, savannahs and grasslands</a>. Their distribution and abundance in Nigeria are uncertain, highlighting the need for further research and conservation efforts.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/400-000-african-pangolins-are-hunted-for-meat-every-year-why-its-time-to-act-111540">400,000 African pangolins are hunted for meat every year -- why it's time to act</a>
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<p>Lagos, Nigeria’s commercial capital, serves as a hub for the illegal trade of pangolins. It is a transit route to Cameroon and is involved in shipments of pangolins from sub-Saharan Africa to Asia. Cameroon is at <a href="https://www.usip.org/publications/2023/04/peace-poaching-and-pangolins-central-africa">the centre of wildlife trafficking in central Africa</a>. It is both a source country of animal products as well as a transit route for contraband from neighbouring Republic of Congo, the Democratic Republic of Congo and the Central African Republic.</p>
<p>In 2022, Nigerian customs officials <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-67134651">seized</a> 1,613 tonnes of pangolin scales and arrested 14 people. In October 2023, Nigeria <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/nigeria-destroys-seized-pangolin-parts-deter-wildlife-trafficking-2023-10-17/">burned</a> four tonnes of seized pangolin scales, valued at US$1.4 million. Officials said this was the first time they had publicly destroyed seized wildlife products to discourage illegal trafficking. </p>
<h2>Why pangolin conservation is important</h2>
<p>Pangolin conservation is crucial for several reasons. </p>
<p>Firstly, pangolins play a vital role in ecosystems by controlling insect populations, particularly ants and termites, which helps maintain ecological balance. </p>
<p>They also contribute to soil health through their digging behaviour, which aerates the soil and promotes nutrient cycling.</p>
<p>Moreover, pangolins are indicators of ecosystem health. Their presence or absence can reflect the overall well-being of their habitats. Protecting pangolins helps safeguard biodiversity and the integrity of their ecosystems.</p>
<p>They also have cultural and economic value in many regions, contributing to ecotourism.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223878/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Olajumoke Morenikeji is affiliated with the Pangolin Conservation Guild Nigeria, which she founded. The organisation educates and creates awareness on pangolin conservation, conducts scientific research, collaborates with relevant organisations, advises policymakers, and facilitates pangolin rescue, rehabilitation and release into protected forest areas. I also chair the West Africa region International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Species Survival Commission (SSC) Pangolin Specialist Group.</span></em></p>Pangolins are among the most trafficked and poached mammals in the world.Olajumoke Morenikeji, Professor Department of Zoology, University of IbadanLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2239222024-03-19T13:10:57Z2024-03-19T13:10:57ZNigeria’s forests are fast disappearing – urgent steps are needed to protect their benefits to the economy and environment<p><em>Nigeria’s forest cover has been dwindling fast for decades. With one of the <a href="https://earth.org/challenges-facing-policies-against-deforestation-in-nigeria/">highest rates of deforestation</a> in the world, there are concerns about the survival of its forest resources. We asked forest management and biodiversity conservation expert Amusa Tajudeen to explain why the country’s forests are disappearing and what to do about it.</em></p>
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<h2>Which parts of Nigeria are covered by forest?</h2>
<p>Nigeria has a rain forest zone in the south. Forest cover decreases in density towards the north, where the savannah belt is characterised by grasses and sparse tree cover. The rain forest ecosystem <a href="https://collections.unu.edu/eserv/UNU:1726/unuinrapolicybriefvol2_4.pdf">lies</a> between latitudes 4⁰N and 9⁰N and extends from the coast to about 250km inland.</p>
<h2>What is the current status of Nigeria’s forest cover?</h2>
<p>Nigeria’s forest cover is diminishing in extent and quality. But reliable data is scarce. For instance, one record indicates that <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Thomas-Omali/publication/344238412_Prospects_of_satellite-Enhanced_Forest_Monitoring_for_Nigeria/links/5f5f7158299bf1d43c0223ce/Prospects-of-satellite-Enhanced-Forest-Monitoring-for-Nigeria.pdf#page=4">Nigeria’s land mass is 910,770km²</a> and forest occupies 110,890km², or 12.8% of the total land mass. Another shows that Nigeria’s land mass is 997,936km² and only <a href="https://www.ajol.info/index.php/jasr/article/view/112511">10% is under forest reserve</a>.</p>
<p>At independence in 1960, it was <a href="https://collections.unu.edu/eserv/UNU:1726/unuinrapolicybriefvol2_4.pdf">reported</a> that the colonial government had set aside 97,000km² (9.72%) of the country as forest reserves. </p>
<p>Historical accounts also indicate that the country’s rain forest, which was over 600,000km² in 1897 (60% of land mass), had <a href="https://bioone.org/journals/international-forestry-review/volume-8/issue-3/ifor.8.3.372/Status-of-Tropical-Forest-Management-2005-Summary-Report/10.1505/ifor.8.3.372.full?casa_token=ZTKPa_OhRG8AAAAA:iVodlrGMgTr3eYlu4CZ-IWR1KCxrg_0q6lnmCpc6zTfHRaBj2_kFYQETnMpHndwm6KRzxdefZXQ">reduced</a> by about half in 1960 to 30% of land mass. </p>
<p>Nigeria’s forests <a href="https://www.netjournals.org/pdf/NJAS/2015/1/15-011.pdf#page=1">covered</a> an estimated 175,000km² in 1990 and 135,000km² in 2000. Between 2000 and 2004, the country was said to have lost 55.7% of its primary forests – that is, 75,195km² of native and original forests that have never been logged and have developed under natural processes. </p>
<p>A report by the United Nations Collaborative Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Developing Countries (UN-REDD) <a href="https://www.un-redd.org/partner-countries/africa/nigeria">shows</a> that the decline rate of forest cover in Nigeria ranged from 3.5% to 3.7% per annum over the period 2000 to 2010. This translates to a loss of 350,000–400,000 hectares of forest land yearly.</p>
<p>Unless something decisive is done, and urgently, the country will lose all its forest areas by the year 2052, if the prevailing rate of deforestation at 3.5% annually is anything to go by.</p>
<h2>Why is forest cover important?</h2>
<p>Forests are very important for the economic development of every nation. They also have environmental, ecological, socio-cultural, scientific and research service functions. </p>
<p>Forests provide numerous goods and services. Some are needed as raw materials – for example wood for building materials, fuel and paper. </p>
<p>Forests also offer natural foods and non-timber products like oilseeds, latexes, gums, resins, rattan, vanilla and game. Forest-based industries such as sawmills, paper mills and furniture industries provide employment and income. </p>
<p>Forest ecosystems offer physical, biological and chemical benefits. These include:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>conserving soil, controlling the timing and volume of water flows, protecting water quality and maintaining aquatic habitats </p></li>
<li><p>preventing disasters like floods and landslides, and moderating winds </p></li>
<li><p>conserving biodiversity </p></li>
<li><p>storing carbon, which mitigates climate change. </p></li>
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<p>The socio-cultural service functions of forests cover nature-based tourism and ecotourism activities. Ecotourism provides a means for people to use the forest without extracting its resources or degrading the environment. Wildlife attracts many visitors and foreign exchange earnings.</p>
<p>In addition, forests help to deepen our understanding of the natural world. Through research, we learn new things about species, habitats and ecosystems. Forest resources are particularly important in medicine, including immunology and other studies of diseases. </p>
<h2>Why is Nigeria’s forest cover being depleted?</h2>
<p>Before the 1950s, the forestry and agriculture sectors <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Paul-Owombo-2/publication/311869826_Contributions_of_Forestry_Sub-sector_to_the_Nigerian_Economy_A_Co-integration_Approach/links/5c3ef31692851c22a3789e6a/Contributions-of-Forestry-Sub-sector-to-the-Nigerian-Economy-A-Co-integration-Approach.pdf">contributed</a> over 80% of Nigeria’s gross domestic product. This changed after the discovery of oil in the 1950s and early 1960s.</p>
<p>Today, the laws and policies associated with forest administration are obsolete. In addition, supervision, monitoring and surveillance of forest areas is poor. Staffing and provision of basic infrastructure are grossly inadequate. </p>
<p>The principle of sustained yield forestry, when products removed from the forest are replaced by growth, has been abandoned in most forest reserves. Inventory records of resources are insufficient. Local people don’t participate enough in decision-making related to forests. The forestry sector is also affected by corruption, such as misappropriation of funds and <a href="http://repository.ui.edu.ng/handle/123456789/1405">illegal activities</a>.</p>
<p>In Nigeria, primary forests are <a href="http://repository.ui.edu.ng/handle/123456789/1405">cleared</a> extensively. The various state forestry departments have been unable to adequately protect the forest estate. Most forest reserves that were once managed for timber production have become deforested and fragmented. Many have been converted for other land uses. </p>
<p>Large scale agriculture has consumed a significant portion of forested areas. Similarly, <a href="https://digitalscholarship.tsu.edu/ajcjs/vol9/iss1/10/">unlawful and indiscriminate logging activities</a> take place in naturally occurring forests. </p>
<p>Urbanisation, which comes with roads, buildings and other infrastructure, is often carried out without proper planning. </p>
<h2>How can this depletion be tackled?</h2>
<p>Based on our <a href="http://80.240.30.238/bitstream/123456789/1405/1/%2816%29%20ui_inpro_amusa_forest_2017.pdf">studies</a> of the Nigerian forests over the years and <a href="https://www.rufford.org/projects/tajudeen-okekunle-amusa/strengthening-monitoring-systems-for-adaptive-management-and-protection-of-forest-elephants-in-omo-forest-reserve-southwestern-nigeria/">lessons</a> from numerous projects carried out, I have the following recommendations:</p>
<p>Most countries have a forestry law. Unfortunately Nigeria’s forest policy is not backed by a code or act. A national Forestry Act could reverse the decline in forest cover. It could give adequate protection and ensure sustainable management of the country’s forest estate.</p>
<p>There is an urgent need to plant and replant trees across the country. The various state governments can collaborate with non-governmental organisations to achieve this. </p>
<p>Reforestation involves replanting trees in areas where forests have been destroyed. Afforestation involves creating new forests on previously non-forested land. These campaigns should plant a diverse range of native tree species. </p>
<p>It’s also crucial to promote sustainable forestry practices. The government should enforce strict regulations against illegal logging and unsustainable timber harvesting. Enforcement can be done using technology such as remote sensors, drones and satellite imagery. It is essential to work with local communities, traditional leaders and NGOs to raise awareness about the importance of forest conservation.</p>
<p>Finally, there should be proper staffing. Adequately trained forest professionals and well equipped guards should be hired to safeguard the forests. Education and training programmes should teach local communities, forest workers and farmers about sustainable forestry methods and the importance of preserving biodiversity.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223922/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tajudeen Amusa does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Nigeria’s forest resources have dwindled and are in danger of disappearing in a few decades if nothing is done to save them.Tajudeen Amusa, Associate Professor, Forest Resources Management, University of IlorinLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2222242024-03-19T10:45:17Z2024-03-19T10:45:17ZNigeria’s fuel subsidy removal was too sudden: why a gradual approach would have been better<p>Nigeria <a href="https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2023/06/08/nigerias-new-president-scraps-the-fuel-subsidy">removed</a> fuel subsidies entirely in May 2023. This came as a surprise because of the political risks associated with subsidy removal. Previous administrations were <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jan/16/nigeria-restores-fuel-subsidy-protests">reluctant</a> to jettison the subsidies.</p>
<p>The subsidies had been in place since the <a href="https://www.ictd.ac/publication/fuel-subsidy-social-contract-microeconomic-analysis-nigeria-rib/#:%7E:text=Subsidies%20exist%20because%20the%20government,oil%20price%20shock%20in%201973">1970s</a>, when the government sold petrol to Nigerians at a price below cost – though most consumers weren’t aware of this. </p>
<p>The 1977 <a href="https://gazettes.africa/archive/ng/1977/ng-government-gazette-supplement-dated-1977-01-13-no-2-part-a.pdf">Price Control Act</a> made it illegal for some products (including petrol) to be sold above the regulated price. The <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Olusegun-Obasanjo">Olusegun Obasanjo</a> regime introduced this law to cushion the effects of <a href="https://www.npr.org/2021/05/29/1001023637/think-inflation-is-bad-now-lets-take-a-step-back-to-the-1970s">inflation</a>, caused by a worldwide increase in energy prices.</p>
<p>Fuel subsidies have been controversial in Nigeria, and some analysts see them as inequitable. Very few Nigerians own vehicles. Nigeria is among the countries with the <a href="https://nigerianstat.gov.ng/elibrary/read/903/#:%7E:text=Estimated%20vehicle%20population%20in%20Nigeria,population%20ratio%20is%20put%200.06.">least number of vehicles</a> per capita, with <a href="https://nigerianstat.gov.ng/elibrary/read/903/#:%7E:text=Estimated%20vehicle%20population%20in%20Nigeria,population%20ratio%20is%20put%200.06.">0.06 vehicles</a> per person or 50 vehicles per 1,000 Nigerians.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/nigerias-fuel-subsidy-is-gone-its-time-to-spend-the-money-in-ways-that-benefit-the-poor-204701">Nigeria’s fuel subsidy is gone. It's time to spend the money in ways that benefit the poor</a>
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<p>So critics have <a href="https://theconversation.com/nigerias-fuel-subsidy-is-gone-its-time-to-spend-the-money-in-ways-that-benefit-the-poor-204701">argued</a> that the subsidies benefited mainly the elites even though they could afford to buy fuel at market prices. </p>
<p>The subsidies were also considered to be a drain on public finances, costing the government <a href="https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/nigerias-nnpc-spent-10-billion-fuel-subsidy-2022-2023-01-20/">US$10 billion</a> in 2022. About <a href="https://www.dataphyte.com/latest-reports/nigerias-expenditure-on-fuel-subsidy-in-17-years-adequate-to-build-three-450000bpd-refineries-neiti/">40%</a> of Nigeria’s revenue in 2022 was spent on fuel subsidies.</p>
<p>Fuel subsidies in Nigeria were notorious for their opacity and graft. <a href="https://punchng.com/probe-missing-2-1bn-n3-1tn-subsidy-payments-or-face-lawsuit-serap-tells-tinubu/">Billions of dollars</a> were said to have been lost through corrupt practices in the payment of the subsidies. </p>
<p>These are some of the reasons they were removed. </p>
<p>But now questions are being asked about the way it was done. In a public opinion poll conducted last year, <a href="https://www.noi-polls.com/post/fuel-subsidy-removal-7-in10-nigerians-lament-over-the-negative-impact">73%</a> of Nigerians said they were dissatisfied with the manner in which the fuel subsidy was removed. </p>
<p>As <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/stephen-onyeiwu-170137">an economist</a> who has studied the Nigerian economy for over four decades, I can see why the fuel subsidy had to go. </p>
<p>As I argued in a <a href="https://theconversation.com/fuel-subsidies-in-nigeria-theyre-bad-for-the-economy-but-the-lifeblood-of-politicians-170966">previous article</a>, fuel subsidies were bad for the Nigerian economy. They worsened budget deficits and the country’s debt profile, encouraged corruption, and diverted resources away from critical sectors of the economy. They were also inequitable, transferring the national wealth to elites. </p>
<p>But, as has become clear from the <a href="https://theconversation.com/inflation-in-nigeria-is-still-climbing-while-it-has-slowed-globally-heres-why-222226">unprecedented inflation</a> in the country partly caused by the removal of fuel subsidies, the abrupt removal of the subsidy was not the best strategy to use. </p>
<p>I believe this action should have been staggered over several months. This would have provided a soft landing, and gradually exposed Nigerians to the full market price of fuel. Doing so in one fell swoop amounts to shock therapy that is very traumatic for an already beleaguered and impoverished citizenry.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/fuel-subsidies-in-nigeria-theyre-bad-for-the-economy-but-the-lifeblood-of-politicians-170966">Fuel subsidies in Nigeria: they're bad for the economy, but the lifeblood of politicians</a>
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<h2>Why removing the subsidy should have been gradual</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/bola-ahmed-tinubu-the-kingmaker-is-now-nigerias-president-200383">Bola Tinubu</a> administration could have chosen from various mechanisms to minimise the negative impact of subsidy removal. </p>
<p>As proposed by the <a href="https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099061623093529051/pdf/P1779950377213012089e701681a43e5558.pdf">World Bank</a>, a temporary price cap would have ensured that fuel price increases did not inflict too much pain on consumers. This approach would also have enabled the government to significantly reduce, but not eliminate, the fiscal burden of the subsidy. </p>
<p>Another approach is periodic price adjustments: setting the price based on a moving average of previous months’ import costs. These adjustments could have been made together with a price cap. The <a href="https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099061623093529051/pdf/P1779950377213012089e701681a43e5558.pdf">Philippines</a> is one country that successfully removed fuel subsidies in the 1990s, using the price adjustment mechanism.</p>
<p>Gradually phasing out subsidies would have been a better approach for a number of reasons. </p>
<p>Firstly, Nigerians had become suspicious of government’s intentions, given their economic experiences with the previous administration of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Muhammadu-Buhari">Muhammadu Buhari</a>. Those <a href="https://newtelegraphng.com/agony-over-buharis-bad-economic-legacy/">experiences</a> include high <a href="https://tradingeconomics.com/nigeria/inflation-cpi">inflation</a> and <a href="https://tradingeconomics.com/nigeria/unemployment-rate">unemployment rates</a>, rising poverty and insecurity. </p>
<p>Tinubu should have re-established government credibility and good intentions first. He could have offered economic succour such as cash transfers and food subsidies for poor Nigerians, wage increases for workers and retirees, scholarships or tuition waivers for indigent students in tertiary institutions, free lunches for primary and secondary students in public schools, and subsidised public transport. </p>
<p>After demonstrating he meant well, he should have gradually rolled out the subsidy removal. Nigerians would have been psychologically prepared for what was coming, including inflation. </p>
<p>The inflationary impact of subsidy removal would have been less severe. Nigerians would have been more tolerant of difficult economic policies. People will accept difficult economic policies if they know their government is humane and pro-people. </p>
<p>Secondly, an incremental approach would have enabled the government to come up with programmes targeted at those most likely to be hurt by subsidy removal. This would have ensured buy-in. The “<a href="https://guardian.ng/politics/tinubus-subsidy-removal-and-palliative-dilemma/">palliatives</a>” introduced by the Tinubu administration and state governments are temporary and have a <a href="https://punchng.com/palliatives-knocks-trail-distribution-beneficiaries-decry-inadequate-foodstuffs-delay/">limited reach</a>. </p>
<p>Gradual subsidy removal would have enabled the government to engage with groups that would be affected by the policy. Groups representing labour, manufacturers, students, women and others could have provided insights into what would be needed to help their members adjust. </p>
<p>This interactive approach would have promoted transparency and credibility in the conduct of government policies.</p>
<p>Many vulnerable Nigerians were already under severe economic pressure. Apart from <a href="https://tradingeconomics.com/nigeria/unemployment-rate">high unemployment</a> and <a href="https://nigerianstat.gov.ng/elibrary/read/1092#:%7E:text=In%20Nigeria%2040.1%20percent%20of,considered%20poor%20by%20national%20standards.">poverty rates</a>, <a href="https://tradingeconomics.com/nigeria/inflation-cpi">inflation</a> was biting very hard. </p>
<p>The abrupt removal of fuel subsidies, without first putting in place shock-absorbing measures, will make it more difficult for the government to achieve the policy’s long-term aims: fiscal sustainability; higher levels of investment in productive sectors of the economy; economic growth; and investment in renewable energy.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/nigerias-transport-grant-isnt-the-best-way-to-allocate-fuel-subsidy-savings-heres-what-is-172982">Nigeria's transport grant isn't the best way to allocate fuel subsidy savings: here's what is</a>
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<h2>Minimising the negative impact of subsidy removal</h2>
<p>Tinubu should minimise the negative impact of subsidy removal and <a href="https://www.centralbanking.com/central-banks/reserves/foreign-exchange/7959058/nigeria-liberalises-exchange-rate">liberalisation</a> of the foreign exchange market. These two phenomena interact to cause the <a href="https://theconversation.com/inflation-in-nigeria-is-still-climbing-while-it-has-slowed-globally-heres-why-222226">inflation</a> that the country is facing. </p>
<p>First, savings from ending the subsidy should be used to develop productive capacities in agriculture, labour-intensive manufacturing and services. </p>
<p>Manufacturing activities like agro-processing, textiles, footwear, leather products, arts and crafts should be targeted for development. This would generate high-paying jobs that might help Nigerians to cushion the effects of inflation. </p>
<p>In an economy that’s functioning well, wages always adjust to reflect price increases. In Nigeria, however, too many people are either unemployed or in the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/352695633_EMPLOYMENT_IN_THE_INFORMAL_SECTOR_IN_NIGERIA_IMPLICATIONS_FOR_SUSTAINABLE_ECONOMIC_DEVELOPMENT">informal sector</a>, with limited opportunities to adjust their earnings to reflect inflation. </p>
<p>Funds saved from subsidy removal should be invested in public infrastructure (mass transportation, road construction, electricity generation, water supply). </p>
<p>Funds should also be used to develop people’s capabilities through massive investment in health and education. Part of the savings should be used to support and sustain the <a href="https://www.nuc.edu.ng/president-tinubu-signs-student-loan-bill/">student loan programme</a> announced by the Tinubu administration. </p>
<p>Successful radical economic reforms, such as the ones implemented in <a href="https://academic.oup.com/book/6796/chapter/150948559">Rwanda</a>, usually give people an incentive to be more productive, creative and innovative. But policies that are punitive, with marginal or no benefits, are unlikely to succeed.</p>
<p>It remains to be seen whether Tinubu’s economic policies will spur sustained and inclusive economic growth, as well as alleviate poverty.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222224/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stephen Onyeiwu does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Nigeria’s sudden and total removal of fuel subsidies was not the best strategy to use.Stephen Onyeiwu, Professor of Economics & Business, Allegheny CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2259122024-03-15T13:28:50Z2024-03-15T13:28:50ZUndersea cables for Africa’s internet retrace history and leave digital gaps as they connect continents<p><em>Large parts of west and central Africa, as well as some countries in the south of the continent, were <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2024/mar/14/much-of-west-and-central-africa-without-internet-after-undersea-cable-failures">left without internet services</a> on 14 March because of failures on four of the fibre optic cables that run below the world’s oceans. Nigeria, Côte d'Ivoire, Liberia, Ghana, Burkina Faso and South Africa were among the worst affected. By midday on 15 March the problem had not been resolved. Microsoft <a href="https://mybroadband.co.za/news/internet/528961-massive-undersea-cable-outage-fix-delayed-says-microsoft.html">warned its customers</a> that there was a delay in repairing the cables. South Africa’s News24 <a href="https://www.news24.com/fin24/economy/nine-undersea-cables-make-the-internet-work-in-sa-four-are-currently-damaged-20240315">reported</a> that, while the cause of the damage had not been confirmed, it was believed that “the cables snapped in shallow waters near the Ivory Coast, where fishing vessels are likely to operate”.</em></p>
<p><em>Jess Auerbach Jahajeeah, an associate professor at the University of Cape Town’s Graduate School of Business, is currently writing a book on fibre optic cables and digital connectivity. She spent time in late 2023 aboard the ship whose crew is responsible for maintaining most of Africa’s undersea network. She spoke to The Conversation Africa about the importance of these cables.</em></p>
<h2>1. What’s the geographical extent of Africa’s current undersea network?</h2>
<p>Fibre optic cables now literally encircle Africa, though some parts of the continent are far better connected than others. This is because both public and private organisations have made major investments in the past ten years. </p>
<p>Based on <a href="https://www.submarinecablemap.com/">an interactive map</a> of fibre optic cables, it’s clear that South Africa is in a relatively good position. When the breakages happened, the network was affected for a few hours before the internet traffic was rerouted; a technical process that depends both on there being alternative routes available and corporate agreements in place to enable the rerouting. It’s the same as driving using a tool like Google Maps. If there’s an accident on the road it finds another way to get you to your destination. </p>
<p>But, in several African countries – including Sierra Leone and Liberia – most of the cables don’t have spurs (the equivalent of off-ramps on the road), so only one fibre optic cable actually comes into the country. Internet traffic from these countries basically <a href="https://blog.cloudflare.com/undersea-cable-failures-cause-internet-disruptions-across-africa-march-14-2024">stops when the cable breaks</a>. </p>
<p>Naturally that has huge implications for every aspect of life, business and even politics. Whilst some communication can be rerouted via satellites, satellite traffic accounts for <a href="https://blog.telegeography.com/2023-mythbusting-part-3">only about 1% of digital transmissions globally</a>. Even with interventions such as satellite-internet distribution service <a href="https://www.starlink.com/">Starlink</a> it’s still much slower and much more expensive than the connection provided by undersea cables. </p>
<p>Basically all internet for regular people relies on fibre optic cables. Even landlocked countries rely on the network, because they have agreements with countries with landing stations – highly-secured buildings close to the ocean where the cable comes up from underground and is plugged into terrestrial systems. For example southern Africa’s internet comes largely through connections in Melkbosstrand, just outside Cape Town, and <a href="https://www.submarinenetworks.com/en/stations/africa/south-africa/mtunzini-cls">Mtunzini</a> in northern KwaZulu-Natal, both in South Africa. Then it’s routed overland to various neighbours. </p>
<p>Each fibre optic cable is extremely expensive to build and to maintain. Depending on the technical specifications (cables can have more or fewer fibre threads and enable different speeds for digital traffic) there are complex legal agreements in place for who is responsible for which aspects of maintenance.</p>
<h2>2. What prompted you to write a book about the social history of fibre optic cables in Africa?</h2>
<p>I first visited Angola in 2011 to start work for <a href="https://utorontopress.com/9781487524333/from-water-to-wine/">my PhD project</a>. The internet was all but non-existent – sending an email took several minutes at the time. Then I went back in 2013, after the <a href="https://www.submarinenetworks.com/en/systems/brazil-africa/sacs">South Atlantic Cable System</a> went into operation. It made an incredible difference: suddenly Angola’s digital ecosystem was up and running and everybody was online. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/in-our-wi-fi-world-the-internet-still-depends-on-undersea-cables-49936">In our Wi-Fi world, the internet still depends on undersea cables</a>
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<p>At the time I was working on social mobility and how people in Angola were improving their lives after <a href="https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/angolan-civil-war-1975-2002-brief-history">a long war</a>. Unsurprisingly, having digital access made all sorts of things possible that simply weren’t imaginable before. I picked up my interest again once I was professionally established, and am now writing it up as a book, <a href="https://stias.ac.za/2022/03/when-a-cable-is-not-just-a-cable-fellows-seminar-by-jess-auerbach/">Capricious Connections</a>. The title refers to the fact that the cables wouldn’t do anything if it wasn’t for the infrastructure that they plug into at various points. </p>
<p>Landing centres such as Sangano in Angola are fascinating both because of what they do technically (connecting and routing internet traffic all over the country) and because they often highlight the complexities of <a href="https://www.afrobarometer.org/publication/ad582-digital-divide-who-in-africa-is-connected-and-who-is-not/">the digital divide</a>. </p>
<p>For example, Sangano is a remarkable high tech facility run by an incredibly competent and socially engaged company, Angola Cables. Yet the school a few hundred metres from the landing station still doesn’t have electricity. </p>
<p>When we think about the digital divide in Africa, that’s often <a href="https://www.bmz-digital.global/en/datacolonialism-double-interview/">still the reality</a>: you can bring internet everywhere but if there’s no infrastructure, skills or frameworks to make it accessible, it can remain something abstract even for those who live right beside it.</p>
<p>In terms of history, fibre optic cables follow all sorts of fascinating global precedents. The 2012 cable that connected one side of the Atlantic Ocean to the other is laid almost exactly <a href="https://www.slavevoyages.org/blog/volume-and-direction-trans-atlantic-slave-trade">over the route of the transatlantic slave trade</a>, for example. Much of the basic cable map is layered over the routes of the <a href="https://notevenpast.org/to-rule-the-waves-britains-cable-empire-and-the-birth-of-global-communications/">copper telegraph network</a> that was essential for the British empire in the 1800s.</p>
<p>Most of Africa’s cables are maintained at sea by the remarkable crew of the ship Léon Thévenin. I <a href="https://mg.co.za/africa/2023-11-27-down-to-the-wire-the-ship-fixing-our-internet/">joined them</a> in late 2023 during a repair operation off the coast of Ghana. These are uniquely skilled artisans and technicians who retrieve and repair cables, sometimes from depths of multiple kilometres under the ocean. </p>
<p>When I spent time with the crew last year, they recounted once accidentally retrieving a section of Victorian-era cable when they were trying to “catch” a much more recent fibre optic line. (Cables are retrieved in many ways; one way is with a grapnel-like hook that is dragged along the ocean bed in roughly the right location until it snags the cable.)</p>
<p>There are some very interesting questions emerging now about what is commonly called <a href="https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/D/bo216184200.html?trk=public_post_comment-text">digital colonialism</a>. In an environment where data is often referred to with terms like “<a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/nishatalagala/2022/03/02/data-as-the-new-oil-is-not-enough-four-principles-for-avoiding-data-fires/?sh=23be1821c208">the new oil</a>”, we’re seeing an important change in digital infrastructure. </p>
<p>Previously cables were usually financed by a combination of public and private sector partnerships, but now big private companies such as Alphabet, Meta and Huawei are increasingly financing cable infrastructure. That has serious implications for control and monitoring of digital infrastructure. </p>
<p>Given we all depend so much on digital tools, poorer countries often have little choice but to accept the terms and conditions of wealthy corporate entities. That’s potentially incredibly dangerous for African digital sovereignty, and is something we should be seeing a lot more public conversation about.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225912/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jess Auerbach Jahajeeah receives funding from the Stellenbosch Institute of Advanced Study where she is an Iso Lomso Fellow, the National Research Foundation of South Africa and the UCT Vice Chancellor’s Future Leaders Program. </span></em></p>Fibre optic cables now literally encircle Africa, though some parts of the continent are far better connected than others.Jess Auerbach Jahajeeah, Associate Professor, Graduate School of Business, University of Cape TownLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2222262024-03-14T10:35:45Z2024-03-14T10:35:45ZInflation in Nigeria is still climbing while it has slowed globally: here’s why<p>Just as Nigerians were gradually digging out from the devastating effects of the <a href="https://www.who.int/europe/emergencies/situations/covid-19">COVID-19 pandemic</a>, they were hit by high <a href="https://theconversation.com/nigerians-feel-the-pinch-as-food-prices-continue-to-spiral-there-arent-easy-solutions-188489">inflation</a>. </p>
<p>The Nigerian economy contracted by <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/08/africa-largest-economy-worst-contraction-in-a-decade/">6.1%</a> at the peak of COVID in the second quarter of 2020. Unemployment rate rose from 27% in the second quarter of 2020 to 33% in the fourth quarter of the same year. </p>
<p>The World Bank estimated that <a href="https://theconversation.com/nigerias-covid-19-economic-plan-has-delivered-disappointing-results-heres-why-169417">11 million Nigerians</a> were pushed into poverty during the pandemic, in addition to the 100 million (out of 200 million people in the country) who were already classified as poor. </p>
<p>Now, Nigerians have to grapple with unprecedented inflation too.</p>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/nigerias-food-inflation-losers-winners-and-a-possible-solution-172313">Nigeria's food inflation: losers, winners and a possible solution</a>
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<p>Nigeria’s <a href="https://www.cbn.gov.ng/rates/inflrates.asp">inflation rate</a> rose to 29.90% in January 2024, from 28.92% in December 2023. This is the highest it has been in two decades. </p>
<p>Global inflation has reached historic levels during the past three years. The International Monetary Fund expects <a href="https://www.imf.org/en/Blogs/Articles/2024/01/12/charts-spotlight-inflation-economic-growth-globalization-and-climate-change">global inflation</a> to fall, however, from 8.7% in 2022 to 6.8% in 2023 and 5.2% in 2024. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/business-68277677">US</a> and the <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/0c1f51ff-e42c-4bbc-938a-2cc97c73894a">EU</a> have seen inflation decline during the past few months, prompting central banks to pause interest rate hikes. </p>
<p>In fact, central banks in developed countries are <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2023/11/interest-rate-hikes-pause-and-other-economy-stories-to-read-3-november-2023/">expected</a> to begin reducing interest rates this year.</p>
<p>So why is inflation rising in Nigeria while it has been declining in other parts of the world?</p>
<p>As a <a href="https://sites.allegheny.edu/econ/faculty-staff/stephen-onyeiwu/">development economist</a> who has been studying the Nigerian economy for over four decades, I argue in this article that the factors that are pushing inflation downward in other parts of the world are moving in the opposite direction in Nigeria. </p>
<p>I also suggest that no single factor can adequately explain rising inflation and escalating food costs in Nigeria. Nigeria’s unprecedented inflation is a case of multiple factors interacting to trigger <a href="https://www.investopedia.com/articles/05/012005.asp">cost-push inflation</a>. </p>
<p>If not addressed urgently, Nigeria’s rising inflation could result in “<a href="https://www.britannica.com/money/what-is-stagflation">stagflation</a>”. This is when the lack of robust economic growth is combined with hyperinflation. </p>
<p>With high numbers of <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/1288721/number-of-people-unemployed-in-nigeria/#:%7E:text=Total%20unemployed%20population%20in%20Nigeria%202010%2D2021&text=As%20of%202021%2C%20the%20total,in%20any%20form%20of%20employment.">unemployed people</a> who must purchase basic necessities at very high prices, Nigeria risks widespread protests, social tensions and political instability.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/nigerias-food-insecurity-declaring-a-state-of-emergency-isnt-a-real-solution-heres-what-is-209907">Nigeria's food insecurity: declaring a state of emergency isn't a real solution - here's what is</a>
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<h2>Fuel prices</h2>
<p>Declining <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2023/11/22/energy/oil-prices-fall-opec-meeting-delayed/index.html">oil prices</a>, caused by a slow post-pandemic economic recovery, are causing freight prices to fall, which in turn has lowered production costs and consumer prices in many countries. </p>
<p>But Nigerians are not benefiting from the global decline in oil and natural gas prices. Rather, they are paying substantially more at the pump because of the <a href="https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2023/06/08/nigerias-new-president-scraps-the-fuel-subsidy">removal</a> of fuel subsidies. </p>
<p>Fuel prices <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/nigeria-petrol-prices-soar-record-high-after-subsidy-removal-2023-07-18/">soared</a>, from N557 (US$0.35) to N617 (US$0.39) per litre, after the removal of the subsidy in May 2023. </p>
<p>In other words, while <a href="https://www.barrons.com/articles/natural-gas-prices-51674768324">falling</a> oil and natural gas prices are reducing production costs in other countries, costs are <a href="https://www.thecable.ng/domino-effect-of-petrol-subsidy-removal-on-food-income-insecurity">rising</a> in Nigeria.</p>
<p>A World Bank <a href="https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099061623093529051/pdf/P1779950377213012089e701681a43e5558.pdf">study</a> found that complete removal of fuel subsidies, except kerosene subsidies, increases economy-wide prices by 3.4%. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/nigerias-fuel-subsidy-is-gone-its-time-to-spend-the-money-in-ways-that-benefit-the-poor-204701">Nigeria’s fuel subsidy is gone. It's time to spend the money in ways that benefit the poor</a>
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<h2>Supply constraints and inflation</h2>
<p>Another factor that is causing global inflation to decline is the <a href="https://www.reuters.com/markets/goodbye-maybe-great-inflation-scare-world-bank-blog-2023-12-18/">easing</a> of pandemic-era supply chain bottlenecks, which has occurred faster than expected. </p>
<p>Nigeria, however, continues to endure supply constraints because of the <a href="https://apnews.com/article/nigeria-foreign-exchange-rate-naira-2d0d62bc89358b957edd602f506b7650">floating</a> of the local currency, the naira. Floating the naira means its value will from now on be determined by market forces of demand and supply, or what the Central Bank of Nigeria refers to as “the willing seller, willing buyer” <a href="https://www.cbn.gov.ng/Out/2024/TED/Circular%20on%20allowable%20limit%20of%20exchange%20rate%20quoted%20by%20IMTOs.pdf">exchange rate</a>. </p>
<p>The central bank previously adopted a “<a href="https://byjus.com/commerce/managed-floating/">managed floating</a>” policy, whereby it periodically adjusted the official exchange rate. But the adjustment criteria were considered to be too opaque and un-reflective of market fundamentals. </p>
<p>The naira depreciated by <a href="https://businessday.ng/news/article/naira-loses-69-of-its-value-against-dollar-since-fx-reforms/">69%</a> between June 2023 when the foreign exchange market was <a href="https://www.centralbanking.com/central-banks/reserves/foreign-exchange/7959058/nigeria-liberalises-exchange-rate">liberalised</a> and the middle of February 2024.</p>
<p>Currency depreciation has increased import costs. Nigeria is an import-dependent economy, and Nigerian importers are purchasing goods at prices that are already very high abroad. The costs of these goods have also gone up because of higher tariffs caused by the <a href="https://punchng.com/industrialists-parents-lament-as-troubled-naira-ends-2023-at-907/">depreciation</a> of the naira. </p>
<p>For instance, only 1% of the roughly <a href="https://www.ifpri.org/blog/russia-ukraine-crisis-presents-threats-nigerias-food-security-potential-opportunities">six million metric tonnes</a> of wheat that Nigeria consumes annually is produced domestically. The <a href="https://www.cfr.org/global-conflict-tracker/conflict/conflict-ukraine">war in Ukraine</a> has raised food prices in Nigeria, as the country imports wheat from Russia and Ukraine, in addition to fertilizers from Russia.</p>
<p>Thus, much of Nigeria’s inflation is caused by a combination of oil subsidy removal and devaluation of the naira. Making it worse are longstanding supply constraints like instability in <a href="https://www.vanguardngr.com/2024/02/what-tinubu-must-do-to-avert-food-riots-in-nigeria/">food-producing areas</a> of the country, deteriorating rural infrastructure, climate change and the exodus of rural dwellers to urban centres in search of opportunities.</p>
<p>Food inflation in Nigeria also reflects low productivity in the agricultural sector. Output has failed to keep up with population growth. Nigeria’s population has been growing by about <a href="https://theconversation.com/nigerias-growing-population-can-be-an-advantage-with-better-data-and-a-policy-focus-on-young-people-209530">2.4%</a> a year, while the growth of agricultural value added is a paltry <a href="https://tradingeconomics.com/nigeria/agriculture-value-added-annual-percent-growth-wb-data.html">1.8%</a>. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/nigerias-new-foreign-exchange-policy-is-good-news-but-it-cant-work-wonders-for-the-economy-on-its-own-207767">Nigeria's new foreign exchange policy is good news - but it can't work wonders for the economy on its own</a>
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<h2>Uncertain inflationary outlook</h2>
<p>Inflation is cooling globally partly because of the restrictive monetary and fiscal policies of many countries across the world. Central banks hiked interest rates aggressively and many governments cut spending. </p>
<p>Nigeria’s Central Bank governor <a href="https://www.cbn.gov.ng/AboutCBN/TheBoard.asp?Name=Mr%2E+Olayemi+Cardoso&Biodata=cardoso">Olayemi Cardoso</a> expects Nigeria’s inflation rate to decline to <a href="https://www.cbn.gov.ng/Out/2024/CCD/MPC%20Communique%20No%20150%20of%20the%20CBN%20Feb%202024.pdf">21.4%</a> in 2024, following interest rate increases and <a href="https://www.cbn.gov.ng/Out/2024/CCD/NESG%20CBN%20Governor's%20Keynote%20Speech.pdf">rising</a> agricultural productivity. </p>
<p>But I don’t expect a steep fall in Nigerian’s inflation this year. </p>
<p>First, inflation-targeting policies have lagged effects, and usually take time to make a difference to consumer prices. </p>
<p>Second, many prices are typically “sticky” downward. Once they go up they don’t come down – or only very gradually. </p>
<p>Lastly, Nigeria’s inflation targeting policy can only be effective if it is coupled with fiscal discipline by the executive and legislative branches of government. There is <a href="https://leadership.ng/tinubu-continues-with-borrowing-policy-of-previous-government/">no evidence</a> this has been the case so far under the Bola Tinubu administration.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222226/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stephen Onyeiwu does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Factors pushing inflation rates downwards in other parts of the world are achieving the exact opposite result in Nigeria.Stephen Onyeiwu, Professor of Economics & Business, Allegheny CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2220932024-03-11T13:03:39Z2024-03-11T13:03:39ZNigeria risks losing all its forest elephants – what we found when we went looking for them<p>Nigeria is one of <a href="https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/SSC-OP-060_A.pdf">37 African countries</a> where elephants are found in the wild. Savannah elephants (<em>Loxodonta africana</em>) can be found in the north and forest elephants (<em>Loxodonta cyclotis</em>) in the south.</p>
<p>It’s not clear how many elephants there are in Nigeria. Eighteen years ago, the <a href="https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/SSC-OP-060_A.pdf">African Elephant Study Report</a> estimated that there were just 94 elephants left in the country. In 2021, it was estimated that there could be about <a href="https://newsroom.wcs.org/News-Releases/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/16374/Last-Chance-for-Nigerias-Endangered-Elephants-Can-a-National-Elephant-Action-Plan-Help-Save-Them.aspx">400 elephants</a> in areas not systematically surveyed.</p>
<p>What we do know, however, is that the numbers and ranges of elephants in Nigeria have declined greatly over time. The main cause of this has been human activity, like logging and agriculture, which <a href="https://news.mongabay.com/2023/08/elephants-invade-as-habitat-loss-soars-in-nigerian-forest-reserve/">threaten</a> their survival by reducing their natural habitat. Some elephant populations have been lost. Others exist only in small, fragmented areas. </p>
<p>Elephant surveys had not been carried out in southern Nigeria for over a decade, and sightings of forest elephants are rare. Forest elephants are of <a href="https://theconversation.com/new-decisions-by-global-conservation-group-bolster-efforts-to-save-africas-elephants-158157">particular interest</a> because they’re classified as <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/pdf/204404464">Critically Endangered</a> by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature. </p>
<p>We carried out a <a href="http://urpr.unilag.edu.ng/index.php/ujmst/article/view/1010">study</a> to establish their presence and determine the factors affecting their conservation.</p>
<p>We visited four protected areas in two national parks and one forest reserve in southern Nigeria. We did find small populations, totalling 40 forest elephants. This is not a viable population in the long run as it has been <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1019047830364">suggested</a> that “viable” elephant populations may range from 400 to 6,000 individuals. </p>
<p>Their survival is being threatened for six reasons, in particular the impact of people’s activities. </p>
<h2>Presence and distribution of elephants</h2>
<p>We visited Okomu National Park; Omo Forest Reserve; and the Okwango and Oban Divisions of the Cross River National Park. </p>
<p>Elephants were caught on camera traps in the Omo Forest Reserve and Okomu National Park. They were sighted in the Okomu National Park and the Oban Division of the Cross River National Park. In the Omo Forest reserve, we found the charred bones of a poached elephant. </p>
<p>Of the 40 identified using micro-satellite markers, seven were in Omo Forest Reserve, 14 from Okomu National Park, 11 from Oban Divison and eight from Okwango Division.</p>
<p>The future of these elephants looks precarious for a number of reasons.</p>
<h2>The threats</h2>
<p>Firstly, our study found evidence that pressure from human activity and changes in land use were influencing elephant distribution in the study locations. These were also contributing to habitat fragmentation and forest degradation. </p>
<p>We found that land within and around the protected areas we studied had been converted to settlements. It is also used for farming and monoculture plantations, where elephant food is limited. This has resulted in habitat loss and forest fragmentation, restricting the ranges of the elephant populations.</p>
<p>Second, the presence of hunters’ sheds, spent cartridges, traps and hook snares showed that illegal hunting persisted in all the study locations. We found the carcass of an elephant during the study. Hunting, as a threat to biodiversity conservation, has already been proven in studies of <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Henry-Ijeomah/publication/265843692_CHALLENGES_OF_WILDLIFE_MANAGEMENT_IN_KAINJI_LAKE_NATIONAL_PARK_NIGERIA/links/541cb7440cf241a65a150bff/CHALLENGES-OF-WILDLIFE-MANAGEMENT-IN-KAINJI-LAKE-NATIONAL-PARK-NIGERIA.pdf">Kainji National Park</a>, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/285521399_Wildlife_conservation_challenges_in_Okomu_National_Park_Nigeria">Okomu National Park</a> and the <a href="https://ijcs.ro/public/IJCS-14-49-Adetola.pdf">Cross River National Park</a>. Arrests don’t always deter offenders because the punitive measures aren’t heavy enough.</p>
<p>Thirdly, human-elephant conflict is pervasive. Elephants raided crops and destroyed property in and around the study locations. Most farmers in the surrounding communities lacked alternative sources of livelihood. Even <a href="https://news.mongabay.com/2023/08/elephants-invade-as-habitat-loss-soars-in-nigerian-forest-reserve/">small losses</a> were of economic importance and led to negative attitudes towards conservation.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/conflict-between-humans-and-wildlife-in-tanzania-is-being-poorly-managed-and-climate-change-is-making-things-worse-210332">Conflict between humans and wildlife in Tanzania is being poorly managed – and climate change is making things worse</a>
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<p>In the Okomu National Park – which lacks a <a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/nac/buffers/guidelines/2_biodiversity/8.html#:%7E:text=Buffer%20zones%20are%20designated%20areas,connect%20the%20buffered%20landscape%20patches.">buffer zone</a> – we detected elephant activity outside the protected areas.</p>
<p>Fourthly, the distribution of the elephants in small groups means that they face a high risk of local extinction. The populations in the Omo Forest Reserve and the Okomu National Park are completely isolated. The protected areas are surrounded by farmlands and human settlements and the elephants don’t intermingle with other populations.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/africas-savannah-elephants-small-fortress-parks-arent-the-answer-they-need-room-to-roam-220723">Africa's savannah elephants: small 'fortress' parks aren't the answer – they need room to roam</a>
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<p>Fifth is the issue of forest degradation and shrinking of forest space. The Omo Forest Reserve is a <a href="https://www.worldheritagesite.org/connection/Strict+Nature+Reserve">Strict Nature Reserve</a> – meaning it’s not open to tourism – and is one of <a href="https://en.unesco.org/biosphere/africa/omo">Nigeria’s four biosphere reserves</a>. But most of the forest is degraded and has reduced in size. </p>
<p>The final threat to elephants is that farmers were not paid compensation for crop losses arising from elephant raids in the study locations. This contributed to a negative attitude towards conservation. The Federal Government of Nigeria has no <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322775865_Assessment_of_Human-Wildlife_Conflicts_In_Filinga_Range_of_Gashaka_Gumti_National_Park_Nigeria">policy provision</a> for compensation to farmers. The <a href="https://www.cbd.int/sp/targets">Aichi Biodiversity Targets</a> encourage incentives as a means of safeguarding biodiversity.</p>
<h2>Improving the conservation of elephants</h2>
<p>Ecologically, elephants are a keystone species which have a massive impact on the ecosystem. Their loss would have an impact on the environment. Economically, they are drivers of tourism, and culturally they are icons of the African continent. </p>
<p>There are several steps that can be taken to protect them. </p>
<p>Awareness programmes, livelihood opportunities and compensation should be introduced to farmers. Together with <a href="https://www.jsr.org/hs/index.php/path/article/view/4111">acoustic deterrents</a> and other mitigation methods used around the world, they could check losses due to crop raids.</p>
<p>Community conservation education and awareness programmes <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/266945276_An_Empirical_Study_of_the_Effects_of_Personal_Factors_on_Environmental_Attitudes_of_Local_Communities_around_Nigeria's_Protected_Areas">work</a>. They should be rolled out to help change negative attitudes and get people to cooperate in conservation efforts. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-it-might-take-more-than-the-buzz-of-bees-to-ward-off-elephants-54255">Why it might take more than the buzz of bees to ward off elephants</a>
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<p>In our study we observed that elephants avoided harming cocoa farms. In cases where elephants passed through them, the cocoa was not eaten. This behaviour was also <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237297323_Forest_elephant_distribution_and_habitat_use_in_the_Bossematie_Forest_Reserve_Ivory_Coast">reported</a> at the Bossematié Forest Reserve, Côte d'Ivoire. This observation needs to be investigated to test whether cultivation of these crops could mitigate conflict between people and elephants. </p>
<p>Finally, a species management and monitoring plan should be put in place to help conserve Nigeria’s forest elephant populations. A nationwide survey, to assess the population of elephants in all ranges in Nigeria, should be top priority.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222093/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Queen Omoregie received funding from the 2015 S. L. Edu Memorial Research grant and the Graduate Fellow grant, School of Postgraduate Studies, University of Lagos to carry out this research. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bola Oboh and Rosemary Iriowen Egonmwan do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Forest elephants are endangered in Nigeria. Habitat protection, community awareness campaigns, research and stronger regulations could save them from going extinct.Rosemary Iriowen Egonmwan, Professor of Environmental Physiology of Animals, University of LagosBola Oboh, Professor of Genetics, Department of Cell Biology and Genetics, University of LagosLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2235682024-03-11T12:51:48Z2024-03-11T12:51:48ZFintech is sold as the answer to Africa’s problems, but digital money services have downsides which media often overlook<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577861/original/file-20240226-16-p2toeq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The research assessed newspaper coverage of fintech in Kenya, Uganda and South Africa.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Tony Karumba/AFP via Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The online financial products and services known as “<a href="https://www.forbes.com/advisor/banking/what-is-fintech/">fintech</a>” have become deeply embedded in the economic and social life of many African countries over the past decade.</p>
<p>Headlines across the continent often extol fintech’s virtues. Technology is “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5S19bJvbYrE">driving financial inclusion</a>” and “<a href="https://observer.ug/businessnews/63783-fintech-revolutionizing-how-we-spend-our-money">making life better for people</a>”. It’s helping “<a href="https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/article/2001452750/how-fintech-tools-can-help-cushion-kenyans-during-inflation">consumers to manage inflation</a>”. Fintech is “<a href="https://www.thisdaylive.com/index.php/2020/09/27/how-nigeria-is-expanding-financial-inclusion-through-fintech">too sweeping to ignore</a>”. And, if it’s not embraced, “<a href="https://www.thisdaylive.com/index.php/2020/10/06/on-boarding-financially-excluded-rural-women">the country and the entire economy will be left behind</a>”. </p>
<p>These headlines depict a popular story about fintech: it is the answer to several of Africa’s economic problems. This story is also appearing in policy documents in countries like Uganda. Fintech is now a <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a3dno0vThbc">key component</a> of the country’s <a href="https://bou.or.ug/bouwebsite/bouwebsitecontent/FinancialInclusion/2023/Signed_2023_2028_National-Financial-Inclusion-Strategy_.pdf">National Financial Inclusion Strategy 2023-2028</a>. </p>
<p>However, a counter-narrative is emerging. Political economists, anthropologists and social theorists warn that fintech is an example of an exploitative, <a href="https://www.theelephant.info/ideas/2021/07/09/neocolonial-components-of-algorithmic-capitalism-in-africa-today/">neocolonial</a> and <a href="https://cup.columbia.edu/book/histories-of-racial-capitalism/9780231190756#:%7E:text=Racial%20capitalism%20is%20not%20simply,value%20from%20racial%20classification%20">racialised</a> form of platform capitalism, a system by which a fairly small number of commercial networks profit from user activities and interactions. They caution that it is inherently <a href="https://africasacountry.com/2019/10/kenyas-mobile-money-revolution">anti-development</a>. It is, they say, likely to cause a crisis of <a href="https://nation.africa/kenya/life-and-style/lifestyle/debt-trap-ensnared-by-loans-women-turn-to-suicide-as-escape-4086004">consumer debt</a>, <a href="https://www.bostonreview.net/articles/perpetual-debt-silicon-savannah/">emotional distress</a>, <a href="https://nation.africa/kenya/life-and-style/smart-company/suicide-that-jolted-cbk-inside-plan-to-rein-in-digital-lenders-251530">self-harm</a> and <a href="https://www.theelephant.info/opinion/2019/11/29/data-protection-in-the-age-of-huduma-namba-who-will-benefit/">data piracy</a>. </p>
<p>We wanted to know how the press in Africa reports on fintech. Are its failings and potential pitfalls acknowledged? Is it mostly presented as a “good news” story?</p>
<p>So, in a project we began two years ago with South African political economist <a href="https://bristoluniversitypressdigital.com/monobook/book/9781529221770/9781529221770.xml">Scott Timcke</a>, we <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14747731.2023.2275816">set out to answer these questions</a>. This kind of analysis helps reveal how public attitudes about this new pillar of everyday economic life are formed. It also shows whether the press is serving as the public’s watchdog with regard to economic matters and corporate affairs. </p>
<p>Our analysis, the first to look at how the fintech story is being told in the African press, reveals that the coverage is celebratory and offers limited cautionary and critical reporting to the public and to policymakers. We found that fintech is most often covered with a positive tone and as a business story. </p>
<h2>The fintech context</h2>
<p>International and African <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Africas-Media-Image-in-the-21st-Century-From-the-Heart-of-Darkness-to/Bunce-Franks-Paterson/p/book/9781138962323">media coverage of the continent</a> is often accused of fuelling negative stereotypes, a trend characterised as “afro-pessimism”. But in the past decade, much of the media conversation has focused on business buzz and followed an “afro-optimism” or “Africa rising” script, as the headlines above depict. </p>
<p>The fintech ecology is shaped by dynamics from the late 2000s. These include the rapid uptake in <a href="https://africa.businessinsider.com/local/markets/sub-saharan-africa-embraces-5g-and-smartphone-adoption-soars-gsma-report-reveals/9xnt95l">broadband use</a> and the aftermath of the 2008 financial crash. Proponents claim that fintech will reduce poverty and motivate development (sometimes referred to as “<a href="https://academic.oup.com/wbro/article/33/2/135/5127166?login=false">leapfrogging</a>” or “<a href="https://thefintechtimes.com/here-are-four-cities-in-africa-emerging-as-fintech-hubs/">Silicon Savannah</a>”), uplifting those unserved by formal banking. One 2016 study credited fintech with delivering a remarkable <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.aah5309">2% poverty reduction</a> in Kenya. </p>
<p>Others call for a more cautious and sceptical approach. Critics dispute claims that fintech produces significant progressive change. They also argue that fintech can be <a href="https://www.tni.org/files/publication-downloads/fintech-digital-futures-paper-tni-web.pdf">exploitative</a> and <a href="https://botpopuli.net/how-fintech-became-the-gateway-to-predatory-lending-in-sub-saharan-africa/">predatory</a>, and that it fuels inequality by further enriching the already wealthy. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/nigerias-mobile-money-system-has-a-dark-side-even-though-its-convenient-new-study-explores-the-risks-207777">Nigeria's mobile money system has a dark side even though it's convenient - new study explores the risks</a>
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<h2>Our analysis</h2>
<p>Previous research into the roll-out of fintech in countries across the continent revealed community-level tactics. “<a href="https://intellectdiscover.com/content/journals/10.1386/jams_00035_1">Change agents</a>” are deployed to recruit new customers for mobile money services. “<a href="https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/IMR-05-2019-0130/full/html">Brand ambassadors</a>” are hired to “sit in public transport and talk about” fintech products. </p>
<p>We wondered whether journalists were similarly talking up fintech or were warning of its risks. We analysed news coverage and looked at journalism published between 2016 and 2021 by leading newspapers in Kenya, Uganda and South Africa, as well as through the <a href="https://allafrica.com/">AllAfrica</a> news aggregator. We began with a set of 1,190 news pieces and analysed a sample of 368. </p>
<p>Based on our initial examination of articles, we identified nine themes or frames that appeared frequently in news coverage of fintech. </p>
<p>The dominant frame was one we labelled “announcement”: the proclamation of a new fintech product through the media; a celebration of innovation. “Gender inclusivity” was the least common frame. This is the kind of reporting that focuses on a commonly shared <a href="https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WP/Issues/2022/06/03/Fintech-Female-Employment-and-Gender-Inequality-518871">rationale</a> for fintech: that it particularly benefits women and gives them new opportunities for equality and participation. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-makes-fintech-solutions-succeed-we-built-a-model-based-on-ghanas-experience-169286">What makes FinTech solutions succeed? We built a model based on Ghana's experience</a>
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<p>We paid particular attention to the frame we called “trepidation”. We were surprised that 61% of news stories within that frame had a positive overall tone, despite the frame implying potential danger. This trepidation often appeared as the backdrop for a news item rather than as the main story. </p>
<p>These kinds of stories, we reason, allow government officials to advise the public on safe financial conduct and fintech companies to promote the benefits of their “safe” products. The advice includes guidance on how individuals can enhance their awareness of potential risks, such as fraud, and act with caution. This consumer education approach is typical of <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-fight-against-economic-fraud-how-african-countries-are-tackling-the-challenge-161432">anti-fraud measures</a> across sectors.</p>
<p>Most stories about the hazards of fintech conclude that it is nonetheless a beneficial force and that any “hiccups” are minor. These can be soothed through state action (such as regulation) or individual responsibility (such as consumer education). Overall, this reinforces a narrative that it is safe and logical to embed fintech in society: it is “sanitised” through this style of news coverage. </p>
<p>Overall we concluded that the journalism in the African press we examined was largely sanitised. The tone, content and sourcing of reporting, even in the context of well-founded fears about fintech, point to an uncritical promotion of fintech products, firms and the entire industry.</p>
<h2>More critical journalism needed</h2>
<p>The breadth of fintech’s expansion across Africa and extent of potential harm it carries – even if its critics are only minimally correct – indicates a pressing need for further analysis of what story is being told. News audiences, politicians and civil society need to demand a more critical journalism.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223568/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Coverage is celebratory and offers limited cautionary and critical reporting to the public and to policymakers.Cathleen LeGrand, Postgraduate researcher, University of LeedsChris Paterson, Professor of Global Communication, University of LeedsJörg Wiegratz, Lecturer in Political Economy of Global Development, University of LeedsLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2228032024-03-06T13:25:54Z2024-03-06T13:25:54ZWest Africa’s coast was a haven for piracy and illegal fishing - how technology is changing the picture<p>The <a href="https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/eu-maritime-security-factsheet-gulf-guinea_en">Gulf of Guinea</a> – a coastal region that stretches from Senegal to Angola – is endowed with vast reserves of hydrocarbon, mineral and fisheries resources. It is also an important route for international commerce, making it critical to the development of countries in the region.</p>
<p>For a long time, however, countries in the Gulf of Guinea haven’t properly monitored what’s happening in their waters. This has allowed <a href="https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/eu-maritime-security-factsheet-gulf-guinea_en">security threats</a> at sea to flourish. The threats include illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing, drug trafficking, piracy and armed robbery, and toxic waste dumping.</p>
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<p>For instance, in 2020, the <a href="https://www.icc-ccs.org/icc_test/index.php/1305-latest-gulf-of-guinea-piracy-attack-alarming-warns-imb#:%7E:text=IMB%20data%20shows%20that%20the,in%202019%20from%2017%20incidents.">International Maritime Bureau</a> reported that the region had experienced the highest number of crew kidnappings ever recorded: 130 crew members taken in 22 incidents. In 2019, 121 crew members were kidnapped in 17 incidents.</p>
<p>Regional action to address these threats is being taken. In 2013, heads of state signed the <a href="https://wwwcdn.imo.org/localresources/en/OurWork/Security/Documents/Declaration%20of%20the%20Heads%20of%20State%20and%20Government%20on%20Maritime%20Safety%20and%20Security.pdf">Yaoundé Code of Conduct</a> – a declaration to work together and address the threats. This also involved setting up a large hub, known as the <a href="https://icc-gog.org/?page_id=1575">Yaoundé Architecture</a> (made up of different divisions), which coordinates and shares information on what’s happening at sea. </p>
<p>Since the Yaoundé Code of Conduct was signed in 2013, there has been some progress. As we found in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X23005092?ref=pdf_download&fr=RR-2&rr=848184a42c0160f6">a new study</a>, tech-driven tools have been playing a vital role in addressing security threats at sea in west and central African countries. </p>
<p>For instance, Nigeria was once designated a piracy hotspot but, in 2022, was <a href="https://www.vanguardngr.com/2022/05/nigeria-exits-nations-of-high-piracy-risks-robbery-in-international-waters-imu/#:%7E:text=For%20fighting%20Sea%20Piracy%20headlong%20through%20the%20Nigerian,has%20exited%20Nigeria%20from%20the%20IMB%20Piracy%20List.">delisted</a>. This was in large part due to the use of <a href="https://guardian.ng/business-services/maritime/nigeria-delisted-from-sea-piracy-list-says-navy/">technology</a>.</p>
<p>Tech tools have helped countries to more efficiently manage and monitor the marine environment. They also support information sharing among law enforcement agencies. This has led to successful interdictions and enabled the prosecution of pirates in the region.</p>
<h2>The tech tools</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Safety/Pages/AIS.aspx">Cargo</a> and <a href="https://www.fao.org/3/w9633e/w9633e.pdf">fishing</a> vessels are required, under international law, to be fitted with systems that transmit data showing where they are. </p>
<p>Since the signing of the Yaoundé Code of Conduct, we <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X23005092">found</a> that new technology is now using this location data to help countries in the Gulf of Guinea monitor their waters. </p>
<p>Tools and systems – like Radar, Yaoundé Architecture Regional Information System (<a href="https://www.gogin.eu/plateforme-yaris/">Yaris</a>), <a href="https://info.seavision.volpe.dot.gov/">Sea-Vision</a>, <a href="https://www.skylight.global/">Skylight</a> and <a href="https://globalfishingwatch.org/">Global Fishing Watch</a> – are integrating information from various surveillance and location monitoring systems and satellite data to identify suspicious behaviour. This has significantly helped to improve efforts to combat security threats. </p>
<p>Countries in the Gulf now have increased awareness of vessel activity in their waters and are able to make more informed responses in emergencies, like piracy or armed robbery and oil theft. </p>
<p>For instance, in 2022 the <a href="https://shipsandports.com.ng/mt-heroic-idun-captain-issued-false-piracy-alert-says-gambo/">Heroic Idun tanker</a>, evaded arrest in Nigeria for suspicious behaviour, then travelled on to Equatorial Guinea. Using the Yaoundé Architecture system, Equatorial Guinea held the vessel at Nigeria’s request and it was later <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/detained-oiltanker-equatorial-guinea-return-nigeria-officials-2022-11-11/">fined</a>. </p>
<p>Without the Yaoundé Code of Conduct, and the new tech that it has introduced, the sharing of information, capture of evidence and cooperation between countries would not have been possible. </p>
<h2>Nigeria’s tech advancements</h2>
<p>Nigeria is a prime example of a country where investment in technology-based infrastructure has helped it to tackle threats to security and development. </p>
<p>Over the past three years, Nigeria has deployed a range of tech tools. For instance, the navy deployed the <a href="https://www.defenceweb.co.za/sea/sea-sea/regional-maritime-awareness-capability-rmac-programme-rolling-out-across-africa/">Regional Maritime Awareness Capability facility</a>, which receives, records and distributes data and the
mass surveillance <a href="https://www.defenceweb.co.za/sea/sea-sea/nigeria-commissions-falcon-eye-maritime-domain-awareness-system/#:%7E:text=Nigeria%20has%20commissioned%20the%20Israeli-designed%20Falcon%20Eye%20maritime,July%20at%20the%20Nigerian%20Naval%20Headquarters%20in%20Abuja">FALCON EYE system</a>.</p>
<p>The Nigerian Maritime Administration and Safety Agency has also made advancements through its <a href="https://nimasa.gov.ng/president-buhari-launches-deep-blue-project-in-lagos/#:%7E:text=The%20Project%2C%20which%20was%20initiated%20by%20the%20Federal,Nigerian%20waters%20up%20to%20the%20Gulf%20of%20Guinea.">Deep Blue Project</a>. This includes a central intelligence and data collection centre which works with special mission vessels (like unmanned aerial vehicles) to take action against threats. </p>
<p>Nigeria has since had <a href="https://www.icc-ccs.org/index.php/1342-new-imb-report-reveals-concerning-rise-in-maritime-piracy-incidents-in-2023#:%7E:text=Despite%20the%20continued%20restraint%20in,two%20injured%20crew%20in%202023">a reduction</a> in piracy and armed robbery at sea. Once designated a piracy hotspot, the country was <a href="https://nimasa.gov.ng/piracy-nigeria-removed-from-ibf-unsafe-waters-list/">delisted as a hotspot</a> in 2022. </p>
<h2>Cautious optimism</h2>
<p>Evidently, technology has an important role to play in enhancing safety and security at sea. But it’s not without it’s challenges, as we identified in our study.</p>
<p>First, an over-reliance on external tech tools has resulted in a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X23005092?ref=pdf_download&fr=RR-2&rr=848184a42c0160f6#sec0035">lack of ownership</a> of the technology. This affects the sustainability of the projects. For instance, once EU funding for YARIS expires, the operating costs will be transferred from the EU to Yaoundé Architecture states. But there are still no clear plans from regional states on how to sustain YARIS.</p>
<p>Second, people with specific expertise are needed to use the tech. But many countries can’t afford to hire them, or aren’t producing human resources with this expertise. Even when personnel have received training, they may not have access to the tools (which aren’t available at the country level) to apply what they have learnt. </p>
<p>Third, existing monitoring systems such as AIS and VMS can be switched off, a vulnerability that criminals continue to exploit. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9286260/pdf/pone.0269490.pdf">Radar systems</a> can fill these gaps, but there’s a lack of RADAR coverage along coastlines. Related to this, the scarcity of national <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/data-center">data centres</a> for long range vessel identification and tracking (due to lack of investment) makes using existing technology difficult.</p>
<p>Fifth, there are <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X23005092?ref=pdf_download&fr=RR-2&rr=848184a42c0160f6#sec0025">challenges</a> related to communication difficulties, the absence of internet connections onboard some vessels or low internet speed. </p>
<p>Finally, private operators like the shipping industry aren’t using the services provided by the Yaoundé Architecture. This smacks of politics and lack of trust in the regional solutions. </p>
<p>Vessel operators report incidents instead to agencies outside the region, such as <a href="https://www.mica-center.org/en/agreements-supporting-the-action-of-the-mica-center/">Maritime Domain Awareness for Trade - Gulf of Guinea</a> (based in France) or the <a href="https://www.icc-ccs.org/icc/imb">International Maritime Bureau</a> in Malaysia and these agencies often broadcast the information without confirming with the regional architecture. This undermines the ability of regional agencies to do their work effectively.</p>
<p>It’s in the best interests of Atlantic nations to cooperate and coordinate on meeting maritime security challenges. </p>
<p>Technology can play a key role in this. But it’s vital that countries enhance technological know-how, and ensure that external partners and businesses use the available technological services. This will be a big step towards a secure and collaborative maritime environment.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222803/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ifesinachi Okafor-Yarwood receives funding from the Scottish Funding Council and PEW Charitable Trust. </span></em></p>Tech tools are playing a vital role in addressing security threats at sea in various west and central African countries.Ifesinachi Okafor-Yarwood, Lecturer, University of St AndrewsLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2245452024-03-06T13:23:20Z2024-03-06T13:23:20ZNigeria: botched economic reforms plunge the country into crisis<p>Nigeria, Africa’s largest economy, is facing an economic crisis. From a botched currency redesign to the removal of fuel subsidies and a currency float, the nation has been plunged into spiralling inflation and a currency crisis with far-reaching consequences. The question now is: how long before the inferno consumes everything?</p>
<p>On October 26, 2022, the Central Bank of Nigeria announced a <a href="https://www.thecable.ng/breaking-buhari-unveils-redesigned-naira-notes">bold move</a> – that it had redesigned the country’s highest denomination notes (₦200, ₦500 and ₦1000) and would be removing all old notes from circulation. People were given a deadline of January 31, 2023 (a couple of weeks before a national election) to make this exchange, or all of the old notes would cease to be valid legal tender.</p>
<p>This initiative ostensibly aimed to curb counterfeiting, encourage cashless transactions, and limit the buying of votes during the elections. But, while the intention may have been sound, the execution proved disastrous. </p>
<p>Short deadlines, limited availability of new notes, and inadequate communication created widespread panic. It led to long queues at banks, frustration among citizens, and a <a href="https://carnegieendowment.org/2024/01/18/why-nigeria-s-controversial-naira-redesign-policy-hasn-t-met-its-objectives-pub-91405">thriving black market</a> for the new notes. </p>
<p>The confusion surrounding the currency redesign had an unintended consequence: the beginnings of a loss of confidence in the naira. People began to look to other mediums as a store of value and as a medium of exchange. The obvious choices were foreign currency like the US dollar and the British pound, as well as more stable cryptocurrencies like <a href="https://businessday.ng/business-economy/article/weak-naira-cross-border-payments-drive-nigerians-into-cryptos/">Tether’s USDT</a>.</p>
<p>The currency redesign was criticised at the time by the then-presidential candidate of the ruling party, Bola Ahmed Tinubu, who saw it as a move to <a href="https://www.vanguardngr.com/2023/01/2023-fuel-scarcity-naira-redesign-ploy-to-sabotage-my-chances-tinubu/">derail his presidential campaign</a>. However, Tinubu won the contested election and, once in power, set out to reshape the economy immediately. </p>
<p>In his inaugural address in May 2023, Tinubu <a href="https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/top-news/601239-fuel-subsidy-is-gone-tinubu-declares.html">announced</a> that the “fuel subsidy is gone”, referring to the government’s longstanding subsidised petrol policy that ensured Nigerians enjoyed some of the lowest petrol prices in the world. Over the coming days, he would also announce the reversal of the currency redesign policy and the <a href="https://leadership.ng/tinubu-begins-monetary-policy-reforms-floats-naira/">floating of the Nigerian naira</a> on the foreign exchange market.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A compilation of Nigerian naira bank notes." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579202/original/file-20240301-28-sej1lc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579202/original/file-20240301-28-sej1lc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579202/original/file-20240301-28-sej1lc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579202/original/file-20240301-28-sej1lc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579202/original/file-20240301-28-sej1lc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579202/original/file-20240301-28-sej1lc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579202/original/file-20240301-28-sej1lc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">When in office, Tinubu reversed the currency redesign policy.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/naira-currency-nigeria-200751113">Pavel Shlykov/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Fuelling the flames</h2>
<p>Other underlying economic conditions around the time of Tinubu’s inauguration included a large amount of foreign debt, dwindling foreign reserves and global economic headwinds. When the removal of the fuel subsidy was announced, it was met with a mix of surprise and elation by many Nigerians, and in particular by international donor agencies like the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, who had long been <a href="https://www.reuters.com/markets/commodities/nigeria-should-end-fuel-subsidy-speed-reforms-boost-growth-world-bank-says-2021-11-23/">advocating</a> for the removal.</p>
<p>But this was all before the effects began to bite. And bite hard they did. The price of Premium Motor Spirit (also known as gasoline or petrol), which used to retail for ₦189 (US$0.12) per litre, increased by 196% practically overnight and began to retail for <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/nigeria-triple-petrol-prices-after-president-says-subsidy-end-2023-05-31/">₦557 per litre</a>. </p>
<p>One challenge with developing economies like Nigeria is that a rise in fuel price tends to cause the price of everything else to rise. Many industries, particularly those in manufacturing and agriculture, tend to rely heavily on fuel for powering machinery and equipment due to the poor supply of grid electricity nationwide.</p>
<p>Many Nigerian households were significantly affected by the increased prices. But they saw an opportunity in that the savings from the fuel subsidy regime would be redistributed to improve education, healthcare provision and the general welfare of the people, as was promised during the electioneering. The regime cost the country an estimated <a href="https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/top-news/582724-fuel-subsidy-now-above-n400bn-monthly-nnpcl.html">₦400 billion</a> a month at its height, after all. </p>
<h2>Enter currency devaluation</h2>
<p>Then, on June 14, 2023, the Tinubu government ended the policy of pegging the naira to the US dollar, allowing it to float and find its true market value based on supply and demand. The idea was to stop corruption and reduce arbitrage opportunities due to the difference between official and black-market foreign exchange prices. </p>
<p>Currency arbitrage happens when people buy a currency at the lower official exchange rate and immediately sell it at the higher black market rate for a profit. This practice often occurs where there are strict currency controls and black markets offer a truer reflection of a currency’s value based on supply and demand.</p>
<p>However, this was one policy change too many. The naira lost a staggering <a href="https://www.focus-economics.com/countries/nigeria/news/exchange-rate/central-bank-sets-the-naira-free-to-fall/">25% of its value</a> in one day, and the cascading effects now push the country to the brink.</p>
<p>Nigeria depends heavily on imported commodities, including essential goods like food, fuel and medicine. So the policy escalated the inflationary crisis, pushing inflation to almost 30% (the major driver being food inflation, which <a href="https://leadership.ng/food-headline-inflation-spike-to-35-4-29-9/">reached 35.4%</a>). </p>
<p>Imports in general have become significantly more expensive, and Nigerians are finding their purchasing power being eroded. Wages in Nigeria are pretty fixed. The current minimum wage in the country is <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/1119133/monthly-minimum-wage-in-nigeria/">₦30,000</a> per month and the average monthly income is <a href="https://wagecentre.com/work/work-in-africa/salary-in-nigeria">₦71,185</a>. </p>
<p>Businesses are also feeling the pinch, facing difficulties accessing the <a href="https://www.trade.gov/country-commercial-guides/nigeria-market-challenges">foreign exchange</a> critical for importing raw materials and equipment. </p>
<h2>Pheonix or ash?</h2>
<p>The Central Bank of Nigeria has implemented measures to counter the crisis. It recently raised interest rates from <a href="https://punchng.com/just-in-cbn-raises-interest-rate-to-22-75/">18.75% to 22.75%</a> and is selling US dollars through auctions. </p>
<p>Recovery is a possibility and there are already signs of appreciation in the currency. The <a href="https://businessday.ng/news/article/naira-records-first-gain-at-official-market-after-rate-hike/">naira appreciated</a> by 6.89% a day after interest rates were raised. But it will be a long, hard road. </p>
<p>These strategies often come with trade-offs. Higher interest rates can stifle already struggling economic growth, while currency interventions might deplete already strained reserves of foreign currency. </p>
<p>The bottom line is that if the current cost of living crisis continues, civil unrest is likely. Should this happen, who knows what – if anything – will be left behind when the flames are done.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/224545/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kunal Sen has received funding from ESRC and DFID. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chisom Ubabukoh does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Africa’s largest economy is in crisis, and unrest is growing.Chisom Ubabukoh, Assistant Professor of Economics, O.P. Jindal Global UniversityKunal Sen, Professor and Director, World Institute for Development Economics Research (UNU-WIDER), United Nations UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2243802024-03-04T13:28:02Z2024-03-04T13:28:02ZCost-of-living crisis: experts share 3 survival tips<p>The price increases for essential goods such as food, petrol and household utilities are a global concern, but the region most hurt by the <a href="https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/ar/2023/in-focus/cost-of-living-crisis/#:%7E:text=The%20IMF%20heightened%20its%20efforts,the%202008%20global%20financial%20crisis.">surge in food prices</a> is sub-Saharan Africa. The knock-on effect from the supply chain disruption caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, climate disasters that resulted in food insecurity and energy shortages have driven prices through the roof.</p>
<p>A report by <a href="https://www.numbeo.com/cost-of-living/rankings_by_country.jsp?title=2024&region=002">Numbeo</a>, which contains the world’s largest database on costs of living, found that South Africa is the ninth most expensive African country to live in and the most expensive in cost of living (in terms of groceries, transport, utilities and restaurants) in southern Africa. The index shows Côte d'Ivoire is the African country with the highest cost of living, followed by Senegal, Ethiopia, Mozambique and Mauritius. </p>
<p>Consumers have had to cope with food prices by meal planning or buying in bulk to save money. Unilever’s food group <a href="https://www.news24.com/news24/bi-archive/south-african-consumer-go-on-tight-budgets-to-keep-meat-on-their-plate-2022-5">Knorr</a> found that the average South African was also skipping breakfast and eating two meals on weekdays, and only having breakfast during the weekend. </p>
<p>After years of researching <a href="https://researchprofiles.canberra.edu.au/en/persons/bomikazi-zeka/publications/">personal finance</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.com.au/citations?user=f2301MMAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">development finance</a>, we have taken a keen interest in understanding how consumers manage their resources to overcome economic challenges, such as the cost-of-living crisis. Now is a good time to be financially prudent and plan for how you can keep afloat during these tough times. </p>
<p>It’s important to know how to manage the cost-of-living crisis, whether it’s by getting out of debt, being strategic about how you save or tracking the expenses that consume a big chunk of your income. Keeping an eye out for where you can boost your savings or reduce expenses can make a significant difference to your financial wellbeing. </p>
<p>Since everyone’s financial situation is different, none of this should be taken as financial advice. It’s always best to speak to an authorised financial service provider. Some of these suggestions may only be helpful to individuals with access to banking services and those earning a regular income. With these provisos in mind, we unpack three areas to consider when managing the cost-of-living crisis.</p>
<h2>1. Consolidate your expenses</h2>
<p>Review where you’re paying for the same expense twice. A good example is bank fees. If you’re banking with more than one bank, then chances are you’re paying bank fees for similar transactions across different banks. By housing your finances with one bank, you can reduce bank fees. </p>
<p>Another example is subscriptions for streaming services. Consider how many accounts like Netflix, YouTube Premium, AppleTV and Showmax you have, and ask yourself: how many of them do you really spend time watching? All the fees add up. As Benjamin Franklin, the former US statesman, once put it: “Beware of little expenses. A small leak will sink a great ship.”</p>
<h2>2. Clear debt</h2>
<p>Since the cost-of-living crisis plunged more South African households into indebtedness, Nedbank’s Financial Health <a href="https://moneyedge.co.za/content/dam/moneyedge-2-0/money-conversations/NEDFIN-Health-Monitor-Report.pdf">Report</a> found that almost 50% of South Africans believe it is okay to take on debt to cover household expenses such as groceries, clothing, furniture, appliances, electricity and water. In <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/2dbc240e-328a-452b-9347-5091d74f4003">Nigeria</a>, too, consumers are turning to loans to cover daily expenses as inflation rates rise. </p>
<p>Taking on more debt when living expenses are on the rise can easily sink you deeper into the debt hole. Instead, coming up with a plan to pay off debts will eventually free up your cash flows. </p>
<p>There are two strategies to try: the debt snowball approach or the debt avalanche method. </p>
<p>The debt snowball approach prioritises paying off your smallest debts first, before moving on to larger loans. Seeing your debt clearing up motivates you.</p>
<p>The debt avalanche approach tackles the debts with the highest interest rate first and will thus save you the most money as your high interest repayments are eliminated. </p>
<p>Whichever approach you decide to use, seek the opinion of a professional financial advisor. </p>
<h2>3. Compartmentalise your savings</h2>
<p>Saving provides financial security and a buffer for unplanned financial expenses. And it helps you reach your financial goals. While households with intermittent income are more likely to struggle with building up savings, opportunities to save may come in the form of reducing shopping costs, like switching to supermarket brands (which tend to be cheaper) or buying refills for household cleaning products. </p>
<p>In general, most people who actively save keep their savings for holidays, emergency funds, future purchases and long-term goals all in the same account. The problem with this approach is that when you need to withdraw from the savings account, you don’t know which part of your savings you’re withdrawing from. </p>
<p>One way to organise your savings is by separating them into the categories you are saving for. This could be done in a spreadsheet that shows how much you have saved for each category. You can clearly see how your savings for each goal are growing, which encourages you to keep the savings momentum going. </p>
<p>If you’re interested in taking this a step further, budgeting apps such as <a href="https://www.22seven.com/">22seven</a> create personalised budgets based on your actual spending patterns. This free app allows you to set limits for what you want to spend and tracks how much you’ve already spent.</p>
<p>For example, you can decide what you plan to spend for lifestyle expenses (such as dining out or shopping) and receive a notification when you are close to reaching your spending limit. But it’s important to practise some self-discipline and not overspend once those funds are depleted. And while this may seem like yet another app that needs to be installed, think of how easy it is to tap your debit card when going about your day and spending more than you had planned. </p>
<p>Sometimes we need to put measures in place to save ourselves from ourselves, and this is one of them.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/224380/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Keeping an eye out for where you can boost your savings or reduce expenses when times are tough can improve your financial wellbeing.Bomikazi Zeka, Assistant Professor in Finance and Financial Planning, University of CanberraAbdul Latif Alhassan, Professor of Development Finance & Insurance, University of Cape TownLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2230782024-02-28T13:31:51Z2024-02-28T13:31:51ZNigeria’s security problems deepen as Anglophone insurgency in Cameroon spills across border<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576415/original/file-20240219-30-q5d1lg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=25%2C0%2C8575%2C5729&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Grieving for the 140 victims of a January 2024 attack in north-central Nigeria.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/NigeriaArmedViolence/744fff9339094b5c858f3235bb986cf4/photo?Query=nigeria%20violence&mediaType=photo&sortBy=arrivaldatetime:desc&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=1261&currentItemNo=0">AP Photo/Sunday Alamba</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Over the past two decades, Nigeria has grappled with multiple and complex national <a href="https://www.straitstimes.com/world/nigeria-mulls-state-policing-to-combat-growing-insecurity">security threats</a>, each posing a significant challenge to its stability.</p>
<p>The nation finds itself fighting a <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/uhenergy/2017/02/13/oil-and-violence-in-the-niger-delta-isnt-talked-about-much-but-it-has-a-global-impact/?sh=532d63f54dc6">violent militancy in the Niger Delta</a>, <a href="https://www.wilsoncenter.org/blog-post/farmers-herders-conflicts-in-nigeria-a-role-for-fbos">conflicts between farmers and herders</a> across multiple regions, terrorism and insurgency in the northeast, banditry in the northwest and secessionist campaigns by groups such as the <a href="https://www.cfr.org/blog/us-should-not-designate-nigerias-ipob-terrorist-group">Indigenous People of Biafra</a> in the southeast.</p>
<p>Now a new layer of complexity has emerged in the form of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/cameroons-anglophone-conflict-has-lasted-for-six-years-what-citizens-say-about-how-to-end-it-208381">Ambazonian secessionist group</a> from Cameroon. This group’s growing threat, most recently seen in the December 2023 violent invasion of the Nigerian <a href="https://dailypost.ng/2023/12/11/ambazonia-rebels-control-belegete-community-block-nigerian-troops/">borderline village of Belegete</a>, adds to the strain on Nigeria’s national security capabilities.</p>
<p>As a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=KhygkzYAAAAJ&hl=en">scholar specializing in</a> radicalization, violent extremism and counterterrorism in West and Central Africa, I believe the latest threat raises concerns about Nigeria’s strategic preparedness and ability to confront growing challenges.</p>
<p><iframe id="Cwek2" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/Cwek2/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>How the country responds could have far-reaching consequences. Nigeria is Africa’s <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/1120999/gdp-of-african-countries-by-country/">largest economy</a> and <a href="https://www.worldometers.info/population/countries-in-africa-by-population/">most populous country</a>. Since its independence in 1960, Nigeria has played a crucial role in regional stability and security. It remains an <a href="https://www.state.gov/the-united-states-and-nigeria-partnering-for-prosperity">important diplomatic partner for the United States</a>, which provides support to the Nigerian government in its efforts to combat extremism in the region.</p>
<h2>Rise of a violent campaign</h2>
<p>Ambazonian separatists, seeking independence from the Republic of Cameroon, are mounting a bloody civil war that stems from the <a href="https://www.crisisgroup.org/africa/central-africa/cameroon/b188-second-look-cameroons-anglophone-special-status">Anglophone crisis</a>, a protracted conflict rooted in the colonization of Cameroon by both the French and British governments.</p>
<p>Separatists from Camaroon’s two English-speaking regions declared independence from the French-speaking majority in 2017, and war has been raging between the separatists and Cameroon government forces ever since.</p>
<p>The Ambazonian secessionist movement, fueled by grievances that include <a href="https://theconversation.com/cameroon-how-language-plunged-a-country-into-deadly-conflict-with-no-end-in-sight-179027">the perceived dominance of Francophone Cameroonians</a>, seeks to secede and establish an <a href="https://www.gisreportsonline.com/r/cameroon-anglophone-crisis/">independent Federal Republic of Ambazonia</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Grievance over perceived Francophone bias is fueling Camaroon insurgency." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576417/original/file-20240219-16-blke3m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576417/original/file-20240219-16-blke3m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576417/original/file-20240219-16-blke3m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576417/original/file-20240219-16-blke3m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576417/original/file-20240219-16-blke3m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576417/original/file-20240219-16-blke3m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576417/original/file-20240219-16-blke3m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A sign saying ‘Speak English and French for a bilingual Cameroon’ outside an abandoned school in a rural part of southwest Cameroon.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/sign-saying-speak-english-or-french-for-a-bilingual-news-photo/1154062017?adppopup=true%5C">Photo by Giles Clarke/UNOCHA via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Agitation over the past seven years has resulted in <a href="https://www.globalr2p.org/countries/cameroon/">violence and widespread human rights violations</a>. </p>
<p>Estimates by the U.N. Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs reveal that over <a href="https://reports.unocha.org/en/country/cameroon/">1.7 million</a> people are in dire need of humanitarian assistance. Furthermore, the Anglophone crisis has <a href="https://www.crisisgroup.org/africa/central-africa/cameroon">resulted in</a> over 6,000 deaths and displaced 765,000 people. About 70,000 of these refugees are in Nigeria, including a few in the village of Belegete. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://humanglemedia.com/survivors-of-ambazonia-militant-attack-in-nigeria-are-experiencing-the-festive-season-differently/">attack in Belegete</a> in December left two dead, including the traditional leader, Chief Francis Ogweshi, and 20 others kidnapped. </p>
<h2>Nigeria’s national security</h2>
<p>As Cameroon’s clash with separatists worsens in southwestern Cameroon, the Ambazonian insurgents have moved into Nigeria. </p>
<p>The violent attack on the Belegete community, which followed earlier incursions in Nigeria such as the <a href="https://www.vanguardngr.com/2021/11/ambazonia-attack-death-toll-rises-to-12/">Manga village attack</a> of November 2021, suggests a growing cross-border element to Cameroon’s Anglophone crisis.</p>
<p>As well as presenting a violation of territorial integrity, the incident also suggests collaboration with Nigeria’s own secessionist groups, with evidence of <a href="https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/05/20/separatists-nigeria-cameroon-biafra-ipob-ambazonia-anglophone-joining-forces/">links between Ambazonian secessionists</a> and the Indigenous People of Biafra.</p>
<p>Ambazonian insurgents are also <a href="https://doi.org//10.4236/aasoci.2021.111001">engaged in drugs, arms and human trafficking</a> and have brought that illegal trade across the border into Nigeria.</p>
<p>The incursion of Ambazonian activities has not only added to Nigeria’s security challenges. It has also intensified an ongoing humanitarian crisis in Nigeria’s border region, displacing thousands of people and straining the capacity of authorities to care for its internally displaced persons and refugees from neighboring countries, including Cameroon.</p>
<p>As of June 2023, Nigeria has an estimated <a href="https://reporting.unhcr.org/operational/operations/nigeria">2.3 million internally displaced persons</a> and <a href="https://reliefweb.int/report/nigeria/urban-refugees-nigeria-operational-update-may-2023-issue-2">93,130 refugees and asylum seekers</a>. The Belegete attack added to this by displacing the entire village of over 2,000 people, who took refuge in the neighboring village of Becheve.</p>
<h2>Confronting the emerging threat</h2>
<p>Nigeria’s capacity to confront the emerging Ambazonian threat is questionable, given multiple strategic, operational and tactical limitations. </p>
<p>The 2022 Afrobarometer <a href="https://www.afrobarometer.org/wp-content/uploads/migrated/files/publications/Working%20papers/wp190-mapping_state_capacity_in_africa-professionalism_and_reach-afrobarometer_working_paper-22jan22.pdf">working paper</a>, which mapped states’ capacity to prepare for or respond to security threats, concludes that Nigeria – like several African states – “is widely seen to lack the necessary capacity for the physical and material security of its citizens or to command legitimacy.”</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A man in fatigues holding a gun Nigerian police officer stands guard." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576422/original/file-20240219-23-kh7yv5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576422/original/file-20240219-23-kh7yv5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576422/original/file-20240219-23-kh7yv5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576422/original/file-20240219-23-kh7yv5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576422/original/file-20240219-23-kh7yv5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576422/original/file-20240219-23-kh7yv5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576422/original/file-20240219-23-kh7yv5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A police officer in Yola, Nigeria.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/police-officer-sits-inside-the-armoured-personnel-carrier-news-photo/1247496889?adppopup=true">Photo by PIUS UTOMI EKPEI/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Ambazonian separatist insurgency poses a threat not only to Cameroon and Nigeria but risks further degrading the security situation in West Africa.</p>
<p>The Nigerian government, undoubtedly, understands the magnitude of the security threats it faces, and its apparent limitations, and has called for assistance. President Bola Ahmed Tinubu, in a January 2024 letter to the outgoing French ambassador to Nigeria, Emmanuelle Blatmann, <a href="https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/more-news/658605-tinubu-wants-greater-cooperation-between-nigeria-france.html">stressed the need for strengthened cooperation</a>. “On regional security, we want you to remind Paris at every opportunity that it is necessary to upgrade our technical cooperation,” he wrote.</p>
<p>The United States has said it remains committed to assisting Nigeria. In January 2024, U.S. national security adviser Jake Sullivan met with his Nigerian counterpart, Nuhu Ribadu, and <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2024/01/18/readout-of-national-security-advisor-jake-sullivans-meeting-with-nigerian-national-security-adviser-nuhu-ribadu/">underscored the need</a> for continuous bilateral security cooperation.</p>
<p>And while Nigeria has in recent years partnered with Cameroon to ensure regional stability, the latest attack suggests a need to increase strategic cooperation between the neighboring countries to stem the growing threat. </p>
<p>However, countering the Ambazonian separatists and other internal security threats will remain a challenge for the Nigerian government. With a vast population and territory, security personnel are already stretched thin. </p>
<p>Meanwhile, the existing security apparatus in the country is compromised. The military is beset by problems, including <a href="https://www.genocidewatch.com/single-post/documentary-reveals-low-morale-in-nigerian-army">low morale</a> <a href="https://mg.co.za/africa/2023-02-16-nigerias-military-is-broken/">and corruption</a>, and the national police force is perceived as largely <a href="https://www.afrobarometer.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/AD715-Nigerians-fault-police-for-corruption-and-lack-of-professionalism-Afrobarometer-10oct23.pdf">unprofessional and corrupt</a>. </p>
<p>These issues hamper Nigeria’s capacity to respond, and they undermine any attempt to counter the spiraling security threats faced by Nigeria, including the Ambazonian separatists.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223078/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Augustine Aboh works for the University of Calabar, Nigeria. He is affiliated with the Office for Strategic Preparedness and Resilience - National Early Warning Centre, Nigeria. </span></em></p>Nigeria is beset with security threats. Confronting them will take regional and international cooperation.Augustine Aboh, Ph.D. candidate in Global Governance and Human Security, University of MassachusettsLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2231362024-02-24T14:08:11Z2024-02-24T14:08:11ZNigeria’s ban on alcohol sold in small sachets will help tackle underage drinking<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577320/original/file-20240222-16-aset0i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=3%2C6%2C1075%2C801&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Sachet alcoholic drinks on display. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kofo Belo-Osagie</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>On February 5, 2024, Nigeria’s National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control <a href="http://tinyurl.com/4h3usb97">announced</a> a ban on alcoholic beverages sold in sachets or bottles less than 200ml. The agency asserts that the ban will, among other benefits, protect underage children from easy access to alcohol. However, the Federal House of Representatives, Nigeria’s lower chamber of the national assembly, has asked that the ban be <a href="https://www.vanguardngr.com/2024/02/suspend-ban-on-alcoholic-drinks-in-sachets-pet-bottles-reps-tell-nafdac/#:%7E:text=The%20House%20of%20Representatives%20Committee,its%20investigation%20into%20the%20matter.">suspended</a> pending investigation. Medical sociologist Emeka Dumbili, who has <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=Fek70KoAAAAJ&view_op=list_works&sortby=pubdate">researched</a> issues around young people’s use of alcohol and other psychoactive substances, explains why he believes the ban is needed and how it can work.</em></p>
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<h2>How bad is youth alcohol consumption in Nigeria?</h2>
<p>Alcohol consumption is growing among young Nigerians. Although alcohol consumption is not new to Nigerian society, historically only adults consumed it because drinking <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/220883?casa_token=WZLoim3ESs4AAAAA%3AUuAurxn7QSnHDbLh2bkJW-ftyWhRhU61T2zqeXGqQTroqQbjlAySCrq30jij75tlAh7lN5Fa08n3P3G4CKBHIne1ewsKxNjM4EJnNzxJKfy_O2XUDwxe">signified that one was an elder</a>. Unwritten rules constrained youths from drinking palm wine, which was the only available alcoholic beverage then. It was believed they were too immature to handle the intoxicating effects of alcohol. Nowadays, a rising number of Nigerian adolescents and young adults consume alcohol. Some even see drinking as <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-031-04017-7_6">fashionable</a> and those who abstain as old fashioned. </p>
<p>Studies have shown that young Nigerians are consuming more alcohol. For example, studies published in <a href="https://www.ajol.info/index.php/njp/article/view/110285">2015</a>, <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08897077.2021.1944952">2021</a> and <a href="https://www.ajol.info/index.php/jcmphc/article/view/245152">2023</a> found a 30%, 34% and 55.8% drinking prevalence among youths in Nigeria. </p>
<p>These statistics suggest that there will be more alcohol-related problems such as <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6601673/">brain underdevelopment or damage</a>, alcohol-induced <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/00220426231184151">sicknesses, truancy, violence, injuries</a> and death among young people than there used to be. </p>
<p>Existing studies not only show that youths are drinking, but reveal heavy drinking and drunkenness. These findings also echo a <a href="https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241565639">World Health Organization report from 2018</a> which showed that the 22.5% prevalence of heavy episodic drinking among Nigerians aged 15 to 19 years was among the highest on the African continent. </p>
<h2>How do liquor sachets contribute to the problem?</h2>
<p>Research has shown that several factors are responsible for youth alcohol consumption in Nigeria. Chief among them is <a href="https://books.google.ie/books?hl=en&lr=&id=qnOyDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR7&dq=Global+status+on+alcohol&ots=a2ksQEocgr&sig=dgRbP_sCOyG2LXTySU2dfuIvMMk&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Global%20status%20on%20alcohol&f=false">unregulated alcohol marketing</a>. Alcohol corporations in Nigeria increasingly use aggressive marketing strategies, <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/16066359.2016.1202930">advertising and sales promotions</a> such as buy-two-get-one-free that make different brands of such alcohol readily <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00220426221135765">available, accessible and affordable</a>.</p>
<p>Alcoholic beverages packaged in less than 200ml plastic bottles and sachets are affordable and widely available in retail shops, supermarkets, roadside kiosks and eateries in Nigeria. </p>
<p>They are also sold close to <a href="https://academic.oup.com/alcalc/article-abstract/58/6/628/7272955">primary and secondary schools</a>, where children spend time away from their parents. This is against international standard practices. </p>
<p>Sachet alcoholic beverages are also easy to carry and can be concealed from adults because of their small size. Young people can easily buy and drink them.</p>
<p>Another reason why sachet drinks are a problem is that they are spirit-based beverages with <a href="https://punchng.com/sachet-alcohol-ban-nafdac-lists-health-risks-as-firms-fear-losses/">high potency</a>. They can contain between <a href="https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ahs/article/view/194922">40% and 60%</a> alcohol, which is potentially <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09687637.2019.1615035">more harmful</a>. </p>
<p>There’s another reason too, related to another growing problem in Nigeria. Many youths now use different types of herbal sachet and plastic bottle alcoholic beverages as <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12889-016-3163-1">aphrodisiacs</a> and <a href="https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ahs/article/view/194922">sex enhancers</a>. A <a href="https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ahs/article/view/194922">2020 study</a> found that 33.6% of adolescents used sachet alcohol before their last sexual intercourse. </p>
<h2>How effective are bans of liquor products?</h2>
<p>Well-coordinated enforcement of the ban can check the availability of sachet alcoholic beverages. This should reduce accessibility, consumption and related harms among young people. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.jsad.com/doi/abs/10.15288/jsad.2021.82.511">Uganda</a> has a ban, which has reduced the availability and consumption of sachet alcohol in that country. <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00036840110102743?casa_token=HVq94RCTjUQAAAAA:ARU9QJAFeresjhcYe3pNfNixDCdRcGYRmMqLQeONqFVAQGwZTMs5uMennGxfeivRxElYLdCgj4mw">Research</a> in western countries has also shown that banning alcohol advertising reduces consumption. </p>
<p>For the ban to be effective, Nigeria should learn from <a href="https://substanceabusepolicy.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13011-020-00280-8">Malawi’s</a> experience. There, the ban on sachet alcohol failed to produce the desired results due to the lack of coordinated and effective enforcement.</p>
<h2>Do state institutions in Nigeria have capacity to enforce the ban?</h2>
<p>It requires coordinated effort. As a regulatory body, the National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control may not implement the ban without the support of federal law enforcement agencies like the police. </p>
<h2>What else can be done to deal with youth drinking?</h2>
<p>Dealing with the problem of alcohol consumption among youths goes beyond placing a ban on sachet alcoholic beverages. Many young people in western countries are shunning alcohol consumption due to the rising awareness of the problems associated with drinking and also because of <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/dar.13132">reduced peer pressure</a>. The decline in youth drinking in the west may also be due to effective policy implementation on alcohol marketing and the increased <a href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.2202/1935-1682.1637/html">minimum drinking age</a>, especially in countries such as the US.</p>
<p>Nigerian agencies should learn from the reasons why youths in the west are avoiding alcohol. This will help when designing and sharing information to educate Nigerian youths and the public on the dangers of using sachet alcoholic products. </p>
<p>The awareness campaign should highlight the short- and long-term positive effects of the ban. This is important so that alcohol producers and marketers will not form alliances that will frustrate the purpose.</p>
<p>To disseminate information widely, social media platforms where young people are increasingly active should be prioritised without neglecting the traditional media. Health NGOs and other charities should also help spread information on the ban’s benefits, including the idea that “health is wealth”. </p>
<p>Nigeria should increase the minimum purchasing age from 18 to 21 years and enforce such regulations to deter early alcohol initiation and consumption.</p>
<p>To prevent the failure of the sachet alcohol ban, the federal government should ensure it’s enforced without corruption.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223136/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Emeka Dumbili receives funding from Alexander Von Humboldt Foundation, Germany (2019-2022). </span></em></p>The sachet alcoholic drinks ban in Nigeria can curb youth alcohol consumption. But government must improve enforcement and awareness strategies for success.Emeka Dumbili, Assistant Professor and Ad Astra Fellow, University College DublinLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2231452024-02-22T14:37:14Z2024-02-22T14:37:14ZTraditional weather forecasts: expert shares 5 ways Africa’s coastal residents predict floods<p>In the Lapai Gwari community of Niger state, north central Nigeria, elders predict the weather by observing a large stone in the Chachanga River. The LapanGwagwan stone serves as a tool to determine the frequency of flooding and gauge the severity of rainfall. </p>
<p>When the colour of the stone changes to brown, it signifies an imminent heavy downpour, while a grey colour indicates either light or moderate rainfall. </p>
<p>This traditional knowledge helps the community to prepare for potential flooding.</p>
<p>This is just one example of the indigenous knowledge established in the <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26269399?seq=1">literature</a> as important in mitigating the effects of climate change. The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Assessment <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/srccl/chapter/chapter-7/">report</a> also affirms that indigenous knowledge should be integrated into research.</p>
<p>Transferring this knowledge doesn’t always happen, however. Scientists and policymakers don’t all recognise its value.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, for coastal communities like Lapai Gwari, frequent flooding poses a <a href="https://ehs.unu.edu/news/news/frequent-flooding-in-african-coastal-cities-demand-holistic-recovery-pathways.html#:%7E:text=Frequent%20flooding%20in%20African%20coastal%20cities%20demand%20holistic%20recovery%20pathways,-News&text=Coastal%20cities%20across%20Africa%20experience,and%20oftentimes%20extreme%E2%80%93%20flood%20events.">major threat and risk</a> to long-term development. </p>
<p><a href="https://wires.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/wcc.253">Studies</a> suggest that by 2100, sea levels could rise by as much as 100cm, presenting even more hazards to coastal communities around Africa.</p>
<p>I have been <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=c5aWJIsAAAAJ&view_op=list_works&sortby=pubdate">researching</a> the adaptation and resilience of African coastal cities to climate change for over a decade. I believe that identifying and integrating indigenous knowledge has a lot to offer.</p>
<p>In a <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-031-27280-6_10">recent book chapter</a>, I identified five unique indigenous knowledge strategies practised in four coastal communities of Africa. These are: change in water colour; lunar observation; participatory mapping; yearly sacrifice to the gods; and extensive knowledge of local plants and animals.</p>
<p>I argue that drawing on local wisdom and expertise can enhance policies and mechanisms to protect people from the effects of frequent flooding in African coastal cities. </p>
<h2>Research aims and methods</h2>
<p>To identify the indigenous knowledge within these communities, I reviewed relevant literature, newspaper articles and social media outlets, and interviewed local residents of coastal communities. These were in Lagos and Delta States in Nigeria, Durban in South Africa, and Accra in Ghana. </p>
<p>I aimed to understand practices in these communities that related to flood resilience and adaptation.</p>
<p>I discovered that people had useful indigenous knowledge about predicting and mapping flood risks. But this knowledge was fragmented and there wasn’t a cohesive framework to put it into practice.</p>
<p>People said that knowledge wasn’t being documented and shared. Also, religion and education influenced perceptions about the value of the knowledge. </p>
<h2>Five indigenous knowledge strategies</h2>
<p><strong>Change in water colour:</strong> Local residents in Delta State, Nigeria told me how they knew that a flood was about to occur: there was a sudden change in the colour of the water from clear to deep brown. The flood usually followed the change in water colour after 24 to 48 hours. This warning sign gave the community time to take precautions, such as evacuating low-lying areas and securing belongings.</p>
<p><strong>Lunar observation:</strong> People in the Anlo coastal community in Ghana’s Volta Region study the moon and use it to predict flood years. They said an approaching full moon during the peak of rainfall indicated that flood was imminent. They understand the moon’s influence on tidal patterns and its correlation with flood events, empowering them to act in advance.</p>
<p><strong>Participatory mapping approach:</strong> In Accra and Durban, some residents have developed a participatory mapping approach which helps them prepare for floods. They map their surroundings, including vulnerable areas and natural resources. This enables them to identify areas prone to flooding and assess the effectiveness of existing nature-based solutions such as mangroves or wetlands. They can also find ways to reduce flood risks.</p>
<p><strong>Yearly sacrifice to the gods:</strong> The chief priest of the Isheri community in Lagos described an annual sacrifice performed to appease the gods and cope with flooding. This indigenous practice reflects the cultural and spiritual beliefs of the community.</p>
<p><strong>Knowledge of local flora and fauna:</strong> The coastal communities I studied had a deep knowledge of local plants and animals and their ecological significance. They knew about the impact of climate change on these species. Through their close interactions with the environment, people had observed changes in the behaviour, distribution and abundance of species, providing valuable insights into the effects of climate change.</p>
<h2>From practice to policy</h2>
<p>These unique indigenous knowledge practices offer opportunities to build resilient coastal communities. So it is disheartening that their recognition and integration into mainstream efforts remains limited. </p>
<p>My <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-031-27280-6_10">study</a> proposes that the new models and innovations for resilience practice should draw on indigenous knowledge.</p>
<p>The starting point is for policymakers to acknowledge its value. Ways must be found to work together, creating and sharing knowledge. Such platforms should bring together scientists, experts, policymakers and indigenous communities to foster mutual learning, respect and understanding.</p>
<p>Communities also need help to build their capacity and strengthen their role in resilience initiatives. This includes supporting initiatives that document and preserve indigenous knowledge, recognising its cultural and historical significance. </p>
<p>Investments should be made in education and training that promotes the transmission of indigenous knowledge to younger generations, ensuring its continuity and relevance in the face of evolving environmental challenges.</p>
<p>By embracing the authentic integration of scientific and indigenous knowledge, we can pave the way for more comprehensive, context-specific and sustainable approaches to flood resilience in African coastal cities.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223145/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Olasunkanmi Habeeb Okunola is a Visiting Scientist at the United Nations University Institute for Environment and Human Security. </span></em></p>In African coastal communities, traditional knowledge helps residents to anticipate and prepare for potential flooding events.Olasunkanmi Habeeb Okunola, Visiting Scientist, United Nations University – Institute for Environment and Human Security (UNU-EHS), United Nations UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2215042024-02-20T14:27:38Z2024-02-20T14:27:38ZLagos: drugs, firearms and youth unemployment are creating a lethal cocktail in Nigeria’s commercial capital<p>Lagos is the <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/1218259/largest-cities-in-africa/#:%7E:text=Lagos%2C%20in%20Nigeria%2C%20ranked%20as,living%20in%20the%20city%20proper.">most populous</a> city in Africa and a regional economic giant, having west Africa’s busiest seaport. It is the centre of commercial and economic activities in Nigeria.</p>
<p>The city’s <a href="https://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/april-2019-july-2019/africa%E2%80%99s-megacities-magnet-investors">population</a> is estimated to be 20 million people. The existence of informal settlements makes it difficult to come up with a more precise number.</p>
<p>Lagos has <a href="https://www.african-cities.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/ACRC_Lagos_City-Scoping-Study.pdf">grown</a> rapidly since Nigerian independence in 1960, when its estimated population was 763,000 people. In the 1980s, its population reached 2.7 million. The government of Lagos state estimates that <a href="https://insidebusiness.ng/18245/rapid-urbanization-86-migrants-enter-lagos-every-hour-ambode/">86 young migrants</a> arrive every hour.</p>
<p>This rapid urbanisation has been poorly managed. The result is crumbling public infrastructure, poor sanitation, poverty, and shortages of employment opportunities, food, social services, housing and public transport. </p>
<p>These challenges combine to make the city susceptible to criminal activities. Organised crime and violent conflicts are a public safety and security challenge. </p>
<p>The issue of crime has been with Lagos for years. In 1993, the Nigerian government <a href="https://ludi.org.ng/2023/07/10/crime-prevention-through-public-space-design-a-lagos-story/#:%7E:text=The%20rapid%20population%20growth%20without,leading%20to%20high%20crime%20rates.">described</a> Lagos as the “crime capital of the country” with the emergence of the “<a href="https://reliefweb.int/report/nigeria/nigeria-area-boys-growing-menace-streets-lagos">Area Boys</a>”, a group of social miscreants. </p>
<p>The 2017 <a href="https://nigerianstat.gov.ng/elibrary/read/786">statistics</a> on reported crime incidences in Nigeria by the <a href="https://www.nigerianstat.gov.ng/">National Bureau of Statistics</a> shows that Lagos has remained in a class of its own. Lagos State had the highest percentage share of total cases reported with <a href="https://nigerianstat.gov.ng/elibrary/read/786#:%7E:text=Lagos%20State%20has%20the%20highest,205(0.2%25)%20cases%20recorded.">50,975</a> (37.9%) cases recorded. </p>
<p>I have been <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=jDncA6MAAAAJ&hl=en">researching</a> various aspects of crime and insecurity in Nigeria, particularly in the country’s south-west. I currently lead the <a href="https://www.african-cities.org/">African Cities Research Consortium</a> safety and security domain research in Lagos.</p>
<p>I contributed to a recent <a href="https://www.african-cities.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/ACRC_Working-Paper-7_February-2024.pdf#page=26">paper</a> about residents’ experiences and perceptions of safety in six African cities: Nairobi, Bukavu, Freetown, Mogadishu, Lagos and Maiduguri. </p>
<p>My research identified various drivers of insecurity in Lagos. They included youth migration and unemployment; inequality and poverty; the visible network of organised youth criminal groups; proliferation of small arms and drugs; inadequate preparedness of the city government; police corruption; the high rate of out-of-school children; and poor urban planning.</p>
<p>I argue that for residents to feel secure, the government needs to include these drivers in approaches to solving security challenges in Lagos. </p>
<h2>Unemployment, firearms and drugs</h2>
<p>In my African Cities Research Consortium safety and security domain research in Lagos, unemployment and the proliferation of small firearms and drugs stand out as trends. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://medium.com/@olaoyeleye09/navigating-unemployment-in-lagos-nigeria-1a55c2a5e0b5">survey</a> on Navigating Unemployment in Lagos, Nigeria revealed that 48.31% of the respondents were unemployed and the majority were between 25 and 34 years old.</p>
<p>In Lagos, youth of 18-40 years make up about half of the <a href="https://www.urbanet.info/youth-employment-in-lagos/#:%7E:text=In%20Lagos%2C%20youth%20are%20believed,equalling%20over%2010%20million%20people.">population</a>, equalling over ten million people facing high rates of unemployment. I do not have current unemployment data but in its fourth quarter 2020 nationwide survey, the National Bureau of Statistics <a href="https://mepb.lagosstate.gov.ng/wp-content/uploads/sites/29/2022/02/MACRO-ECONS-FLYER-DECEMBER-2021-edition-1.pdf">estimated</a> a 37.14% unemployment rate in Lagos, and 4.52% underemployment rate.</p>
<p>According to my research participants, drug abuse and illicit arms have become serious issues. Some of the city precincts in communities such as Ikorodu, Somolu, Agege, Bariga, Ojo, Oshodi, Mushin and Badagry have become warehouses and destinations for firearms and drugs. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://enactafrica.org/research/ocwar-t/silencing-the-guns-in-cities-urbanisation-and-arms-trafficking-in-bamako-and-lagos">recent survey</a> published by <a href="https://enactafrica.org/research/organised-crime-index#:%7E:text=The%20ENACT%20Africa%20Organised%20Crime,organised%20crime%20across%20the%20continent.&text=The%20ENACT%20Index%20is%20a,organised%20crime%20on%20the%20continent.">ENACT Transnational</a> on organised crime in Africa has shown that between 2010 and 2017, the largest supply of live ammunition transported into Nigeria illegally was intercepted at Lagos. This was made up of 21,407,933 items of live ammunition and 1,100 pump action guns.</p>
<p>Most of the illegal weapons pass through ports in west Africa; some are imported over land borders. While the country’s <a href="https://omaplex.com.ng/an-overview-of-the-gun-regulations-in-nigeria-the-current-stance-and-the-way-forward/">law forbids</a> random possession of firearms, my research respondents say it is surprisingly common for young miscreants to carry firearms in Lagos.</p>
<p>The police have <a href="https://www.premiumtimesng.com/regional/ssouth-west/409520-blacksmith-two-others-arrested-for-illegal-firearms-fabrication.html">confirmed</a> that hooligans acquire illicit firearms from local blacksmiths who make them, and from corrupt security officers. </p>
<p>In 2022, the National Drug Law Enforcement Agency <a href="https://www.thisdaylive.com/index.php/2022/09/23/the-lagos-drug-bust">discovered</a> a warehouse in a residential estate in Ikorodu with 1.8 tonnes of cocaine. This was the largest single cocaine seizure in the country’s history.</p>
<p>In November 2023, security agents <a href="https://leadership.ng/navy-intercepts-boats-with-n200m-illicit-drugs-in-lagos/">intercepted</a> cannabis in Ibeshe, Iworoshoki and Badagry, and in January 2024, the drug law enforcement agency <a href="https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/top-news/656790-nigerian-authorities-intercept-hard-drugs-from-us-arrest-suspect-official.html">intercepted</a> cannabis at Ikeja.</p>
<h2>Impacts of unemployment, small arms and drugs in Lagos</h2>
<p>Findings from <a href="https://www.african-cities.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/ACRC_Working-Paper-7_February-2024.pdf#page=26">my research</a> in Lagos show respondents perceive high levels of violent crime in the city. Youth aged 13 to 40 are mostly the perpetrators.</p>
<p>While there are no accurate statistics of daily violent crime incidences, residents are <a href="https://punchng.com/daredevil-daylight-robbers-return-to-lagos-streets/">complaining</a>. </p>
<p>In 2022, the police <a href="https://securityandsafetymatters.wordpress.com/2022/11/24/lagos-police-says-over-three-hundred-people-brutally-murdered/">reported</a> that no fewer than 345 people were murdered in Lagos – the highest number in years. </p>
<p>Young people have formed themselves into street gangs. My research respondents spoke of violent encounters in which their assailants used firearms and were often under the influence of alcohol or drugs or both. This was the experience of 18 respondents, out of a sample of 50 randomly selected respondents.</p>
<p>Some respondents described street gangs in Lagos who are constantly high on drugs and have no regard for human life. Other respondents said drugs were accessible and affordable even for unemployed youth. Respondents believed that a combination of a large youth population, unemployment and easy access to drugs and illicit firearms was proving deadly.</p>
<h2>Preventing and treating the issues</h2>
<p>The crime triangle in Lagos – youth unemployment, drugs and illicit arms – requires urgent attention. </p>
<p>My study in Lagos shows that a widespread sense of economic hopelessness exacerbates the use of drug and firearms by young people in Lagos. Youth who embrace this culture of violence are those who feel that they have no stake in the city and no trust in the government to provide opportunities for them.</p>
<p>Thus, the state and communities must address the lack of opportunities and alternatives, reaching out to marginalised youth and providing them with an environment in which they can lead a fulfilling life. An effective strategy is one that provides legitimate activities and job opportunities for them. </p>
<p>Government action is required to ensure that opportunities exist for training in a trade or life skill. This would enable youth to make better choices and find productive employment. They could be socially responsible and play an active role in the city rather than becoming a threat in their communities.</p>
<p>Government has the authority to control the supply and use of firearms and drugs. </p>
<p>Special operations should be directed at drug addicts and unlicensed firearms carriers. The approach should be to disrupt the market for illicit arms and drugs. </p>
<p>Security agencies can work with communities to discover new dealing locations and make buyers feel vulnerable and uncomfortable through sting operations – pretending to be dealers or users. </p>
<p>Urban planning approaches could also be applied such as inclusive planning of informal settlements, installation of security cameras and street lighting, limiting access to problematic streets through road changes, removal of transport stops used by drug and firearms users and their dealers, and improved signage.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221504/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Adewumi I. Badiora does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Youth migration, unemployment, proliferation of small arms and drugs are some of the drivers of violent crimes in Lagos.Adewumi I. Badiora, Senior Lecturer, Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Olabisi Onabanjo UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2205072024-02-08T14:09:18Z2024-02-08T14:09:18ZNigeria’s street food: tasty but toxic? Expert shares advice to make it safer<p>In the lively streets of Nigeria’s cities, where delicious street food is a daily delight, a wide variety of food can be bought and consumed instantly. From the sizzling suya snack in Abuja to the aromatic jollof rice in Lagos, street food has become an integral part of Nigerian life. </p>
<p>However, beneath these enticing flavours lies a critical question of public safety and health regulation. There is growing concern about the chemical and microbiological safety of these foods, as there seems not to be any oversight or control in their production and marketing.</p>
<p>Over 70% of urban dwellers in Africa <a href="https://www.ifpri.org/blog/why-brutalizing-food-vendors-hits-africas-growing-cities-where-it-hurts#:%7E:text=Food%20markets%20in%20the%20informal,meat%2C%20fish%2C%20and%20milk.">rely on street vendors</a>. However, inadequate government regulation in developing nations, such as Nigeria, raises concerns about food safety and public health. Foodborne diseases have been <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/23311932.2023.2266194">linked</a> with contaminated street foods. Common pathogens include <em>E. coli</em> and <em>Salmonella</em>, which has potential to cause foodborne illnesses such as <a href="https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/gastroenteritis-salmonellosis">gastroenteritis</a>, <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/e-coli">haemorrhagic colitis or bloody diarrhoea and life-threatening conditions such as haemolytic uraemic syndrome</a>. Heavy metal contamination is another risk. </p>
<p>This issue is not unique to Nigeria or Africa; it is a <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-981-15-2556-8_7">global challenge</a> in many developing countries where street food is a <a href="https://www.scirp.org/journal/paperinformation?paperid=104389">substantial</a> part of the economy.</p>
<p><a href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/82316865.pdf">Research</a> has explored the role of street-vended foods in meeting socio-economic challenges, particularly in developing nations. Other studies have focused on the microbiological safety of street foods (for example, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0362028X22104229?via%3Dihub">soy wara</a>, a Nigerian curdled soy milk product), and <a href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/82316865.pdf">the risk factors in street food practices</a>. </p>
<p>Our own <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/23311932.2023.2266194">study</a> analysed gaps in the safety and regulation of street foods in Nigeria. We highlighted gaps in infrastructure, training and vendor awareness, and made recommendations to solve the problems we identified. </p>
<p>We <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/23311932.2023.2266194">found</a> a gap in food safety standards for street-vended foods in Nigeria. While street food vendors <a href="https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ajfand/article/view/163672/153148">provide</a> affordable and accessible meals, the lack of regulation <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/23311932.2023.2266194">poses</a> significant health risks. </p>
<h2>Why street food can be unsafe</h2>
<p>The primary concern is hygiene and food handling practices. Inadequate <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.2991/efood.k.200619.001">access to clean water</a>, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8279176/">inappropriate waste disposal</a>, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0956713514004307">temperature abuse</a> and lack of food safety knowledge are common challenges seen among street food vendors. </p>
<p>These conditions can lead to food-borne illnesses, which can be prevented but continue to be a public health issue. The WHO <a href="https://www.who.int/activities/estimating-the-burden-of-foodborne-diseases#:%7E:text=Each%20year%20worldwide%2C%20unsafe%20food,number%20is%20likely%20an%20underestimation.">estimates</a> that each year, there are more than 600 million cases of foodborne illnesses, resulting in over 420,000 deaths, with the greatest burden of these (more than 30%) occuring in children less than 5 years of age. </p>
<p>In Nigeria, there have been pockets of foodborne disease outbreaks over the years which have claimed lives. The Consumer Advocacy for Food Safety and Nutrition Initiative <a href="https://www.gainhealth.org/sites/default/files/publications/documents/report-of-eatsafe-launch-in-nigeria-with-next-steps.pdf#page=3">estimates</a> that 173 million cases of foodborne illnesses occur in Nigeria, resulting in 33,000 deaths annually.</p>
<p>Generally, street food preparation in Nigeria mirrors traditional approaches to food preparation at home. However, <a href="https://jara.org.in/uploads/archivepdf/8025JARA_Vol_03_June_2021_01.pdf">a study in Asaba</a>, Delta State Nigeria highlights that because of the scale and quantity of foods prepared, more than 50% of food processors do not wash raw foods prior to preparation and another 40% of the food processors do not wash their hands. Neither do they practise personal hygiene during the handling of foods. Similarly, many street food vendors <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25258630/">operate in less than perfect environments for food processing</a>: many street food vendor stands have flies, rodents and open waste bins which are risk factors for the contamination of foods. </p>
<p>The lack of a clean and sanitary environment for food processing <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8279176/">has been identified</a> as among the key factors that contribute to the contamination of street foods by microorganisms. </p>
<h2>Checking unsafe practices</h2>
<p>A multifaceted approach to these issues must be adopted. </p>
<ul>
<li><p>Training: First, <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/23311932.2023.2266194">basic food safety training for vendors</a> is crucial. This training should cover essential hygiene practices, safe food handling and storage procedures. It can be done through local health departments and community organisations. This recommendation draws on <a href="https://www.food.gov.uk/business-guidance/food-hygiene-for-your-business">established principles</a> of hygiene and safe food handling. Continuous training on food safety has <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0287996">proved</a> effective in promoting food safety.</p></li>
<li><p>Enforcement: The government should <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/23311932.2023.2266194">develop and enforce</a> food safety regulations specific to street vendors. This requires a balance between ensuring public health and not stifling the livelihoods of the vendors. Subsidising the cost of necessary equipment like portable sinks or refrigeration units could be a part of this initiative. Supplying vendors with hygienic materials has <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0287996">proved</a> to be valuable for preserving and enhancing food safety in low- and middle-income nations.</p></li>
<li><p>Inspection: Regular inspections should be conducted to ensure compliance with these regulations. These should not be punitive but rather supportive, helping vendors to meet the required standards. A <a href="https://www.food.gov.uk/sites/default/files/media/document/Stage%202%20Process_evaluation%20final%20report.pdf">food hygiene rating scheme</a> should be put in place to identify vendors complying with food safety standards as this could motivate them to improve their sanitary conditions.</p></li>
<li><p>Awareness: Public awareness also plays a vital role. Consumers should be educated about the importance of food safety and how to identify vendors who adhere to hygiene standards. <a href="https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-019-7475-9">Consumer awareness</a> can create a demand for safer practices, encouraging vendors to comply with regulations.</p></li>
<li><p>Research and development: Finally, research and collaboration with food scientists and public health experts can lead to innovative solutions that are tailored to the Nigerian context. For instance, exploring low-cost preservation techniques or developing mobile apps for health inspection ratings could revolutionise the way street food is regulated.</p></li>
</ul>
<h2>Regulations will save lives and livelihoods</h2>
<p>Regulating street food in Nigeria is not just about preventing disease; it is about preserving a way of life in a safe and sustainable manner. At the heart of this issue are the vendors and consumers, whose lives and well-being are interconnected with the very essence of street food culture.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220507/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Helen Onyeaka does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Street food is popular in Nigeria but safety is not regulated.Helen Onyeaka, Associate Professor, University of BirminghamLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2207392024-02-01T14:24:22Z2024-02-01T14:24:22ZSlaves of God: Nigeria’s traditional Osu slavery practice was stopped, but the suffering continues<p><em>There are global efforts to fight modern slavery, but a few traditional systems still hold strong in west Africa. These include Osu, Ohu and Trokosi.</em></p>
<p><em>The Conversation Africa’s Godfred Akoto Boafo spoke to Michael Odijie who has <a href="https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-854">researched</a> one of the systems – Osu – and what can be done to finally put a stop to it.</em></p>
<h2>What is Osu?</h2>
<p><a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2459907">Osu</a> is a traditional practice in the <a href="http://www.faculty.ucr.edu/%7Elegneref/igbo/igbo2.htm#:%7E:text=Most%20Igbo%20speakers%20are%20based,%2C%20Ebonyi%2C%20and%20Enugu%20States.">Igbo region</a>, in south-eastern Nigeria. In the past, Osu involved dedicating individuals to local deities, “transforming” them into slaves of the gods. Though such dedications no longer take place, the descendants of past Osu suffer from discrimination and social exclusion.</p>
<p>Historically, there were <a href="https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-854">several ways</a> a person could become an Osu. Some were purchased as slaves and then dedicated to local gods, either to atone for a crime committed by the purchaser or to seek assistance from the deity. An individual might attain the status of an Osu through birth if one of their parents was an Osu or through voluntarily seeking asylum, thus assuming the Osu status. For example, during the transatlantic slave trade, many chose this path: they would run to a shrine and dedicate themselves, to avoid being sold. Once dedicated as an Osu, they were generally ostracised from Igbo communities, yet simultaneously regarded with fear, seen as the slave of a deity.</p>
<p>Another common way to become an Osu was through marriage to an Osu, leading to persistent marriage discrimination even today.</p>
<p>The spread of Christianity, which occurred rapidly among the Igbos in the <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-african-history/article/colonialism-and-christianity-in-west-africa-the-igbo-case-190019151/A803DBB4AAF24CCEEA20597B37B5E649">20th century</a>, discouraged the practice of worshipping local deities. The historical practice of Osu has ended.</p>
<p>However, a new form of discrimination has taken its place, targeting the descendants of those historically identified as Osu. </p>
<p>One of the most significant forms of modern discrimination occurs in the <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/cambridge-journal-of-postcolonial-literary-inquiry/article/abs/abolition-law-and-the-osu-marriage-novel/DDA6F8DDBB3D12D822EE42CC17FE165D">realm of marriage</a>. Freeborn individuals, who have no Osu lineage, are customarily prohibited from marrying someone of Osu lineage. Should they do so, both they and their offspring permanently become Osu, facing the same discrimination. This discrimination has a profound impact on the social and emotional lives of many Igbos of Osu lineage, particularly those of marriageable age. It can be challenging for them to find a spouse.</p>
<p>Another form of discrimination nowadays is social exclusion. In Igbo villages, Osu live in segregated quarters and are barred from social interactions with freeborn community members. They face barriers to accessing certain public amenities, attending community events and participating in communal decision-making processes. </p>
<p>Their descendants are also restricted from holding specific influential positions in the Igbo village power structure, such as the Okpara (the oldest man in the village) and the Onyishi.</p>
<h2>How prevalent is Osu and where is it practised?</h2>
<p>G. Ugo Nwokeji is an Igbo cultural historian who studied slavery in the Igbo region. <a href="https://www.newyorker.com/news/dispatch/the-descendants-of-slaves-in-nigeria-fight-for-equality">He estimated</a> that the Osu represented 5%-10% of the Igbo population. With an ethnic population of about 30 million <a href="https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780199846733/obo-9780199846733-0143.xml">Igbos</a> in Nigeria, this suggests that between 1.5 and 3 million Igbos suffer from this discrimination. </p>
<p>The vast majority of Osu are found in Imo State, which has about 5.2 million people. But they are in every other Igbo-dominated state as well: Enugu, Anambra, Ebonyi and Abia.</p>
<h2>Why has it been a challenge for governments to end the Osu practice?</h2>
<p>In 1956, <a href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780195382075.001.0001/acref-9780195382075-e-0239">Nnamdi Azikiwe</a>, then the premier of Eastern Nigeria and later the first president of Nigeria, spearheaded the passage of a <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/218649">law</a> aimed at abolishing Osu and its social disadvantages. </p>
<p>But the practice continued. No arrests were recorded. Osu is deeply rooted in tradition, making a purely legal approach insufficient.</p>
<p>One reason why eliminating discrimination has been difficult is that identifying an Osu is relatively straightforward for Igbos. They often reside in their own distinct quarters. Therefore, simply mentioning one’s village or family name can reveal one’s Osu status. This situation is a result of a combination of Igbo culture and colonial policy from the 1920s. During this period, individuals of slave origin began to assert themselves, and the British colonial response was to segregate them.</p>
<h2>What other approaches should be tried?</h2>
<p>A new abolition movement is gaining momentum in the Igbo region of Nigeria, fuelled by social media. This has enabled widespread awareness and advocacy, creating a more robust and inclusive dialogue about the Osu system.</p>
<p>One of the leading groups in this new movement is the <a href="https://ifetacsios.org.ng/">Initiative For the Eradication of Traditional and Cultural Stigmatisation in Our Society</a>, a network of campaigners led by Ogechukwu Stella Maduagwu. </p>
<p>Recognising that the Osu system is often viewed as having spiritual significance, the initiative places greater emphasis on the advice of cultural custodians, including traditional rulers. Consequently, it has developed a “model of abolition” that involves consultation with cultural figures, such as chief priests representing the deities, in Igbo villages. Using this model, the organisation successfully conducted an abolition ceremony in the <a href="https://dailypost.ng/2021/04/06/joy-celebration-as-nsukka-abolishes-osu-caste-system/">Nsukka region</a> of Enugu State.</p>
<p>Another leading campaigner is <a href="https://www.globalpeacechain.org/team_members/dr-nwaocha-ogechukwu/">Nwaocha Ogechukwu</a>, a scholar and researcher specialising in religious and cultural discrimination. He has established a platform named Marriage Without Borders to assist young people who face marriage discrimination due to being labelled as Osu. In collaboration with religious leaders, he provides counselling and support to those suffering from the adverse effects of this system.</p>
<p>A challenge for the emerging movement is its localised approach. Without a strategy that encompasses the entire Igbo region, campaigners are unable to collaborate effectively or engage in a unified, sustainable effort. This issue arises from the diverse genealogies of the Osu and the lack of a single traditional Igbo authority. </p>
<p>As a result, the movement has found it difficult to gain widespread traction. It continues to have a village-level focus.</p>
<p>We recommend that the movement align itself with broader human rights campaigns within Nigeria, across Africa and internationally. The Osu system bears resemblances to Ghana’s <a href="https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1190&context=history-in-the-making">Trokosi system</a>. The campaign to abolish <a href="https://theconversation.com/girls-in-west-africa-offered-into-sexual-slavery-as-wives-of-gods-105400">Trokosi</a> achieved notable success because its message resonated on a national level, garnering support from international activists.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220739/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael E Odijie receives funding from UCL Knowledge Exchange </span></em></p>Ending discrimination against the Osu has been difficult because identifying an Osu is relatively straightforward for Igbos.Michael E Odijie, Research associate, UCLLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2217702024-01-30T13:19:19Z2024-01-30T13:19:19ZNigeria’s plastic ban: why it’s good and how it can work<p>Two weeks into January 2024, Nigerian authorities took steps to curb environmental degradation caused by plastic pollution in the country.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://von.gov.ng/environment-ministry-bans-single-use-plastics-at-headquarters-agencies/">Federal Ministry of Environment</a> and the Lagos State government both announced <a href="https://twitter.com/tokunbo_wahab/status/1749055962193744206">bans</a> on single-use plastics.</p>
<p>The Federal Ministry of Environment was the first to issue a directive. It banned single-use plastics in its own departments and agencies. The Lagos State government followed a few days later with a ban on styrofoam containers (popularly used for food packaging) and <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OPr_5fdI_BQ">gave</a> businesses three weeks to mop up styrofoam in circulation.</p>
<p>The Abia State government in the south-east followed with its own <a href="https://dailypost.ng/2024/01/28/abia-govt-bans-take-away-foils/">ban</a> on single-use plastics, announced on 27 January. </p>
<p>Nigeria generates excessive amounts of <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/16/2/672#B9-sustainability-16-00672">plastic waste</a>, nearly 90% of which is <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/16/2/672">mismanaged</a>. </p>
<p>As an environmental toxicologist, I argue that there is enough research evidence showing the adverse effects of plastic waste on the environment – as well as potential harm to people – to support the ban. As a member of the Metrics Task Force of the <a href="https://www.globalplasticaction.org/nigeria">Nigeria National Plastic Action Plan</a>, among others, I have been part of several stakeholder <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/feed/update/urn:li:activity:7066392385236123649/">engagements</a> since 2022 across the plastic waste value chain, contributing to the evidence on the severity of the plastic waste menace in Nigeria. </p>
<p>The challenge will be implementation. Nigeria has had a law in the pipeline banning single-use plastics <a href="https://www.greenpeace.org/africa/en/blogs/11156/34-plastic-bans-in-africa/">since 2013</a>. It has still not been <a href="https://www.greenpeace.org/africa/en/blogs/50697/the-negative-impact-of-plastic-in-nigeria-the-need-for-a-legal-framework/">promulgated</a> at the national level. </p>
<p>Nevertheless, the recent bans are being announced with <a href="https://punchng.com/lasg-gives-styrofoam-makers-three-weeks-to-clear-stock/#:%7E:text=The%20Lagos%20State%20Government%2C%20on,before%20the%20commencement%20of%20enforcement.">pledges</a> of <a href="https://businesspost.ng/general/abia-prohibits-use-of-styrofoam-foils-after-lagos/#:%7E:text=A%20statement%20issued%20over%20the,but%20the%20implementation%20was%20relaxed.">stringent implementation</a>.</p>
<p>To make it work this time, Nigeria could learn from other countries like <a href="https://www.no-burn.org/rwanda-plastic-ban/#:%7E:text=Rwanda%20was%20the%20first%20country,the%20issue%20of%20plastic%20pollution.">Rwanda</a> that have issued similar bans. It is also important to consider affordable alternatives and the human and financial resources that are needed to enforce the ban.</p>
<h2>Why banning single-use plastics is necessary</h2>
<p>Nigeria has been rather slow to tackle plastic pollution. This is despite research documenting the extent of plastic waste in the environment, which has <a href="https://www.wacaprogram.org/sites/waca/files/knowdoc/Nigeria_plastics_PWC_final%20%281%29.pdf#page=4">caused</a> pollution of rivers and water bodies and reduced fish populations.</p>
<p>We conducted a <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Temitope-Sogbanmu/publication/360677339_Plastic_Pollution_in_the_Environment_in_Nigeria_A_Rapid_Systematic_Review_of_the_Sources_Distribution_Research_Gaps_and_Policy_Needs/links/6291f3886886635d5caa425c/Plastic-Pollution-in-the-Environment-in-Nigeria-A-Rapid-Systematic-Review-of-the-Sources-Distribution-Research-Gaps-and-Policy-Needs.pdf">review</a> of about 40 studies, mostly in south-western Nigeria, that documented the sources and extensive distribution of plastic waste. </p>
<p>In more recent <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S277241662400010X?via%3Dihub">research we found</a> microplastics in Osun River, its sediments and fish. These tiny pieces of plastic are not degradable and can leach into living organisms when ingested, causing adverse effects.</p>
<p>A range of studies have documented various plastic waste types, forms, sizes and polymer compositions, especially highly hazardous ones. Hazardous plastic polymers have been found in potable water (<a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03067319.2021.1982926">bottled water</a> and <a href="https://jfqhc.ssu.ac.ir/article-1-483-en.html">sachet water</a>) and food such as (<a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11356-023-26410-w">fish</a> and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0075951119300970?via%20percent%203DDihub">snails</a>). They have also been found in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2468227622001272">surface waters</a>, sediments and air. </p>
<p>There is also evidence of a large quantity of uncollected plastic litter across major metropolises like <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/361548692_REVIEWING_THE_CONCEPT_WASTE_HIERARCHY_GUIDELINE_AND_THE_ENVIRONMENTAL_PROBLEM_OF_WASTE_MANAGEMANET_IN_LAGOS_STATE_NIGERIA">Lagos</a> and Abuja. </p>
<p>And there’s evidence that single-use plastics make up most of the plastic waste across the country. An example is water sachets – about <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128178805000220?via%3Dihub">60 million</a> of these are used daily in Nigeria. </p>
<h2>Lessons from other countries</h2>
<p>Nigeria can learn from the mistakes and successes of other countries that have banned single-use plastics. </p>
<p>It is estimated that <a href="https://www.euronews.com/green/2023/04/05/really-encouraging-plastic-bag-bans-work-say-campaigners-where-is-europe-lagging-behind">over 100 countries globally</a> have partially or fully banned single-use plastics. African and Asian countries top the list. </p>
<p>About <a href="https://cadmus.eui.eu/bitstream/handle/1814/73207/PB_2021_21_STG.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y#page=3">60%</a> of the countries in Africa have various bans on single-use plastics. Not all the countries have recorded <a href="https://cadmus.eui.eu/bitstream/handle/1814/73207/PB_2021_21_STG.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">successes</a>. </p>
<p>Rwanda is one African country that has <a href="https://www.undp.org/blog/umuganda-rwandas-audacity-hope-end-plastic-pollution#:%7E:text=The%20cleanliness%20is%20anchored%20in,is%20not%20an%20isolated%20law">succeeded</a>. The government used a top-down approach involving enforcement with stringent penalties and a bottom-up approach involving advocacy campaigns at the grassroots. </p>
<p>There have also been failures. In <a href="https://www.efdinitiative.org/publications/case-banning-single-use-plastics-malawi">Malawi</a>, the ban failed thrice mainly due to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2667010021000081?via%3Dihub">lack of robust stakeholder</a> consultation and national advocacy. </p>
<p>In Nigeria, affordable alternatives to single-use plastics should be made available in critical sectors such as pharmaceuticals, fast moving consumer goods, food manufacturing and processing.</p>
<h2>Enforcement</h2>
<p>For sustainable enforcement in Nigeria, the ban should be done sequentially. Non-essential uses, such as fizzy drinks and beverages packaging, should be targeted first. </p>
<p>This should be done while providing affordable alternatives and encouraging the production and use of sustainable materials. For example, potable water needs to be provided by the government at accessible and affordable prices as an alternative to sachet and plastic bottled water. </p>
<p>Strategic stakeholder engagement for monitoring, advocacy and buy-in is also key. It is important to carry along the private and informal sectors which drive the single-use plastics value chain. </p>
<p>Incentives to promote the adherence to this ban are important. The Federal Ministry of Environment is already leading this by <a href="https://punchng.com/govt-plans-to-stop-single-use-plastics/#:%7E:text=Kindly%20share%20this%20story%3A,Ministry%20of%20Environment%20in%20Abuja.">enforcing</a> the ban across its departments and agencies first.</p>
<p>The use of mainstream and social media platforms is important. And the judiciary and legal institutions must be engaged to support the enforcement, as was done in <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/11/q-a-reflecting-on-kenyas-single-use-plastic-bag-ban-three-years-on/">Kenya</a>. </p>
<p>Funds must be invested in sustainable local alternatives to single-use plastics. The aim would be to provide livelihoods. </p>
<p>Universities, polytechnics, and government research institutions such as the <a href="https://www.scienceandtech.gov.ng/parastatals/">Federal Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation parastatals</a> should be funded to research and pilot innovative and affordable alternatives to single-use plastics. </p>
<p>Monitoring must be harmonised across states and national institutions to track progress. Open access digital platforms such as the <a href="https://eepon.unilag.edu.ng/">Environmental Evidence Portal for Nigeria</a> can be partnered by the government to make available contextual “Nigerian” evidence in non-technical formats for education and advocacy.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221770/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Temitope O. Sogbanmu receives funding from the Association of Commonwealth Universities (ACU), Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) Canada, Royal Academy of Engineering (RAE), among other. Her affiliations include the Nigeria National Plastic Action Partnership (NPAP) as a member of the Metrics Task Force, One Health and Development Initiative (OHDI) and the the Nigerian Young Academy (NYA).</span></em></p>Banning single-use plastics in Nigeria is a step in the right direction. But its success will depend on provisions made for enforcement.Temitope O. Sogbanmu, Senior Lecturer, Ecotoxicology and Conservation Unit, Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, University of LagosLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2219532024-01-29T19:11:13Z2024-01-29T19:11:13ZAfcon 2023: Africa’s diaspora footballers are boosting the continent’s game – but they are also creating challenges<p>The Africa Cup of Nations (Afcon) is approaching its conclusion in Ivory Coast and speculation is rife about which team will be the ultimate winner. It could be one of the continent’s footballing heavyweights such as Morocco or Senegal. Alternatively, a relative minnow like Angola or Cape Verde may emerge as the unexpected victor.</p>
<p>Last time out, at the 2021 edition in Algeria, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/football/2022/feb/06/senegal-egypt-africa-cup-of-nations-final-match-report">Senegal captain</a> Kalidou Koulibaly lifted the trophy. Before that, Algeria’s 2019 triumph in Egypt saw Riyad Mahrez become the victorious captain. Significantly, neither player was born in Africa and there is a distinct possibility that the winning captain of this year’s tournament will also have been born elsewhere.</p>
<p>Of the <a href="https://www.thecitizen.co.tz/tanzania/news/sports/the-allure-of-the-diaspora-at-afcon-2024-4491490#:%7E:text=2%20hours%20ago-,The%20number%20of%20Diaspora%20players%20in%20the%202024%20AFCON%20is,in%20the%20tournament%20this%20year">630 players</a> who were registered to play by teams competing in the 2023 edition, 200 weren’t born in Africa. The non-African country with the most players at the tournament is France, with 104. Second is Spain with 24, then England with 15. Even players born in Ireland and Saudi Arabia are competing in this year’s tournament. </p>
<p>The Moroccan national team has the largest number of diaspora players. Eighteen of its squad members were born outside of Morocco, with only nine born in the country. Equatorial Guinea and the Democratic Republic of Congo have 17 and 16 diaspora squad members, respectively.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571856/original/file-20240129-21-d2jfov.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A map of Africa showing the contribution of non-African countries to this year's Afcon." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571856/original/file-20240129-21-d2jfov.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571856/original/file-20240129-21-d2jfov.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571856/original/file-20240129-21-d2jfov.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571856/original/file-20240129-21-d2jfov.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571856/original/file-20240129-21-d2jfov.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=536&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571856/original/file-20240129-21-d2jfov.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=536&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571856/original/file-20240129-21-d2jfov.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=536&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The birthplaces of the African diaspora playing at 2023 Africa Cup of Nations.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Paul Widdop</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The phenomenon seems to be on the rise and has allowed some African teams (and several with very limited footballing history) to rise up the footballing ranks in recent years. But some people argue that diasporas are undermining the progression of African football, principally by engendering a culture of complacency.</p>
<h2>Bolstering their ranks</h2>
<p>The fact that African teams are increasingly relying on players born elsewhere is not a surprise. After all, there’s an <a href="https://football-observatory.com/Inflation-in-the-football-players-transfer-market">intense talent battle</a> taking place in world football. This often involves the <a href="https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/international-athletes-world-cup-nationality">naturalisation of individuals</a> who find themselves playing for one national team even though they may already have played for another, and the <a href="https://www.thenationalnews.com/fifa-world-cup-2022/2022/12/07/every-moroccan-is-moroccan-regraguis-fight-to-include-foreign-born-players-vindicated/">targeted recruitment</a> of players in countries around the world.</p>
<p>However, the case of Africa is particularly distinctive. It’s a reflection of both the continent’s <a href="https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/africaatlse/2019/02/20/diaspora-diaries-and-football-politics/">colonial past and its global diasporas</a>. </p>
<p>For instance, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/football/2015/sep/12/leicester-city-riyad-mahrez-father-dream-algeria-world-cup">Mahrez was born</a> in Paris to parents of Algerian and Moroccan origin. The French capital is home to 331,000 Algerians and 254,000 Moroccans. <a href="https://onefootball.com/en/news/chelsea-defender-koulibaly-explains-choosing-senegal-over-france-35927795">Koulibaly</a> was also born in France to parents originally from Senegal. Figures suggest there are more than 100,000 Senegalese in France.</p>
<p>But this is not just a story about France. Nigeria’s <a href="https://dailypost.ng/2023/02/09/no-regrets-choosing-nigeria-over-england-lookman/">Ademola Lookman</a> was born in London, Ghana’s <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/africa/62549049">Iñaki Williams</a> comes from Bilbao in Spain, and Morocco’s <a href="https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/mec/2023/01/16/the-political-dimension-of-moroccos-success-in-the-world-cup/#:%7E:text=Similarly%2C%20Sofian%20Amrabat%20is%20known,from%20them%20and%20preferred%20Morocco.">Sofyan Amrabat and Hakim Ziyech</a> are of Dutch origin. </p>
<p>Self-identity and family dynamics are a couple of reasons why players choose to play for teams from the birthplaces of their parents rather than their own. In 2022, Ziyech <a href="https://www.irishtimes.com/sport/soccer/2022/12/10/hakim-ziyech-a-magician-at-the-heart-of-moroccan-love-story/">explained it thus</a>: “Choosing one’s national team is not done with the brain but with the heart. I have always felt Moroccan even though I was born in the Netherlands. Lots of people will never understand.” </p>
<p>Williams has <a href="https://www.goal.com/en-gb/news/inaki-williams-made-right-choice-ghana-over-spain/blt005c8219a89b044e">spoken</a> of his grandparents’ influence, claiming that a decision is “easier when you see the [Ghanaian] people and your family support you to be a Black Star”. Such instances reveal a multidimensional sense of place. </p>
<p>Yet cynics argue that other such players are simply not good enough to play for the European nations in which they were born or in which they have been naturalised. For instance, former Arsenal starlet <a href="https://www.completesports.com/ex-everton-star-ball-iwobi-not-good-enough-to-play-for-toffees/">Alex Iwobi</a> has gone from being a potential future England star to a sometimes criticised Fulham midfielder and Nigerian international.</p>
<h2>But at what cost?</h2>
<p>Others express concerns about how diasporas are undermining African football. One concern is that bringing talent in from Europe and elsewhere is simply a fast-track strategy to success that is <a href="https://www.africanews.com/2018/09/11/is-africas-football-talent-finally-coming-back-home-football-planet/">eroding the long-term health</a> of football across the continent.</p>
<p>Even so, the approach seems to be working. At the Qatar World Cup in 2022, Morocco became the <a href="https://theconversation.com/morocco-at-the-2022-world-cup-6-forces-behind-a-history-making-performance-196359">first African nation</a> to reach the tournament’s semi-final stage. This has helped the country become the current highest-ranked team in Africa and the 13th-best team worldwide. </p>
<p>Senegal is also in the world’s top 20, while <a href="https://www.3addedminutes.com/international/cape-verde-mauritania-fairytale-afcon-match-stories-behind-it-4493235">Cape Verde’s</a> recent performance shows that even Africa’s traditionally less successful footballing nations can prosper. Cape Verde, a string of ten islands in the Atlantic Ocean with a population smaller than the city of Bristol, just finished top of a tough group, including Egypt and Ghana at the 2023 Afcon.</p>
<p>The likes of former Cameroon goalkeeper <a href="https://www.lemonde.fr/en/sports/article/2022/11/25/world-cup-2022-the-problem-with-african-football-is-the-leaders_6005649_9.html">Joseph-Antoine Bell</a> remain less positive about such achievements. Bell claims that diaspora players make the job of African football’s leaders, managers and coaches too easy, which is engendering a culture of complacency. He also thinks it demotivates players born, brought up and living in Africa.</p>
<p>Though the practice of <a href="https://www.versus.uk.com/articles/diaspora-fc-why-its-time-for-this-generation-to-go-back-to-their-motherlands">diasporic talent recruitment</a> appears to be increasing (the effect of <a href="https://sports-chair.essec.edu/resources/research-reports/sport-and-national-eligibility-criteria-in-the-era-of-globalization">globalisation</a> must also be acknowledged as an influence), there are still some countries that rely more on players born and brought up domestically - Namibia and South Africa are examples of this.</p>
<p>Bell would no doubt approve, having previously called for Africa to develop its own solutions to talent identification and development. The problem is, this takes time, money and patience – precious commodities in football generally, not just in Africa.</p>
<p>Whatever happens when the tournament’s final game is staged at the <a href="https://theconversation.com/africa-cup-of-nations-showcases-the-continents-finest-footballers-and-chinas-economic-clout-220313">Alassane Ouattara Stadium</a> in Abidjan, it will be a proud moment for and a big celebration of African football. However, the birthplace of the captain who eventually lifts the trophy will probably fuel further debate about the importance of African football’s diasporas.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221953/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Around one-third of the players that have been called up to the 2023 Africa Cup of Nations were born outside of Africa.Simon Chadwick, Professor of Sport and Geopolitical Economy, SKEMA Business SchoolPaul Widdop, Associate Professor, Manchester Metropolitan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2216962024-01-29T13:08:07Z2024-01-29T13:08:07ZNiger and Russia are forming military ties: 3 ways this could upset old allies<p>In July 2023, Niger’s military took over in <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-caused-the-coup-in-niger-an-expert-outlines-three-driving-factors-210721">a coup</a> just two years after the country’s first transition to civilian power. The coup has brought into sharp focus the role of foreign countries in Niger’s politics.</p>
<p>Before the coup, France and the US were the <a href="https://www.gmfus.org/news/coup-niger">main security allies</a> of Niger. But the coup leaders, led by General Abdourahamane Tchiani, were open about their antagonism to France, the country’s former colonial ruler, and <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2023/12/25/niger-suspends-cooperation-with-international-francophone-body">ordered the French military to leave</a>.</p>
<p>Now the attention of many people in Niger has shifted to Russia.</p>
<p>Since the <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-caused-the-coup-in-niger-an-expert-outlines-three-driving-factors-210721">coup</a>, several analysts have <a href="https://www.dw.com/en/niger-russia-sahel/a-66494597">highlighted</a> the role of Russia. Some analysts and regional experts believe Russia might have played a role <a href="https://thehill.com/opinion/international/4135841-the-niger-coup-exposes-russias-grand-strategy-for-africa/">directly or indirectly</a> in the military takeover. </p>
<p>Others (including myself) <a href="https://theconversation.com/scramble-for-the-sahel-why-france-russia-china-and-the-united-states-are-interested-in-the-region-219130">argue</a> that Russia is increasing its grip on the country and actively seeking to benefit from the coup. This was evident when Russia and Niger recently <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/russia-niger-agree-develop-military-ties-moscow-says-2024-01-16/">agreed</a> to develop military ties. </p>
<p>Although the details of this partnership are still sketchy, Russia promised to increase the <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/russia-niger-agree-develop-military-ties-moscow-says-2024-01-16/">“combat readiness”</a> of Niger’s military. In addition, there are discussions to partner in the areas of agriculture and energy. </p>
<p>I have been <a href="https://www.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/staff/dr-olayinka-ajala/">researching</a> the security dynamics of the region for over a decade. The Niger junta’s romance with Russia has potential implications for peace and security in the region and beyond. </p>
<p>I have identified three main potential implications for Niger and other allied countries:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>escalation of tensions between Niger and France</p></li>
<li><p>discontent between Niger and its regional allies</p></li>
<li><p>likely disruption of a <a href="https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/648851468123254494/pdf/957770PID0P1500Box391429B00PUBLIC0.pdf#page=3">US$13 billion</a> gas pipeline project from Nigeria to the European Union through Niger.</p></li>
</ul>
<h2>Russia in the region</h2>
<p>After the 2023 coup, France and the regional economic bloc Ecowas <a href="https://www.dw.com/en/ecowas-threatens-use-of-force-against-niger-junta/a-66398008">threatened</a> to use force to reinstate the deposed president. </p>
<p>Russia <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-66478430">warned</a> against such a move. </p>
<p>The military junta then expelled French soldiers. France responded by closing its embassy in Niger. </p>
<p>The US also reduced its military and economic cooperation. Washington cut aid to the country by more than <a href="https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20231010-france-turns-a-page-as-troops-begin-leaving-coup-hit-niger">US$500 million</a> and removed the country from its <a href="https://credendo.com/en/knowledge-hub/usas-removal-uganda-niger-gabon-and-central-african-republic-agoa-has-only-limited">duty free export</a> programme. </p>
<p>The European Union also <a href="https://sanctionsnews.bakermckenzie.com/eu-adopts-new-niger-sanctions-framework/">instituted sanctions</a>. Niger then cancelled its security and <a href="https://www.france24.com/en/africa/20231127-niger-junta-revokes-anti-migration-law-in-setback-to-eu-strategy">migration agreements</a> with the European bloc.</p>
<p>Ecowas <a href="https://www.aa.com.tr/en/africa/west-african-bloc-maintains-sanctions-against-niger/3079035">sanctioned</a> Niger. Another major ally, Nigeria, <a href="https://www.channelstv.com/2023/08/03/coup-nigeria-cuts-off-power-supply-to-niger-republic/">cut electricity</a> and instituted further sanctions. </p>
<p>The sanctions, coupled with an increase in insecurity, weakened and isolated Niger. </p>
<p>Rather than budge, the junta looked for alternative partners – like Russia and China. It also recently joined Mali and Burkina Faso to <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-68122947">announce a withdrawal</a> from Ecowas. </p>
<p>For its part, Russia was positioning itself as a reliable ally. In December 2023, a <a href="https://www.africanews.com/2023/12/04/russian-officials-visit-niger-to-strengthen-military-ties/">Russian delegation visited Niger</a> and in January 2024, Niger’s Prime Minister Ali Mahamane Lamine Zeine <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/russia-niger-agree-develop-military-ties-moscow-says-2024-01-16/">visited Moscow</a> to discuss military and economic ties. </p>
<p>Russia is no stranger to the region. Over the last three years it has set up <a href="https://carnegieendowment.org/2023/02/28/russia-s-growing-footprint-in-africa-s-sahel-region-pub-89135">security arrangements</a> with the juntas running Niger’s neighbours: Mali and Burkina Faso. This has been done through the <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-60947877">Wagner group</a>, a private security company supported by Russia, whose operations in Africa were renamed <a href="https://www.lemonde.fr/en/le-monde-africa/article/2023/12/17/africa-corps-russia-s-sahel-presence-rebranded_6352317_124.html">Africa Corps</a> in early 2024. </p>
<p>Russian military advisers have been operating in Mali since 2021. In addition, the <a href="https://carnegieendowment.org/2023/02/28/russia-s-growing-footprint-in-africa-s-sahel-region-pub-89135">Wagner group has 400 mercenaries</a> in the country. Russia also <a href="https://www.africanews.com/2022/08/10/mali-gets-more-military-equipment-from-russia/">delivered military hardware</a> to the country in 2022. </p>
<h2>Implications</h2>
<p>There are three main potential implications for Niger and other allied countries. </p>
<p>First, a potential escalation of tensions between Niger and France. This will happen if Niger grants Russia uranium exploration rights that affect French companies with existing licences. Niger <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2024-01-24/top-uranium-producer-niger-launches-mining-sector-overhaul?leadSource=uverify%20wall&embedded-checkout=true">has suspended new mining licences</a> and is currently auditing existing ones. This could affect French companies. France has <a href="https://www.politico.eu/article/france-emmanuel-macron-warn-attack-embassy-niger/">vowed</a> to protect its economic interests in Niger. </p>
<p>It depends on how the partnership between Russia and Niger develops, in particular how Niger intends to pay for its share of any military cooperation. If this involves the Wagner group, as is the case in security partnerships between Russia and Burkina Faso and Mali, the issue of <a href="https://www.fpri.org/article/2022/03/the-wagner-groups-playbook-in-africa-mali/">mining concessions</a> will come into play. Mali and Burkina Faso have paid for Wagner’s involvement by <a href="https://adf-magazine.com/2023/03/a-heavy-price-to-pay-2/">offering</a> mining concessions in return for arms, ammunition and mercenaries. </p>
<p>Second, any security tie involving the Wagner group would create further discontent between Niger and its regional allies, especially Nigeria, Chad and Cameroon. </p>
<p>Following the coup, Niger announced it was <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-67605967">leaving</a> the G5 Sahel, which was set up to coordinate security operations in the Sahel. This has turned attention to the country’s participation in the <a href="https://mnjtffmm.org/">Multinational Joint Task Force</a>. </p>
<p>Both institutions were set up to fight insurgency in the region and Niger has been an active contributor. The other countries in the joint task force, such as Nigeria, Chad, Cameroon and Benin Republic, will be wary of working with Niger if it is in active partnership with Wagner, which is <a href="https://www.csis.org/analysis/massacres-executions-and-falsified-graves-wagner-groups-mounting-humanitarian-cost-mali">notorious</a> for human rights abuses.</p>
<p>The third likely major fallout from Russia’s involvement revolves around Niger’s relationship with the EU. The EU is currently constructing a <a href="https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/648851468123254494/pdf/957770PID0P1500Box391429B00PUBLIC0.pdf#page=3">US$13 billion</a> gas pipeline from Nigeria to the bloc through Niger. The pipeline project was designed to reduce the EU’s dependence on Russian gas.</p>
<p>Based on Russia’s animosity with the EU, I believe Russia could use the security alliance to disrupt the project in order to secure its gas delivery to the EU. </p>
<p>The junta can use the pipeline project as leverage against the EU by demanding major financial concessions, putting the delivery of the project at risk and strengthening Russia’s position. </p>
<p>Migration is another area of contention when it comes to the EU. Niger now <a href="https://www.ewn.co.za/2024/01/24/nigers-gateway-to-the-desert-open-again-for-migrants-1">allows</a> mass illegal migration through its territory for onward journey to Europe. This will create more problems for the EU. </p>
<p>The active presence of Russia in Niger could change the security and economic landscape of the region and affect all parties. </p>
<p>I maintain my <a href="https://theconversation.com/niger-coup-ecowas-must-do-these-3-things-to-break-the-stalemate-212403">initial position</a> that rather than use force, the Niger junta should be encouraged to restore democracy as soon as possible. At the same time, some of the sanctions should be lifted to encourage dialogue and reduce the influence of Russia.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221696/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Olayinka Ajala does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Niger’s recent military romance with Russia could escalate tensions with France, regional allies and the European Union.Olayinka Ajala, Senior lecturer in Politics and International Relations, Leeds Beckett UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2163852024-01-24T13:28:42Z2024-01-24T13:28:42ZNigeria has a democracy deficit – corruption and a lack of welfare policies are to blame<p><a href="https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/democracy">Democracy</a> refers, at a minimum, to a political system that guarantees some involvement in decision-making. It gives citizens opportunities to choose and replace their leaders or representatives via free and fair elections. </p>
<p>But that’s not all. Democracy also protects citizens’ socio-economic, political and cultural rights.</p>
<p>Its success turns on its ability to bring changes to the living conditions of citizens.</p>
<p>It is a form of governance that holds this truth: that the people are what matters most.</p>
<p>In a <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Lysias-Gilbert-2/publication/269867317_Democracy_and_Good_Governance_The_Missing_Link_in_Nigeria/links/571641a908aef165cc2b4fe9/Democracy-and-Good-Governance-The-Missing-Link-in-Nigeria.pdf">paper</a> I co-authored, we used these defining features to assess the state of democracy in Nigeria. </p>
<p>Our paper was based on observation and narratives on democracy found in literature. We concluded that very few countries in Africa met the basic conditions of a democratic state. The exceptions were Botswana, Ghana, Mauritius, Senegal, South Africa and Tanzania.</p>
<p>In the case of Nigeria, we found that what was missing in the country’s democratic efforts was good governance. Good governance is central to the performance and measurement of democracy. We looked at two measures of good governance: the welfare of citizens; and succession. On both scores we found that Nigeria fell short. Although our research was conducted in 2014, the factors we identified remain in place today. </p>
<p>We conclude that on both measures of good governance improvements could be made – firstly by strengthening the crusade against corruption, and secondly, by steps to improve the welfare of citizens.</p>
<h2>Good governance</h2>
<p>Good governance should be the goal of any government interested in improving the quality of life of its people. Professor of economics <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/title/609425458">Michael Obadan has argued</a> that there are five fundamental elements to good governance. We found that Nigeria was falling short on all these scores:</p>
<p><strong>Accountability of public office holders with regard to public funds</strong></p>
<p>In public service there are many accountability mechanisms, including codes of conduct, which are intended to guide decisions of public officials.</p>
<p>Sadly, the adherence to these principles often falls short of expectations, leaving room for a culture of impunity in Nigeria. A clear example shows up when the influence of a state governor permeates the state legislature, especially in the budget-making processes. This unchecked influence compromises essential public scrutiny for the welfare of citizens. Officials can then misappropriate public funds and evade justice. </p>
<p><strong>Transparency in public policy and decision making processes</strong></p>
<p>A cloud of secrecy surrounds governance in Nigeria. Details of how officials get and use funds are often withheld. The public can’t see the impact of policies formulated to improve their well-being.</p>
<p><strong>Predictability in government behaviour</strong></p>
<p>The essence of predictability in good governance is the ability to expect the policies, decisions, and activities of government. Predictability makes it possible for citizens to engage in civic life, contributing to a democratic process. </p>
<p><strong>Openness in government dealings and effective communication between government and the governed</strong> </p>
<p>There are different ways of achieving this, including official and unofficial media. It means that the public won’t misinterpret proposed government projects and goals. </p>
<p><strong>Adherence to the rule of law</strong></p>
<p>At the core of good governance lies the rule of law. It signifies that the law is supreme, applying universally without exception. This principle reinforces the idea that no individual or entity is exempt from legal obligations. It promotes fairness and a just society. </p>
<p>Addressing these basic aspects will contribute to a governance framework that truly serves the interests of the Nigerian people.</p>
<p>We found that in the case of Nigeria there were challenges to good governance in the following areas:</p>
<ul>
<li> the election process</li>
</ul>
<p>Rigging of elections, poor management of polling, a lack of independent election management institutions, a lack of neutrality of external and internal monitors, a lack of credible opposition, weak political parties – all these are problems.</p>
<ul>
<li><p>lack of effective participation of citizens in the political process</p></li>
<li><p>a culture of impunity</p></li>
<li><p>political violence leading to insecurity </p></li>
<li><p>ineffectiveness of the Nigerian police force</p></li>
<li><p>corruption and lack of accountability</p></li>
<li><p>influence of the executive over other organs of government.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>We argue that these negative outcomes are due to bad governance.</p>
<h2>The welfare of citizens</h2>
<p>When elected political leaders emerged in 1999 after 16 years of military dictatorship, many Nigerians expected an improvement in their economic and social conditions. But that has not happened.</p>
<p>Unemployment, shortage of food, lack of public safety, lack of clean water, inadequate healthcare and poor incomes remain <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237469439_Down_To_Earth_Changes_in_Attitudes_Toward_Democracy_and_Markets_in_Nigeria">prevalent</a>. </p>
<p>The performance of politicians in improving the welfare of citizens shows that Nigeria’s civil regime has achieved nothing. Programmes that would improve the lives of all Nigerians are still lacking. </p>
<h2>What needs to be done</h2>
<p>One of our main conclusions is that the crusade against corruption remains the basis of ensuring good governance. But this will only be effective if the anti-corruption institutions themselves are subject to democratic governance and the oversight powers of responsible civil society. </p>
<p>Political corruption violates democratic principles and procedures. It should therefore attract equal condemnation and punishment with other forms of corruption such as economic and financial crimes. Often, it is neglected because the political elite in Nigeria is guilty of this.</p>
<p>For example, the history of elections in Nigeria is filled with stories of rigging. Post election adjudication should not only be concerned with determination of who did and did not win in those elections, but should punish with imprisonment and fines in cases where it is established beyond reasonable doubt that political elite or their agents have violated electoral rules.</p>
<p>This is a non-negotiable first step to making leaders accountable to citizens. </p>
<p>Secondly, poverty and unemployment require the institutionalisation of development oriented practices. This means a political and governing culture that places a high priority on the welfare of citizens. </p>
<p>The absence of development oriented practices has been one of the major weak points in Nigeria’s democracy.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216385/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Fidelis Allen does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Good governance is the missing link in Nigeria’s democratic experience since 1999.Fidelis Allen, Professor of Development Studies, University of Port Harcourt Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2216162024-01-23T13:29:43Z2024-01-23T13:29:43ZEducation has a huge role to play in peace and development: 5 essential reads<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570556/original/file-20240122-20-g5icoh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Children's education is frequently disrupted in conflict-fraught areas.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Daniel Beloumou Olomo/AFP via Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Nelson Mandela was a famous advocate for the value of education. In 1990, the man who would become South Africa’s first democratically president four years later <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1990/06/24/us/the-mandela-visit-education-is-mighty-force-boston-teen-agers-are-told.html">told a high school in Boston</a>: “Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world.”</p>
<p>The United Nations agrees. In 2018 its General Assembly adopted a resolution that proclaimed 24 January as the <a href="https://www.unesco.org/en/days/education">International Day of Education</a>. It’s an annual opportunity to shine a spotlight on the role that education can and should play in promoting peace and development. This year the theme is “learning for lasting peace” – a critical focus in a world that, the UN points out, is “seeing a surge of violent conflicts paralleled by an alarming rise of discrimination, racism, xenophobia, and hate speech”.</p>
<p>To mark the occasion, we’re sharing some of the many articles our authors have contributed since we launched in 2015 that examine the intersection of education and conflict – and how to wield this powerful “weapon” for positive change.</p>
<h2>Education under attack</h2>
<p>Education systems in a number of African countries <a href="https://protectingeducation.org/wp-content/uploads/GCPEA_NSAG_ScopingPaper.pdf">have been identified</a> by international advocacy groups as “very heavily affected” by conflict. These include Sudan, Cameroon and the Democratic Republic of Congo. The Central Sahel, which includes Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger, is another region of high concern. In 2020 alone (and before COVID lockdowns), 4,000 schools in the Central Sahel <a href="https://protectingeducation.org/wp-content/uploads/Central-Sahel-Paper-English.pdf">closed because of insecurity</a>. </p>
<p>Craig Bailie <a href="https://theconversation.com/education-is-both-the-victim-and-the-best-weapon-in-central-sahel-conflict-148472">explains</a> what drives armed groups to attack schools in the Central Sahel, leaving hundreds of thousands of students high and dry.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/education-is-both-the-victim-and-the-best-weapon-in-central-sahel-conflict-148472">Education is both the victim and the best weapon in Central Sahel conflict</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Long-term effects</h2>
<p>Education systems, of course, do not exist in a vacuum. Where conflict meets long-term governance failures, poor resourcing and other societal issues, schooling comes under even more pressure. Ethiopia, for instance, has not only had to reckon with <a href="https://theconversation.com/ethiopia-tigray-war-parties-agree-pause-expert-insights-into-two-years-of-devastating-conflict-193636">internal conflict since 2020</a>; it’s also grappling with deeply rooted systemic crises.</p>
<p>Tebeje Molla and Dawit Tibebu Tiruneh <a href="https://theconversation.com/ethiopias-education-system-is-in-crisis-nows-the-time-to-fix-it-217817">unpack</a> how these crises are colliding to leave Ethiopian children and teenagers floundering.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/ethiopias-education-system-is-in-crisis-nows-the-time-to-fix-it-217817">Ethiopia’s education system is in crisis – now’s the time to fix it</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Rebuilding is possible</h2>
<p>That’s not to say education systems can’t bounce back after conflict. During Somalia’s civil war in the late 1980s more than 90% of schools were destroyed. In the wake of the war the north of the country declared itself as the Republic of Somaliland. </p>
<p>Tobias Gandrup and Kristof Titeca <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-schools-are-kept-afloat-in-somaliland-121570">examine how</a>, together, the state, NGOs and the diaspora have succeeded in rebuilding the education system.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-schools-are-kept-afloat-in-somaliland-121570">How schools are kept afloat in Somaliland</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Solutions exist</h2>
<p>Researchers also have a role to play in strengthening education systems. All over the continent, projects that aim to keep children learning even amid devastating conflicts are being developed, rolled out and tested.</p>
<p>One example comes from north-eastern Nigeria, which has been beset by Boko Haram attacks. Margee Ensign and Jacob Udo-Udo Jacob <a href="https://theconversation.com/disasters-interrupt-schooling-regularly-in-parts-of-africa-heres-a-solution-156345">used</a> a combination of radio and tablet computers to improve the literacy and numeracy skills of 22,000 children forced out of school.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/disasters-interrupt-schooling-regularly-in-parts-of-africa-heres-a-solution-156345">Disasters interrupt schooling regularly in parts of Africa: here's a solution</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>In the classroom</h2>
<p>Conflicts seem inevitable in a world racked by many “wicked problems” like climate change, inequality and poverty. But what’s taught in Africa’s classrooms could play a role in solving them. The ability to think critically, and to engage with facts rather than fiction, is key. </p>
<p>To this end, Ayodeji Olukoju <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-studying-history-at-school-can-do-for-nigerians-165339">explains</a> why it was so important that Nigeria reintroduced history as a school subject in 2019, a decade after scrapping it from the curriculum. Understanding history, he argues, helps to explode myths and stereotypes, leading to a more cohesive society.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-studying-history-at-school-can-do-for-nigerians-165339">What studying history at school can do for Nigerians</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221616/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
Education can spur peace and development. Here are five essential reads on the topic.Natasha Joseph, Commissioning EditorLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2204982024-01-16T14:14:16Z2024-01-16T14:14:16ZDangerous chemicals found in recycled plastics, making them unsafe for use – experts explain the hazards<p>Plastic pollution is a menace worldwide. Plastics are now <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abg5433">found</a> in every <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.1c04158">environment</a> on the planet, from the deepest seas to the atmosphere and human bodies. </p>
<p>Scientific evidence <a href="https://doi.org/10.5334/aogh.4056">describing harm</a> to the environment and humans is growing. Hence, the United Nations has <a href="https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/39812/OEWG_PP_1_INF_1_UNEA%20resolution.pdf">resolved</a> to <a href="https://enb.iisd.org/negotiations/international-legally-binding-instrument-plastics-pollution-including-marine#:%7E:text=The%20United%20Nations%20Environment%20Assembly,pollution%2C%20including%20in%20the%20marine">negotiate</a> a legally binding instrument to end plastic pollution. </p>
<p>Strategies to achieve this goal include provisions throughout the plastics lifespan: production, use, waste management and remediation. </p>
<p>In designing rules for managing plastic, it’s important to understand that plastic materials and waste streams are complex. Not all plastics are the same. And recycled plastics are not necessarily “better” – less harmful – than virgin plastics. If they contained harmful chemicals to begin with, recycling doesn’t make them less harmful. And sometimes they are contaminated by other substances.</p>
<p>We conducted a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352340923008090?via%3Dihub">study</a> identifying and measuring the concentration of contaminants in recycled pellets from 28 small-scale recycling facilities in the global south. Plastic waste is often exported from high income countries to less developed countries, with few to no requirements for reporting their makeup.</p>
<p>Our investigation covered facilities in Cameroon, Mauritius, Nigeria, Tanzania and Togo in Africa as well others in Asia, Europe and South America. </p>
<p>We found 191 pesticides, 107 pharmaceuticals and 81 industrial compounds among many others in the recycled plastic pellets. Many of these chemicals could be hazardous and make the plastics unsuitable for reuse.</p>
<p>This finding can inform regulations for recycled plastics. The chemical composition of the plastic should be checked before it is recycled. </p>
<h2>Chemicals used in production of plastics</h2>
<p>More than <a href="https://www.unep.org/resources/report/chemicals-plastics-technical-report">13,000 chemicals</a> are currently used in the production of plastic materials and products. They can include thousands of plastics additives – but also substances that are added unintentionally. Some unwanted chemicals form during the production or life of plastics. Thousands of these chemicals have dangerous properties. The health risks of some others are unknown. </p>
<p>Throughout the plastics value chain, during production, use, waste and recycling, other chemicals can contaminate the material too. The result may be recycled materials whose chemical composition is unknown. </p>
<p>Previous studies have reported the presence of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2017.10.014">plastics additives</a> in recycled materials. Among them were chemicals that are <a href="https://www.unep.org/explore-topics/chemicals-waste/what-we-do/emerging-issues/endocrine-disrupting-chemicals">known</a> to have <a href="https://www.epa.gov/endocrine-disruption/overview-endocrine-disruption">negative effects on health</a>. Examples include <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0055387">phthalates</a> (plastic softeners), bisphenols like <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0303720706002292">BPA</a>, and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969721044478?via%3Dihub">UV-stabilisers</a> used to protect plastics from sun damage and yellowing.</p>
<p>In our work, we established the presence of chemicals in recycled plastic that can cause harm to humans or other organisms. They include pesticides, pharmaceuticals and fragrances. Others are chemicals that result from burning natural materials, man-made organic chemicals used for industrial applications like paint, and ultraviolet filters.</p>
<p>We quantified a total of 491 different chemical substances. Some had specific uses and others formed from the breakdown of products.</p>
<p>Some national and regional policies <a href="https://www.basel.int/Implementation/Plasticwaste/Globalgovernance/tabid/8335/Default.aspx">regulate</a> the allowable concentration of hazardous chemicals in specific plastic products. But only 1% of plastics chemicals are subject to international regulation in existing multilateral environmental agreements. Policies don’t adequately address the issue of transparent reporting of chemicals in plastics across their value chain. Also, there are no laws to govern monitoring of chemicals in recycled materials. This is a <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adk9846">serious gap</a> in oversight. Stronger and more globally coordinated measures are necessary. </p>
<p>Our findings emphasise the importance of regulating mechanical recycling, as many of the substances measured were contaminants and not plastic additives. Many of the chemicals we identified may have contaminated the materials during use. For example, a jug used for storing pesticides will absorb some of the pesticides and will contaminate the recycling waste stream. Plastics in the environment are also known to absorb <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X11005960">organic pollutants</a>. </p>
<p>To assess the quality of recycled plastics, it’s crucial to know which chemicals are present and in what concentrations. This information can guide regulations about how recycled plastics may be used. It will also be valuable for plastics producers, waste management workers (including recyclers), consumers, and the scientific community.</p>
<h2>A path towards safer reuse of plastics</h2>
<p>To recycle more materials safely, several changes are necessary. These include:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>increased transparency regarding the use of chemicals and their risks </p></li>
<li><p>chemical simplification of the plastics market, so that fewer and less toxic chemicals are permitted for use</p></li>
<li><p>improved waste management infrastructure with separated waste streams </p></li>
<li><p>improved recycling methods, including monitoring of hazardous chemicals.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Chemical simplification of plastic additives will promote sustainability, safety and regulatory compliance. It will help manufacturers to minimise the environmental impact and adverse health effects of complex chemical formulations. Simpler chemical structures also improve the recycling potential of plastics and make recycling more efficient and cost-effective.</p>
<p><a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/full/10.1021/acs.est.1c04903">Chemical simplification</a> can also reduce potential health risks in the disposal of plastic materials. </p>
<p>From a regulatory perspective, chemical simplification supports clearer and more enforceable safety guidelines.</p>
<p>It’s is a crucial step towards the sustainable production and use of plastics, as countries work towards a legal instrument to end pollution.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220498/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bethanie Carney Almroth receives funding from the Swedish Research Council for Sustainable Development
FORMAS (grant number 2021-00913) and The Carl Tryggers Foundation (grant number 21:1234).
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Eric Carmona Martinez received funding from Carl Trygger Foundation. </span></em></p>Recycled plastics are not safe if the chemicals used in creating them in the first place are harmful.Bethanie Carney Almroth, Associate Professor, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of GothenburgEric Carmona Martinez, Scientist, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research-UFZLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2084912023-12-21T08:55:07Z2023-12-21T08:55:07ZNigeria’s plantain wine: a traditional drink with huge economic potential<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542808/original/file-20230815-25-o1drw0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Plantain waste can be reduced in Nigeria and used in the production of wine. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/photo/green-and-yellow-plantains-royalty-free-image/1167085854?phrase=Plantain&adppopup=true">Getty Images </a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Agadagidi, a wine made from plantain, is a popular drink at festive occasions in Nigeria. But it’s not always of a high quality. </p>
<p>It is usually produced in the <a href="https://library.faraafrica.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/Guidebook-Plantain-production-in-Nigeria-rev.pdf#page=9">southern part of the country</a> in limited quantities because it is difficult to store. Akwa-Ibom, Cross River, Imo, Enugu, Rivers, Edo, Delta,
Lagos, Ogun, Osun and Oyo states are known for plantain cultivation.</p>
<p><a href="https://office2.jmbfs.org/index.php/JMBFS/article/view/8258">Our study</a> examined ways to improve the production of agadagidi and ultimately create more jobs. </p>
<p>Agadagidi is traditionally produced from overripe plantain by fermenting the juice, known as must, for three days and filtering it thereafter. The juice has a cloudy appearance, is effervescent and has a sweet-sour taste.</p>
<p>Given that plantain is readily available in the country, and imported wines are expensive, we conducted <a href="https://office2.jmbfs.org/index.php/JMBFS/article/view/8258">research</a> to establish if it was possible to make better quality agadagidi. </p>
<p>In Nigeria the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2468227618302357">agricultural sector</a> employs about 70% of the labour force and contributes about 30% of the national GDP. Smallholder farmers account for almost 90% of the total food production. </p>
<p>But losses due to poor post-harvest practices can reach up to 50% for some fresh food produce. Half of the food that is produced for humans never gets consumed. The country grapples with <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2468227618302357">food insecurity</a> partly due to bottlenecks such as high food losses along its food supply chains. Farmers also lose out on income.</p>
<p>Plantain production <a href="https://knoema.com/data/agriculture-indicators-production+plantains+nigeria">increased</a> from 994,000 tonnes in 1972 to 3.12 million tonnes in 2021. The average production increase is 2.75% which could be a boon to the economy if well managed. </p>
<p><a href="https://office2.jmbfs.org/index.php/JMBFS/article/view/8258">Our study</a> was carried out to optimise the production process to make it safe and of consistent quality. This would be beneficial in a number of ways: it would reduce reliance on imported wine, reduce waste and encourage the production of indigenous wineries, thereby creating jobs and boosting Nigeria’s economy. </p>
<h2>How we conducted our research</h2>
<p>One batch of agadagidi was produced using the traditional method. We also produced agadagidi using controlled fermentation and divided the liquid separated into six batches testing various scenarios using sodium metabisulphite and wine yeast. Some of the samples were pasteurised and some not. </p>
<p>All samples were fermented for three days and dispensed into sterile bottles. </p>
<p>Microbial count, pH and acidity were determined at a weekly intervals for a period of three weeks. </p>
<p>Microorganisms were identified to determine the safety of the products and the consumer acceptability test was also assessed.</p>
<h2>Our findings</h2>
<p>All the unpasteurised samples treated with sodium metabisulphite with or without the addition of wine yeast were acceptable in terms of microbial count, physicochemical properties and consumer acceptability.</p>
<p>Our method could be replicated on a large scale using the same materials we did. It’s also made easier with the abundant plantain in Nigeria. The country can generate more jobs for its teeming young population. Nigeria’s unemployment rate is expected to rise to <a href="https://assets.kpmg.com/content/dam/kpmg/xx/pdf/2023/03/kpmg-global-economic-outlook-h1-2023-report.pdf#page=47">40.6% in 2023 as compared to 2022’s 37.7%</a>, and as high as 43.9% in 2024.</p>
<p>Our findings show that plantain waste can be reduced and used in production of wine. The quantity of imported wine consumed in Nigeria <a href="https://businessday.ng/business-economy/article/nigerias-wine-consumption-hits-record-high-in-2021/">increased</a> from 26.7 to 33.1 million litres from 2015 to 2021. In 2021, Nigeria <a href="https://oec.world/en/profile/bilateral-product/wine/reporter/nga#:%7E:text=Imports%20In%202021%2C%20Nigeria%20imported,and%20Italy%20(%246.14M).">spent US$116 million on wine imports</a>, becoming the 36th largest importer of wine in the world. </p>
<p>Optimisation of locally produced wine will reduce reliance on imported wine and boost the country’s economy, especially in these days of <a href="https://www.reuters.com/markets/currencies/nigeria-central-bank-make-moves-impacting-fx-markets-days-2023-08-14/">scarce foreign exchange</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/208491/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Malomo Adekunbi Adetola receives funding from Carnegie and Dutch Government.</span></em></p>Increasing the quality of a traditional wine sourced from plantain in Nigeria offers a viable way of reducing waste and boosting food security.Malomo Adekunbi Adetola, Lecturer in Food Science and Technology, Obafemi Awolowo UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.