tag:theconversation.com,2011:/uk/topics/bachelors-degree-16549/articlesBachelor's degree – The Conversation2022-06-23T11:50:39Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1852562022-06-23T11:50:39Z2022-06-23T11:50:39ZOnly about 1 in 5 engineering degrees go to women<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/469564/original/file-20220617-15-euge0j.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=9%2C0%2C6017%2C4011&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Research shows women who study engineering do better when mentored by other women.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/milling-machine-setup-process-female-african-royalty-free-image/1350414597?adppopup=true">Nitat Termmee/Moment via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-center ">
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<p>Despite various efforts to <a href="https://beta.nsf.gov/funding/initiatives/broadening-participation/supporting-women-and-girls-stem">encourage more women to study STEM fields</a> in college, the percentage of engineering bachelor’s degrees earned by women in the United States hasn’t increased much in the 21st century. Specifically, it has risen from 18% in 1998 to 22% in 2018. </p>
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<p>Of all the fields in STEM – or science, technology, engineering and mathematics – the engineering workforce <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2018/01/09/diversity-in-the-stem-workforce-varies-widely-across-jobs/">has the lowest proportion of women</a>, at 14%.</p>
<p>That low participation matters for several reasons. Women are not only being left out of some of the <a href="https://www.bls.gov/ooh/architecture-and-engineering/home.htm">highest-paying jobs in STEM</a>, but companies are losing out as well. Research shows that gender-diverse teams <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/eriklarson/2017/09/21/new-research-diversity-inclusion-better-decision-making-at-work/?sh=71ea3baa4cbf">make better business decisions</a> than teams that are all-male.</p>
<p>So why aren’t women going into engineering? And what, if anything, can be done to help women who decide to study engineering stay the course? The Society of Women Engineers reports that <a href="https://alltogether.swe.org/2019/11/swe-research-update-women-in-engineering-by-the-numbers-nov-2019/#_ednref7">over 32% of female STEM majors switch to another major</a>. Research shows this rate is <a href="https://www.rise.hs.iastate.edu/projects/CBiRC/IJEE-WhyTheyLeave.pdf">typically higher</a> than the rate at which men leave engineering. Of those women who leave the engineering profession, 30% cite the workplace environment as the reason, the society reports. A 2017 study of over 5,000 women who earned bachelor’s degrees in engineering <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00875">found that 10% never entered the field and 27% left the profession</a>.</p>
<h2>Colleges intervene</h2>
<p>These are all issues I’ve been <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=sZGzlnMAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">researching</a> as associate director of the <a href="https://cwit.umbc.edu/mission-vision/">Center for Women in Technology</a> at the University of Maryland, Baltimore County, or UMBC. In 2018, several colleagues and I found that computing and engineering students who are supported by the center <a href="https://dl.acm.org/doi/abs/10.1145/3159450.3159533">graduate within four years at a rate of 61.2%</a> – a <a href="https://cdn.theconversation.com/static_files/files/2143/A_Model_for_Increasing_Gender_Diversity_in_Technology.pdf?1655991489">full 19 percentage points higher</a> than students who are not supported by the center. The center supports students through scholarships and extensive academic and social support; in the 2021-22 academic year, 73% of students supported were women.
And recently two alumnae of the center – one in <a href="https://umbc.edu/stories/fourteen-umbc-students-and-recent-alumni-receive-fulbright-awards-setting-new-record/">2019</a> and one in <a href="https://umbc.edu/stories/umbc-2022-fulbright-student-scholars/">2022</a> – have become <a href="https://us.fulbrightonline.org/">Fulbright Scholars</a>.</p>
<p>The program at UMBC is by no means the only campus-based program in the nation that supports female students in their plans to enter engineering and computer science – two areas in which women are <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2018/01/09/diversity-in-the-stem-workforce-varies-widely-across-jobs/">persistently underrepresented</a>. Through my research, I have discovered that there are more than two dozen such programs or initiatives at colleges and universities throughout the nation. They include, for example, the
<a href="https://sites.udel.edu/wie/">Women in Engineering Program</a> at University of Delaware, the <a href="https://wise.ncsu.edu/">Women in Science and Engineering program</a> at North Carolina State University and the <a href="https://awe.seas.upenn.edu/#:%7E:text=Women%20make%20up%20approximately%2040,and%20opportunities%20to%20Penn%20Engineering.">Advancing Women in Engineering</a> program at the University of Pennsylvania. </p>
<p>To better understand the necessity of such programs, consider the abundance of research that has found women who study STEM report <a href="https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2016.0072">“chilly” and “negative” experiences</a> in the classroom and on campus. This includes being subjected to gender-based harassment and a “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2016.0072">perception that women are unable to ‘do science.</a>’” Colleges also have long struggled with how to help women <a href="https://www.ijemst.net/index.php/ijemst/article/view/293/141">see themselves as part of the scientific community</a>.</p>
<h2>Proven strategies</h2>
<p>It doesn’t have to be that way. Research shows that when female engineering students are mentored by female peers, they feel less anxious about their ability, have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1613117114">more positive academic experiences</a> and are more likely to stick with STEM as a major. Peer-based tutoring has also <a href="https://peer.asee.org/examining-the-effectiveness-of-scholars-assisting-scholars-program-among-undergraduate-engineering-students">been shown to help students get their grades up</a>.</p>
<p>With support from an approximately $233,000 grant from the National Science Foundation, I have also been looking at <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/awardsearch/showAward?AWD_ID=2025349&HistoricalAwards=false">what kinds of academic experiences and supports</a> help female engineering students stay the course.</p>
<p>Based on my analysis of 356 female engineering students at UMBC from 2007 to 2016, what follows are preliminary findings from my National Science Foundation research:</p>
<h2>1. High school math and grades make a difference</h2>
<p>Starting college in a higher level of college math and having a higher high school GPA both help. Specifically, starting college at a higher level of college math – such as Advanced Calculus or Differential Equations – increases the likelihood of graduating with an engineering degree within five years by 8% over those who start at lower levels of college math. Having a higher high school GPA increases the likelihood even more.</p>
<p>To boost the number of women who earn engineering degrees, educators must help girls get on track at the high school level. This means establishing a strong record of success in their high school math and science courses.</p>
<h2>2. Gateway engineering courses matter</h2>
<p>By “gateway” courses, I mean classes that are required to officially declare the engineering major and that faculty identified as critical for success. In other words, classes that make or break an engineer. This would include courses such as Principles of Digital Design in computer engineering, Statics in mechanical engineering and Chemical Process Thermodynamics in chemical engineering.</p>
<p>I found that women who took more gateway engineering courses were less likely to leave their intended engineering major.</p>
<h2>3. Freshman and sophomore years in college are critical</h2>
<p>For those who eventually left engineering, making it through the first four semesters is critical. Among women students who left engineering, 59% – or about three out of five – did so during the first four semesters.</p>
<p>This points toward the need for colleges and universities to provide very deliberate academic and social supports – such as tutoring and mentoring – for female engineering students at the very start of their college careers.</p>
<p>If only 1 in 5 bachelor’s degrees in engineering are awarded to women, it may take these efforts and more to get the number anywhere close to being on par with the proportion that are awarded to men.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/185256/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Danyelle Tauryce Ireland works for the Center for Women in Technology at the University of Maryland, Baltimore County. She receives funding from the National Science Foundation. </span></em></p>A negative environment dissuades many women engineering students from staying in the field. Can colleges and universities do anything to reverse the trend?Danyelle Tauryce Ireland, Associate Director of the Center for Women in Technology and Research Assistant Professor in the Engineering and Computing Education Program, University of Maryland, Baltimore CountyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1604612021-06-04T05:02:26Z2021-06-04T05:02:26ZIn this ‘job-ready’ era, it’s worth looking at how a US-style broader education can benefit uni students<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/404144/original/file-20210603-21-157lrsv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=8%2C0%2C3458%2C2290&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Rob Crandall/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The <a href="https://www.studyassist.gov.au/news/job-ready-graduates-package-higher-education-reforms-0">Job-Ready Graduates Package</a> is nearing the end of its first full semester of implementation. Its basic premise is that the main reason the modern Australian university exists is to train the next generation in areas of economic need. </p>
<p>“Universities must teach Australians the skills needed to succeed in the jobs of the future,” <a href="https://ministers.dese.gov.au/tehan/minister-education-dan-tehan-national-press-club-address">said</a> the then federal education minister, Dan Tehan, when introducing the package. His successor, Alan Tudge, has <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/the-universities-with-the-most-unhappy-students-during-the-pandemic-20210318-p57c1w.html">described</a> this task as universities’ “core business”. </p>
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<p>As former University of Melbourne vice chancellor Glyn Davis has <a href="https://meanjin.com.au/essays/the-australian-idea-of-a-university">pointed out</a>, our universities have <em>always</em> had a strong focus on professional vocational preparation. Yet even alongside enhanced international research <a href="https://theconversation.com/new-global-ranking-system-shows-australian-universities-are-ahead-of-the-pack-152313">rankings</a>, Australian higher education has drifted further towards massified vocational training over the past decade (the demand-driven era). The 2020 legislation accentuated this trend, in terms of both the government’s “job-ready” rhetoric and <a href="https://theconversation.com/3-flaws-in-job-ready-graduates-package-will-add-to-the-turmoil-in-australian-higher-education-147740">financial incentives</a> to <a href="https://www.theaustralian.com.au/higher-education/more-science-and-tech-enrolments-followed-uni-fee-revamp/news-story/d279ecfd129e74ce2616b750c55b0775?btr=5a57b820f16b8162eb895fec0010d5a1">deter enrolment</a> in courses deemed to lack immediate vocational focus. </p>
<p>This reshaping of the meaning of higher <em>education</em> raises significant concerns. If our universities are to retain some balance between the imperatives of education and training, perhaps the time has come to reimagine the possibilities. </p>
<p>One way of doing so is to consider the merits of North American-style “general education”. How might it be applied in Australia’s quite different system? </p>
<h2>Contrasting models of higher education</h2>
<p>To use very broad categorisations, Australian undergraduate education essentially follows the <a href="https://www.studyacrossthepond.com/degrees-programs/undergraduate-degrees-uk">English</a> (not <a href="https://www.ed.ac.uk/studying/undergraduate/student-life/academic/degree-structure/degree-structure#:%7E:text=Scottish%20degree%20programmes%20are%20designed,add%20depth%20to%20your%20education.">Scottish</a>) model. It is based on three-year discipline-specific courses that prepare graduates for employment. Comparable <a href="https://www.richmondfed.us/-/media/richmondfedorg/publications/research/econ_focus/2012/q4/pdf/feature2.pdf">European systems</a> enhance this with deeply integrated industry apprenticeships. </p>
<p>In contrast, the traditional <a href="https://shorelight.com/student-stories/the-us-higher-education-system-explained/">North American system</a> works on the basis of a four-year bachelor’s degree. Roughly a third to a half of that comprises elective studies, before the student selects a major. </p>
<p>If the English/European undergraduate systems prioritise <em>depth</em> of specialisation, the North American system prioritises <em>breadth</em>. The former assumes general education is the job of secondary schooling. The latter provides advanced general education well into university. Technical professional training is provided largely at postgraduate level.</p>
<h2>Models of general education</h2>
<p>“Gen ed” is itself diverse, and each model has its own benefits. </p>
<p>Some approaches simply prioritise “breadth requirements”. This ensures students deepen their experience of a range of disciplines in their first and second years. They can then choose their major in a more informed way. </p>
<p>Other models focus more strategically on developing <a href="https://www.american.edu/provost/undergrad/core/">transferable skills</a> – critical thinking and problem solving, teamwork, leadership, adaptability, communication and so on. These skills are applicable across industries. </p>
<p>Some have a strong focus on civics and global citizenship. It is worth noting the attraction of North American gen ed for many Asian universities, including institutions in <a href="https://commoncore.hku.hk/introduction/">Hong Kong</a>, <a href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1170324.pdf">Taiwan</a> and <a href="https://www.routledge.com/General-Education-and-the-Development-of-Global-Citizenship-in-Hong-Kong/Xing-Ng-Cheng/p/book/9781138701113">mainland China</a>. </p>
<p>Further, “core curriculums” have different emphases. Some programs have a decidedly “<a href="https://grahamschool.uchicago.edu/academic-programs/liberal-arts/basic-program/core-curriculum">great books</a>” approach focusing on intellectual and literary heritage. Others have more mission-focused curriculums such as those developed by <a href="https://ejournals.bc.edu/index.php/integritas/issue/view/601">American Catholic universities</a>. </p>
<p>Of course, such models are not mutually exclusive. Aspects of each can be productively combined.</p>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/pandemic-widens-gap-between-government-and-australians-view-of-education-148991">Pandemic widens gap between government and Australians' view of education</a>
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<h2>Why bother with gen ed?</h2>
<p>Admittedly, arguments based on affordability and immediate employability contribute strongly to the case for specialised undergraduate degrees. But is the education of the average 17 or 18-year-old matriculant sufficiently broad and deep to then focus simply on career training? </p>
<p>Further, significant specialisation is already baked into Australian Year 11-12 schooling. This is a result of ATAR scores inevitably being prioritised in the quest for entry into professional undergraduate courses. For many students, broad education in the humanities and the natural and social sciences is heavily curtailed by the age of 14-15. </p>
<p>In this context, gen ed advocates point to the intrinsic, if hard to quantify, benefits of a citizenry that is highly and broadly educated and critically trained. They also cite the pragmatic benefits to both <a href="https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/161216/1/dp10593.pdf">individual</a> long-term prospects and to the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/5149947_Skill-Specific_rather_than_General_Education_A_Reason_for_US-Europe_Growth_Differences">economy</a> as a whole. </p>
<h2>Can gen ed work in Australia?</h2>
<p>As long as the three-year undergraduate degree continues to shoulder the burden of pre-employment professional training, significant gains in this area will be difficult. Australia’s most ambitious recent effort in this regard is the so-called <a href="https://about.unimelb.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0014/20426/20101012-davis.pdf">Melbourne Model</a>. As its framers concluded, moving unilaterally to a North American four-year undergraduate structure is currently untenable. </p>
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<p>Meanwhile, professional accreditation requirements within three-year vocational degrees leave little room for elective subjects. </p>
<p>Nonetheless, several Australian institutions already carve out limited space for broader strategic educational goals. Examples include the core curriculum programs run by <a href="https://bond.edu.au/current-students/study-information/enrolment/program-structure-and-sequence/core-curriculum">Bond</a> (focusing on transferable skills), <a href="https://www.acu.edu.au/study-at-acu/find-a-course/core-curriculum">ACU</a> and <a href="https://www.notredame.edu.au/about/schools/sydney/philosophy-and-theology/course-descriptions">UNDA</a> (focused on the Catholic intellectual tradition).</p>
<p>Amid the fetishisation of “job-readiness”, Australian universities would do well to look at creative ways to develop a more holistic educational experience for all their students. This would contribute to the long-term benefits of broadly educated and critically skilled graduates.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/160461/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Richard Colledge does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Many Australian students specialise before they’ve had a good general education. American undergraduates do get that, and perhaps Australia has gone too far down the path of early specialisation.Richard Colledge, Associate Dean (Learning and Teaching), Faculty of Theology & Philosophy, Australian Catholic UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/927512018-04-15T08:44:40Z2018-04-15T08:44:40ZA more flexible curriculum approach can support student success<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/208653/original/file-20180302-65516-ll6cxo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=2%2C4%2C995%2C672&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Young people don't always know exactly what they want to study, or what their interests are. Flexibility helps.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Rawpixel.com/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Financial access is extremely important for poor and working class students wanting to get a foot in the door at universities. But on its own this isn’t a guarantee of success.</p>
<p>South Africa has very poor student throughput (that is, from enrolment to graduation) and low retention rates in <a href="http://www.che.ac.za/">undergraduate education</a>. Only 30% of students complete a three-year bachelor’s degree in three years. And less than two-thirds complete within an <a href="http://che.ac.za/sites/default/files/publications/CHE_South%20African%20higher%20education%20reviewed%20-%20electronic_1.pdf">additional two years</a>. </p>
<p>A <a href="http://www.africanminds.co.za/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/9781928331698_web.pdf">recent study</a> of students’ experiences in BA and BSc degree programmes found that curriculum structure and flexibility can play a crucial role in students’ progression and success.</p>
<p>The study traced the influence of higher education on the lives of 73 young people who had registered for a BA or BSc at one of three South African universities. In-depth interviews were carried out with them six years after their first year at university.</p>
<p>We found that most students didn’t enter university with fully formed ideas of their interests and strengths. The experience of knowing exactly what they wanted to do, coming to university and seamlessly doing it, was rare.</p>
<p>Our study found that flexibility in the structure of BA and BSc degrees was important. It helped students to find their strengths and passions, and to allow them to change direction during the degree if they needed to. This in turn helped them complete their studies.</p>
<p>In narrowly specified programmes with limited choice or flexibility, students could be left feeling trapped in programmes that no longer matched their interests or strengths. </p>
<h2>Different experiences</h2>
<p>Curriculum structure in the formative science and arts degrees varies substantially across the country’s universities. Some universities offer flexibility of subject choice within the BA and BSc degree structures (taking into account prerequisites for senior courses), or even the choice of a few electives in other faculties. </p>
<p>In at least one university in South Africa, students can select a mixture of BA and BSc subjects, in a very flexible, <a href="https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED415738">liberal arts type approach</a>. Including Philosophy in a Science degree, taking Zoology with Psychology, or Law with Geography, allows students to engage with a broad spectrum of concepts and ways of thinking. </p>
<p>Other institutions have more highly specified offerings - for example, a BA in Tourism, or a BSc in Biological Sciences. These sort of programmes were introduced in some South African universities in the early 2000s, in response to <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/B:HIGH.0000035544.96309.f1">a policy move</a> away from the traditional bachelor degree. </p>
<p>This was intended to make undergraduate degrees more “relevant” and to lead more directly to particular employment options. In these rigid degree programmes, subjects are tightly specified with little room for choice of elective modules or for curriculum flexibility. </p>
<p>Our study found that flexibility really helped students. This is not surprising, considering that most of the young people we interviewed came from schools that offered limited career guidance. Also, many are first in their families to enter university; they have <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-class-and-social-capital-affect-university-students-92602">limited family experiences</a> of higher education to draw on.</p>
<p>Change in direction of study was easier for those in BA programmes, since the BA rules of subject combination allowed for more wrong choices and changes in direction without leading to an extra year of studying.</p>
<p>This is to be expected as the sciences have hierarchical knowledge structures: senior BSc courses have junior courses as prerequisites. Failure in key first year science courses meant that students could be barred from progressing to the second year of study. If there was no chance to retake these courses during the year, a whole extra year of study was required. </p>
<p>So what can universities learn from these students’ experiences?</p>
<h2>Rethinking structure</h2>
<p>There has already been one significant proposal around curriculum restructuring in South African universities; it suggested lengthening the three-year bachelor’s <a href="http://che.ac.za/sites/default/files/publications/Full_Report.pdf">degree to four years</a>. This is unlikely to be adopted given the current financial pressures on the country’s higher education sector. </p>
<p>But we do think there is still scope to address some curriculum issues our study has highlighted within the current BA and BSc structures.</p>
<p>Universities should know that students don’t enter higher education with a full sense of their strengths and interests. A curriculum needs to make some trial and error possible. Professional degrees such as medicine or engineering may need a more specified curriculum, but the relative flexibility in the formative BA and BSc degrees is important. This allows students to try out different disciplines and find their passions.</p>
<p>In a degree with limited choices and, at some universities, very fixed prerequisites, many students fall by the wayside and can’t easily get back on track. For these students, mounting debt tends to compound the challenge of academic progression.</p>
<p>The academic year could also be better structured to enable flexibility. Vacation periods could be used for students who need time to resit assessments, repeat prerequisite modules or attend credit-bearing summer schools. This would support students’ progression through the curriculum.</p>
<h2>Flexibility matters</h2>
<p>A more flexible programme, coupled with strong <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-universities-need-to-invest-in-strong-advice-systems-for-students-92750">academic advising structures</a>, allows young people to find their strengths and interests – and to change direction, if need be. </p>
<p>It can also allow them to develop the sort of <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/higher-education-network/blog/2013/aug/12/students-interdisciplinary-teaching-research-university">interdisciplinary perspectives</a> needed to address the key issues facing society in the 21st century.</p>
<p>Universities will need to rethink curriculum structures to enable rather than constrain students’ success and progression through higher education. </p>
<p><em>This is an edited abstract from “Going to University: The influence of Higher Education on the lives of young South Africans” (2018) Case, J., Marshall, D., McKenna, S. & Mogashana, D. African Minds. Available for <a href="http://www.africanminds.co.za/dd-product/going-to-university-the-influence-of-higher-education-on-the-lives-of-young-south-africans/">download here</a>.</em></p>
<p><em>The other authors of the book from which this piece is extracted are Professor Jenni Case (Head of Department of Engineering Education at Virginia Tech), Professor Sioux McKenna (Head of Postgraduate Studies at Rhodes University) and Dr Disaapele Mogashana (student success coach and consultant at <a href="http://www.mytsi.co.za/">True Success Institute</a>).</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/92751/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors of the book 'Going to University: The influence of higher education on the lives of young South Africans' are grateful for the financial support of the NRF.</span></em></p>Curriculum structure and flexibility can play a crucial role in students’ progression and success.Delia Marshall, Professor, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of the Western CapeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/744202017-03-29T01:45:01Z2017-03-29T01:45:01ZDoes it pay to get a double major in college?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/162999/original/image-20170328-3824-171jic.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Whether you have two majors or one, graduation is a celebration.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/education-graduation-people-concept-silhouettes-many-451321816">Syda Productions/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Students are bombarded with an array of competing opportunities during college, all with the promise that each will lead to a better job or higher earnings upon entering the “real world.”</p>
<p>One such option is the double major, in which a student earns two bachelor degrees at once, sometimes in entirely different disciplines. But will doing so lead to a higher-paying job? Is it worth the “lost” time that could have been spent in other activities such as internships or student government?</p>
<p>In college, I earned several degrees, which led to a broader education that I believe enriched the quality and creativity of my thinking and improved my career prospects. As an economist-in-training, however, I wanted hard data to back up my anecdotal experience. </p>
<p>To do this, I crunched some numbers from the Census Bureau on over two million full-time workers and analyzed them to see if there’s a connection between earning multiple degrees and financial gain in the years following graduation.</p>
<h2>Double-majoring on the decline?</h2>
<p>While double majors have been a <a href="http://www.humanitiescommission.org/_pdf/hss_report.pdf">popular way to balance</a> a deep study of the humanities with traditional degrees in the sciences, basic tabulations suggest that the percent of workers with a double major has been roughly constant, or even decreasing, over the past six years depending on how one restricts the sample.</p>
<p>For example, looking at all individuals between ages 20 and 29, only 12.5 percent of the population had a double major in 2015, which is down from 14.2 percent in 2009, according to my calculations from the <a href="https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/acs/about/how-the-acs-works.html">American Community Survey (ACS) Census</a> data. At the same time, the percent of workers within the same age range with any kind of college degree grew from roughly 23 to 36 percent. </p>
<p>On the one hand, double-majoring can help students avoid becoming overly specialized, <a href="https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ999086">exposing them to new ways of thinking</a> and communicating with others outside their primary area. On the other, it creates a trade-off with other educational opportunities.</p>
<p>In 2013, the National Commission on Higher Education Attainment went so far as to <a href="http://www.acenet.edu/news-room/Documents/An-Open-Letter-to-College-and-University-Leaders.pdf">urge universities</a> to “narrow student choice” to promote degree completion – perhaps by restricting or even banning the completion of double majors.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/163004/original/image-20170328-3772-c3y010.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/163004/original/image-20170328-3772-c3y010.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/163004/original/image-20170328-3772-c3y010.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/163004/original/image-20170328-3772-c3y010.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/163004/original/image-20170328-3772-c3y010.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/163004/original/image-20170328-3772-c3y010.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/163004/original/image-20170328-3772-c3y010.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">While the number of college graduates in the workforce is growing, the number of double majors is shrinking.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/two-young-caucasian-teenager-doing-homework-524995729?src=eCrn33aa2-p3H6vDR8X9yg-1-83">Francesco Corticchia/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What existing research says</h2>
<p>Previous research on whether a double major pays off has shown mixed results. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09645290802469931?journalCode=cede20">A 2011 paper</a> found that a double major, on average, yields a 3.2 percent earnings premium over a peer with only one degree. The paper noted that the premium ranged from nothing at liberal arts colleges to almost 4 percent at “research and comprehensive” universities. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-benefit-cost-analysis/article/div-classtitlethe-private-and-social-benefits-of-double-majorsdiv/CD1696DBF93DEFE3C2D3A759D6F0895B">more recent study</a>, published in 2016, concluded that liberal arts students who tacked on a second degree in either business or a science, technology, engineering or math (STEM) field earned somewhat more than their single-major peers. But the authors noted that there was no premium when compared with a single STEM or business degree. </p>
<p>Both of these papers, however, are based on relatively small cross-sections of individuals, which makes them less representative and limits their statistical power. In addition, they focus on single years – 2003 and 2010, respectively – which means the results may be affected by any transient economic conditions that occurred that year. </p>
<h2>What my research showed</h2>
<p>In my own analysis, I examined data on over two million full-time workers aged 20 to 65 over a six-year period (2009-2015) using Census Bureau data. The bureau provides the largest source of publicly available information on individuals and households, helping to ensure that the analysis is both representative and detailed. The data set included information on each individual’s earnings, occupation, undergraduate degrees and a wide range of other demographic data. </p>
<p>My results showed that liberal arts students who take on a second degree in a STEM field earned, on average, 9.5 percent more than their liberal arts peers with only one major, after controlling for individual demographic factors, such as age, years of schooling, marital status, gender, family size and race. Students who combined a liberal arts degree with a business major earned 7.9 percent more.</p>
<iframe src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/vwsHO/2/" frameborder="0" allowtransparency="true" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen" webkitallowfullscreen="webkitallowfullscreen" mozallowfullscreen="mozallowfullscreen" oallowfullscreen="oallowfullscreen" msallowfullscreen="msallowfullscreen" width="100%" height="500"></iframe>
<p>You might be thinking that this isn’t really a surprise. Of course STEM majors will earn more than their liberal arts counterparts. While my analysis already controls for the fact that STEM and business majors generally earn more than their counterparts, I wanted to dig a little deeper. So I restricted the sample to compare STEM-liberal arts double majors with those with a single STEM degree. Although the premium shrinks, engineers and scientists who take on an extra liberal arts degree earned 3.6 percent more, on average.</p>
<p>I also wanted to see if the premium exists when comparing people in similar occupations. For example, consider two journalism school grads, one with a single degree, the other with a second in engineering. Naturally the one who becomes a <a href="https://www.glassdoor.com/Salaries/journalist-salary-SRCH_KO0,10.htm">working journalist</a>, which generally pays poorly, will earn less than his classmate who decided journalism wasn’t for her and got a job at <a href="https://www.glassdoor.com/Salary/Google-Salaries-E9079.htm">Google</a>.</p>
<p>So, controlling for occupation, I found that the returns to double-majoring in liberal arts and STEM were 5.2 percent, and 3.4 percent with a business degree. In other words, even when we look within narrow occupational categories, those who double-majored across fields tended to earn more than those with a single degree.</p>
<iframe src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/l5hL9/4/" frameborder="0" allowtransparency="true" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen" webkitallowfullscreen="webkitallowfullscreen" mozallowfullscreen="mozallowfullscreen" oallowfullscreen="oallowfullscreen" msallowfullscreen="msallowfullscreen" width="100%" height="600"></iframe>
<h2>So should I double major?</h2>
<p>So for those of you about to head to college, should you go for a double major? Or should you advise it to your kids? </p>
<p>As with anything, it depends. I tried to make my analysis as robust as possible, but it’s still not entirely clear whether the connection between the double degrees and higher earnings is causal. However, my results do suggest it’s more than mere correlation.</p>
<p>Furthermore, an association with higher earnings doesn’t mean the double major is right for everyone, particularly since the premium varies based on an individual’s own career path and preferences. Every college student needs to weigh the pros and cons of every potential opportunity, from picking up a second degree to joining student government. </p>
<p>My research suggests, however, that students who are eager to expose themselves to more frames of thinking and disciplinary knowledge may well be investing in the very foundation that prepares them for a successful and innovative career.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/74420/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christos A. Makridis does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Double-majoring is thought to broaden your horizons and give you more career options. A new look at seven years of U.S. census data tells us that there may be a financial benefit as well.Christos A. Makridis, Ph.D. Candidate in Labor and Public Economics, Stanford UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/568982016-04-05T09:49:53Z2016-04-05T09:49:53ZFewer poor students are being enrolled in state universities. Here’s why<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117355/original/image-20160404-27145-3ema9k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">How are funding policies deciding who gets to go to college?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/youngmoneymag/2076078599/in/photolist-4asrQB-4asEa6-4asvyP-fwJPqy-fz2Pbj-gmKTRz-4asts2-4asAG2-bmS9Hg-gmSvHy-8H6ruA-9jqybv-aDrVye-m1NdDu-4asC4z-4awATq-4aww6j-mDXh72-bH5YtK-4asu2g-4aszJB-4awAjb-fxhPAn-9DSJcu-4asD8Z-4awBnu-4awrgY-e1f5CT-nGeSfm-aDrRJp-4awwCs-5PNZ4V-8LTdUP-q6Xsjt-ebKbgW-7J19C4-o6zhX1-4asn1t-bubaRd-nJhkJ2-nJfkBm-4asBdc-98a2SQ-4asCDH-4asAbg-4awp3Y-4asr44-4asGjr-4assRR-75o2xU">Young Money</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>States have traditionally provided funding for public colleges and universities based on a combination of the number of students enrolled and how much money they were allocated previously. </p>
<p>But, in the face of <a href="http://www.sheeo.org/sites/default/files/project-files/SHEF%20FY%202014-20150410.pdf">increasingly tight budgets</a> and pressures to <a href="https://www.alec.org/publication/10-questions-legislators-should-ask-about-higher-education/">demonstrate their effectiveness</a> to legislators, more and more states are tying at least some higher education funding to student outcomes.</p>
<p>As of 2015, <a href="http://www.ncsl.org/research/education/performance-funding.aspx">32 states</a> have implemented a funding system that is based in part on students’ performance in at least some of their colleges. In such states, <a href="http://hcmstrategists.com/drivingoutcomes/wp-content/themes/hcm/pdf/2016-Report.pdf">a portion of state funding</a> is based on metrics such as the number of completed courses or the number of graduates.</p>
<p>Research shows that performance-based funding (PBF) has not moved the needle on degree completions in any substantial way. Our research focuses on the unintended consequences of such funding policies – whether colleges have responded to funding incentives in ways that could hurt disadvantaged students.</p>
<p>We find evidence that these systems may be reducing access for low-income students at public colleges. </p>
<h2>Just a popular political strategy?</h2>
<p>What is performance-based funding (PBF)? And does it improve college completion rates?</p>
<p>Performance funding, the idea of <a href="http://www.aaup.org/article/resurgent-interest-performance-based-funding-higher-education">tying funding to outcomes</a> instead of enrollment, was first adopted in Tennessee in 1979. It spread across the country in waves in the 1990s and 2000s, with some states dropping and adding programs as state budget conditions and political winds changed. In this decade, several states have implemented systems tying most or all of state funding to outcomes.</p>
<p>By basing funding on outcomes such as course completions and the number of degrees awarded, PBF has become a politically popular strategy to improve student outcomes. It has received strong support from the <a href="http://www.impatientoptimists.org/Posts/2015/02/OutcomesBased-Funding--Getting-Back-to-Basics">Bill and Melinda Gates</a> and <a href="https://www.luminafoundation.org/news-and-events/s7-outcomes-based-funding-paper-series">Lumina</a> Foundations – two big players in the higher education landscape.</p>
<p>However, the best available evidence suggests that PBF systems generally do not move the needle on degree completions in any substantial way.</p>
<p>For example, a <a href="http://doi.org/10.3102/0162373714560224">study</a> of Washington state’s PBF program by <a href="https://elpa.education.wisc.edu/elpa/people/faculty-and-staff-directory/nicholas-hillman">Nick Hillman of Wisconsin</a>, <a href="http://education.fsu.edu/faculty-and-staff/dr-david-tandberg">David Tandberg of Florida State</a> and <a href="http://psc.ou.edu/alisa-hicklin-fryar">Alisa Hicklin Fryar</a> of University of Oklahoma showed no effects on associate degree completion at two-year colleges. The study found positive effects on certificates in technical fields that took less time to complete, but those were the ones that were not as valuable in the labor market. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117353/original/image-20160404-27157-gjivp8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117353/original/image-20160404-27157-gjivp8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117353/original/image-20160404-27157-gjivp8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117353/original/image-20160404-27157-gjivp8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117353/original/image-20160404-27157-gjivp8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117353/original/image-20160404-27157-gjivp8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117353/original/image-20160404-27157-gjivp8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Performance-based funding do not have much of an impact on college completion rates.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/gageskidmore/16206295859/in/photolist-qG6v98-8fjrnc-9jS19Z-9nWGZj-576zTv-4tRfQk-4RUSEW-5rJ81p-4E4b8R-5ZBDfv-82MUon-5rdftt-4sqcKm-5sZznA-9fH5nX-htK9Br-dG1KaE-5xT9Cj-3Lu9rs-49Qom8-6fez68-8TKHzu-6PnnQJ-cRXbMd-8LK7cK-9FM3tk-9M3u7Z-h34tm1-HXm1U-ckocQA-336KZX-5qkzEU-dhvT1d-335BJz-335UiF-gnFt1x-336Nfv-33asrJ-335Es2-33aSqJ-dhxHd6-4GWubz-5sVP2R-9h43PF-5t1dwC-95wAt9-dhxAha-95tz94-9qXzfN-cXR9Fu">Gage Skidmore</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When Tandberg and Hillman conducted <a href="https://www.wiscape.wisc.edu/docs/WebDispenser/wiscapedocuments/pb018.pdf?sfvrsn=4">a nationwide study</a>, they found no effect overall of PBF programs on degree completions at two-year and four-year colleges.</p>
<p>However, the small number of PBF programs that had been in effect for at least seven years (giving colleges plenty of time to change their practices in response) did appear to increase the number of bachelor’s degrees awarded by a few percentage points.</p>
<h2>More selective and lower standards</h2>
<p>While there is no significant evidence of impact, there have been many unintended consequences of this policy.</p>
<p>There is a growing body of evidence, for example, that shows that colleges may be trying to change both their student body and their academic standards in order to meet the state’s performance goals as well as their own priorities.</p>
<p>A research team at Teachers College who <a href="http://ccrc.tc.columbia.edu/publications/unintended-impacts-performance-funding.html">interviewed administrators</a> in three states with “high-stakes” PBF systems (Indiana, Ohio and Tennessee) found that colleges facing PBF were both becoming more selective in accepting students and lowering academic standards among current students in an effort to have more students graduate. </p>
<p>A new study by <a href="http://sites.psu.edu/cshe/people/students-2/">Mark Umbricht</a> and <a href="http://sites.psu.edu/cshe/people/students-2/">Frank Fernandez</a> at Penn State and <a href="https://education.ufl.edu/faculty/ortagus-justin-c/">Justin Ortagus</a> at University of Florida used data on incoming students to show that Indiana colleges <a href="http://epx.sagepub.com/content/early/2015/11/30/0895904815614398.abstract">increased selectivity</a> in response to PBF. </p>
<p>They estimated that Indiana colleges lowered admissions rates by nearly 10 percent and increased ACT scores by nearly a full point compared to similar colleges in other states. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117352/original/image-20160404-27108-133cnvq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117352/original/image-20160404-27108-133cnvq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117352/original/image-20160404-27108-133cnvq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117352/original/image-20160404-27108-133cnvq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117352/original/image-20160404-27108-133cnvq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117352/original/image-20160404-27108-133cnvq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117352/original/image-20160404-27108-133cnvq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">What’s the influence of money on who gets admitted?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/89228431@N06/11323330056/in/photolist-ifB2wy-itDJe-6VSHJ-o8G2tZ-2hhsT6-n7qrqG-rowi9J-9c9oUQ-nRcvrw-6zytXQ-d1vLy7-bHwmA8-nRcQQj-hHT7g-buXte5-7nmZpH-okmar8-rcjht-hvLPL-ykT8sE-nRcFCH-63mt4A-a2Y6Xx-9c9o5A-8LNFmU-iJhLS-3EidWz-8egH7R-4eTjDY-5sSW7z-fpJBPM-6zut4n-pUQCE-6zyveE-qdicLj-c4iA9q-eBpGbQ-6Fe7j-daRWhB-4Nci9-9fYEQi-81AYD8-8odUDq-8kU5MY-agJCz3-dD1Hq2-9AsG68-fpJBVH-CqJ1EH-6tN9en">reynermedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In our research, published recently in the <em>Journal of Education Finance,</em> we examined whether public two-year and four-year colleges nationwide changed <a href="https://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_education_finance/v041/41.3.kelchen.html">how they either received or spent money</a> in response to performance funding systems. </p>
<p>We found that colleges generally did not change spending on instruction or research, but they did see significantly less revenue from federal Pell Grants that are primarily given to students with family incomes below US$60,000 per year, suggesting fewer low-income students enrolled. We estimated a statistically significant decline in Pell revenue of about 2 percent at both two-year and four-year colleges. </p>
<p>We also found that four-year colleges offered more institutional grant aid, potentially in the form of merit-based scholarships to attract higher-income students with a greater likelihood of success. </p>
<h2>Implications for policy</h2>
<p>Although research suggests that performance funding systems have not been particularly effective in increasing the number of degrees that public colleges grant, the fact is that <a href="http://www.ncsl.org/research/education/performance-funding.aspx">PBF is being adopted in more states</a>. For example, five more states have adopted PBF since 2014, with additional states debating whether to adopt plans of their own. </p>
<p>We believe, this is unlikely to go away anytime soon. </p>
<p>And many states’ existing funding systems <a href="https://www.insidehighered.com/views/2015/09/28/essay-need-consider-which-institutions-should-bear-brunt-state-cuts-public-higher">are highly inequitable</a>. They favor research universities over less-selective colleges, even though less-selective colleges enroll the lion’s share of low-income students.</p>
<p>States should consider placing provisions in both their enrollment-based and performance-based funding systems to encourage colleges to continuing to enroll an economically diverse student body. </p>
<p>Several states, such as Arkansas, Ohio and Florida, <a href="http://www.ncsl.org/research/education/performance-funding.aspx">provide additional incentives</a> for graduating Pell Grant recipients. But states need to ensure that these additional funds are sufficient to encourage colleges to enroll academically qualified students from low-income families as well.</p>
<p>To do this, states would need to take three concrete steps. First, states should provide incentives for colleges to not raise admissions standards beyond what is needed to succeed in coursework. Second, they could also provide additional funds for graduating students who require a modest amount of remedial coursework (courses to build skills of less-prepared students), before taking college-level classes. </p>
<p>And finally, it is important that state policymakers and college leaders have honest conversations about the goals of PBF systems and what colleges need to improve their performance. This could help reduce the unintended outcomes.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/56898/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Robert Kelchen has received funding from the Gates and Lumina Foundations for prior research projects, but received no funding for the research mentioned in this post.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Luke Stedrak does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>More states are funding colleges based on their performance. What are the implications?Robert Kelchen, Assistant Professor of Higher Education, Seton Hall UniversityLuke Stedrak, Assistant Professor of Education Leadership, Management and Policy, Seton Hall UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/420992015-05-25T12:43:00Z2015-05-25T12:43:00ZFour years from now, your child will be at her commencement. Here are steps for you to take now<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/82748/original/image-20150522-32572-104sron.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Between now and college years, there are many steps that you can take as a parent.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/cat.mhtml?lang=en&language=en&ref_site=photo&search_source=search_form&version=llv1&anyorall=all&safesearch=1&use_local_boost=1&search_tracking_id=3At77Z-zYu8kK3S_vznCVw&searchterm=graduation%20&show_color_wheel=1&orient=&commercial_ok=&media_type=images&search_cat=&searchtermx=&photographer_name=&people_gender=&people_age=&people_ethnicity=&people_number=&color=&page=1&inline=95717242">Graduation image via www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s your daughter’s high school graduation. In a cap and gown, she stands beside a podium and proudly takes her diploma, beaming over the fact that she is moving on to a new, exciting phase of life. </p>
<p>Eyes tearing up and many disparate thoughts whirling through your head, you snap her picture.</p>
<p>Here, I would like to insert a different thought – a question you need to ask yourself: “What do I want my child to be like four years from now, when she is graduating from college?” </p>
<h2>What you can do as a parent</h2>
<p>Now is the time to take a mental snapshot of what you envision for your child when he or she completes that bachelor’s degree. And this summer is the time to develop a plan regarding how you, as a parent, will support your child as he or she emerges into young adulthood. </p>
<p>As a mother of two college students and a psychiatrist who has provided clinical care to college students for the last 20 years, I have a unique perspective. </p>
<p>As a mother, I expect my children to go through college with success, but as a psychiatrist, I have seen how easily young adults can be derailed by academic problems, mental health issues and even bad luck. In fact, only <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=40">59% of college graduates</a> starting in 2006 took six years or less to graduate from a four-year program. </p>
<p>Your strategy as a parent can make a big difference in the outcome of the college years. Based on past research and my experience, here are some suggestions: </p>
<ul>
<li><p><a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3117230/pdf/nihms292117.pdf">Be there</a> – When children move toward autonomy, they need some parental guidance, a navigation system of sorts. Parents should tell their children when they are heading in the wrong direction and announce, “Take the next U-turn.”</p></li>
<li><p>But <a href="http://www.acui.org/publications/bulletin/article.aspx?issue=28134&id=14773">don’t</a> be there too much. Too much monitoring, such as doing her homework or checking every test grade, is not good for your child. It could result in your child being less autonomous and less successful in college. </p></li>
<li><p>Avoid “free range parenting” – the opposite extreme of “helicopter parenting.” Free range parenting is even more hazardous to your undergraduate child. I have seen parents look the other way as their children continue to fail academically or get deeper into drugs. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>Like so many things in life, your best bet is the middle ground. </p>
<h2>Here is a simple checklist</h2>
<ul>
<li>Check your child’s grades at the end of every semester: </li>
</ul>
<p>I am not saying be a tiger mom or dad, demanding nothing short of “A"s from your child. Rather, use the end of semester grades to check how your child is progressing academically and emotionally, and encourage him or her to get help if needed. </p>
<p>Your child can let you see the grades online by sharing a password or sending a screen shot. Don’t rely on their verbal report. I have seen many students go through multiple semesters of doing poorly, but hiding their problems, even lying to their parents, out of shame or embarrassment. </p>
<p>Once you know there is a problem, you can help your child assess the cause, which could include a general lack of maturity, poor high school preparation, poor study skills, a learning disability or Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), depression or anxiety, or excessive drug use. Helpful campus resources include academic advising, tutoring services and the counseling center. </p>
<ul>
<li>Check your child’s social life:</li>
</ul>
<p>You can’t view a social report card, but you can ask about friendships and dating experiences. Encourage your child to join at least one campus club, activity, religious group or intramural sport. </p>
<p>Freshman year can be a particularly lonely time for some students. A <a href="http://www.heri.ucla.edu/monographs/theamericanfreshman2014.pdf">2014 survey</a> of freshmen showed that compared with 1987, they are spending far less time in face-to-face contact with other students and more time on social media.</p>
<p>In 1987, 37.9% of freshmen socialized at least 16 hours per week with friends. In 2014, only 18% of freshmen spent at least 16 hours per week socializing face-to-face with friends; 27.2% spent at least six hours per week on online social networks, up from 18.9% in 2007. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/82458/original/image-20150520-11422-vpu2x3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/82458/original/image-20150520-11422-vpu2x3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/82458/original/image-20150520-11422-vpu2x3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/82458/original/image-20150520-11422-vpu2x3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/82458/original/image-20150520-11422-vpu2x3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/82458/original/image-20150520-11422-vpu2x3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/82458/original/image-20150520-11422-vpu2x3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The role of parents during college years is crucial.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/cat.mhtml?lang=en&language=en&ref_site=photo&search_source=search_form&version=llv1&anyorall=all&safesearch=1&use_local_boost=1&search_tracking_id=xaaV7Y3oopYSbKD0vzAF0g&searchterm=college%20parent&show_color_wheel=1&orient=&commercial_ok=&media_type=images&search_cat=&searchtermx=&photographer_name=&people_gender=&people_age=&people_ethnicity=&people_number=&color=&page=1&inline=20999887">Teenager image via www.shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>I have seen homesick freshmen who want to leave school benefit from increased parent visits or phone contacts. Most students eventually find their social group, but parents can be crucial to that initial adjustment.</p>
<ul>
<li>Check your child’s mental health:</li>
</ul>
<p>Mental health issues have increased to record highs on college campuses. <a href="http://www.acha-ncha.org/docs/NCHA-II_WEB-PAPER_SPRING2014_UNDERGRAD_REFERENCEGROUP_EXECUTIVESUMMARY.pdf">In 2014</a>, 14.3% of college students reported being diagnosed with anxiety and 12.1% with depression at some point in the previous year – an increase from 10.5% of students who reported anxiety and 10.1% with depression in 2009. </p>
<p>If your child seems to be depressed or stressed, encourage her to seek an evaluation at the college campus counseling center. If she is having suicidal thoughts – and 11% college students do in a year – take this very seriously. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2709750/">Encourage an assessment</a> as soon as possible. </p>
<h2>This can make a difference</h2>
<p>With the right help, students can make remarkable progress and have a successful college experience. </p>
<ul>
<li>Check your child’s marijuana and alcohol use:</li>
</ul>
<p>I have a strong belief about marijuana in the college student: parents should just say no. This is a tough stance to take, given that 36% of <a href="http://ns.umich.edu/new/releases/22362-college-students-use-of-marijuana-on-the-rise-some-drugs-declining">college students</a> surveyed in 2013 reported using marijuana at least once in the previous year, with 5% of these students using it on a near daily basis. </p>
<p>Today’s marijuana has tetrahydocannabinol (the chemical responsible for marijuana’s effects) levels <a href="http://www.forbes.com/sites/alicegwalton/2015/03/23/pot-evolution-how-the-makeup-of-marijuana-has-changed-over-time/">three times higher</a> than a few decades ago, greatly increasing the risk of a first psychotic episode. I have seen several students over the years become psychotic after heavy marijuana use, necessitating hospitalization.</p>
<p>Far more common and just as damaging, marijuana has <a href="http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/special-reports/marijuana-and-madness-clinical-implications-increased-availability-and-potency/page/0/3?GUID=1C7ACAB0-88D4-469A-8F24-B709701CA7E6&rememberme=1&ts=05052015">negative effects</a> on memory, motivation and concentration. College students who smoke marijuana at least every other day have a much higher rate of dropping out of school than those who don’t use marijuana.</p>
<p><a href="http://ns.umich.edu/new/releases/22362-college-students-use-of-marijuana-on-the-rise-some-drugs-declining">Alcohol abuse</a> can also have a variety of negative consequences for college students. In 2013, 76% of college students reported consuming alcohol at least once in the previous year. During the same period, 58% of students had been drunk at least one time. This increases their chance of injury or sexual assault. </p>
<p>If you believe your child has a drug or alcohol problem, encourage early and aggressive treatment. I have seen parents turn their children’s lives around by staying involved. </p>
<p>As a parent, you continue to have an important role in creating your child’s college senior portrait. By taking a middle-of-the-road approach throughout the college years, keeping your parent checklist in mind, you will see your child blossom into the wonderful, mature adult you have always envisioned. </p>
<p>And on the next graduation day, it is most likely you will see an ethical, responsible, self-sufficient individual walking to receive his or her certificate.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/42099/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marcia Morris does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Young adults can be easily derailed. Close to 60% students take six years to finish their four-year undergraduate program. How can you help?Marcia Morris, Psychiatrist, University of FloridaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/403602015-05-01T10:02:44Z2015-05-01T10:02:44ZWhy do so few black males go into STEM areas? Here’s what made DeAndre give up<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/79995/original/image-20150430-30711-9gc0b0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Negative stereotypes hamper the success of black males in STEM fields.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/s/black+male+science/search.html?page=2&thumb_size=mosaic&inline=149239352">Student image via www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Dressed in a black hoodie and sagging jeans, DeAndre (name changed) swaggers down the street, singing loudly the gritty lyrics of a gangsta rap.</p>
<p>This routine typifies DeAndre’s journey to and from school. Many of those watching DeAndre’s behavior during his school commute could assume him to be a thug and a gangster.</p>
<p>Such a narrative, a result of the <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11256-013-0265-2">racialized and gendered narratives</a> that black male adolescents live with in urban areas, is part of DeAndre’s schooling as well as out-of-school experiences. </p>
<p>Black males are presumed to lack intelligence when it comes to academics, particularly <a href="http://uex.sagepub.com/content/49/4/363.short">mathematics</a>. </p>
<p>For more than ten years, I have been <a href="http://uex.sagepub.com/content/49/4/363.short">researching</a> the lives and experiences of black STEM (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) high school students all the way up the pipeline to black STEM faculty. I have looked at the achievements of black students in mathematics within their first eight or nine years of schooling. </p>
<h2>Negative messages</h2>
<p>I have found that black males who consistently outperform their peers in mathematics, are also victims of <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11256-014-0317-2#page-1">covert racial stereotypes</a> and <a href="http://aer.sagepub.com/content/48/6/1347.short">racial microaggressions</a>.</p>
<p>The truth is DeAndre is a high school junior and a high-achiever in mathematics and science from an urban area. DeAndre is not hardened, but he is fragile. </p>
<p>His STEM identity is especially tenuous. </p>
<p>DeAndre is not alone. There are <a href="http://journalofafricanamericanmales.com/issues/jaame-issue-archives/vol2no1">thousands of young men</a> like DeAndre in urban cities across the country, who are STEM high-achievers and have the potential to succeed as STEM professionals. </p>
<p>However, too often they receive negative messaging about their continued success in STEM. Such <a href="http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=44fCBDIPrZYC&oi=fnd&pg=PA193&dq=counselor+discouraging+Black+males+in+STEM&ots=4zy3XrEOMN&sig=muzQTkQVe2dvjys-eMetklU_nRk#v=onepage&q=counselor%20discouraging%20Black%20males%20in%20STEM&f=false">messages</a> from teachers or counselors <a href="http://hipatiapress.com/hpjournals/index.php/remie/article/view/remie.2013.15">downplay or minimize</a> their mathematics abilities. The low expectations from these talented boys serve to further <a href="http://ed-osprey.gsu.edu/ojs/index.php/JUME/article/view/178">discourage</a> them from pursuing STEM fields. </p>
<h2>Academic challenges</h2>
<p>As a result, <a href="http://beta.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2013/acs/acs-24.pdf">black participation</a> in STEM fields has been left far behind. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.census.gov/prod/2013pubs/acs-24.pdf">In 2011</a>, whites held 71% of STEM jobs, Asians held 15% and blacks only 6%. In 2009 white students obtained 65.5% of the STEM undergraduate degrees. However, STEM undergraduate degrees for blacks have <a href="http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind12/c2/c2s2.htm">remained flat for the last 9 years</a>. </p>
<p>Blacks received just 6% of all <a href="http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/10/24/stem-education-and-jobs-d_n_1028998.html">STEM bachelor’s degrees</a> and less than half of those went to black males. Overall blacks received <a href="http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2010/2010015.pdf">4% of master’s degrees, and 2% of PhDs in STEM</a>, despite constituting 12% of the US population. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/79829/original/image-20150429-6250-13d61j3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/79829/original/image-20150429-6250-13d61j3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/79829/original/image-20150429-6250-13d61j3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/79829/original/image-20150429-6250-13d61j3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/79829/original/image-20150429-6250-13d61j3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/79829/original/image-20150429-6250-13d61j3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/79829/original/image-20150429-6250-13d61j3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Black kids face many challenges related to schooling.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/cat.mhtml?lang=en&language=en&ref_site=photo&search_source=search_form&version=llv1&anyorall=all&safesearch=1&use_local_boost=1&search_tracking_id=OUgCl0HU1Q9CkyFOG1ECzg&searchterm=black%20boys%20school&show_color_wheel=1&orient=&commercial_ok=&media_type=images&search_cat=&searchtermx=&photographer_name=&people_gender=&people_age=&people_ethnicity=&people_number=&color=&page=1&inline=154179290">Boy image via www.shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When it comes to academic success, young black students face many other challenges that are only made worse by the negative messaging. </p>
<p>There are societal messages that equate black maleness with criminality, with teachers often being afraid of their black male students.</p>
<p>Often enough, as my own <a href="http://uex.sagepub.com/content/49/4/363.short">research </a> shows, unequal access to treatment results in <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0277953613003778%20and%20%20http://isw.sagepub.com/content/52/4/459.short">poorer health</a> outcomes for black kids.</p>
<p>The early academic years for these students are riddled with long-term (two months or longer) illnesses that negatively impact their schooling and result in attending at least one summer school term. </p>
<p>Some of <a href="http://aer.sagepub.com/content/49/3/487.full">these students</a> also <a href="http://uex.sagepub.com/content/49/4/363">change schools</a> <a href="http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=mF_me7HYyHcC&oi=fnd&pg=PA3&dq=Whither+Opportunity%3F:+Rising+Inequality,+Schools,+and+Children%27s+Life+Chances&ots=wsca4NG2s6&sig=ISm6f11uBDoLUy6p8p8eWLjm6y4#v=onepage&q=Whither%20Opportunity%3F%3A%20Rising%20Inequality%2C%20Schools%2C%20and%20Children%27s%20Life%20Chances&f=false">quite often</a>. </p>
<p>DeAndre, for example, has a higher rate of school transfer; his current school is his third high school in three years. This lack of continuity for high achieving black male students can lead to additional pressures to prove their intellectual abilities in mathematics to an unwelcoming or skeptical school culture.</p>
<p>Fighting racial stereotypes can also <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11256-013-0265-2#page-1">wear them down.</a> DeAndre is weary of racial stereotypes in general and stereotypes about black males in particular.</p>
<p>DeAndre’s coarse behavior during his school commute is actually performed to repel or deflect potential violence via <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11256-013-0265-2#page-1">aggressive posturing</a>, as evident in his “swagger.” In reality, he hasn’t been in any “real” fight since second grade and is filled with trepidation every time he walks home from school. </p>
<h2>Such few options</h2>
<p>Young black students also work toward what is called “performing whiteness.” This in their words means: talking ultra proper English while enunciating every syllable, dressing preppy, not talking about their families, pretending to go on vacations, not telling too many jokes and proving to their white female teachers that they are not to be feared but to be loved and nurtured. </p>
<p>The result is that their intrinsic motivation for learning mathematics and steadfast internal drive get constantly eroded by a host of structural and environmental challenges.</p>
<p>In addition to all these above challenges, they are often at schools that do not offer enough academic opportunities to support their interests. DeAndre’s school does not offer AP classes that would position him more favorably for a STEM college major. </p>
<p>Another problem that black kids face is an absence of role models. The successful black role models that students like DeAndre are exposed to are mostly athletes and rappers. DeAndre does not want to be an athlete or a rapper. </p>
<p>Even so, the likelihood of DeAndre going on to pursue STEM remains frail. </p>
<p>Instead DeAndre has chosen to be a social worker. Through this justice-orientated work, DeAndre wants to address the social and racial inequities in his neighborhood. We don’t know if he will use STEM in the future or not.</p>
<p>If DeAndre has managed to come this far, it is thanks to the support he has received from family members. DeAndre has fond memories of playing dominoes with his grandfather and mathematically complicated card games with his aunts. </p>
<p>His first mathematics teacher was his father. Today, DeAndre is like a human calculator, spitting out complicated number algorithms. </p>
<h2>Diversity vital to STEM</h2>
<p>As we work to minimize the fragility factors affecting youth like DeAndre, we often overlook what protects DeAndre’s STEM and academic identity. The socialization in mathematics that does happen in many black households remains unappreciated by schools as it does by the predominantly white social structures. </p>
<p>My experience of investigating lives, such as those of DeAndre has convinced me of the need for rigorous research that contributes to a more accurate and nuanced portrayal of black males in STEM. </p>
<p>The vitality of United States will be derived in large part from fostering the STEM identities of young men like DeAndre who reside within our urban communities. Their participation is important for innovation – and for a more equitable society. </p>
<p>Our DeAndres should not see a conflict between pursuing a STEM college trajectories and an unyielding sense of responsibility for the improvement of their home communities.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/40360/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ebony O McGee received funding for the research from the National Academy of Education and the Spencer Foundation.</span></em></p>Black male kids who start out by excelling in STEM gradually lose interest due to low teacher expectations and racial stereotyping. The result? Blacks hold only 6% of all STEM jobs.Ebony O. McGee, Assistant Professor of Education, Diversity and Urban Schooling, Vanderbilt UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.