tag:theconversation.com,2011:/uk/topics/alberto-contador-2262/articlesAlberto Contador – The Conversation2016-07-07T10:42:55Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/613162016-07-07T10:42:55Z2016-07-07T10:42:55ZHow does a Tour de France favourite win on the scorching mountain slopes?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/129234/original/image-20160704-19091-olrq5k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=260%2C344%2C1700%2C1122&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Peak performance? How riders prepare decides their fate.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/willj/7558625860/in/photolist-cvVW8w-fi3bdP-hBaCJG-6mKNGU-nWE8Ra-afYAbt-57d1VZ-edVqy1-3o8nt-e17hBy-5x4da-4be1RR-jWRWbd-6mKMm7-fiemFb-8oSmZi-8mmVY1-8mn4aA-a5SbKJ-ag2phq-nWRMGS-a7d1zg-fhWr8B-fie2GG-8Awzh-5YqtgA-dh7bii-2gT6Tp-2napqV-agFg2C-afYAR2-afYAiF-fhdnkY-ag2m3w-aCzAX-aCzEV-57d6fR-4be2ir-8rYx5k-8rMn8f-3o8rb-4be2Ec-fhdcRo-fifHkG-a7fTLj-3o8ni-hk73Z-71bfJR-9PGE4P-71bcYg">will_cyclist/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The Tour de France is winding its way from the flat, windswept coast of northern France down through the Loire valley and <a href="http://www.letour.com/le-tour/2016/us/overall-route.html">the lumpy terrain</a> of the Massif Central. So far, it has been a time for the bulky sprinters and the <a href="https://velovoices.com/peloton-primer/peloton-primer-types-of-rider/">puncheurs</a> who specialise in short, maximum efforts. But as with every Tour, the race will be won on the long, winding slopes of the mountain stages when the summer heat and relentless gradient can sap both strength and morale. </p>
<p>This year’s edition <a href="http://www.cyclingweekly.co.uk/news/racing/tour-de-france/seven-key-climbs-of-the-2016-tour-de-france-196139">will take the riders up passes</a> in the Alps and Pyrenees as well as up the Provencal monster of Mont Ventoux. The race will reach altitudes of more than 2,000m above sea level, while temperatures are likely to nudge 40˚C. </p>
<p>That combination of heat and altitude is a huge challenge for general classification contenders such as Britain’s Chris Froome, Colombia’s Nairo Quintana and Spain’s Alberto Contador. Understanding the physiological effects such extremes can cause will help define who is wearing the yellow jersey in Paris.</p>
<h2>Peaks and troughs</h2>
<p>One of this year’s most compelling tests will fall during stage 12, when the riders face a 184km slog to the summit of Mont Ventoux. It peaks at 1,912m after a 15.7km climb with an average gradient of almost 9%. The mountain <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/2012/jul/14/archive-1967-simpson-death-tour-de-france">has a tragic history</a> and a daunting reputation thanks to its exposed, volcanic slopes which provide the bunch with little respite from the glaring sun. </p>
<p>The effects of a combination of heat and altitude, as often experienced on Ventoux, are not well understood. There is some <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24748530">recent evidence</a> to suggest an additive effect of heat and altitude, which can reduce exercise performance by as much as half compared to about a 35% reduction due to either heat or altitude in isolation. The paucity of research on the combined effects means athletes and coaches still tend to focus their efforts on each factor in isolation.</p>
<p>So what can you do to prepare for the brutality of racing up a mountain in the burning heat of the day – the riders are scheduled to start climbing Ventoux at about 4pm on Bastille Day (July 14)? </p>
<h2>Climate control</h2>
<p>The good news is that acclimatisation works. It has repeatedly been shown that <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9309637">cycling performance is impaired in the heat</a>, but that this can be overcome by a period of <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20724560">heat acclimatisation</a>. The athlete is repeatedly exposed to exercise in warm conditions in order to elevate their core body temperature and stress their cardiovascular system. In many <a href="http://www.gssiweb.org/en/Article/sse-153-heat-acclimatization-to-improve-athletic-performance-in-warm-hot-environments">scientific studies</a> in this field, acclimatisation to the heat is often achieved using environmental chambers to artificially replicate a warm environment. However, for obvious reasons, many cycling teams choose to take their key climbers to warm weather training camps. </p>
<p>It can can reduce core temperature and heart rate, both at rest and during exercise. These measures are often used to determine whether an athlete has become heat acclimatised – but how does it happen? </p>
<p>Reductions in heart rate, both at rest and during exercise, occur in response to an expansion in plasma volume. An expansion of plasma volume allows the cardiovascular system to meet the demands of increasing peripheral blood flow to the skin, while preserving skeletal muscle blood flow and that to the core. Increases in skin blood flow are important as it represents a key avenue by which heat generated via exercise (made worse during exercise in the heat) is transferred from the body core to the skin and helps defend against <a href="http://www.webmd.com/first-aid/hyperthermia">hyperthermia</a>.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/129236/original/image-20160704-19110-1rq9k6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/129236/original/image-20160704-19110-1rq9k6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/129236/original/image-20160704-19110-1rq9k6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129236/original/image-20160704-19110-1rq9k6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129236/original/image-20160704-19110-1rq9k6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129236/original/image-20160704-19110-1rq9k6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129236/original/image-20160704-19110-1rq9k6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129236/original/image-20160704-19110-1rq9k6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Heat can hamper riders’ ability.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/evilnick/191172022/in/photolist-hTNMm-2pWdV-2pDQ6w-g9DSC-cKZ21o-8cDuaD-iwh8B-6aZWUa-2ShPr-ihVQK-ebHgiB-39p6P-4Un7TT-6Hn84y-jc76Gy-5pcixw-5kMM1V-9ejYU3-6sb6e-bX53B4-cvtAxY-5FYsdK-bX54i6-au2Byw-dNRBv7-bX53tZ-cerpnu-sojdB-8xJETJ">evil nick/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
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<p>Preventing large increases in core and skin temperature are important in determining performance. It <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25943669">is thought</a> that feedback <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21197543">from these regions</a> helps to determine an athlete’s pacing – in other words, the hotter you get, the less you think you can push it. </p>
<p>It is not uncommon that during the Tour, temperatures on Ventoux and in the Alps and Pyrenees will exceed 30˚C. That means that whichever of the Tour favourites is better acclimatised will have lower core and skin temperatures at crucial moments and will be able to go harder than their rivals.</p>
<h2>Height restriction</h2>
<p>The effects of altitude alone on cycling power output and endurance capacity <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26629912">are well known</a>, largely occurring as a result of the reduction in the partial pressure of oxygen in the atmosphere. This effectively means that for each breath a cyclist takes at altitude they are getting less oxygen to the muscles, which elevates the physiological strain. The heart rate goes up, and the power output goes down.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/129241/original/image-20160704-19127-1sn1nfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/129241/original/image-20160704-19127-1sn1nfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/129241/original/image-20160704-19127-1sn1nfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129241/original/image-20160704-19127-1sn1nfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129241/original/image-20160704-19127-1sn1nfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129241/original/image-20160704-19127-1sn1nfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129241/original/image-20160704-19127-1sn1nfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129241/original/image-20160704-19127-1sn1nfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">More oxygen equals better performance.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com">Anna Kireieva/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>Altitude training can prepare riders for these extremes, too. Long periods of altitude work can drive an increase in haemoglobin and red blood cells via erythropoiesis – the same effect as can be artificially and illegally achieved with the <a href="http://www.runnersworld.com/sweat-science/how-does-epo-work">use of the infamous drug, EPO</a>.</p>
<p>This is an important adaptation because an increase in red blood cells and haemoglobin improves the blood’s ability to move oxygen around your body. This means that more oxygenated blood reaches the muscles, helping to meet the metabolic demand of cycling at a given intensity more easily. Riders can therefore sustain a higher power output on the mountain slopes for a longer period of time compared to an individual who has not undergone altitude training (or taken EPO).</p>
<p>So let’s say that we arrive at Mont Ventoux on July 14 with the sun blazing and the racing hard. We will essentially be faced with a test of the favourites’ preparation. Has Froome done the altitude work to get enough oxygen to his legs when Quintana attacks? And when these two hot favourites start trading blows, will Contador or Italy’s Fabio Aru have done enough warm weather training to stay cool? It will look like an old-fashioned fight between the lean and lycra-clad, but beneath it all, the scientific foundations that will define the result have already been decided.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/61316/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>When the road heads higher and the mercury is rising, the world’s top cyclists get to test the quality of their preparation.Steve Faulkner, Research associate, Loughborough UniversityKaty Griggs, Research Assistant and PhD student, Loughborough UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/52672012-02-08T19:34:04Z2012-02-08T19:34:04ZContador, doping and the need for speed<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/7478/original/v79p4zwc-1328674274.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Have scientific standards negatively affected legal reasoning?</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Alberto Martin/EPA</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>On the day the <a href="http://www.tas-cas.org/">Court of Arbitration for Sport</a> (CAS) handed down its <a href="http://www.tas-cas.org/en/infogenerales.asp/4-3-5655-1092-4-1-1/5-0-1092-15-1-1/">decision</a> on the Alberto Contador doping case, <a href="http://www.cadelevans.com.au/">Cadel Evans</a> – Australian Tour de France champion – was <a href="http://bicycling.com/blogs/thisjustin/2012/02/06/cadel-evans-says-sport-leads-drug-fight/">quoted</a> in the cycling press repeating two of the institutional mantras of professional cycling. </p>
<p>The first mantra was one often employed by cycling’s governing body, the <a href="http://www.uci.ch/Templates/UCI/UCI8/layout.asp?MenuID=MTYzMDQ&LangId=1">UCI</a>, and by others such as Lance Armstrong, seven-time Tour de France winner:</p>
<p>“Cycling has done more than enough to show it’s doing the right things when it comes to the fight against drugs … </p>
<p>"Now it’s time for other sports to look to cycling and replicate what we do so the fight against drugs in sports can maybe be beaten one day across all sports.”</p>
<p>Evans was reported as saying he had followed the Contador case from afar and trusted the authorities to do their job: “I don’t know all that goes on behind there and what all the real facts are and so on … I go along and do my job and that’s up for the authorities to decide.”</p>
<p>The other received wisdom repeated by Evans is <a href="http://bicycling.com/blogs/thisjustin/tag/cadel-evans/">the claim</a> that the Contador case took too long and thus created uncertainty for the sport: </p>
<p>“It was a case that dragged on for so long I had no idea what was going on and what was going to happen. […] I just read the newspapers like the rest of us.”</p>
<p>Such a conclusion has even been repeated by academics in their commentary on the <a href="https://theconversation.com/alberto-contador-banned-for-doping-but-what-is-clenbuterol-5246">case on The Conversation</a>.</p>
<p>As I have considered when <a href="http://www.worldcat.org/title/doping-and-anti-doping-policy-in-sport-ethical-legal-and-social-perspectives/oclc/668196920">discussing</a> the <a href="http://autobus.cyclingnews.com/news.php?id=news/puerto_complete">Operación Puerto doping investigation</a> in the past, this “need for speed” attitude has been deeply embedded in media coverage of the event. The rhetoric runs that Spanish justice was too slow and stood in the way of the certainty required for the sport and its sponsors. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/7482/original/whpjyw3n-1328674748.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/7482/original/whpjyw3n-1328674748.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=736&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/7482/original/whpjyw3n-1328674748.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=736&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/7482/original/whpjyw3n-1328674748.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=736&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/7482/original/whpjyw3n-1328674748.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=925&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/7482/original/whpjyw3n-1328674748.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=925&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/7482/original/whpjyw3n-1328674748.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=925&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Caroline Blumberg</span></span>
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<p>The legal scholar <a href="http://www.indiana.edu/%7Eiupolsci/bio_tab_scheuerman.shtml">Professor William E Scheuerman</a> has written extensively on the danger of this need for legal speed, which he says jeopardises freedom and undermines the rule of law. </p>
<p><a href="http://books.google.com.au/books?id=j-3nG1zj1ZEC&pg=PA105&lpg=PA105&dq=law+making+procedures+become+ever+faster+and+more+circumscribed,+the+path+towards+the+achievement+of+legal+regulation+shorter,+and+the+share+of+jurisprudence+smaller&source=bl&ots=lCV3P0gAmN&sig=7apPjOY2fbMAIw2nJI9ZxiP5XMA&hl=en&sa=X&ei=n_wxT5-WJO6OiAfX9Jz-BA&ved=0CCAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=law%20making%20procedures%20become%20ever%20faster%20and%20more%20circumscribed%2C%20the%20path%20towards%20the%20achievement%20of%20legal%20regulation%20shorter%2C%20and%20the%20share%20of%20jurisprudence%20smaller&f=false">He argues</a> the motorisation of the law – its increasing use of technical and scientific standards – undermines traditional legal reasoning, saying: “law making procedures become ever faster and more circumscribed, the path towards the achievement of legal regulation shorter, and the share of jurisprudence smaller”.</p>
<p>In the world of anti-doping and professional cycling this requirement for speed manifests itself in an avoidance of the tardy processes of national law courts and a preference for arbitration.</p>
<p>It promotes a situation whereby presumed guilt and judgment through the media is the norm rather than traditional methods of legal determination. Furthermore the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strict_liability">principle of strict liability</a> means the only recourse available is of a formal procedural type. Under the rules of strict liability a cyclist is suspended provisionally once they return a positive test result – indeed this is what happened to Contador in 2010. </p>
<p>He was able to return to cycling in the interim because he was in fact acquitted by the relevant Spanish authorities. In February last year, the then President José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero <a href="http://www.rtve.es/deportes/20110211/zapatero-no-hay-ninguna-razon-juridica-para-sancionar-contador/404359.shtml">publicly stated</a> on the government’s Twitter page: “there’s no legal reason to justify sanctioning Contador”, a position supported by his opponent and successor, current President Mariano Rajoy. </p>
<p>Their reasoning was supported by that of Angel Juanes, the president of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audiencia_Nacional_of_Spain">Audiencia Nacional</a> (the Spanish High Court) who questioned the constitutionality of the strict liability principle, which removes the presumption of innocence. </p>
<p>Nevertheless, once exonerated by the Spanish cycling federation, Contador was free to compete until the hearing of the appeal.</p>
<p>Putting aside all the other issues at play in Contador’s case – and I’m not entering into the question of whether he is guilty or not – was it really the drawn-out affair that the received wisdom says it was? Did it really take a long time? </p>
<p>In reality, it was only 16 months from when the Contador case became public (in late September 2010) until the CAS decision earlier this week.</p>
<p>That period includes the opening of the case, the hearing and decision by the Spanish cycling federation, the preparation and hearing of the appeal in CAS, not to mention the time it took the three arbitrators to write their 98-page, 514-paragraph decision. </p>
<p>Given the complexity of the case, the evidence adduced and the maze of scientific and legal issues at stake, is it really fair or accurate to describe this as a drawn-out affair?</p>
<p>Remember that there’s plenty at stake in the Contador case. It not just the cyclist’s reputation on the line (there is also considerable ambiguity in the <a href="http://www.tas-cas.org/en/infogenerales.asp/4-3-5655-1092-4-1-1/5-0-1092-15-1-1/">CAS decision</a> as to whether Contador intentionally doped), but also his name on the record books of the 2010 Tour de France and the 2011 Giro d’Italia. </p>
<p>Along with this, the UCI is seeking a fine from Contador to the tune of €2,485,000. The CAS has yet to decide upon this aspect of the case. </p>
<p>Bloomberg News has put the potential financial cost of the case to Contador as being <a href="http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-02-06/contador-faces-6-million-bill-after-losing-fight-to-save-2010-tour-title.html">in the vicinity of US$6m</a>, once you consider the fine and legal costs. </p>
<p>But this figure does not seem to take into account the ramifications for Contador’s earnings this year, nor his potential loss of sponsorship.</p>
<p>Would we really state an investigation, court hearing and appeal process was tardy and drawn-out if what was at stake was a wealthy entrepreneur who’d had their reputation trashed, was exposed to being banned from performing their business and exposed to a A$3m fine, among other significant financial losses?</p>
<p>Given what was at stake, I’m not sure we would. </p>
<p>If we judge it by traditional legal standards and the length of most court cases in our legal system, the Contador’s case was definitely not drawn out.</p>
<p><br></p>
<p><em>See <a href="https://theconversation.com/alberto-contador-banned-for-doping-but-what-is-clenbuterol-5246">Alberto Contador banned for doping, but what is clenbuterol?</a> by Laura Corbit on The Conversation.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/5267/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Martin Hardie has received funding from the Anti Doping Research program of the Commonwealth Government.</span></em></p>On the day the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS) handed down its decision on the Alberto Contador doping case, Cadel Evans – Australian Tour de France champion – was quoted in the cycling press repeating…Martin Hardie, Lecturer in Law, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/52462012-02-08T01:00:29Z2012-02-08T01:00:29ZAlberto Contador banned for doping, but what is clenbuterol?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/7458/original/7ts8wznx-1328658752.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">He's in the spotlight for taking a drug that probably didn't even help his performance.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">EPA/Alberto Martin</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>After a drawn-out and controversial case, Spanish professional cyclist <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alberto_Contador">Alberto Contador</a> has been <a href="http://www.aipsmedia.com/index.php?page=news&cod=7245&tp=n">found guilty of doping</a> and banned from the sport <a href="http://www.cyclingtips.com.au/2012/02/alberto-contador-suspended/">for two years</a>.</p>
<p>Contador was stripped of his victories at the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_Tour_de_France">2010 Tour de France</a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_Giro_d%27Italia">2011 Giro d'Italia</a> and a <a href="http://grannygearblog.com/2012/02/the-alberto-contador-saga-wash-up/">raft of other races</a> after the <a href="http://www.tas-cas.org/news">Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS)</a> brought its nearly-two-year investigation to a close.</p>
<p>A sample of Contador’s urine, taken during a rest day in the 2010 Tour de France, contained traces of <a href="http://www.clenbuterol.net/">clenbuterol</a> – a <a href="http://www.wada-ama.org/en/News-Center/Articles/WADA-statement-on-clenbuterol/">banned substance</a> in cycling and many other sports. <a href="http://edition.cnn.com/video/#/video/sports/2010/09/30/tst.contador.cycle.brfg.cnnplus?iref=allsearch">Contador claims</a> the clenbuterol in his body was the result of eating contaminated Spanish beef.</p>
<p>So what is clenbuterol? How does it work? And would the amount detected in Contador’s body have had any effect on his performance?</p>
<p>Technically speaking, clenbuterol is a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta2-adrenergic_agonist">“β2-adrenergic agonist”</a> – a class of drugs used to treat asthma and other respiratory diseases. As with other β2 agonists, clenbuterol is effective as a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronchodilator">“bronchodilator”</a> because of its properties as a muscle relaxant.</p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/7461/original/srv4cpm8-1328661196.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/7461/original/srv4cpm8-1328661196.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=518&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/7461/original/srv4cpm8-1328661196.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=518&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/7461/original/srv4cpm8-1328661196.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=518&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/7461/original/srv4cpm8-1328661196.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=651&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/7461/original/srv4cpm8-1328661196.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=651&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/7461/original/srv4cpm8-1328661196.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=651&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Clenbuterol itself is not approved by the <a href="http://www.fda.gov/">US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)</a> and has been banned by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) because of its potentially performance-enhancing effects. </p>
<p>As well as being an effective bronchodilator, clenbuterol can have a range of other effects, including an increase in:</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerobic_exercise#Aerobic_capacity">aerobic capacity</a> (the amount of oxygen the body can use during physical exercise)</li>
<li>the body’s ability to transport oxygen, and </li>
<li>the body’s ability to metabolise fat.</li>
</ul>
<p>This final property leads <a href="http://www.clenbuteroldirect.com/clenbuterol/clenbuterol/weight-loss-clenbuterol.html">some people to use it</a> as a potential weight-loss aid and to increase lean muscle mass.</p>
<p>Because of these properties clenbuterol is sometimes given to livestock to increase production of lean meat. This practice is not approved by the FDA or European Union in animals intended as a food source. But clenbuterol can still be administered to animals as a bronchodilator or muscle relaxant and this, together with its illegal use, can lead to a risk of food sources becoming contaminated.</p>
<p>For this reason, Contador’s claim that the clenbuterol in his system was the result of eating contaminated beef is plausible. But specific evidence regarding <a href="http://www.cyclingnews.com/news/spanish-beef-producers-criticise-contador">the source of contaminated meat</a> was not produced by Contador’s defence team, presumably contributing to the decision against him.</p>
<p>Clenbuterol is usually prescribed (in countries where it’s legal) in dosages of 20-60 micrograms (mcg) a day. This 20mcg is a starting dose for <a href="http://www.anzca.edu.au/fpm/resources/educational-documents/documents/use-of-off-label-drugs-or-beyond-licence">off-label uses</a> (using the drug for something other than its primary purpose), increasing to as much as 120mcg.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/7460/original/pzwmng7b-1328660884.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/7460/original/pzwmng7b-1328660884.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/7460/original/pzwmng7b-1328660884.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=834&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/7460/original/pzwmng7b-1328660884.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=834&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/7460/original/pzwmng7b-1328660884.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=834&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/7460/original/pzwmng7b-1328660884.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1048&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/7460/original/pzwmng7b-1328660884.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1048&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/7460/original/pzwmng7b-1328660884.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1048&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">It’s time for Contador to hand back some of his silverware.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">EPA/Horacio Villalobos</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Contador’s urine sample was found to contain only a minute amount of clenbuterol – 50 picograms, or 0.00005mcg. This concentration is unlikely to have had any affect on Contador’s performance at all.</p>
<p>Contador’s positive test came on a rest day during the 2010 Tour de France – presumably indicating use of the banned substance on the previous day of Le Tour (stage 16). But clenbuterol has a <a href="http://www.wisegeek.com/what-does-a-drugs-half-life-mean.htm">long half-life</a> – approximately 34 hours. For this reason it’s somewhat perplexing that higher levels weren’t detected, if this was something Contador was taking while riding.</p>
<p>It’s also strange that Contador didn’t test positive on more days of Le Tour – if indeed he was taking clenbuterol during the race – given <a href="http://www.roadcycling.com/articles/Alberto-Contador-Tests-Positive-for-Banned-Steroid-During-Tour-de-France_003916.shtml">how often he was tested</a> throughout the race.</p>
<p>In a press conference overnight, Contador vowed to continue cycling once his ban ends (in August this year – the ban was <a href="http://www.cyclingtips.com.au/2012/02/alberto-contador-suspended/">applied retroactively</a>) and he hasn’t ruled out <a href="http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/sport/defiant-alberto-contador-vows-to-ride-on/story-fn8sc2wz-1226265373409">an appeal of the decision</a>.</p>
<p>The story, it seems, is <a href="http://espn.go.com/olympics/cycling/story/_/id/7551542/cas-issue-jan-ullrich-doping-case-verdict-thursday">far from over</a>. </p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/5246/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Laura Corbit does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>After a drawn-out and controversial case, Spanish professional cyclist Alberto Contador has been found guilty of doping and banned from the sport for two years. Contador was stripped of his victories at…Laura Corbit, Lecturer, School of Psychology, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.