tag:theconversation.com,2011:/uk/topics/champagne-37527/articlesChampagne – The Conversation2023-08-22T20:05:57Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2085692023-08-22T20:05:57Z2023-08-22T20:05:57ZChampagne is deeply French – but the English invented the bubbles<p>In 1889, the Syndicat du Commerce des Vins de Champagne produced a <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books?id=hH1kE0-f1kkC&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PT7&dq=kolleen+guy+champagne&hl=en&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=1889&f=false">pamphlet</a> promoting champagne at the Exposition Universelle in Paris, claiming that Dom Pérignon, <a href="https://www.tourisme-hautvillers.com/en/the-territory/the-heritage/">procurator</a> of the Benedictine Abbey of Hautvillers from 1668, was the “inventor”, “creator” or discoverer" of sparkling champagne.</p>
<p>“Come, Brothers! I drink stars!” is the famous quote <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dom_P%C3%A9rignon_(monk)#:%7E:text=The%20quote%20attributed%20to%20Perignon,in%20the%20late%2019th%20century.">often attributed</a> to him.</p>
<p>The story of a blind monk having an epiphany, accidentally happening upon the secret to effervescence, was seductive. It combined divine revelation and French winemaking expertise to produce a national symbol deeply rooted in the French landscape. </p>
<p>However, the truth is slightly different. <a href="https://www.guildsomm.com/public_content/features/articles/b/tom_stevenson/posts/dom-perignon">Dom Pérignon</a> did contribute to improving the still wines of the Champagne region, but he did not discover effervescence – he was trying to get rid of the bubbles.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543850/original/file-20230822-30549-ial4hx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543850/original/file-20230822-30549-ial4hx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543850/original/file-20230822-30549-ial4hx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=869&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543850/original/file-20230822-30549-ial4hx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=869&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543850/original/file-20230822-30549-ial4hx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=869&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543850/original/file-20230822-30549-ial4hx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1092&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543850/original/file-20230822-30549-ial4hx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1092&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543850/original/file-20230822-30549-ial4hx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1092&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Jean François de Troy’s 1735 painting Le Déjeuner d'Huîtres (The Oyster Luncheon) is the first known depiction of champagne in painting.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The champagne myth</h2>
<p>The expo where the champagne myth was propagated marked the 100-year anniversary of Bastille Day and is best known for the debut of another icon of French culture, the Eiffel Tower. The Pérignon story gained traction at the same moment these other symbols of nation-building reinforced the uniqueness of French culture and history.</p>
<p>The basis for the myth can be traced to a letter from <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books?id=hH1kE0-f1kkC&pg=PA28&dq=dom+grossard+champagne+history&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjC_LXytfb_AhVReXAKHZtuDIsQ6AF6BAgFEAI#v=onepage&q=dom%20grossard%20champagne%20history&f=false">Dom Grossard</a> of Hautvillers Abbey to the mayor of Aÿ, in the heart of the Champagne region. Grossard claimed that Pérignon had perfected the method for making perfectly white wine from pinot noir grapes (blanc de noirs), pioneered the technique for effervescence, and championed the use of bottles and corks.</p>
<p>Only the first of these claims is true. At the abbey, wooden stoppers and canvas soaked in grease were used to seal bottles, and French glass was too <a href="https://www.cairn.info/la-bouteille-de-vin--9791021001138-page-67.htm">weak</a> to contain the pressure from effervescence. A bigger problem was that French winemakers – and consumers – considered bubbles a fault, a trick to distract the drinker from bad wine. </p>
<p>Prominent French wine merchant <a href="https://www.cairn.info/load_pdf.php?download=1&ID_ARTICLE=RHMC_603_0110">Bertin de Rocheret</a> advised a client who inquired about sparkling wine: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>effervescence obscures the best characteristics of good wines, in the same way that it improves wines of lesser quality.</p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/no-putting-a-spoon-in-an-open-bottle-of-champagne-doesnt-keep-it-bubbly-but-there-is-a-better-way-171823">No, putting a spoon in an open bottle of champagne doesn't keep it bubbly – but there is a better way</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<h2>Bubbles, bottles and corks</h2>
<p>The method for effervescence, strong glass bottles and the use of corks all came from England in the 17th century. English consumers imported wine in barrels from France because bottles were taxed at a higher rate than wine imported in bulk. </p>
<p>The wines often deteriorated during the journey across the channel and once opened, they oxidised quickly, developing an unpleasant flavour. To improve the taste, consumers added honey, syrup made from raisins or sugar. The additional sugar content caused a secondary fermentation – and effervescence.</p>
<p>In 1662, <a href="https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Labor_Before_the_Industrial_Revolution/oT33DwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=glassmaking+england+%E2%80%98a+proclamation+touching+glasses%E2%80%99+(may+23,+1615).&pg=PA196&printsec=frontcover">Christopher Merrett</a>, a founder of the Royal Society, published a paper titled “Some Observations Concerning the Ordering of Wines”, in which he described the method for effervescence: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>Our winecoopers of latter times use vast quantities of sugar and molasses to all sorts of wines, to make them drink brisk and sparkling, and to give them spirits, as also to mend their bad tastes. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>To produce sparkling wine and retain the effervescence, three things are necessary: bubbles, strong glass bottles and corks. </p>
<p>Merrett’s method provided the fizz, and corks were already used in England for bottling <a href="https://cideruk.com/what-is-cider-and-perry/">cider and perry</a>. Strong glass in England was a by-product of a prohibition on using wood in industrial furnaces, <a href="https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Labor_Before_the_Industrial_Revolution/oT33DwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=glassmaking+england+%E2%80%98a+proclamation+touching+glasses%E2%80%99+(may+23,+1615).&pg=PA196&printsec=frontcover">decreed</a> by King James I in 1615.</p>
<p>Timber was too valuable to be burned for glassmaking, reserved for building ships for the merchant fleet. Using sea coal, English glass furnaces reached higher temperatures and produced stronger glass. These bottles could withstand pressure (as much as a car tyre) without bursting.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543855/original/file-20230822-55362-v420lw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543855/original/file-20230822-55362-v420lw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543855/original/file-20230822-55362-v420lw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543855/original/file-20230822-55362-v420lw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543855/original/file-20230822-55362-v420lw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543855/original/file-20230822-55362-v420lw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543855/original/file-20230822-55362-v420lw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543855/original/file-20230822-55362-v420lw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Statue of Dom Pérignon at Moët et Chandon.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikipedia</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The paradox?</h2>
<p>The only ingredient the English lacked was wine, prompting French wine <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books?newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&id=LLHkAAAAIAAJ&dq=bonal+dom+perignon&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=annexe">historians</a> to refer to their contribution as “<a href="https://vinepair.com/wine-blog/british-paradox-invention-modern-wine/">The English Paradox</a>”. How could a country with no winemaking tradition pioneer the technique for effervescence? The “paradox” label, however, only makes sense if the traditions and standards of French winemaking are presumed to be superior. </p>
<p>Bound by tradition, French winemakers were unwilling to contemplate a fault as a desirable innovation. Driven by necessity, and without any winemaking rules, English consumers were free to experiment. </p>
<p>But necessity was only part of the equation – English culture did play a part in the success of effervesce. Reserving timber for the English fleet made for stronger glass, and cider and perry production provided corks to seal the bottles.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.champagne.fr/en/about-champagne/champagne-and-its-history">The French champagne industry</a> now claims effervescence was not invented, but is a natural product of the soil and climate in a strictly defined region. </p>
<p>Natural fermentation does produce some fizz, but rarely enough to pop a cork without the intervention of a winemaker. The emphasis on nature reinforces the exclusivity and unique geographic attributes to distinguish champagne from all other sparkling wines.</p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.aup.nl/en/book/9789463720175/commerce-food-and-identity-in-seventeenth-century-england-and-france">more complex history</a> of the origin of effervescence challenges preconceptions about national identity, even in matters of taste. This does not diminish champagne’s luxury status, but it does reveal the influence of cultural traditions on innovation, and the many influences that pave the way to novelty.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/208569/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Garritt C Van Dyk works for the University of Newcastle.</span></em></p>How did a country that did not make wine somehow invent effervescence?Garritt C. Van Dyk, Lecturer, University of NewcastleLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2101112023-08-14T12:23:52Z2023-08-14T12:23:52ZThe bubbly chemistry behind carbonated beverages<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541552/original/file-20230807-27-wejs3w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=6%2C58%2C4323%2C2823&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Manufacturers inject carbon dioxide into beverages to make them fizzy. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/little-bubbles-royalty-free-image/1304532799?phrase=carbonated+beverages&adppopup=true">Jenny Dettrick/Moment via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Many people love the refreshing effervescence of a soda, champagne, beer or sparkling water. When you take a sip, the gas bubbles in the beverage burst, and the <a href="https://www.livescience.com/32492-why-does-soda-fizz.html">released gas</a> tickles your nose. But have you ever wondered how carbonation actually works? </p>
<p>I’m a <a href="https://scholar.google.ca/citations?user=sZBqM3AAAAAJ&hl=en">professor who teaches classes in chemistry and fermentation</a> and a carbonated beverage enthusiast and home brewer myself. While the basic process of carbonation is relatively simple, a variety of factors – from temperature to surface tension – can affect the taste and quality of beverages.</p>
<h2>Dissolving carbon dioxide</h2>
<p>Carbonation involves dissolving the colorless and odorless carbon dioxide – CO₂ – gas into a liquid. When carbon dioxide is added to a sealed bottle or can containing water, the pressure in the bottle or can increases, and the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-816938-4.00001-X">carbon dioxide dissolves</a> into the liquid. </p>
<p>The CO₂ above the liquid and the CO₂ dissolved in the liquid <a href="http://butane.chem.uiuc.edu/pshapley/GenChem1/L23/3.html">reach chemical equilibrium</a>. Chemical equilibrium essentially means the rate that CO₂ dissolves into the liquid is equal to the rate that CO₂ is released from the liquid. It’s based on the amounts of CO₂ both in the air and in the liquid. </p>
<p>Some of the dissolved CO₂ reacts with the water to form carbonic acid, which has a chemical formula of H₂CO₃. So once some of the dissolved CO₂ converts to H₂CO₃, more CO₂ from the air above can dissolve into the liquid and reestablish chemical equilibrium.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/xVLF-69j3Z8?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Carbonation happens when CO₂ is forced into a can or bottle, where it dissolves into the liquid.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When you open a bottle or can, the pressure above the carbonated liquid drops to match the pressure outside of the bottle or can. The pressure release results in a hissing sound, and you see bubbles rising in the liquid as the H₂CO₃ converts back to CO₂ and that gas <a href="https://www.acs.org/education/whatischemistry/adventures-in-chemistry/secret-science-stuff/soda-pop.html">escapes to the surface</a>. The carbonic acid in the beverage is what makes it <a href="https://letstalkscience.ca/educational-resources/stem-explained/chemistry-pop">taste a little sour</a>.</p>
<h2>A colder drink is a bubblier one</h2>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541550/original/file-20230807-25-or804m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A close-up of a soda, showing many tiny bubbles" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541550/original/file-20230807-25-or804m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541550/original/file-20230807-25-or804m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541550/original/file-20230807-25-or804m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541550/original/file-20230807-25-or804m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541550/original/file-20230807-25-or804m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=606&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541550/original/file-20230807-25-or804m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=606&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541550/original/file-20230807-25-or804m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=606&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The bubbles in carbonated beverages are filled with CO₂ gas moving from an area of high CO₂ concentration to an area of low CO₂ concentration.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/close-up-soda-condensation-bubbles-royalty-free-image/1301221148?phrase=Fizz+sparkling+Cola+water&adppopup=true">Jonathan Knowles/DigitalVision via Getty Images</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>Another important factor influencing carbonation is temperature. Most gases, including carbon dioxide, do not dissolve well in liquids as the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/Henrys-law">temperature of the liquid rises</a>. That’s why <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/bring-science-home-carbonation-time/">carbonated drinks go flat</a> if you leave them out at room temperature. </p>
<p>Conversely, if you place your favorite carbonated beverage in the refrigerator and allow it to get cold, more dissolved carbon dioxide will stay in the beverage while it’s still sealed. When you open the chilled bottle or can, the <a href="https://www.acs.org/education/whatischemistry/adventures-in-chemistry/secret-science-stuff/soda-pop.html">liquid is more bubbly</a> because there was more dissolved carbon dioxide in the cold beverage. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">The temperature of the liquid affects how the CO₂ molecules dissolved in the beverage behave once the beverage is opened.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Surface tension and fizziness</h2>
<p>One final important factor for carbonation is the surface tension of the liquid. A liquid’s surface tension is determined by how strongly the liquid’s <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-does-a-shaken-soda-fi/">molecules interact with each other</a>. For most beverages, those molecules are water molecules, but diet soft drinks have artificial sweeteners dissolved in them. These sweeteners can weaken the interactions between the water molecules, creating a lower surface tension. A lower surface tension means the carbon dioxide bubbles <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/oss/article/did-you-know/why-diet-coke-so-fizzy">form faster and last longer</a>. </p>
<p>This is why it takes slightly longer to be served a Diet Coke on ice, a problem you might notice on a plane. The lower surface tension from the artificial sweetener means there’s more fizz, and for longer, compared with other soft drinks. The flight attendants then have to <a href="https://www.bravotv.com/top-chef/blogs/diet-coke-takes-longer-for-flight-attendants-to-serve-on-airplanes-bubbles">wait for the bubbles in the cup to break</a> before they can fill the cup with more Diet Coke. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/HFCeV5BVBh0?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">CO₂ bubbles form on the surface of the candy, which falls to the bottom of the bottle and pushes the fizzing liquid out the top. The lower surface tension of diet soda means more bubbles that last longer.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Surface tension is also why Diet Coke works so well in the <a href="https://www.acs.org/education/whatischemistry/adventures-in-chemistry/experiments/mentos-diet-coke.html#">famous Mentos experiment</a>, during which you drop Mentos candies into 2-liter Diet Coke bottles. The candy helps to weaken the interactions between the water molecules and the CO₂ molecules, lowering the surface tension and allowing for an easier release of CO₂ molecules. A bubbling “geyser” of Diet Coke rises fast above the 2-liter bottle as the CO₂ molecules quickly form on the candy’s surfaces and force the Diet Coke out of the bottle. </p>
<h2>Getting the bubbles into a beverage</h2>
<p>In an effort to make water similar to that from mineral springs, the carbonation process was invented by Joseph Priestley in England in the 1760s and commercialized by Jacob Schweppe – recognize the name? – <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2014/10/the-great-soda-water-shake-up/380932/">in Switzerland in the 1780s</a>. Priestley reacted chalk with sulfuric acid, producing CO₂, and he hung a water-filled container over the reaction to <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/oss/article/history/origins-soda-water">infuse the water with CO₂</a>. </p>
<p>Today, most commercial beers, soft drinks, seltzers and sparkling waters are created by “forced” carbonation. This is when manufacturers directly inject carbon dioxide into the beverage <a href="https://beersmith.com/blog/2015/02/11/carbonation-options-for-your-home-brewed-beer/">under high carbon dioxide pressures</a>. </p>
<p>A second common way to introduce carbon dioxide into a liquid is by <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/fermentation">fermentation</a>. Champagne manufacturers and some small <a href="https://homebrewacademy.com/bottle-conditioning/">home beer brewers</a> follow this method by sealing a sugar source and live yeast into their bottles. The yeast produce alcohol and carbon dioxide, and this carbon dioxide increases the pressure in the bottle, resulting in <a href="https://beersmith.com/blog/2015/02/11/carbonation-options-for-your-home-brewed-beer/">carbonated champagne and beer</a>. But this process is not as controlled and can result in <a href="https://beercreation.com/how-do-i-stop-exploding-bottles-the-home-brewers-nightmare/">exploding bottles</a>.</p>
<p>Larger brewers often capture CO₂ produced during a fermentation process and pump that gas into the tanks that contain beer to carbonate the beer. This is normally a controlled process that allows for <a href="https://www.mammothbeer.com/blogs/news/how-brewers-carbonate-beer">known amounts of carbon dioxide</a> to be introduced into the beverages for outstanding consistency. </p>
<p>Carbonation is a marriage between physics and chemistry – one that transforms ordinary liquids into effervescent treats. The next time you drink a carbonated beverage, take a moment to appreciate the science behind those dancing bubbles.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/210111/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael W. Crowder receives funding from the National Institutes of Health to conduct research on antibiotic resistance and from Sazerac Corp and MineXAI to conduct research on the characterization of bourbon. </span></em></p>Ever wonder how soda manufacturers get the bubbles and fizz inside the can? A chemist explains some of the science behind the carbonation process. Hint − it involves carbon.Michael W. Crowder, Professor of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Miami UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1718232021-12-30T19:16:05Z2021-12-30T19:16:05ZNo, putting a spoon in an open bottle of champagne doesn’t keep it bubbly – but there is a better way<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/433846/original/file-20211125-25-1f9sj9i.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=862%2C0%2C2706%2C1994&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wes Mountain/The Conversation</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>At a recent tasting, I was presenting some sparkling wines from the Limoux region of France, a region that produced sparkling wines at least 100 years before wines from the Champagne region were well known. </p>
<p>Towards the end, I commented that if the bottle is not empty, seal it with a sparkling wine stopper and store it in the refrigerator. The response was: “Why bother to seal it? Just put a spoon in the neck.”</p>
<p>I was somewhat surprised. Although I had heard it suggested previously, I did not think anyone took the idea seriously. </p>
<p>The fact is, it’s a myth to say a spoon in an open bottle of sparkling wine keeps it bubbly. You’re better off buying a proper stopper.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432293/original/file-20211116-19-4yk0mp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A champagne stopper in a bottle." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432293/original/file-20211116-19-4yk0mp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432293/original/file-20211116-19-4yk0mp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432293/original/file-20211116-19-4yk0mp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432293/original/file-20211116-19-4yk0mp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432293/original/file-20211116-19-4yk0mp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432293/original/file-20211116-19-4yk0mp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432293/original/file-20211116-19-4yk0mp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">If you need to store a partly-used bottle, go and buy a proper sparkling wine stopper.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/vineyard-tourism-is-a-big-source-of-carbon-emissions-want-to-help-then-buy-more-wine-164600">Vineyard tourism is a big source of carbon emissions. Want to help? Then buy more wine</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Minimising contact between wine and oxygen</h2>
<p>From my years researching wine chemistry and wine oxidation, I know minimising contact between wine and oxygen is vital for stopping the onset of oxidative spoilage. Sealing the bottle is essential.</p>
<p>The carbon dioxide in sparkling wine is more soluble in wine at a lower temperature, so storing the wine in the refrigerator is also beneficial. In other words, you’ll retain more bubbles if you stick it in the fridge.</p>
<p>Some even claim the teaspoon must be <a href="https://www.thekitchn.com/can-a-silver-spoon-keep-champagne-bubbly-i-decided-to-find-out-200505">silver</a>, not stainless steel, although the basis for this seems highly speculative. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432294/original/file-20211116-21-ohsx2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="People clink champagne glasses together at a party." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432294/original/file-20211116-21-ohsx2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432294/original/file-20211116-21-ohsx2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432294/original/file-20211116-21-ohsx2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432294/original/file-20211116-21-ohsx2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432294/original/file-20211116-21-ohsx2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432294/original/file-20211116-21-ohsx2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432294/original/file-20211116-21-ohsx2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">If you plan to keep your leftover sparkling wine, store it properly.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Bubble behaviour</h2>
<p>It is important to note some of the critical features of sparkling wine bubbles. </p>
<p>In his book <a href="https://www.booktopia.com.au/uncorked-gerard-liger-belair/book/9780691158723.html">Uncorked: The Science of Champagne</a>, champagne researcher <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/gerard-liger-belair-141973">Gérard Liger-Belair</a> demonstrated the amount of carbon dioxide lost depends on the way the wine is poured into the glass.</p>
<p>Pouring into a tilted glass retains more carbon dioxide than pouring into a vertical glass. Using bubble imaging techniques, Liger-Belair was able to track the flow of the bubbles in a glass. </p>
<p>He separately showed the bubbles are in fact aerosols (a suspension of fine solid particles or liquid droplets in air) containing aroma compounds that affect the taster’s impression. The release of bubbles even depends on the inside surface of the glass.</p>
<p>Bubble behaviour is therefore complex. Any study on them needs to be replicated to ensure one is measuring a real effect and a one-off.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434052/original/file-20211126-1794-1qv57en.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A person pours champagne into a tilted glass." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434052/original/file-20211126-1794-1qv57en.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434052/original/file-20211126-1794-1qv57en.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434052/original/file-20211126-1794-1qv57en.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434052/original/file-20211126-1794-1qv57en.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434052/original/file-20211126-1794-1qv57en.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434052/original/file-20211126-1794-1qv57en.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434052/original/file-20211126-1794-1qv57en.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The release of bubbles even depends on the inside surface of the glass.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A key study on ‘the myth of the teaspoon’</h2>
<p>One such <a href="https://cdn.theconversation.com/static_files/files/1877/Valade_et_al.pdf?1638229505">study</a> on champagne by Michel Valade and colleagues was published in the periodical Le Vigneron Champenois in 1994. </p>
<p>The work, titled <em>Le mythe de la petite cuillère</em> – the myth of the teaspoon – was designed to address the claim that a teaspoon, preferably a silver one, could (according to my translation):</p>
<blockquote>
<p>defy all the laws of physics and possess some legendary efficiency to protect the bubbles escaping from an open bottle.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>These researchers used three strategies to assess the impact of bubble conservation on the wine: the change in pressure, the loss of weight and sensory analysis. </p>
<p>After opening, the wine was decanted, leaving 500 millilitres in one set and 250 millilitres in a second set.</p>
<p>The wines were then stored at 12°C with four methods to conserve the bubbles: open bottle, silver teaspoon, stainless steel teaspoon, cork stopper (which uses a hermetic seal) and crown seal (a metal lid with crimped edges, like you often see on a beer bottle). Each approach was performed in triplicate.</p>
<p>The researchers then analysed how pressure inside the bottle changed (measured in a unit called atmospheres; 1 atmosphere is about 101 kilopascals). The initial bottle pressure was 6 atmospheres, dropping after decanting to 4 atmospheres when there was 500 millilitres remaining. When only 250 millilitres remained, the pressure was just 2 atmospheres.</p>
<p>After 48 hours storage, the pressure in open bottles and those with a teaspoon inserted in the neck had dropped by a further 50%, indicating a significant loss of bubbles. </p>
<p>Clearly there was no teaspoon effect. Those sealed with a cork stopper or crown seal had a pressure drop of only 10%, demonstrating the significant advantage of using a proper closure.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432292/original/file-20211116-13-zomvf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An open champagne bottle emits fizz and gas." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432292/original/file-20211116-13-zomvf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432292/original/file-20211116-13-zomvf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=316&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432292/original/file-20211116-13-zomvf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=316&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432292/original/file-20211116-13-zomvf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=316&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432292/original/file-20211116-13-zomvf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432292/original/file-20211116-13-zomvf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432292/original/file-20211116-13-zomvf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The source of bubbles in sparkling wine is the carbon dioxide released during the secondary fermentation.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These researchers also measured the change in the weight of bottles stored three different ways: fully open, tightly sealed or with an inserted teaspoon.</p>
<p>No decrease in weight was observed for the tightly sealed bottles. But for the fully open bottles and those with a teaspoon in the neck, the loss in weight was significant.</p>
<p>To finalise the evidence to dispel the myth of the teaspoon, the wines were subjected to sensory analysis by expert champagne tasters.</p>
<p>All wines showed some characteristics of oxidation, due to oxygen getting in during opening. However, those sealed with a hermetic seal were clearly more effervescent and livelier than those unsealed or with an inserted teaspoon.</p>
<p>Clearly, the teaspoon effect is a myth.</p>
<p>So, if you need to store a partly-used bottle, go and buy a proper sparkling wine stopper.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/pass-the-shiraz-please-how-australias-wine-industry-can-adapt-to-climate-change-140024">Pass the shiraz, please: how Australia's wine industry can adapt to climate change</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/171823/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Geoff Scollary has received funding from Wine Australia.
I have discussed bubble behaviour with Gerard Liger-Belair at conferences and have written about his work for Chemistry in Australia</span></em></p>From my years researching wine chemistry and wine oxidation, I know making every attempt to minimise contact between wine and oxygen is vital. Sealing the bottle is essential.Geoff Scollary, Adjunct Professor, Charles Sturt UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1641242021-07-13T09:55:57Z2021-07-13T09:55:57ZBrut force: how Putin’s champagne label law could spark a trademark dispute with France<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410784/original/file-20210712-17-f95od5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=18%2C6%2C4148%2C2679&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/glasses-champagne-522450400">Shebeko/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Earlier this month, Russian President Vladimir Putin signed an <a href="http://publication.pravo.gov.ru/Document/View/0001202107020089?index=3&rangeSize=1">amendment</a> to a federal law reserving the use of the Russian term for champagne – Шампанское (shampanskoye) – to sparkling wines produced in Russia. </p>
<p>Putin’s move has caused a stir with French producers, as it will require them to use the generic term “sparkling wine” on the back of their bottles sold in Russia.</p>
<p>“Sovietskoïé shampanskoye” is the <a href="https://www.liberation.fr/international/europe/champagne-sovietique-et-guerre-des-appellations-20210705_5QVD5H3UTRGJJKSFBU56RSE33I/">Russian word</a> established under Stalin rule in the 1920s that describes a cheap and low quality sparkling wine available in Russia. Its <a href="https://www.scmp.com/news/world/europe/article/3140085/france-sees-red-over-russias-sparkling-wine-label-rule-imported">production method</a> is different from the one used in France.</p>
<p>One could argue that obliging French champagne producers to add the generic term “sparkling wine” to their bottles and preventing them from using “shampanskoye” would violate international intellectual property law. It may also be considered discriminatory, as only Russian producers would be able to use the Cyrillic term for champagne.</p>
<p>The Champagne Committee, the trade association that represents the interests of French producers in the Champagne region, <a href="https://www.champagne.fr/assets/files/communique_presse/2021/communiqu%C3%A9-champagne-new-russian-legislation_5.7.2021.pdf">said</a> that banning the use of this internationally protected brand is <a href="https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2021/07/05/french-champagne-houses-cry-foul-over-russian-label-rule-a74431">“scandalous”</a>. The statement noted that the “Champagne” brand is protected in over 120 countries.</p>
<p>The new legislation appears to have been introduced without <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-9756559/Russias-faces-shortage-French-fizz-Putin-says-RUSSIAN-booze-sold-champagne.html?ito=social-twitter_mailonline">expert consultation</a>, and has been widely mocked by champagne drinkers on social media: “Now it’s necessary to ban Scots and Americans from using the word "whisky”, joked <a href="https://www.facebook.com/sergey.mironov.restorator/posts/2699042333727371">restaurateur Sergei Mironov</a>.</p>
<p>Putin’s move has, unsurprisingly, attracted harsh criticism from French champagne producers, who are protected by intellectual property rules established by the World Trade Organization (WTO). These rules – to which Russia is bound – are supposed to give them a strong monopoly over the use of their brand. </p>
<p>Major French producers like <a href="https://www.lvmh.com/houses/wines-spirits/">Moët Hennessy</a> have <a href="https://www.facebook.com/photo/?fbid=10226848664789409&set=a.2275710418980">expressed</a> disappointment about the new provision, followed by a general call from the industry to <a href="https://www.france24.com/en/europe/20210706-amid-champagne-dispute-russian-winemaker-doubts-new-law-will-boost-local-sales">suspend</a> shipments to Russia.</p>
<p>The label change will cost the champagne industry <a href="https://www.rbc.ru/business/04/07/2021/60e1baf99a7947dd3a736c67?">hundreds of thousands of euros</a> to obtain the new certification as well as further laboratory tests, new barcodes and labels for bottles.</p>
<h2>Russian products for Russia</h2>
<p>The Russian market for champagne ranks 15th globally, but it is still <a href="https://www.straitstimes.com/world/europe/battle-of-the-bubbly-french-champagne-makers-incensed-by-russia-law">important</a> because Russians tend to buy expensive bottles. </p>
<p>Russia <a href="https://www.thespiritsbusiness.com/tag/centre-for-the-study-of-federal-and-regional-alcohol-markets/">imports around 50 million litres</a> of sparkling wines and champagnes each year, 13% of which is champagne from France. In 2020, French champagne <a href="https://www.decanter.com/wine-news/french-minister-backs-champagne-over-new-russia-law-461519/">exports</a> to Russia rose by nearly 10% to almost 1.9 million bottles, and were up by around 2% in value, to €35 million (£29.9 million).</p>
<p>Commentators have pointed out that the new rule has a hidden <a href="https://www.rfi.fr/en/france/20210706-france-vows-to-defend-champagne-after-russia-steals-its-name-putin-aoc">protectionist</a> rationale, favouring sparkling wine producers in the south of Russia (Krasnodar) and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/aug/24/crimeas-champagne-makers-hope-to-recreate-the-soviet-glory-days">Crimea</a> (which was annexed by Russia in 2014). The Association of Russian makers of sparkling wines <a href="http://sparkling-union.ru/eng/">stated</a> that around 250 million of their bottles are sold annually in the domestic market.</p>
<p>This is not the first time Russia has introduced measures favouring national manufacturers. In 2014, imports of foreign foods like Parmesan and Gouda cheeses and Iberian ham were <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/food/horizontal-topics/international-affairs/eu-russia-sps-issues/russian-import-ban-eu-products_en">restricted</a> to promote local producers. And in 2017, a <a href="https://www.rbth.com/news/2017/01/01/new-regulations-on-russias-alcohol-market-go-into-effect-on-new-years-day-2017_673418">law</a> was introduced raising excise duty on foreign sparkling wines.</p>
<h2>A WTO dispute in sight?</h2>
<p>France’s foreign trade minister Franck Riester <a href="https://twitter.com/franckriester/status/1412435356990033929">raised</a> the possibility of starting a legal action against Russia at the WTO to defend the interests of French champagne producers. </p>
<p>The EU sided with France: “We will do everything necessary to protect our rights and take the necessary steps”, European Commission spokeswoman Miriam Garcia Ferrer <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/french-champagne-industry-group-fumes-over-new-russian-champagne-law-2021-07-05/">said</a>. </p>
<p>The WTO treaty which protects brands explicitly prohibits states from introducing special requirements – such as the obligation to translate a brand to the local language – that would “unjustifiably encumber” the use of such trademarks.</p>
<p>This rule was <a href="https://theconversation.com/australias-decisive-win-on-plain-packaging-paves-way-for-other-countries-to-follow-suit-140553">unsuccessfully invoked</a> by opponents of an Australian measure introduced in 2012, which requires tobacco manufacturers to remove colourful, eye-catching logos from their packaging. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/champagne-four-founding-myths-of-a-global-icon-89781">Champagne: four founding myths of a global icon</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The countries which opposed the new law, backed by major tobacco brands, claimed that imposing this requirement is akin to a government unfairly stripping private business of their trademarks, and could also mislead consumers and retailers. The WTO courts did not agree, saying instead that the law was a justifiable measure aimed at discouraging consumption of a harmful and deadly product. </p>
<p>In another WTO case, the US objected to an Indonesian programme requiring companies seeking national subsidies for car production to register and use a trademark with Indonesian character. The WTO court <a href="https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/cases_e/1pagesum_e/ds55sum_e.pdf">rejected</a> the US claim that the measure was an unjustifiable encumbrance on the use of brands, saying that no requirement had been imposed on US car manufacturers, as the entry into the programme was voluntary and optional.</p>
<p>But the new Russian law on labelling of sparkling wine is different. It doesn’t seem to have been passed with a clear public health interest in mind, nor can French champagne makers avoid the labelling requirements by opting out. What it appears to do instead is satisfy the interest of Russian producers to be protected and insulated from the fierce competition of French champagne makers.</p>
<p>If France and the EU do file a complaint at the WTO, they are very likely to prevail. Whether or not a final decision or settlement is reached, the challenge alone would send a global message that jeopardising the cultural and gastronomic heritage embodied in traditional wine and food brands will not be tolerated by producers and their countries.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/164124/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A new Russian law forces French champagne producers to label their products as ‘sparkling wine’.Enrico Bonadio, Reader in Intellectual Property Law, City, University of LondonMagali Contardi, PhD candidate, Intellectual Property Law, Universidad de AlicanteLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1635022021-06-28T13:07:54Z2021-06-28T13:07:54ZRooibos tea: EU protection is good news for South African agriculture<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408616/original/file-20210628-27-194qwj0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=84%2C50%2C5498%2C3682&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/cup-healthy-traditional-herbal-rooibos-red-274684553">GreenArt/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The European Union recently <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32021R0865&from=FR">added</a> rooibos (red bush) tea to its register of products with a protected designation of origin. The iconic tea is the <a href="https://www.grocotts.co.za/2021/06/13/rooibos-declared-protected-by-eu/">first</a> African product to receive such status in the EU, and the 40th from a non-EU country.</p>
<p>Rooibos is in good company – this is the same kind of protection given to <a href="https://www.champagne.fr/en/terroir-appellation/appellation/appellation-origine-controlee-aoc">champagne</a>, <a href="http://www.parmalimentare.net/en/portfolio/parma-ham-pdo/">prosciutto di Parma</a>, <a href="https://www.fetapdo.eu/usa-can/en/">feta</a> and many other iconic foods. This designation contributes to a product’s global standing, and is likely to have benefits – economic and beyond – for the region.</p>
<p>Protected status is given to products whose quality is strictly linked to the local area and peculiar manufacturing techniques.</p>
<p>Rooibos is obtained through the infusion of dried leaves or stems of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/aspalathus-linearis"><em>Aspalathus linearis</em></a>. The plant <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0254629915004056">grows</a> in Cederberg, a mountain region with a fertile soil north of Cape Town, and in harsh microclimate conditions with hot dry summers and wet winters. Once harvested, the bushy plant is grown following a specific <a href="https://www.klipopmekaar.co.za/rooibos-farming-production-process/">process</a> to produce a tea that is fruity, woody, spicy in taste and naturally caffeine free.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.neweurope.eu/article/colombian-coffee-first-non-eu-brand-protected-list/">Café de Colombia</a> was the first ever non-EU product protected under this scheme in 2007, followed in 2011 by others such as Indian tea <a href="https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/darjeeling-tea-gets-eus-protected-tag/articleshow/10503382.cms">Darjeeling</a> and Chinese green tea <a href="https://www.teaguardian.com/quality-varieties/tea-varieties/longjing-green-tea/">Longjing cha</a>.</p>
<p>Part of the EU <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/info/food-farming-fisheries/food-safety-and-quality/certification/quality-labels/quality-schemes-explained_en">legal framework</a> for protecting regional foods is that they have acquired a strong reputation among consumers. Favourable climates and centuries-old manufacturing techniques rooted in their designated areas have contributed to this renown. </p>
<p>These protected designations identify “products with a story”. Rooibos tea is now one of them. Its new EU status will “signal its unique quality to consumers, not only in Europe but all over the world”, Western Cape Minister of Agriculture Ivan Meyer <a href="https://www.westerncape.gov.za/news/minister-meyer-welcomes-eu-designation-rooibos-redbush">said</a>.</p>
<h2>Authenticity matters</h2>
<p>Such legal protection matters, as attempts to misappropriate the rooibos brand have occurred in the past. In 2013 a <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jul/25/south-africa-rooibos-tea-france">French company</a> tried to register the trademark “rooibos” for skincare products in France (one of the <a href="https://www.bbcgoodfood.com/howto/guide/top-5-health-benefits-of-rooibos-tea">health benefits</a> of this tea is its rich antioxidant content that may improve skin health).</p>
<p>The new EU designation is likely to offer rooibos producers and farmers a valuable <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-it-pays-to-link-products-to-places-and-how-african-countries-can-do-it-151511">market advantage</a>, because only infusions produced in the local area north of Cape Town and according to specific rules can be labelled “rooibos”. This ensures that tea produced in other areas cannot be sold in the EU – one of the <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/portlet_file_entry/2995521/2-19052020-BP-EN.pdf/bb14f7f9-fc26-8aa1-60d4-7c2b509dda8e">biggest markets</a> in the world – under the name rooibos/red bush. Evocative uses of such designations by third parties (for example, “Rooibos kind”, “Red Bush type”, “Rooibos style” or “Red Bush imitation”) are also prohibited.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Four people clinking glasses of champagne in front of a sunset" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408618/original/file-20210628-15-jp3a8y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408618/original/file-20210628-15-jp3a8y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408618/original/file-20210628-15-jp3a8y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408618/original/file-20210628-15-jp3a8y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408618/original/file-20210628-15-jp3a8y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408618/original/file-20210628-15-jp3a8y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408618/original/file-20210628-15-jp3a8y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Champagne that doesn’t come from the Champagne region of France is just sparkling wine. Rooibos tea now has the same EU protected designation.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/happy-friends-glasses-champagne-on-yacht-390017230">Dasha Petrenko/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This brand monopoly in the EU will arguably enhance the <a href="https://developmentreimagined.com/2020/01/24/geographical-indications/">economic development</a> of the Western Cape and the whole of South Africa. The region already produces an average of <a href="https://sarooibos.co.za/industry-statistics/">14,000</a> tonnes of rooibos per year, and in 2019-20 expanding global demand resulted in an increase to about 20,000 tonnes. </p>
<p>The South African Rooibos Council <a href="https://sarooibos.co.za/wp/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/SARC-2020-Information-sheet.pdf">estimated</a> that the total rooibos sales in 2020 equalled 6 billion cups of tea – close to one cup per human on Earth. It also reported that half the production is consumed locally, whereas the other half is exported to more than 60 countries. In 2019, the biggest export markets were Germany (28%), Japan (22%), the Netherlands (9%) and the UK (8%).</p>
<p>The global herbal tea market is <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/safrica-rooibos-idUSL5N20644H">growing at 7% per year</a>. With rooibos’ new EU status, not only is the global demand for this product expected to increase, related sectors, such as agritourism, are also likely to benefit. In 2021, an <a href="https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/73ad3872-6ce3-11eb-aeb5-01aa75ed71a1/language-en">EU report</a> revealed that European food products listed on the EU register of all protected geographical names generated in 2017 an estimated sales value of €77 billion (£66 billion).</p>
<p>As the example of <a href="https://www.business-standard.com/article/markets/darjeeling-tea-to-cost-more-abroad-116031001004_1.html">Darjeeling</a> tea shows, premium pricing and more robust revenues often follow geographical name protection as a result of consumers’ recognition of the product’s quality. This is exactly what farmers and the entity that manages the rooibos brand (the South African Rooibos Council) now <a href="https://www.farmersweekly.co.za/agri-news/south-africa/rooibos-farmers-hopeful-origin-status-will-lift-weak-prices/">expect</a>.</p>
<h2>Beyond economics</h2>
<p>The rooibos EU designation could also contribute to further promoting South African gastronomic <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2187768">heritage</a> and genetic resources. As Mogale Sebopetsa, head of the Western Cape Department of Agriculture, <a href="https://www.tea.co.uk/news/article/european-commission-approves-the-registration-of-rooibosred-bush-in-its-register-of-protected-designations-of-origin">put it</a>, “in this way, we safeguard our heritage for posterity”. </p>
<p>The use of the dried leaves and stems of rooibos as a tea was first <a href="https://www.wipo.int/ipadvantage/en/details.jsp?id=2691">reported</a> in 1772, although Khoisan indigenous people from western South Africa have been consuming the drink made with rooibos for centuries. The name itself <a href="https://www.klipopmekaar.co.za/rooibos-tea-history/">derives</a> from the Afrikaans language, meaning “red bush” and referring to the plant’s red-brown leaves.</p>
<p>Employment could be boosted, too. As confirmed in the rooibos council <a href="https://sarooibos.co.za/wp/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/SARC-2020-Information-sheet.pdf">report</a>, the rooibos industry is already the biggest employer of people from the rural provinces of South Africa, with direct income and employment given to more than 8,000 farm labourers, and many others in the supply chain (processing, packaging, retailing). With more production and international sales in sight, this trend will probably increase.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/163502/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Rooibos tea is the first African product to receive EU protected designation. What does this mean for the region where it’s grown?Enrico Bonadio, Reader in Intellectual Property Law, City, University of LondonMagali Contardi, PhD candidate, intellectual property law, Universidad de AlicanteLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1258582019-12-24T12:01:22Z2019-12-24T12:01:22ZProsecco-flavoured Pringles: did festive snack break EU law?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/307694/original/file-20191218-11924-1ljdytt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kellogg</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Prosecco and pink peppercorn: it was a fantasy combination of flavours designed to excite consumer tastebuds over the Christmas holiday period in 2018. Less than a year later the festive snack drew the ire of the Italian authorities who
<a href="https://www.politicheagricole.it/flex/cm/pages/ServeBLOB.php/L/IT/IDPagina/14521">seized around 250 tubes</a> of the limited-edition Pringles from a supermarket chain in the northern Veneto region, <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/prosecco-flavoured-pringles-seized-italy-veneto-luca-zaia-a9163111.html">attracting attention</a> in the UK where prosecco is hugely popular. </p>
<p>The administrative grab was ordered because the name prosecco – which is registered as a <a href="https://www.walksofitaly.com/blog/food-and-wine/dop-foods-from-italy">protected designation of origin</a> (PDO) – was used “illegitimately” on the packaging according to authorities. Pringles had not received approval from the <a href="https://www.prosecco.wine/en">prosecco consortium</a> to use the protected name. Teresa Bellanova, Italy’s minister of agriculture, vowed to combat this kind of “identity theft”, while Luca Zaia, president of the Veneto region (one of the two main Prosecco-producing regions in northern Italy), <a href="https://www.facebook.com/zaiaufficiale/posts/1263992733802639">took to Facebook</a> to voice his grievances, stating that such acts would no longer be tolerated:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>We need to protect our excellences from fraud, abuse and anything ‘Italian-sounding’, as it primarily damages honest producers who promote quality and the territory.</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Prosecco, champagne and EU law</h2>
<p>Yet what the Italian authorities may have failed to take into account is how EU law regulates the use of protected geographical names in food and drink products. The Pringles furore resembles a <a href="https://curia.europa.eu/jcms/upload/docs/application/pdf/2017-12/cp170139en.pdf">2012 case</a> against German discount chain Aldi, which eventually made its way to the EU <a href="https://europa.eu/european-union/about-eu/institutions-bodies/court-justice_en">Court of Justice</a>. In this case, the <a href="https://www.champagne.fr/fr/accueil">Comité Interprofessionnel du Vin de Champagne</a> started proceedings against the supermarket for selling a champagne sorbet which it claimed infringed champagne’s French PDO.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/307692/original/file-20191218-11919-odwglh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/307692/original/file-20191218-11919-odwglh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307692/original/file-20191218-11919-odwglh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307692/original/file-20191218-11919-odwglh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307692/original/file-20191218-11919-odwglh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307692/original/file-20191218-11919-odwglh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307692/original/file-20191218-11919-odwglh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">German supermarket chain faced a similar case with a champagne flavoured sorbet – and won.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/carmel-circa-august-2019-aldi-discount-1487321699">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The main issue was whether the producer of the sorbet exploited the reputation of the champagne PDO. The <a href="https://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2013:347:0671:0854:EN:PDF">law gives PDOs a wide protection</a> by allowing their owners to prevent unauthorised parties from exploiting the evocative power of a particular name.</p>
<p>But by also referring to the <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/food/safety/labelling_nutrition/labelling_legislation_en">European Commission’s guidelines</a> on the labelling of foodstuffs using protected geographical indications as ingredients, the top EU court noted that what should be taken into account are the “essential characteristics” of the product – the taste or aroma being the defining characteristic of the product itself. Such guidelines require that the percentage of the protected ingredient in the product be indicated next to the name of the product or in the list of ingredients at the very least.</p>
<p>The EU court <a href="http://curia.europa.eu/juris/document/document.jsf?docid=198044&doclang=EN">concluded</a> that the use of a PDO in a foodstuff will not be considered as taking undue advantage (and therefore exploiting the PDO’s reputation) if the product incorporates as one of its essential characteristics a taste that is primarily attributed to champagne. </p>
<h2>Pringle all the way</h2>
<p>If we apply this reasoning to the prosecco case, it appears that so long as the Pringles incorporated the “gustatory quality” of prosecco, the essential characteristic criteria may be fulfilled and the packaging of the crisps would be unlikely to infringe the PDO in question.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/MDaYd_Ze79E?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>The only apparent distinguishing aspect that may be problematic in the prosecco Pringles case is that the packaging does not list the percentage of the PDO ingredient used either in its trade name or in the ingredients list, as the EC guidelines require. Though potentially an issue, this would likely be an easy amendment for Pringles to make on its labels.</p>
<p>So despite the grand show made by Italian politicians against the alleged “identity theft” of prosecco, the usage of a protected name by a crisps company like Pringles might be in some circumstances in line with both the provisions regulating the commercial use of such names and the relevant EU case law.</p>
<h2>Crunch time</h2>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/307711/original/file-20191218-11891-1m42t23.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/307711/original/file-20191218-11891-1m42t23.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=670&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307711/original/file-20191218-11891-1m42t23.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=670&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307711/original/file-20191218-11891-1m42t23.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=670&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307711/original/file-20191218-11891-1m42t23.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=842&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307711/original/file-20191218-11891-1m42t23.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=842&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307711/original/file-20191218-11891-1m42t23.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=842&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">According to EU guidelines, Pringles’ prosecco flavoured crips should not fall foul of the law.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kellogg</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In a statement, Pringles <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/oct/16/stop-you-cant-pop-prosecco-pringles-seized-in-italy">explained</a> that the contested prosecco and pink peppercorn flavoured crisps were produced in late 2018 as part of a limited edition holiday range. It would therefore appear that the packages still on the market are the remnants of that finite stock.</p>
<p>In the same statement, Pringles also said it had no plans to produce this particular festive version in the future. </p>
<p>So it is unlikely we will see this particular case reach the EU courts. But as Italian politicians continue their crusade against what they see as breaches of PDO – as they have vowed to do – it is equally unlikely that this will be the last case of this kind. During the holiday season in particular, food and drink producers are always keen to add “deluxe” ingredients – many of which are PDOs – to spruce up their festive products, creating the perfect recipe for another case disputing the use of protected geographical names.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/125858/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>With special thanks to Natalie Weissenberger for her important contribution to this article.</span></em></p>Italian authorities who seized the special Christmas edition crisps seem to be unfamiliar with EU guidelines on food labelling and protected ingredients.Enrico Bonadio, Senior Lecturer in Law, City, University of LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1042302018-12-24T18:39:43Z2018-12-24T18:39:43ZEight ways to reduce the chances of overeating these holidays<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251200/original/file-20181218-27752-di2k32.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Serve more and you'll eat more, with no increase in satisfaction.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/ZrhtQyGFG6s">Kelsey Chance</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Holidays are often a time of overindulgence and food-based regret. That’s partly because when people eat together, they <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0031938494902860">tend to eat more</a>.</p>
<p>But if you’re aware of the things that encourage you to eat more than you need – and perhaps more than you plan to – you might be able to nudge yourself towards eating less than you would otherwise. </p>
<p>Here are eight evidence-based actions you can take to actively control your food intake in the face of the abundant food on offer during the holiday season.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/will-you-gain-weight-this-christmas-50192">Will you gain weight this Christmas?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>1) Plan your shopping list</h2>
<p>If you’re hosting, setting out more food than you and your guests could reasonably eat is a surefire way to lead people to overeat. </p>
<p>Pre-plan your meals and food offerings. Make sure you stick to your <a href="https://www.jneb.org/article/S1499-4046(06)60066-3/abstract">shopping list</a> and don’t shop for food when you’re hungry, or you’re likely to make impulse buys.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251203/original/file-20181218-27746-2c6p9x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251203/original/file-20181218-27746-2c6p9x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251203/original/file-20181218-27746-2c6p9x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251203/original/file-20181218-27746-2c6p9x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251203/original/file-20181218-27746-2c6p9x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251203/original/file-20181218-27746-2c6p9x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251203/original/file-20181218-27746-2c6p9x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Is it on the list?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/confirm/145728560?src=FDjLJq3tkZmUrebrfD7T9w-1-27&size=huge_jpg">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>2) Don’t bring it into the house</h2>
<p>If Santa brings chocolate, lollies and candy canes, of course people are going to eat them! </p>
<p>Start by limiting both the type and amount of <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10556699.1998.10603294">food you bring into the house</a>. And if you do slip up, keep the junk food <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2719056">out of view</a> because if you can’t see it, you’re less likely to want to eat it.</p>
<h2>3) Reduce portion sizes</h2>
<p>Serve more and you’ll eat more, with no increase in satisfaction. One study found doubling the serving size resulted in people eating <a href="http://www.deakin.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0012/897366/DUBELAAR-Portion-Size-Meta-Analysis-Journal-of-Marketing.pdf">35% more</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/health-check-do-bigger-portion-sizes-make-you-eat-more-23193">Health check: do bigger portion sizes make you eat more?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Conversely, if you reduce portion sizes, you’ll eat less. Just make sure the portion size doesn’t get too small, <a href="https://ijbnpa.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12966-018-0705-1">otherwise you’ll start compensating</a> and end up eating more.</p>
<h2>4) Use smaller plates</h2>
<p>In situations where you’ll be self-serving, choose a smaller plate size. With a smaller area, you’re likely to end up with less food on your plate. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251204/original/file-20181218-27761-ocppkp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251204/original/file-20181218-27761-ocppkp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251204/original/file-20181218-27761-ocppkp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251204/original/file-20181218-27761-ocppkp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251204/original/file-20181218-27761-ocppkp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251204/original/file-20181218-27761-ocppkp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251204/original/file-20181218-27761-ocppkp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Small plate = small portion.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/tortellini-salad-green-peas-fried-bacon-289288142?src=U7fzCuvGPnmQtsJd0ALwDg-1-3">Ildi Papp/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Conversely, doubling the sizes of plates and bowls leads to higher food consumption – <a href="https://opus.lib.uts.edu.au/bitstream/10453/41448/1/2015003.email.pdf">13% for plates and 51% for bowls</a>. </p>
<h2>5) Use tall, thin glasses</h2>
<p>Tall, thin glasses <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0144536">look like they contain more volume than short, fat ones</a>. Drinking out of champagne glasses not only looks elegant, it also encourages you to drink less than you otherwise might.</p>
<h2>6) Use the power of social influences</h2>
<p>Be aware of the example you’re setting for others, and how others’ habits affect you. People tend to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195666314004383">match food consumption of people around the table</a>. </p>
<p>In conditions where others are eating a lot, this can lead to overeating, so consider drafting a “designated eater” who sets the example for all.</p>
<h2>7) Beware the multiple effects of alcohol</h2>
<p>What is a holiday feast without alcohol? A lot less fattening! Alcohol contains <a href="https://www.drinkaware.co.uk/alcohol-facts/alcoholic-drinks-units/wine/">29 kilojoules per gram</a>, or about 954 kilojoules for a 250 ml glass of wine. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/whats-the-most-value-for-money-way-to-tackle-obesity-increase-taxes-on-alcohol-108335">What's the most value for money way to tackle obesity? Increase taxes on alcohol</a>
</strong>
</em>
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<hr>
<p>Alcohol also numbs the stomach and delays the signals to your brain to tell you you’ve eaten enough, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14557794/">resulting in overeating</a>.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/Et9uWaspCAU?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<h2>8) Cut down on processed foods</h2>
<p>Reducing the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ajcn/article/67/6/1170/4666062">energy density of foods</a> can be an easy way to reduce the number of kilojoules you consume without giving up on the satisfaction of a filling meal. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/healthy-weight/best-diet-quality-counts/">Research shows</a> people who replace processed foods with a more natural alternative find it easier to limit their intake and therefore maintain their weight or lose weight.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/104230/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>We have a tendency to eat more when we eat with others, but weight gain isn’t inevitable these holidays.Chris Dubelaar, Professor of Marketing, Deakin UniversityStephen S Holden, Adjunct Professor, Macquarie Graduate School of ManagementLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/946042018-04-17T10:44:41Z2018-04-17T10:44:41ZHow China’s winemakers succeeded (without stealing)<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/214829/original/file-20180413-566-14t5na1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">More Chinese wines are finding their way into the liquor aisle. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">AP Photo/Elizabeth Dalziel</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Joint ventures between Western and Chinese companies are <a href="https://www.economist.com/news/finance-and-economics/21740410-heart-disagreement-chinas-industrial-policy-americas-gripes">in the news</a> over accusations – <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/22/business/china-trump-trade-intellectual-property.html">including those of President Donald Trump</a> – that China uses them to <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/22/business/china-trump-trade-intellectual-property.html">steal</a> intellectual property from foreign competitors in industries like cars and technology. </p>
<p>Less well known, however, are the joint ventures between French and Chinese winemakers, which offer a notable counterpoint to this narrative of international rivalry – or foreign exploitation, depending on your perspective. </p>
<p>Unlike for cars and electronics, there are no secret technologies in the making of wine. The <a href="https://wine.lovetoknow.com/wiki/Who_Invented_Wine">millennia-old fermented drink</a> is primarily a product of the land where the grapes are grown. What differentiates the best from the rest is not proprietary technology but experience in combining agriculture, science and art.</p>
<p>During research visits to China’s major <a href="https://www.decanterchina.com/en/regions/china/">wine regions</a> – from beach resorts in Shandong and Ningxia’s rocky and arid landscapes to the lush mountains of Yunnan – we encountered a blend of local and foreign winemakers, farmers, wine scientists and local government officials, all committed to establishing local wines on the world stage. </p>
<p>Winemaking succeeds on the back of such international collaboration. And in our experience, it’s helping Chinese wine producers overcome their biggest obstacles to success. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/214823/original/file-20180413-570-1qxtq5o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/214823/original/file-20180413-570-1qxtq5o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214823/original/file-20180413-570-1qxtq5o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214823/original/file-20180413-570-1qxtq5o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214823/original/file-20180413-570-1qxtq5o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=474&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214823/original/file-20180413-570-1qxtq5o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=474&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214823/original/file-20180413-570-1qxtq5o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=474&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Entrance of the 2014 International Wine Exposition in Yanqing, where hundreds of foreign and local wineries came to make their pitch.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Cynthia Howson and Pierre Ly</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>No secret technology to steal</h2>
<p>China is currently the <a href="http://www.oiv.int/public/medias/5479/oiv-en-bilan-2017.pdf">sixth-largest wine producer</a>, bottling 11.4 million hectoliters in 2016, just behind Australia’s 13 million. China is fifth in terms of consumption. </p>
<p><iframe id="0UFPC" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/0UFPC/3/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>A few years ago, as <a href="https://theconversation.com/chinese-vintners-are-winning-renown-as-wine-industry-soars-34474">we explained</a> in The Conversation, China’s wine industry was focused on overcoming the rising cost of labor, dealing with difficult climates and improving grape quality.</p>
<p>Now, the biggest obstacles Chinese vintners have to overcome are the country’s image problem and growing competition from foreign wine. And that’s where the foreign ventures have proven so valuable.</p>
<p>China has long had a reputation for <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/pamelaambler/2017/07/27/china-is-facing-an-epidemic-of-counterfeit-and-contraband-wine/#7f6af3f35843">counterfeiting and food safety scandals</a>. At the same time, the wine industry has become less protected from foreign competition after <a href="http://www.decanter.com/wine-news/exporting-wine-to-china-countries-384383/">bilateral trade deals</a> with countries such as Chile and Australia eliminated some tariffs. And although there are still such barriers in place with Europe (as well as the U.S.), Chinese wine lovers still <a href="http://www.decanter.com/wine-news/exporting-wine-to-china-countries-384383/">drink a ton of French wine</a>, despite the higher prices.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/214821/original/file-20180413-570-vgr0ki.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/214821/original/file-20180413-570-vgr0ki.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=371&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214821/original/file-20180413-570-vgr0ki.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=371&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214821/original/file-20180413-570-vgr0ki.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=371&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214821/original/file-20180413-570-vgr0ki.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214821/original/file-20180413-570-vgr0ki.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214821/original/file-20180413-570-vgr0ki.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The authors visit Guanlan Vineyard with owner Yanzhi Zhang, a Beijing wine importer and Bordeaux-trained winemaker who is building two wineries in Ningxia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Cynthia Howson and Pierre Ly</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>That has meant Chinese makers of premium wines have had to raise their game to compete with skilled foreign competitors. And perhaps ironically, some of those foreign rivals have been only too happy to share knowledge and skills. </p>
<p>Unlike for cars, making good wine doesn’t require proprietary technology. Any serious student can learn the techniques, whether they are traditional or cutting edge, by reading, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a3kQWGBy7PQ">going to school</a> or finding a mentor. Becoming a good winemaker requires experimenting with a range of tried and true methods, both in the vineyard and the cellar. There is no secret recipe, only hard work and problem solving.</p>
<p>Such collaborative partnerships have been essential to helping China wine producers overcome the image problem and better compete.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/214822/original/file-20180413-587-1f97o1i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/214822/original/file-20180413-587-1f97o1i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=350&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214822/original/file-20180413-587-1f97o1i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=350&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214822/original/file-20180413-587-1f97o1i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=350&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214822/original/file-20180413-587-1f97o1i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214822/original/file-20180413-587-1f97o1i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214822/original/file-20180413-587-1f97o1i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Chandon China’s winery sits in the shadow of Helan Mountain in Ningxia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Cynthia Howson and Pierre Ly</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Enter the French</h2>
<p>It might surprise readers that French Cognac producer Remy Martin was one of the first Western companies to form a joint venture in China, in this case with the city of Tianjin in 1980 <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1983/11/11/business/dynasty-without-tradition.html">to set up a winery</a>. </p>
<p>The French brought winemaking skills and, in exchange, got a foot in the door into a promising market for imported Cognac. The result, Dynasty Winery, is now <a href="http://www.agr.gc.ca/resources/prod/Internet-Internet/MISB-DGSIM/ATS-SEA/PDF/6799-eng.pdf">one of the largest</a> Chinese wine producers.</p>
<p>Remy and other Western companies brought not only skills but also their brand name. Chinese wine enthusiasts – vulnerable to the same stereotypes Westerners have – might question how good a wine from an unknown domestic company might be. But if is made by a famous French wine group, whose wines they enjoy, they might give it a chance.</p>
<p>While Dynasty is a mass market brand, other more recent French-Chinese partnerships have focused on developing premium wines. One involved LVMH and a state-owned enterprise in Ningxia, a poor province often hailed as China’s <a href="https://www.jancisrobinson.com/articles/chinas-most-promising-wine-province">most promising</a> wine region. In 2013, the French luxury conglomerate launched <a href="https://www.lvmh.com/houses/wines-spirits/chandon-china/">Chandon China</a>, the latest offspring in the global <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/4d28842e-8829-11e3-8afa-00144feab7de">Chandon family</a> of sparkling wine. </p>
<p>Unlike in other sectors, such as clothing or electronics, Western winemakers are not in China to take advantage of low costs. Chinese wine is <a href="http://www.scmp.com/magazines/post-magazine/article/1879773/legacy-peak-helps-lead-charge-chinese-wineries">expensive to make</a>, due to the rising cost of <a href="http://money.cnn.com/2016/03/17/news/economy/china-cheap-labor-productivity/index.html">labor</a>, and, in some regions, the need to bury the vines to protect them from cold winters and dig them out every spring. </p>
<p>Moreover, you can’t outsource the production of wine to another country. Champagne can only be made in the Champagne region of France. Napa Valley wine can only be made in the Napa Valley. If a wine is made in China, it becomes Chinese wine. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/214595/original/file-20180412-540-1sjq0ll.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/214595/original/file-20180412-540-1sjq0ll.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214595/original/file-20180412-540-1sjq0ll.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214595/original/file-20180412-540-1sjq0ll.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214595/original/file-20180412-540-1sjq0ll.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214595/original/file-20180412-540-1sjq0ll.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214595/original/file-20180412-540-1sjq0ll.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Wines from Treaty Port Vineyards, which occupies this Scottish-style castle in Moulangou village, Shandong, are available in the U.K. from The Real Wine Company.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Cynthia Howson and Pierre Ly</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Soaring wine quality</h2>
<p>The result, for Chinese winemakers, has been soaring quality. </p>
<p>Not long ago, really good Chinese wines were <a href="http://www.grapewallofchina.com/2014/07/30/triple-a-formula-for-china-wine-appetizing-affordable-available/">very hard to find</a>. Mass market wine brands, like Changyu, Great Wall or Dynasty, were ubiquitous in supermarkets and convenience stores around the country. But most award-winning boutique wineries you read about in the media were <a href="http://www.grapewallofchina.com/2014/07/30/triple-a-formula-for-china-wine-appetizing-affordable-available/">too small</a> or lacked marketing skills and deals with distributors that could put their wines in front of consumers.</p>
<p>Today the best boutique Chinese wines are far more available in major cities because the major distributors have begun to <a href="http://www.grapewallofchina.com/2015/07/14/summergate-kanaan-sign-distribution-deal/">include</a> more Chinese producers in their porfolios of primarily imported wines. This has made the best Chinese wines available in local shops frequented by wine enthusiasts, like <a href="https://www.pudaowines.com/eng/buy-wines-spirits/?special_4=1">Pudao Wines</a> in Beijing and Shanghai, and on a few restaurant wine lists. </p>
<p>At a hotel restaurant in Guangzhou’s main airport in 2016, for example, we were able to order an glass of Pretty Pony, an <a href="http://awards.decanter.com/dawa/2016/Wine/288659?name=Kanaan%20winery-Pretty%20Pony-2014">award winning</a> Ningxia red by Kanaan winery – something we couldn’t have done just a year earlier.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/214826/original/file-20180413-46652-lgu5zt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/214826/original/file-20180413-46652-lgu5zt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=977&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214826/original/file-20180413-46652-lgu5zt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=977&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214826/original/file-20180413-46652-lgu5zt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=977&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214826/original/file-20180413-46652-lgu5zt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1227&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214826/original/file-20180413-46652-lgu5zt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1227&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214826/original/file-20180413-46652-lgu5zt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1227&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">One of the authors orders a glass of Kanaan’s Pretty Pony red during a layover at Guangzhou airport.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Cynthia Howson and Pierre Ly</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Next stop: exports</h2>
<p>So how easy is it to pick up a bottle of Pretty Pony at your local supermarket if you don’t live in China? </p>
<p>Although exports of Chinese wine are still quite low, at just <a href="http://data.un.org/Data.aspx?q=wine&d=ComTrade&f=_l1Code%3A23%3BcmdCode%3A220410">US$1.2 million</a> in 2016 compared with $15 million for Argentina and $3.2 billion for France, a growing number of supermarkets and wine shops in Europe and the U.S. are stocking some of the best Chinese wines, from <a href="http://www.totalwine.com/wine/red-wine/cabernet-sauvignon/ao-yun-cabernet-china/p/162576750?s=1401&igrules=true">Seattle</a> and <a href="https://www.danmurphys.com.au/dm/search/dm_search_results_gallery.jsp?search=Kanaan&link=PDP-RangeLink">Melbourne</a> to <a href="https://www.tesco.com/groceries/en-GB/products/295163107">London</a> and <a href="https://soysuper.com/marca/changyu#products">Madrid</a>. </p>
<p>While it’s unlikely Chinese winemakers will be threatening their French peers anytime soon, they are now decidedly on the world’s wine map.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/94604/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>As the US celebrates Wine Day, China’s young winemakers are a reminder of the power and value of cameraderie and cooperation in this age-old industry.Cynthia Howson, Lecturer, University of WashingtonPierre Ly, Associate Professor, University of Puget SoundLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/893772018-02-16T04:29:26Z2018-02-16T04:29:26ZThere are four types of drinker – which one are you?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206713/original/file-20180216-131013-1iyuzgr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Generally people drink to either increase positive emotions or decrease negative ones.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s easy to see alcohol consumption being a result of thousands of years of ritual and a lifetime of habit. But have you ever stopped to consider why it is you choose to drink? Knowing what motivates people to drink is important to better understanding their needs when it comes to encouraging them to drink less, or in a less harmful way.</p>
<h2>The four types</h2>
<p>Personally, everyone can come up with many reasons why he or she is drinking, which makes a scientific understanding of the reasons difficult. But there is something called the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3290306">motivational model of alcohol use</a>, that argues we drink because we expect a change in how we feel after we do. Originally developed to help treat alcohol dependence, the ideas described in the model led to a new understanding of what motivates people to drink. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206707/original/file-20180216-131010-ltl2jk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206707/original/file-20180216-131010-ltl2jk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206707/original/file-20180216-131010-ltl2jk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206707/original/file-20180216-131010-ltl2jk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206707/original/file-20180216-131010-ltl2jk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206707/original/file-20180216-131010-ltl2jk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206707/original/file-20180216-131010-ltl2jk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some will sip champagne or hold a glass of wine on social occasions to avoid pressure to drink.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/CRCRyD0rxUw">Photo by Nik MacMillan on Unsplash</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>More precisely, the model assumes people drink to increase positive feelings or decrease negative ones. They’re also motivated by internal rewards such as enhancement of a desired personal emotional state, or by external rewards such as social approval. </p>
<p>This results in all drinking motives falling into one of four categories: enhancement (because it’s exciting), coping (to forget about my worries), social (to celebrate), and conformity (to fit in). Drinkers can be high or low in any number of drinking motives – people are not necessarily one type of drinker or the other. </p>
<p>All other factors – such as genetics, personality or environment – are just shaping our drinking motives, according to this model. So drinking motives are a final pathway to alcohol use. That is, they’re the gateway through which all these other influences are channelled.</p>
<h2>1. Social drinking</h2>
<p>To date, nearly all the research on drinking motives has been done on teens and young adults. Across cultures and countries, social motives are the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28337801">most common reason</a> young people give for drinking alcohol. In this model, social drinking may be about increasing the amount of fun you are having with your friends. This fits in with the idea that drinking is mainly a social pastime. Drinking for social motives is associated with moderate alcohol use.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/young-australians-are-drinking-less-but-older-people-are-still-hitting-the-bottle-hard-90024">Young Australians are drinking less – but older people are still hitting the bottle hard</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>2. Drinking to conform</h2>
<p>When people only drink on social occasions because they want to fit in – not because it’s a choice they would normally make – they drink less than those who drink mainly for other reasons. These are the people who will sip a glass of champagne for a toast, or keep a wine in their hand to avoid feeling different from the drinkers around them. </p>
<p>In the last couple of years, programs like <a href="https://www.hellosundaymorning.org/">Hello Sunday Morning</a> have been encouraging people to take a break from drinking. And by making this more socially acceptable, they may also be decreasing the negative feedback some people receive for not drinking, although this is a theory that needs testing. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-do-our-friends-want-us-to-drink-and-dislike-it-when-we-dont-68430">Why do our friends want us to drink and dislike it when we don't?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>3. Drinking for enhancement</h2>
<p>Beyond simply drinking to socialise, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16460883">there are two types</a> of adolescents and young adults with a particular risky combination of personality and drinking motive preference.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206728/original/file-20180216-131013-12t2uve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206728/original/file-20180216-131013-12t2uve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206728/original/file-20180216-131013-12t2uve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206728/original/file-20180216-131013-12t2uve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206728/original/file-20180216-131013-12t2uve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206728/original/file-20180216-131013-12t2uve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206728/original/file-20180216-131013-12t2uve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206728/original/file-20180216-131013-12t2uve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">People who drink for enhancement are usually males and extroverted.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>First are those who drink for enhancement motives. They are more likely to be extroverted, impulsive, and aggressive. These young people (often male) are more likely to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16460883">actively seek to feel drunk</a> – as well as other extreme sensations – and have a risk-taking personality. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/hedonism-not-only-leads-to-binge-drinking-its-part-of-the-solution-81751">Hedonism not only leads to binge drinking, it's part of the solution</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>4. Drinking to cope</h2>
<p>Second, those who drink mainly for coping motives have higher levels of neuroticism, low level of agreeableness and a negative view of the self. These drinkers may be using alcohol to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17716823">cope with other problems</a> in their life, particularly those related to anxiety and depression. Coping drinkers are <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16095785">more likely to be female</a>, drink more heavily and experience more alcohol-related problems than those who drink for other reasons.</p>
<p>While it may be effective in the short term, drinking to cope with problems leads to worse long-term consequences. This may be because the problems that led to the drinking in the first place are not being addressed. </p>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>There is promising research that suggests knowing the motives of heavy drinkers can lead to interventions to reduce harmful drinking. For instance, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211335515001813">one study found</a> that tailoring counselling sessions to drinking motives decreased consumption in young women, although there was no significant decrease in men.</p>
<p>This research stream is limited by the fact we really only know about the drinking motives of those in their teens and early 20s. Our understanding of why adults are drinking is limited, something our research group is hoping to study in the future. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/beer-bongs-and-baby-boomers-the-unlikely-tale-of-drug-and-alcohol-use-in-the-over-50s-82753">Beer, bongs and baby boomers: the unlikely tale of drug and alcohol use in the over 50s</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Next time you have a drink, have a think about why you are choosing to do so. There are many people out there having a drink at night to relax. But if you’re aiming to get drunk, you have a higher chance than most of experiencing harm. </p>
<p>Alternatively, if you are trying to drink your problems away, it’s worth remembering those problems will still be there in the morning.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/89377/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Emmanuel Kuntsche receives funding from the Foundation for Alcohol Research and Education. He has also received funding from the Swiss National Science Foundation, National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia, The Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research, Swiss Federal Office of Public Health, Swiss Foundation for Alcohol Research, Social Science and Humanities Research Council of Canada, ZEPRA Prävention und Gesundheitsförderung Switzerland and The Swiss Institute for the Prevention of Alcohol and Drug Problems
. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sarah Callinan receives funding from the Australian Research Council for a Discovery Early Career Research Award. She has also received funding from the Foundation for Alcohol Research and Education, the National Health and Medical Research Council, VicHealth and Healthway for work on projects other than this one.</span></em></p>There are many reasons people drink, including to have fun or cope with other problems. Knowing their motivations will allow us to tailor programs to help those who may struggle with alcohol use.Emmanuel Kuntsche, Director of the Centre for Alcohol Policy Research, La Trobe UniversitySarah Callinan, Research Fellow at the Centre for Alcohol Policy Research, La Trobe UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/905472018-01-24T13:47:37Z2018-01-24T13:47:37ZMust we deprive ourselves of all pleasure to stay healthy?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/203015/original/file-20180123-182976-1p9s5bn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">You know you shouldn't smoke, or have sex without a condom if you're not with a longtime partner. And when it comes to drinking, tea only, of course.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/JYFmYif4n70">Dominik Martin/Unsplash</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In 2018, I’ll quit smoking, really. And I’ll stop drinking alcohol, at least for a while… </p>
<p>The first month of the year is traditionally a time for healthy resolutions. Many in the United Kingdom start off with “Dry January”, the idea being to foreswear alcohol completely in the month following the festive season. (Whether there are health benefits or not is <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/society/2018/jan/19/does-dry-january-work-we-ask-the-experts">another question</a>).</p>
<p>While France may be famous for its <a href="http://www.socheese.fr/la-question/article/combien-la-france-compte-t-elle-de?lang=en">hundreds of varieties of cheese</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/champagne-four-founding-myths-of-a-global-icon-89781">great fondness for champagne</a>, its residents are inundated with health advice from public authorities. We are told what we must, and must not do, to get and stay in shape. Last year, the French national health agency and the National Cancer Institute told us that we should refrain from drinking <a href="http://www.santepubliquefrance.fr/Actualites/Avis-d-experts-relatif-a-l-evolution-du-discours-public-en-matiere-de-consommation-d-alcool-en-France-organise-par-Sante-publique-France-et-l-Inca">more than 10 glasses of alcohol per week</a>, while the French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (Anses) encouraged us to consume <a href="https://www.anses.fr/fr/system/files/NUT2012SA0103Ra-1.pdf">less sugar, fewer deli meats and more vegetables</a>.</p>
<p>In the minds of many, preventative health has thus become synonymous with self-deprivation, restrictions and obligations, a situation I outline in my book <em>Questioning Public Heath</em> (<a href="https://www.presses.ehesp.fr/produit/sante-publique-questions/"><em>La santé publique en question(s)</em></a> in French), published by the EHESP School for Public Health.</p>
<p>It could be argued that, in the long term, too many warning messages may be counterproductive, or even overwhelming – and therefore bad for our health. Rather than banishing pleasure from our lives, might there be another way to maintain our health and well-being?</p>
<h2>Endless dos and don'ts</h2>
<p>To sum it all up, we must not: smoke (neither tobacco nor cannabis), drink alcohol (even in small quantities), take recreational drugs, have sex without a condom (unless it’s with a long-time partner), eat too much sugar or fat, go to places where there is too much noise, or drive under the influence of drugs or alcohol.</p>
<p>On the other hand, we must: exercise regularly, eat fruits and vegetables (at least five or more servings per day), limit our intake of red meat and deli meats, wear a mask when we exhibit flu or cold symptoms, buckle our seatbelts before driving, stick to the speed limit, wear a helmet when cycling and use earplugs at a loud concert or in a nightclub.</p>
<p>Over time, warnings about individual risks can pile up to form a set of contradictory, irreconcilable instructions. For example, a walk in the forest would help you to get some exercise and breathe some clean air – but if you’re in an area with a tick infestation, this walk would increase your risk of catching Lyme disease. So what should you do? </p>
<h2>Alarmist campaigns</h2>
<p>Public-health campaigns are often alarmist – shock images on cigarette packets (a corpse’s foot in a morgue, or worse) or road-safety films with enough blood to qualify as slasher flicks. Few use a positive approach, as did a 2014 campaign in France to combat car crashes. Titled “We all have good reasons to stay alive” (“On a tous une bonne raison de rester vivants”), it focused on relationships – between <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5c7ay3VBk6M">parents and children</a>, for example – that are worth protecting.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/5c7ay3VBk6M?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">French road-safety campaign, “We all have good reasons to stay alive”. The first screen says “The images that follow will change how you drive”.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But there are more bad examples than good. In addition to all the scolding messages from public authorities, magazines and websites dispense swathes of advice aimed at assisting us in our quest for health and eternal youth, that holy grail of modern societies. So we learn that it is also best to avoid milk, eat gluten-free, consume <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4808858/">more omega 3 than omega 6 oils</a>, steer clear of all <a href="https://theconversation.com/our-exposure-to-electromagnetic-waves-beware-of-commonly-held-beliefs-88372">radio waves and electrical signals</a> and avoid re-using plastic bottles for drinking. Each day comes with its own “health tip”, often backed up by a doctor with impressive – or sometimes dubious – academic qualifications.</p>
<p>The tools available with new technology have increased this pressure: we can now monitor the number of steps we take in a day. A high number is ideal, although no one knows exactly how many because estimates vary. A Swiss hospital specializing in obesity recommends <a href="http://www.bougersante.ch/site/ap/recommandations">one daily 30-minute walk</a>, whereas the World Heath Organisation (WHO) sets the bar somewhat lower, at 150 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise per week for adults under 65, i.e. <a href="http://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/factsheet_adults/en/">20 minutes a day on average</a>.</p>
<p>Mobile phone apps now allow us to “scientifically” analyse the way we eat and, in theory, <a href="http://www.businessinsider.fr/us/the-best-apps-for-healthy-food-exercise-sleep-and-good-habits-2016-7/">improve our diet</a>. Our driving style will soon be analysed in real time by our cars. Each risk can therefore be countered with an app designed to help us adjust our behaviour.</p>
<h2>Are we really rational creatures?</h2>
<p>It could be assumed that as scientific knowledge progresses, the easier it will be for us to adopt healthier behaviours. But this assumes that we are rational creatures and that if we try to avoid or deny this information, we simply lack the appropriate psychological, social or cultural tools. Yet we humans are not – or at least not completely – rational beings.</p>
<p>It is possible to take an alternative view of health education, one that is different from a moralizing, normative vision, where experts decide what is good and bad for the population (based on epidemiological studies, but also on their own values) and try to influence behaviour with do’s and don’ts. The basic principle of this alternative approach is autonomy, the reinforcement of individual capacities, or what might be called “empowerment”.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/203236/original/file-20180124-107940-19flr85.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/203236/original/file-20180124-107940-19flr85.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203236/original/file-20180124-107940-19flr85.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203236/original/file-20180124-107940-19flr85.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203236/original/file-20180124-107940-19flr85.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203236/original/file-20180124-107940-19flr85.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203236/original/file-20180124-107940-19flr85.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">So much cheese, so little time.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/4AyFwz1eUyo">Darren Coleshill/Unsplash</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The first step is to restore the concept of pleasure into public health messages. The French campaign <a href="https://mois-sans-tabac.tabac-info-service.fr/">“Moi(s) sans tabac”</a> (“Tobacco-free me/month”) is a good illustration of this approach. It focuses on group emulation and positive reinforcement of the former smoker’s commitment to quitting. Still, further research is required: Is taking pleasure in life a prerequisite to adopting healthy behaviours, or is it the other way around? And how can we reach young people, for whom breaking the rules is part of how they construct their adult identity?</p>
<h2>Ditching the clichés</h2>
<p>Now is also the time to ditch tired clichés and drop the caricatures that litter health messages – that those who adopt unhealthy behaviours are isolated and unhappy, while people with the “right” attitudes are good-looking, fulfilled and socially well-integrated.</p>
<p>Above all, rethinking preventative health means taking into account the different environments in which we live. All individuals have free will, but it’s easy to forget that our surroundings also influence our behaviour. Obesity does not manifest itself in the same way across different socio-economic categories, or in different regions. Smoking and drinking are partly associated with seeking peer approval. And these are just two examples.</p>
<p>Therefore, preventative health should be subject to debate; citizens must participate in its design. This means that experts need to communicate all their knowledge on a topic, but also their doubts. Should we walk for 20 or 30 minutes a day to see benefits for our health? Let’s have an open, well-informed debate. Experts should specify the behavioural changes they consider beneficial, but also be prepared to rethink them. A campaign to reduce alcohol consumption would not be seen in the same light in a French wine-growing region as in other areas of the country, nor in Scotland, famous for its whisky.</p>
<p>Public health actions should involve those concerned. Campaign designers should listen to people’s experiences relating to health and respect their culture, while still challenging their preconceptions. For example, we might wonder whether preventative campaigns against HIV and STIs should really be limited to promoting <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/22/upshot/sex-education-based-on-abstinence-theres-a-real-absence-of-evidence.html">abstinence in young people and fidelity in marriage</a> so as to avoid clashes with religious authorities, as has <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3178341/">been the case in some countries</a>.</p>
<h2>Thinking local</h2>
<p>Local initiatives should become the main priority, while regional and national strategies would be designed to give them extra weight or impetus. Public debate and engagement take place most effectively at a local scale.</p>
<p>Let’s leave room for local initiatives to blossom and provide them with scientific data on their chosen topics and techniques for measuring results. We should also create favourable conditions for initiatives at the regional, national and international level. Supported by the WHO, the French <a href="http://www.villes-sante.com/">Health and Cities Network</a> (<em>réseau français des Villes-Santé</em>)
provides one such framework, bringing together 80 cities of all sizes and from across the political spectrum, from Amiens to Fort-de-France, Rennes, Calais, Béthune, Paris, Lyon and Marseille.</p>
<p>The sometimes-contradictory rules laid out by health authorities on alcohol, diet and sexual practices end up paralysing individuals. They fill our heads with a minefield of urgent dangers, leaving us with no clear path forward. It is time to develop targeted preventative health strategies, and to take into account all the factors that collectively influence our behaviour. It’s time to bring pleasure back to healthy living and collective well-being.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Translated from the French by Alice Heathwood for <a href="http://www.fastforword.fr/en/">Fast for Word</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/90547/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Laurent Chambaud is the director of the Ecole des hautes études en santé publique (EHESP).</span></em></p>Quit smoking, quit drinking – so many good resolutions for the New Year. But can the overabundance of messages on healthy living become counter-productive?Laurent Chambaud, Médecin de santé publique, École des hautes études en santé publique (EHESP) Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/897812018-01-08T16:16:52Z2018-01-08T16:16:52ZChampagne: four founding myths of a global icon<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/201111/original/file-20180108-83559-1d5p1aa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2041%2C1333&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Champagne! </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/peter4k/14238068566/in/photolist-nGaPJN-zqrbZn-5M5d7v-8XbZoS-9b6b65-fi94C4-75JZAA-uWuAh-eMuMo-qpywkf-5Awxn2-5zthPY-75F7uF-ajvALv-96F21T-JktRf-7aLzYC-663cu8-6oLhMd-7M4r79-8vhCEY-dFanh6-8w5w4t-5Qujmb-9j4Vk2-5CXP1u-4MW6gb-d12a5J-6hqXYD-94uvne-4MW6tU-4qJZng-H6aTkR-4MRUZP-4Z1uru-aMjN6Z-8w8xQj-FFJ1u-aubPM8-8XghVz-MAcQr-4pbmz-ai9cbP-6ANfuf-5vVG9e-4QVEWq-5xbp65-aid6ko-5vVXHe-ai987P """>Yi Wang/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>What made a simple wine grown in a fairly <a href="https://champagnemoments.eu/champagne-history/">mediocre wine-growing region</a> one of the most prominent and enchanting icons in the world today? How did champagne, against all expectations, acquire such a prestige, becoming the ultimate sign of celebrations world-wide? No wedding, business deal, sporting event or art exhibition would be complete without it. Champagne’s success cannot be explained by its intriguing bubbles alone, so how did it become the ultimate symbol of celebration worldwide?</p>
<p>Looking for answers, I decided to <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10253866.2016.1177990">examine the past 250 years of champagne marketing</a> to discover what it can teach us about the ever-changing image of champagne and its place in consumer culture.</p>
<p>Champagne’s undying fame is, in fact, the product of four founding myths. These have shaped its identity and the images now associated with its consumption. The marvellous history demonstrates the power of collective myth-making in knitting and reknitting brands into the cultural fabric of society.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/201113/original/file-20180108-83571-4jmvup.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/201113/original/file-20180108-83571-4jmvup.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/201113/original/file-20180108-83571-4jmvup.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/201113/original/file-20180108-83571-4jmvup.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/201113/original/file-20180108-83571-4jmvup.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/201113/original/file-20180108-83571-4jmvup.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/201113/original/file-20180108-83571-4jmvup.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A view from Hautvilliers, in the Champagne region.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/ltdan/3991795050/in/photolist-75JZAA-uWuAh-eMuMo-qpywkf-5Awxn2-5zthPY-75F7uF-ajvALv-96F21T-JktRf-7aLzYC-663cu8-6oLhMd-7M4r79-8vhCEY-dFanh6-8w5w4t-5Qujmb-9j4Vk2-5CXP1u-4MW6gb-d12a5J-6hqXYD-94uvne-4MW6tU-4qJZng-H6aTkR-4MRUZP-4Z1uru-aMjN6Z-8w8xQj-FFJ1u-aubPM8-8XghVz-MAcQr-4pbmz-ai9cbP-6ANfuf-5vVG9e-4QVEWq-5xbp65-aid6ko-5vVXHe-ai987P-5ip4mr-am3yo7-aihKcK-49nhyN-f4AzfL-7pAeaA%20%22%22">Dan Dickinson/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The origin myth</h2>
<p>Initially, the Champagne region of France was better <a href="https://books.google.fr/books?id=u6d-s9_7yOMC&pg=PA46&lpg=PA46&dq=champagne+known+for+wool&source=bl&ots=dBVSKCikH2&sig=uh8uAwPUmCalIe0pTLJWgo7xzvU&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjmsZzQhsjYAhXKJlAKHaysA0cQ6AEIUDAL#v=onepage&q=champagne%20known%20for%20wool&f=false">known for its wool</a> than its wine. The most northern wine-growing region in France, it was not considered appropriate for producing high-quality wines. In fact, local wines were often given as a promotional gift to customers of the wool trade.</p>
<p>It was the Benedictine monks who began to improve the quality of wines from the Champagne region, selling them to fund their monasteries. Contrary to popular belief, however, the monks did not “invent” champagne. It wasn’t until much later that <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/6c25d5fe-2045-11e7-b7d3-163f5a7f229c">Pierre “Dom” Pérignon</a> (1635–1713), head of a monastery in Reims, was integrated into the origin myth as part of a deliberate marketing strategy to highlight notions of heritage, authenticity and tradition associated with champagne, and secure its place in an increasingly competitive market.</p>
<p>So who invented champagne? No one, in fact, as the formation of bubbles is natural for all wines. It really began to flourish when wool producers, receiving more and more orders for champagne, saw an opportunity to leave the wool industry for what appeared to be a more promising and profitable business. But the myth of a magic elixir, invented by holy men, has endured.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/201115/original/file-20180108-83571-c7u1ir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/201115/original/file-20180108-83571-c7u1ir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/201115/original/file-20180108-83571-c7u1ir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/201115/original/file-20180108-83571-c7u1ir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/201115/original/file-20180108-83571-c7u1ir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/201115/original/file-20180108-83571-c7u1ir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/201115/original/file-20180108-83571-c7u1ir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Champagne glasses, symbols of luxury.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/ericlbc/3079095439/in/photolist-5G6aNp-am3iiC-am34fy-iMHzWe-am3iLu-5BDT6P-am343Q-akZfKe-am33MU-7hJsJo-jkDeSF-am34iu-6Ns3ca-aubT8a-am3471-giKRk-cZpKe-akZCkk-7saWqM-7hJPc3-21cqnN-9746Te-4qSJMC-9PhChg-fYDqk-am3ip5-5vgSSn-5BJ9Su-b5WXN-am33Tq-bunsyQ-5KVovm-am33QY-b5Xab-9CYVEb-4Nm224-ee6Za1-3G6v3-b5rmCe-b5YkC-aid6ao-HKUxH-aid1S1-7hJA1Y-8ZKdp9-7hJCoN-4gzSeX-75STxF-7LBW7f-wFV5Z%20%22%22">Eric BC Lim/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The myth of opulence</h2>
<p>The second myth that grew up around champagne is that of opulence. The fact that champagne is seen and marketed as a luxury product is the result of a happy coincidence, dating all the way back to the year 496.</p>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clovis_I">Clovis</a>, king of the Franks, <a href="https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/2002165">was baptized into the Christian faith in Reims</a>, the home of champagne. From that time on, tradition dictated that all French kings be crowned in Reims, and coronations were accompanied by sumptuous feasts, where the local wine, champagne, flowed freely. This tradition explains why champagne is known as a festive drink, sipped by those of privilege.</p>
<p>This image was cemented when, at the age of sixteen, Louis XIV, the most opulent monarch of all, first tasted champagne in the magnificent cathedral of Reims. The Sun King was the one would associate champagne with his other obsessions: fashion, prestige and luxury.</p>
<p>The industry caught another lucky break when Louis XV <a href="http://maisons-champagne.com/en/encyclopedias/champagne-guest-book/before-sparkling-champagne/xviiie-centuries/article/commerce">authorized the transport of champagne</a> (and only champagne) in glass bottles rather than wooden barrels. This made all the difference for producers, because the wood let out the gas that gave champagne its bubbles, making it go flat.</p>
<p>This new law also contributed to the development of champagne’s carefully designed packaging, one of the first instances of modern marketing. Labels featured well-known figures such as Marie-Antoinette and Jeanne d'Arc, as well as victorious military officers, nobles, artists, and other celebrities. Vendors quickly understood the value of graphic design to increase their brands’ renown and arouse desire in their expanding and increasingly wealthy client base.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/jfyL8qAxvPU?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Champagne is often associated with French kings and queens as depicted in <em>Marie-Antoinette</em>, the 2006 movie directed by Sofia Coppola.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The national myth</h2>
<p>In 1789, the French revolution and its guillotine severed the connection between champagne and monarchs and aristocrats. Yet the revolution brought on the third, and perhaps most powerful, myth-making cycle, directly associating champagne with the “soul” and character of the new French Republic.</p>
<p>Champagne had already gained enough renown to be seen as a national symbol, a worthy collective success. Champagne had become not only “the shining reflection of our nation”, according to the famous words of Voltaire, but also the “most glorious expression” of French civilization.</p>
<p>It was under the French Empire that champagne really came into its own. <a href="https://vinepair.com/articles/napoleon-moet-a-secret-history/">Napoleon used the wine</a> to help him create a new bourgeois society that was both industrious and loyal.</p>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-R%C3%A9my_Mo%C3%ABt">Jean-Rémy Moët</a> established Moët in the United States, attracting a new set of clients, including President George Washington himself. And when the Russian army routed Napoleon and reached the city of Reims, the enterprising Clicquot “Widow” <a href="https://searchworks.stanford.edu/view/6206489">opened her champagne cellars to the invaders</a> in the hope of conquering the Russian market.</p>
<p>These strategies proved successful. Following the fall of the French Empire in 1814, the dawn of the industrial revolution was the start of a veritable golden age for champagne. As rail lines spread outward, champagne could be transported further, in greater quantities and to new markets. Innovative equipment enabled more efficient production and improved quality, both in terms of aesthetics and taste. It quickly became a symbol of France in the eyes of the world. </p>
<p>This period was also marked by an increase in the production of imitation champagne in other countries. The Champagne region’s signature sparkling wine was granted international recognition in the 1930s, protected by the <a href="https://www.champagne.fr/en/terroir-appellation/appellation/appellation-origine-controlee-aoc"><em>appellation d’origine contrôlée</em></a> (AOC) certification. </p>
<h2>The myth of modernity</h2>
<p>From the early 1900s, champagne advertising took on modern symbolism. During the Belle Époque, ads for champagne often featured modern marvels that dazzled the growing middle class – steamships, hot-air balloons, automobiles, planes and more.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/201117/original/file-20180108-83585-1g4yzoj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/201117/original/file-20180108-83585-1g4yzoj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=849&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/201117/original/file-20180108-83585-1g4yzoj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=849&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/201117/original/file-20180108-83585-1g4yzoj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=849&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/201117/original/file-20180108-83585-1g4yzoj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1067&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/201117/original/file-20180108-83585-1g4yzoj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1067&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/201117/original/file-20180108-83585-1g4yzoj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1067&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Amandines de Provence. Biscuits H. Lalo. Poster shows a woman eating almond cookies, accompanied by champagne. Exposition Universelle, Paris 1900.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Amandines_de_Provence,_poster_by_Leonetto_Cappiello,_1900.jpg">Library of Congress</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It is no coincidence that champagne was served at the 1889 Paris Universal Exhibition, when the Eiffel Tower was unveiled to the world. It became ubiquitous at ship launches and on transatlantic voyages – including on the Titanic – and at the closing of business deals. It was the subject of the world’s first film advertisement, and became a symbol of modernity at a time when France was trying to forget the horrors of WWI and turn towards a promising new age.</p>
<p>When competition came from Italian prosecco and Spanish cava sparkling wines, advertising for champagne adapted, emphasizing its history and heritage, endowing it with unique prestige to distinguish it from its lesser rivals. At this time, Moët created the Dom Pérignon “myth” to promote his premium brand.</p>
<p>In contemporary times, James Bond, Audrey Hepburn and, more recently, Beyoncé and <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2014/11/jay-z-makes-it-rain-with-champagne/382573/">her husband Jay Z</a> have been associated with the myths and history surrounding champagne. This is the ultimate proof of its continued relevance and iconic attraction in global markets. Through collective myth-making, champagne has not only managed to take advantage of favourable social and cultural trends, but also to navigate deep cultural contradictions and continue to sparkle in our collective imagination.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Translated from the French by Alice Heathwood for <a href="http://www.fastforword.fr/">Fast for Word</a></em>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/89781/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joonas Rokka ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>While Champagne seems eternal and unchanging, its fame is in fact the product of four founding myths. These have shaped its identity and the images now associated with its consumption.Joonas Rokka, Professeur en marketing, EM Lyon Business SchoolLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/875692017-11-17T20:41:11Z2017-11-17T20:41:11ZFeeling guilty about drinking? Well, ask the saints<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/195239/original/file-20171117-19305-17d3usa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Pious drinking.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AWalter_Dendy_Sadler_(1854_-1923)_The_monks_repast.jpg">Walter Dendy Sadler via Wikimedia Commons</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Each year the holidays bring with them an increase in both the consumption of <a href="http://www.statesmanjournal.com/story/sponsor-story/kaiser-permanente/2015/12/03/alcohol-consumption-increases-during-holidays/76744200/">alcohol</a> and <a href="http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/food-and-drink/christmas-drinking-binge-increase-alcohol-dependence-alcoholism-risk-expert-a7488401.html">concern about drinking’s harmful effects.</a> </p>
<p>Alcohol abuse is no laughing matter, but is it sinful to drink and make merry, moderately and responsibly, during a holy season or at any other time? </p>
<p>As a <a href="https://www.baylor.edu/great_texts/index.php?id=100028">historical theologian</a>, I <a href="https://www.regnery.com/books/drinking-with-the-saints/">researched</a> the role that pious Christians played in developing and producing alcohol. What I discovered was an astonishing history. </p>
<h2>Religious orders and wine-making</h2>
<p>Wine was invented <a href="https://vinepair.com/booze-news/oldest-winemaking-site/?utm_source=The+Drop+by+VinePair&utm_campaign=508c000821-Oct_7_2017&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_b653fb8c99-508c000821-46572873&goal=0_b653fb8c99-508c000821-46572873&mc_cid=508c000821&mc_eid=044391995d">6,000 years</a> before the birth of Christ, but it was monks who largely preserved viniculture in Europe. Religious orders such as the Benedictines and Jesuits became expert winemakers. They stopped only because their lands were confiscated in the 18th and 19th centuries by anti-Catholic governments such as the French Revolution’s <a href="http://www.historytoday.com/gemma-betros/french-revolution-and-catholic-church">Constituent Assembly</a> and Germany’s <a href="https://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/view.cfm?recnum=8670">Second Reich</a>.</p>
<p>In order to celebrate the Eucharist, which requires the use of bread and wine, Catholic missionaries brought their knowledge of vine-growing with them to the New World. Wine grapes were first introduced to Alta California in 1779 by Saint Junipero Serra and his Franciscan brethren, laying the foundation for the <a href="http://www.discovercaliforniawines.com/wp-content/files_mf/ecawinehistory.pdf">California wine industry</a>. A similar pattern emerged in <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tEqx2zwuq-gC&pg=PA11&lpg=PA11&dq=history+of+argentina+wine+industry+missionaries&source=bl&ots=-4W6L0fLCv&sig=Y6wV24LoRHwUDn7CxzS9OtXnLBU&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwivh-SAqsHXAhXhs1QKHT7dCMoQ6AEIPzAD#v=onepage&q=history%20of%20argentina%20wine%20industry%20missionaries&f=false">Argentina</a>, <a href="http://www.chilean-wine.com/chilean-wine-history/">Chile</a> and <a href="https://www.sevenhill.com.au/the-jesuits">Australia</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/195241/original/file-20171117-19320-1wdyxh8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/195241/original/file-20171117-19320-1wdyxh8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=444&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195241/original/file-20171117-19320-1wdyxh8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=444&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195241/original/file-20171117-19320-1wdyxh8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=444&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195241/original/file-20171117-19320-1wdyxh8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=558&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195241/original/file-20171117-19320-1wdyxh8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=558&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195241/original/file-20171117-19320-1wdyxh8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=558&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Monks in a cellar.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AJoseph_Haier_-_Monks_in_a_cellar_1873.jpg">Joseph Haier 1816-1891, via Wikimedia Commons</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Godly men not only preserved and promulgated oenology, or the study of wines; they also advanced it. One of the pioneers in the “méthode champenoise,” or the “<a href="http://winefolly.com/review/how-sparkling-wine-is-made/">traditional method</a>” of making sparkling wine, was a Benedictine monk whose name now adorns one of the world’s finest champagnes: Dom Pérignon. According to a later legend, when he sampled his first batch in 1715, Pérignon <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pIdGLlMTsucC&pg=PA59&lpg=PA59&dq=%E2%80%9CBrothers,+come+quickly.+I+am+drinking+stars!%E2%80%9D&source=bl&ots=j1jFQNJvEF&sig=M4aqm9jJ7PTLFwEavwndflQ6DwU&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjpyY2ruMHXAhVByVQKHV8RCt0Q6AEISjAM#v=onepage&q=%E2%80%9CBrothers%2C%20come%20quickly.%20I%20am%20drinking%20stars!%E2%80%9D&f=false">cried out to his fellow monks</a>: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“Brothers, come quickly. I am drinking stars!”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Monks and priests also found new uses for the grape. The Jesuits are credited with improving the process for making <a href="http://www.grappamontanaro.com/storia-della-grappa/?lang=en">grappa</a> in Italy and <a href="https://museodelpisco.org/all-about-pisco/">pisco</a> in South America, both of which are grape brandies.</p>
<h2>Beer in the cloister</h2>
<p>And although beer may have been invented by the ancient Babylonians, it was perfected by the <a href="https://www.alcoholproblemsandsolutions.org/alcohol-in-the-middle-ages/#_ednref3">medieval monasteries</a> that gave us brewing as we know it today. The oldest drawings of a modern brewery are from the Monastery of Saint Gall in Switzerland. The plans, which date back to A.D. 820, show three breweries – one for guests of the monastery, one for pilgrims and the poor, and one for the <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/0/20909447">monks</a> themselves.</p>
<p>One saint, Arnold of Soissons, who lived in the 11th century, has even been credited with inventing the <a href="http://allaboutbeer.com/article/beer-saints/">filtration</a> process. To this day and despite the proliferation of many outstanding microbreweries, the world’s finest beer is arguably still made within the cloister – specifically, within the cloister of a <a href="http://ithinkaboutbeer.com/2013/05/09/the-brewing-monks-a-brief-history-of-the-trappist-order-and-monastic-brewing/">Trappist monastery</a>.</p>
<h2>Liquors and liqueurs</h2>
<p>Equally impressive is the religious contribution to distilled spirits. Whiskey was invented by medieval <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A4EvCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA8&dq=history+of+whiskey+irish+monks&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjL94DAucHXAhVjxlQKHWdXAsQQ6AEIQDAE#v=onepage&q=history%20of%20whiskey%20irish%20monks&f=false">Irish monks</a>, who probably shared their knowledge with the Scots during their missions.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/195243/original/file-20171117-19256-1unope6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/195243/original/file-20171117-19256-1unope6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=592&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195243/original/file-20171117-19256-1unope6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=592&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195243/original/file-20171117-19256-1unope6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=592&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195243/original/file-20171117-19256-1unope6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=744&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195243/original/file-20171117-19256-1unope6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=744&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195243/original/file-20171117-19256-1unope6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=744&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Monk sneaking a drink.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AMonk_sneaking_a_drink.jpg">Scanned from Den medeltida kokboken, Swedish translation of The Medieval Cookbook by Maggie Black, via Wikimedia Commons.</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.chartreuse.fr/en/produits/green-chartreuse/">Chartreuse</a> is widely considered the <a href="http://www.orangecoast.com/booze-blog/green-chartreuse-best-liqueur-ever/">world’s best liqueur</a> because of its extraordinary spectrum of distinct flavors and even medicinal benefits. Perfected by the Carthusian order almost 300 years ago, the recipe is known by only <a href="https://www.chartreuse.fr/en/produits/green-chartreuse/">two monks</a> at a time. The herbal liqueur Bénédictine D.O.M. is reputed to have been invented in 1510 by an Italian Benedictine named Dom Bernardo Vincelli to fortify and restore weary monks. And the cherry brandy known as Maraska liqueur was invented by Dominican apothecaries in the early 16th century.</p>
<p>Nor was ingenuity in alcohol a male-only domain. Carmelite sisters once produced an extract called “<a href="http://www.herbrally.com/monographs/lemon-balm/">Carmelite water</a>” that was used as a herbal tonic. The nuns no longer make this elixir, but another concoction of the convent survived and went on to become one of Mexico’s most popular holiday liqueurs – Rompope. </p>
<p>Made from vanilla, milk and eggs, Rompope was invented by Clarist nuns from the Spanish colonial city of Puebla, located southeast of Mexico City. According to one account, the nuns used egg whites to give the <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JqZkUC_7WQIC&pg=PT423&lpg=PT423&dq=ROMPOPE+nuns+convent+egg+whites+yolks&source=bl&ots=h2JgzxgkHB&sig=_nHVhycm68vYrgWLwNmFZALDVMQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwipiIfNvsHXAhVIrFQKHf_BDckQ6AEIPzAD#v=onepage&q=ROMPOPE%20nuns%20convent%20egg%20whites%20yolks&f=false">sacred art</a> in their chapel a protective coating. Not wishing the leftover yolks to go to waste, they developed the recipe for this festive refreshment.</p>
<h2>Health and community</h2>
<p>So why such an impressive record of alcoholic creativity among the religious? I believe there are two underlying reasons.</p>
<p>First, the conditions were right for it. Monastic communities and similar religious orders possessed all of the <a href="https://www.alcoholproblemsandsolutions.org/alcohol-in-the-middle-ages/#_ednref3">qualities</a> necessary for producing fine alcoholic beverages. They had vast tracts of land for planting grapes or barley, a long institutional memory through which special knowledge could be handed down and perfected, a facility for teamwork and a commitment to excellence in even the smallest of chores as a means of glorifying God.</p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/195244/original/file-20171117-19278-3qcurn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/195244/original/file-20171117-19278-3qcurn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=717&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195244/original/file-20171117-19278-3qcurn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=717&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195244/original/file-20171117-19278-3qcurn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=717&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195244/original/file-20171117-19278-3qcurn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=901&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195244/original/file-20171117-19278-3qcurn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=901&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195244/original/file-20171117-19278-3qcurn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=901&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Historically, alcohol was seen to be promoting health.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AFritz_Wagner_Ein_guter_Schluck.jpg">Fritz Wagner (1896-1939) (Dorotheum) , via Wikimedia Commons</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Second, it is easy to forget in our current age that for much of human history, alcohol was instrumental in promoting <a href="http://www.upenn.edu/pennpress/book/14037.html">health</a>. Water sources often carried dangerous pathogens, and so small amounts of alcohol would be mixed with water to kill the germs therein.</p>
<p>Roman soldiers, for example, were given a daily <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LfRiXN5hhCUC&pg=PA40&lpg=PA40&dq=%22wine+per+day+to+soldiers%22&source=bl&ots=vArw70Tv2k&sig=ML-X9Cg_fJVq7ox571zHYABqLOw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj72ILdv8HXAhVLy1QKHePgCMkQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22wine%20per%20day%20to%20soldiers%22&f=false">allowance of wine</a>, not in order to get drunk but to purify whatever water they found on campaign. And two bishops, <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=R9i5BgAAQBAJ&pg=PT527&dq=%22Arnulf+of+Metz%22+plague+beer&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwikmY-PwMHXAhUHi1QKHdB2CMsQ6AEILjAB#v=onepage&q=%22Arnulf%20of%20Metz%22%20plague%20beer&f=false">Saint Arnulf of Metz</a> and Saint <a href="https://www.thevintagenews.com/2016/10/20/arnold-of-soissons-the-patron-saint-of-beer/">Arnold of Soissons</a>, are credited with saving hundreds from a plague because they admonished their flock to drink beer instead of water. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A4EvCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA8&dq=history+of+whiskey+irish+monks&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjL94DAucHXAhVjxlQKHWdXAsQQ6AEIQDAE#v=onepage&q=history%20of%20whiskey%20irish%20monks&f=false">Whiskey</a>, herbal liqueurs and even bitters were likewise invented for medicinal reasons. </p>
<p>And if beer can save souls from pestilence, no wonder the Church has a special blessing for it that <a href="http://www.sanctamissa.org/en/resources/books-1962/rituale-romanum/54-blessings-of-things-designated-for-ordinary-use.html">begins</a>: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“O Lord, bless this creature beer, which by Your kindness and power has been produced from kernels of grain, and may it be a health-giving drink for mankind.”</p>
</blockquote><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/87569/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Foley does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>For those wondering whether it is sinful to drink, even moderately, a scholar goes into the history of alcohol and its distillation to show how early monks and priests contributed to it.Michael Foley, Associate Professor of Patristics, Baylor UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/780402017-09-03T20:08:45Z2017-09-03T20:08:45ZWhat is hedonism and how does it affect your health?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175566/original/file-20170626-326-bxt0nv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Hedonism isn't all about sex, drugs and rock 'n' roll. It can be about savouring the pleasure in a cup of tea at the end of a hard day.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/confirm/404717182?src=72zW1LwoXPCS6UQ9CX20CQ-1-13&size=medium_jpg">from www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>This is the first article in our three-part series looking at <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/hedonism-and-health-41470">hedonism and health</a>. Today we look at what hedonism is (and is not), how it’s linked to your health, and how you can add (and appreciate) some simple pleasures in your daily life.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>I think I might be a hedonist. Are you imagining me snorting cocaine through $100 notes, a glass of champagne in one hand, the other fondling a stranger’s firm thigh? Before you judge me harshly, I know hedonism has a bad reputation, but it might be time to reconsider.</p>
<p>What if, instead of a guaranteed one-way road to ruin, hedonism is good for your health? If we think of hedonism as the intentional savouring of simple pleasures – like playing in fallen leaves, moments of connection with friends, or cuddling the dog – then it probably is. Seeking and maximising these kinds of pleasures can boost our health and well-being.</p>
<p>So where do our ideas of hedonism come from and how can we harness hedonism to improve our health and quality of life? </p>
<h2>The popular view of hedonism</h2>
<p>In broad terms, a hedonist is someone who tries to maximise pleasure and minimise pain. Jordan Belfort (played by Leonardo DiCaprio) in <a href="http://www.redgranitepictures.com/films/the-wolf-of-wall-street">The Wolf of Wall Street</a>
is probably the popular idea of the quintessential hedonist, where his extreme wealth allows him to indulge his insatiable hunger for all things pleasurable.</p>
<figure>
<iframe src="https://player.vimeo.com/video/89186314" width="500" height="281" frameborder="0" webkitallowfullscreen="" mozallowfullscreen="" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Jordan Belfort (played by Leonardo DiCaprio) in The Wolf of Wall Street is one popular portrayal of a hedonist.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Hedonism Bot from <a href="http://www.cc.com/shows/futurama">Futurama</a> is another character exquisitely in touch with things that provide pleasure.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/gt4Pfhd02w0?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Futurama’s Hedonism Bot knows what gives him pleasure, and it’s not always the usual suspects.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We find these characters so compelling because they seem to reject the sensible, responsible way to live. They indulge their carnal appetites in ways we daren’t, with scant regard for consequences. We wait for their liver to rebel or their life to come crashing down around them, as of course it must.</p>
<p>But this kind of behaviour is better termed <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/debauchery">debauchery</a> – extreme indulgence in bodily pleasures and especially sexual pleasures – rather than hedonism. </p>
<p>Hedonism has its philosophical roots as far back as Plato and Socrates, but ancient Greek philosopher <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Epicurus">Epicurus</a> is often credited with articulating an early brand of hedonism based not on a life of untamed appetites, but on moderate pleasures and respect for others.</p>
<p>Today there are <a href="http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/019926516X.001.0001/acprof-9780199265169">multiple views</a> on what hedonism is. This is largely due to some highly nuanced philosophical arguments about <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/0047-2786.00007/full">how we should conceptualise pleasure</a>.</p>
<h2>What is pleasure?</h2>
<p>It might help to think of <a href="https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-3-319-28099-8_544-1">pleasure</a> simply as a subjective state of enjoyment. This is a broad perspective, but one easily applied to our everyday lives. So, a lover’s caress gives me pleasure, but so can a piece of music, laughing with friends, or simply sitting still in a comfy chair after a frantic day.</p>
<p>Just as different experiences can bring a similar shiver of pleasure, the same experience can conjure a range of responses — from extreme pleasure to definite displeasure — in different people. </p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/chills-and-thrills-why-some-people-love-music-and-others-dont-24007">There is no single stimulus</a> that elicits exactly the same response in everyone all the time: <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232957144_Beyond_Sensation_Exploring_the_Nature_of_Sensory_Pleasure">pleasure</a> is an interaction between the stimulus and the perceiver.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/chills-and-thrills-why-some-people-love-music-and-others-dont-24007">Chills and thrills: why some people love music – and others don't</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>If you close your eyes and think about a time you experienced a tingle of pleasure, chances are you’re remembering a sexual experience, or something delicious you’ve eaten. Perhaps the memory is of a very good glass of wine, or those last 50 metres of a long, satisfying run.</p>
<p>And these are good things, right? Sexual pleasure is linked with health and well-being. For example, <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1743-6109.2009.01406.x/full">women who say they are satisfied with their sex life</a> score higher on measures of psychological well-being and vitality. A regular glass of wine is said to have a protective effect against <a href="https://academic.oup.com/biomedgerontology/article/70/10/1248/2605482/Midlife-Alcohol-Consumption-and-Risk-of-Dementia">dementia</a> and <a href="https://academic.oup.com/alcalc/article/48/3/270/244770/Effects-of-Wine-Alcohol-and-Polyphenols-on">heart disease</a>, perhaps due to its antioxidant <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023%2FA%3A1007614613771?LI=true">flavonoids</a>. And everyone knows the advantages of <a href="http://rsfs.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/4/5/20140040.short">physical fitness</a>.</p>
<p>Well, these activities <em>are</em> good … until they’re not. Many of the things that commonly give us pleasure can also be used in risky or harmful ways.</p>
<h2>When pleasure becomes a problem</h2>
<p>Dependence, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/298557761_The_neurobiology_of_pleasure_reward_processes_addiction_and_their_health_implications">addiction</a>, bingeing and compulsive consumption can be thought of as risky or harmful uses of otherwise pleasurable experiences, like using <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0028390812005321">alcohol</a> and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3137186/">other drugs</a>, doing <a href="http://search.proquest.com/openview/6e68e3aca267c8c3cb72ed42d0db0087/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=32197">exercise</a> and having <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1158136012001430">sex</a>.</p>
<p>It can be difficult to pin down the point at which a previously pleasurable behaviour becomes problematic. But, somewhere between enjoying an occasional beer and needing a drink before getting out of bed each morning, we’ve passed the tipping point.</p>
<p>At this stage though, pleasure is no longer the motivation, nor the result, of the behaviour. The uncontrollable “<a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/amp/71/8/670/">hunger</a>” has wiped the pleasure away and the best we can hope for is relief. Without pleasure, the behaviour is no longer a hedonic one.</p>
<p>The single-minded pursuit of one intense pleasure at the expense of other aspects of life that bring meaning and pleasure is also <a href="http://www.theage.com.au/victoria/one-familys-story--secret-drug-addiction-20140826-108iqa.html">counterproductive</a> to living a rich and enjoyable life. This puts it well outside <a href="https://philpapers.org/rec/TILH">Epicurus’ idea of moderate pleasures and self-control</a>. </p>
<h2>Let’s be rational about hedonism</h2>
<p>So, when we need to make the mortgage or rent and keep our complex lives on track, what might a modern hedonist’s life look like? </p>
<p>A practical definition might be someone who tries to maximise the everyday pleasures while still balancing other concerns. I’ll call this a kind of “rational hedonism”. In fact, <a href="https://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=437418816892110;res=IELHSS">Epicurus emphasised a simple, harmonious life</a> without the pursuit of riches or glory.</p>
<p>Maximising pleasure, unlike with debauchery or addiction, need not take the form of more, bigger, better. Instead, we <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/happiness-purpose/201308/take-time-savor">savour</a> everyday pleasures. We <a href="https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/relish">relish</a> them while they’re happening, using all our senses and attention, actively anticipate them, and reflect on them in an immersive way.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/emotions-and-eating-a-marketers-dream-29826">Emotions and eating: a marketer's dream?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>So, if my morning coffee gives me pleasure, I might pause and relish it while I drink it: inhale the fragrance of it fully and focus on the nuanced warm, smoky, bitter deliciousness of it. I should fully attend to the warmth of it in my hands, to the feeling of it in my mouth, and to the cascade of sensations and flavours it delivers. </p>
<p>Not only that, in the morning, before my coffee, I can anticipate it. I can think how lovely it will be. And later, as I go about my day, I can pause and think about that coffee, about just how warm and good it was, how it smelled and tasted. </p>
<p>In other words, I can immerse myself in these moments, in the anticipation, in the drinking itself, and in the remembering, and bring all my attention to them.
This kind of <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886910001820">savouring results in a totally different, and richer, experience</a> than if I absent-mindedly gulp down the coffee while dodging traffic and talking on the phone. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/6Gv1CqAQVow?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Why Small Pleasures are a Big Deal discusses how to appreciate the everyday hedonistic pleasures of life, like pleasing textures or smells, without having to spend money on expensive items or experiences.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The act of savouring intensifies the pleasure we extract from simple things and delivers greater satisfaction from them. One study found that spending a little time <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/mar.20894/full">savouring the anticipation</a> before eating chocolate led participants to eat less chocolate overall. </p>
<p>And <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S016517811500356X">attention</a> seems to be key to the link between pleasurable feelings and well-being.</p>
<h2>How do we benefit from hedonism?</h2>
<p>A state of pleasure is linked with <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Tobias_Esch/publication/255685315_The_neurobiology_of_stress_management/links/00b7d5202705840699000000/The-neurobiology-of-stress-management.pdf">reducing stress</a>. So when we feel pleasure, our sympathetic nervous system – that fight or flight response we experience when we feel threatened – is calmed. First of all, the stimulus arouses us, then if we appraise the situation as safe, we have “<a href="http://www.medscimonit.com/abstract/index/idArt/734745/new/1/act/3">stress-terminating responses</a>”, which we experience as relaxation or stress relief.</p>
<p>Studies show pleasurable emotions are associated with <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0272735810000425">broader and more creative thinking</a>, and a range of positive outcomes including better <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282122041_Resilience_and_the_role_of_savoring_pleasure">resilience</a>, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23649562">social connectedness</a>, <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17439760.2013.803596">well-being</a>, <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1359105311435428">physical health</a>, and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20973600">longevity</a>. So, pleasure might not only help us to live more enjoyably, but longer.</p>
<h2>Hedonism for health and well-being</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-couch/201311/finding-your-own-path-anxiety-pleasure">Maximising everyday pleasures</a> can be used <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0924977X14000625">in therapy</a> and <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cpp.1799/full">shows promise as an intervention for depression</a>. </p>
<p>One <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17439760.2016.1245770">study of school children</a> showed focusing on pleasurable daily events, in this case recording them in a diary, reduced depressive symptoms, and the effect was maintained three months later. </p>
<p>Focusing on the <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0156333">pleasurable aspects</a> of healthy foods can also be a more effective way to eat more of them than focusing on how “healthy” they are. Similar approaches are likely to be effective with <a href="http://www.jsams.org/article/S1440-2440(17)30059-2/fulltext">exercise</a> and other behaviours associated with health benefits.</p>
<p>What we know about the benefits of this kind of rational hedonism is likely to grow from here. We have only just begun to explore the therapeutic value of shifting focus to fully attend to and maximise pleasure. </p>
<p>We do know that interventions encouraging individuals to focus on pleasurable experiences are associated with <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886910001820">increased self-reported well-being</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/finding-momentary-pleasure-how-viewing-art-can-help-people-with-dementia-65211">Finding momentary pleasure: how viewing art can help people with dementia</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Promoting well-being in older adults is a particularly promising area. Savouring pleasure is <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13607863.2014.986647">linked to resilience in older adults</a> and positive emotions can <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/record/2012-21508-001?doi=1">help to offset the ill-effects of loneliness</a>. Plus, regardless of physical health status, the ability to savour is associated with <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0091415016669146">higher levels of satisfaction with life</a>.</p>
<p>And savouring can be taught. <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13607863.2015.1093605">One study</a>, looked at the effects of an eight week program promoting savouring for a group of community dwelling adults aged 60 and above. The program reduced depression scores, physical symptoms and sleep problems, and increased psychological well-being and satisfaction with life.</p>
<p>In the meantime, we should defiantly shake off the idea that pleasure is slightly shameful or frivolous and become early adopters of this rational kind of hedonism. We can think of Epicurus, and intentionally savour the simple pleasures we have learned to overlook.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Read other articles in our hedonism and health series:</em></p>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/hedonism-not-only-leads-to-binge-drinking-its-part-of-the-solution-81751">Hedonism not only leads to binge drinking, it’s part of the solution</a></em></p>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/why-we-remember-our-youth-as-one-big-hedonistic-party-78995">Why we remember our youth as one big hedonistic party</a></em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/78040/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Desirée Kozlowski runs PleasureLab.com.au. </span></em></p>Savouring the pleasures in life is linked to better health and well-being. And no, that doesn’t necessarily mean binge drinking or all-night wild parties.Desirée Kozlowski, Academic, Psychology, Southern Cross UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/781822017-05-23T06:38:28Z2017-05-23T06:38:28ZThe global market for wine: China leads the emergence of a new world order<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/170505/original/file-20170523-8869-g30eui.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Vinyards in the Sancerre wine-growing region of France.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/peter_curb/26522012754/in/photolist-oudGjB-oRKbkk-oSmG6q-oRbNJJ-oLsxjT-oTjTY9-88n7V6-2DT66-7VdZ6o-5xrcNH-2DT65-2DTRS-8qhA2q-2DR58-2E2Dyk-2DT64-73Zf8N-3cZyfM-tSLoMP-7VaxZv-d8648N-oYt9Fk-oWJiTk-74QZ1n-5qZkcL-3ky8EK-axazgb-ozGNig-NGEhv1-NZ3p1s-NZ3rdy-PamugK-NGEoaN-5WUMv2-49fpm6-265nZ3-2E77Ym-ePP4U-sQHKL-2A5ZZz-5dpKkD-7nthMw-7zFe1v-jHtV3-tuZ9g6-x8Fqj8-uqBVfW-GpEfnY-5qZjxq">Peter/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em><strong>The latest piece in our ongoing series <a href="https://theconversation.com/global/topics/globalisation-under-pressure-38722">Globalisation Under Pressure</a>, first published by The Conversation France, looks at wine consumption around the world and how it moves from the local to the global.</strong></em></p>
<hr>
<p>Recent figures in the <a href="http://bit.ly/2pkx221">annual report</a> of the International Organisation of Wine and Vine (OIV) confirm that the world wine industry is undergoing considerable change. Long-dominant European nations are finding being challenged by the emergence of countries, such as China, both as producers and consumers.</p>
<p>Globally, demand has risen slightly, to 242 million hectolitres (mhl) down from its peak of 250mhl in 2008, but up from the low of 240mhl in 2014. And there are signs of long-term growth. </p>
<p>Per-capita consumption is stable or slightly falling among the French, Spanish and Portuguese – once upon a time daily wine drinkers. But what’s more than filled up the gap is the global market, with occasional consumers around the world drinking wine one to three times per week.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/167750/original/file-20170503-21649-1rl14o9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/167750/original/file-20170503-21649-1rl14o9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/167750/original/file-20170503-21649-1rl14o9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/167750/original/file-20170503-21649-1rl14o9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/167750/original/file-20170503-21649-1rl14o9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/167750/original/file-20170503-21649-1rl14o9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/167750/original/file-20170503-21649-1rl14o9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/167750/original/file-20170503-21649-1rl14o9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/miroslav-vajdic/25693179902/in/photolist-F9qgfo-8Eo1MR-nm4Fxx-amuXYD-fcNVAE-34duRY-bn2otx-5aYsgo-9h4H2P-9A4qEn-6soTFS-2oyJLL-9YeNeR-ovKYk-MuEcF-5aYmgq-8DkSqo-bNLcHz-7kvES-8DkS1Q-757ME-2Dw8GE-8DkR67-exSk4p-8YHTGy-9YStyb-8YERF2-mfLoW-6xKaka-9YPzEi-5JeU76-34AsmH-34AtzP-34F1A1-5aYsBQ-8DhNge-8ErgKU-8DkQWb-moNM5-5aUbri-8FcQVC-nYaDoP-mfL7n-gc7TSz-8DhKgH-6LcJMJ-8DhM7K-q3Qo8v-34ArGB-34EYs9">Miroslav Vajdic/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Another encouraging sign for the industry is that wine is finding new customers in countries with large populations. <a href="http://online.sfsu.edu/cholette/public_research/mhscrc_JGMktg_rev041607.pdf">In the early 1990s</a>, the US market was ranked sixth in the world, but by 2016 it had climbed to the number one spot (31.8mhl). It was followed by France (27mhl), Italy (22.5mhl) and Germany (20.2mhl). </p>
<p>A substantial market has already been established in Brazil in spite of negative 2017 economic trends, and there are great expectations for India.</p>
<p>With these new markets often being driven by emerging local production, the number of wine-producing countries is also increasing. The example of Australia is most familiar, but few know the experience of countries such as Canada. </p>
<p>Consumption <a href="http://www.foodincanada.com/exporting-and-importing/world-wine-consumption-rise-study-130647/">in Canada has been rising steadily for some years</a>. And the government is making efforts to stimulate national production with the hope of being able to export Canadian wine. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jul/23/first-bottles-ethiopian-wine-castel">Local production is also emerging in Ethiopia</a>, where the highlands are well-suited to grape cultivation and there is a substantial non-Muslim population (<a href="https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/256235.pdf">approximately 66% out of a total of 100 million</a>).</p>
<h2>China on the rise</h2>
<p>But it’s China that’s <a href="http://bit.ly/2oIQbqv">leading the industry shake-up</a>, by virtue both of its size and determination. Wine enjoys great symbolic value there, linked to the fact that it’s a product of the land and has strong historical roots. It also functions as a “high class” social marker. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/whos-driving-world-wine-consumption-1422461583">Either way, China is now the sixth leading consumer of wine in the world</a> (17.3mhl), just behind Germany. And with a population of <a href="http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/china-population/">1.4 billion</a> in 2017, the potential for the Chinese market is considerable.</p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/167752/original/file-20170503-21608-1eol1mq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/167752/original/file-20170503-21608-1eol1mq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=637&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/167752/original/file-20170503-21608-1eol1mq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=637&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/167752/original/file-20170503-21608-1eol1mq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=637&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/167752/original/file-20170503-21608-1eol1mq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=801&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/167752/original/file-20170503-21608-1eol1mq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=801&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/167752/original/file-20170503-21608-1eol1mq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=801&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Great Wall wine.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/kentaroiemoto/15234346464/in/photolist-pdd1rW-asChnJ-bA2nm4-dRsLkh-bn7sUj-6N8r1t-bn7sEj-q7QUh5-hPxNRE-bA2jdF-g6enRx-5PuU5h-bjDf6e-bvtFeB-5o6RSo-bvsH88-bn7vaY-eiuufM-g6dwU6-bA2jna-4HMRFK-bA2jEi-bA2jRk-g6cnL7-g6dRPQ-bvsEHH-g6cjiC-9Kp8Wv-6e9fbi-g6coqU-bn7sQu-5Zo92Z-bA2jFM-9JinXg-4k2BDX-4Ns5KN-5TVoLC-9UzFLT-bNLd7e-WF82F-r2ydYG-5nxrG6-8S8Wh7-34vXPp-3QFQpZ-34vXBp-7BQv8f-q7QSyW-34AvLY-b6ZDXR">Kentaro Iemoto/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>With a new market and a government working to build the foundations for a national wine industry, China has now the second-largest area under cultivation in the world, 847kha up 17% over 2015. In fact, it was in 2015 that the country overtook France (now with 785kha) and it’s now second only to Spain (975kha). </p>
<p>China is expected to overtake Spain in the next five years. Vines are grown in <a href="https://www.decanterchina.com/en/regions/china/">dozens of provinces</a>, including Shandong, Hebei, and Tianjin, as well as the autonomous regions of
Xinjiang, Ningxia and Inner Mongolia.</p>
<p>Whatever the country, where there is local production consumers tend to favour it. As they become more familiar with wine, they begin to try those from other countries, and this represents <a href="http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v418/n6898/full/nature01018.html">an important growth lever for international trade</a>. That’s why 40% of the wines produced globally <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/karlsson/2015/02/16/france-is-the-biggest-wine-producer-in-2014-but-less-wine-is-made-and-drunk-in-europe/#533cd65854c4">are currently exported</a>, compared to just 20% in the early 1990s.</p>
<p>Although how we consume wine is shaped to a large extent by cultural context, knowledge of the world of wine and techniques for analysing its sensory qualities, trends set by certain internationally known experts also play a part. </p>
<p>Countries with newer wine industries must therefore introduce their wines to other nations while steadily building recognition and a kind of wine-making pedigree. This too has the effect of stimulating international trade. </p>
<h2>France continues to lead by value</h2>
<p>For the French wine industry, while the landscape has shifted the foundations remain solid. <a href="http://www.latimes.com/food/dailydish/la-dd-france-biggest-wine-producer-20141023-story.html">France continues</a> to challenge Spain and Italy for the title of the world’s number-one producer by volume, and it continues to lead the world in terms of value. </p>
<p><a href="http://thekeyreport.com.au/figures-figures-and-more-figures/">France produced 43.5mhl of wine</a> in 2016 compared to 50.9mhl for Italy, but the value of France’s exports was €8.2 billion compared to Italy’s €2.6 billion. That’s over three times more, and 28.5% of the total value of the global wine market.</p>
<p>The figures confirm that French wines are perceived and purchased as high added-value products, and France continues to excel at capitalising on the quality of its wines. While Spain is the leading exporter by volume, the price of Spanish per unit remains low on international markets, with a total value of just €2.6 billion. </p>
<p>One immediately thinks of champagnes, revered and undisputed as the sparkling wine par excellence, as well as great bordeaux and burgundies, and more recently, the Provence rosés. </p>
<p>French wines are also exported to more countries than wines of any other nationality and, generally speaking, any new importer starts by “listing” French wines before looking at any other foreign producers. This is a reflection of what the French industry has been able to convey to wine lovers the world over in terms of image, quality and diversity.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/167751/original/file-20170503-21635-15hhvyd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/167751/original/file-20170503-21635-15hhvyd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/167751/original/file-20170503-21635-15hhvyd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/167751/original/file-20170503-21635-15hhvyd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/167751/original/file-20170503-21635-15hhvyd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/167751/original/file-20170503-21635-15hhvyd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/167751/original/file-20170503-21635-15hhvyd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cheers!</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/yakobusan/3162940696/in/photolist-5PuU5h-bjDf6e-bvtFeB-5o6RSo-bvsH88-bn7vaY-eiuufM-g6dwU6-bA2jna-4HMRFK-bA2jEi-bA2jRk-g6cnL7-g6dRPQ-bvsEHH-g6cjiC-9Kp8Wv-6e9fbi-g6coqU-bn7sQu-5Zo92Z-bA2jFM-9JinXg-4k2BDX-4Ns5KN-5TVoLC-9UzFLT-bNLd7e-WF82F-r2ydYG-5nxrG6-8S8Wh7-34vXPp-3QFQpZ-34vXBp-7BQv8f-q7QSyW-34AvLY-b6ZDXR-4NnTMz-8ifuiH-79yHGH-g6bZar-bHmMF-6sunyE-3mJXA-9jV14p-bvswYT-dc8zRQ-g4NFjY">Jakob Montrasio/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Thinking strategically</h2>
<p>In the coming years, as wine-producing countries continue to seek to maintain and expand their domestic and international market shares, they’ll also need to adapt to ongoing <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/thomaspellechia/2016/06/20/climate-change-from-a-global-wine-industry-perspective/#666ea692116b">climate change</a>. </p>
<p>Brazilian production dropped 55% between 2015 and 2016, for instance, because of a strong <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-el-nino-and-la-nina-27719">El Niño</a>, while production also fell in drought-stricken South Africa. To deal with this, an increasingly strategic approach is being developed, including <a href="https://kedge.edu/l-ecole/expertises/wine-and-spirits">specialised research schools</a>. </p>
<p>At all levels around the world, stakeholders are engaging with governments and decision-makers to increase the industry’s competitiveness and better tackle new international challenges.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>The 2017 edition of the <a href="http://www.vinexpobordeaux.com/en/">Vinexpo wine and spirits trade show</a> takes place June 18-21 in Bordeaux, France.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/78182/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jacques-Olivier Pesme does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The latest figures on the world wine market confirm that the industry is undergoing considerable change, with European countries finding their positions and strategies challenged by the new world..Jacques-Olivier Pesme, Director of the Wine & Spirits Academy, Kedge Business SchoolLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/767382017-04-27T20:42:52Z2017-04-27T20:42:52ZHow selfies can build – and destabilise – brands<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/166833/original/file-20170426-2852-19egs1t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=6%2C33%2C2038%2C1444&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Me, myself, my brand.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/30474136@N07/15604631352/in/photolist-q9D99i-7K2iuo-pLVPf9-nerUaw-fM51Zk-RChoTR-qJ3RRa-Qoxvcc-qFXPTA-pMfuBb-qrGaTq-pMfvoG-qJ5Yci-qJfwU8-qrQ3jD-qFXYmY-pM3U2m-pMgYni-pMgYpc-qHYLhj-aivxCB-uRvUH2-QoxxVP-znB3ok-AigK3m-qHTiJP-qKGAyN-q6uq1F-qZZipY-q6gQQ7-Ajw49a-AhcFSw">James/Flickr </a></span></figcaption></figure><p>While self-portraiture is nearly as old as art itself, the photographic selfie emerged as a globally recognized phenomenon only recently, as a result of the rising “attention economy” and its growing appetite for likes, followers, retweets and fame. Google estimates some <a href="https://blog.google/products/photos/google-photos-one-year-200-million/">24 billion selfies were taken in a year via 200 million Google accounts alone</a>, which signals that the phenomenon far from being marginal.</p>
<p>Selfies can be taken by virtually anyone, and companies and brands have recognized the magnetic “power” in making a selfie a key element of marketing campaigns and social-media content strategies. Yet brands are increasingly aware – and often uncomfortably so – that individuals’ selfies constitute a whole new form of brand co-creation. Based on my research, I will examine how people use “brand selfies” to express their identities as complex assemblages of things, objects, and brands and how that engenders new challenges for branding.</p>
<h2>Selfies and self-portraiture in historical perspective</h2>
<p>The selfie phenomenon has important connections with the idea of self-portraits in fine arts that emerged in the 16th Century. Already classic works of artists such as Albrecht Dürer and Rembrandt, for example, featured paintings, engravings and drawings of the artist face-to-face with the spectator. These images often featured the artist “in action” in the artist’s studio, usually holding the pencils, brushes and colour palette in hand, in order to give the impression that the image was spontaneous and authentic in nature. But it was also not uncommon to these early self-portraits that the artist posed in fine clothing and staged apparel, or that he was playfully engaging with various image genres of the time. For instance, self-portraits were often fused with historical scenes or even still-life images.</p>
<p>The self-portrait shares much in common with the visual genre called “snapshot aesthetic”, commonly in use in photography and commercial images, and not least in ads. Snapshot relies on the authentic feeling of images snapped “on the go” of our daily lives. As described by <a href="http://www.academia.edu/17789374/_selfie_Digital_self-portraits_as_commodity_form_and_consumption_practice">Iqani and Schroeder</a> (2015), these casual, everyday images helps us narrate and make sense of our selves but also communicate our existence to those around us.</p>
<p>When examined in the light of broader history of self-portraiture and photography it becomes quickly clear that classifying and pathologising selfies as simple acts of narcissism and ego-play would overlook important critical commentaries and reflexivity that this visual form potentially offers. Notably, many famous self-portraits have sought out for representational agency in order to make visible issues related to power and politics, including gender, as explained by art historian <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10253866.2015.1052967?journalCode=gcmc20">Derek Murray</a> (2015).</p>
<p>Yet it is important to keep in mind that the self-portrait and selfie differ in several respects. For one, self-portraits were historically rare and usually produced by the elite and the celebrated. It was not until the boom of popular photography around the turn of 20th Century that it was democratised as a key genre of image making. And it was the rise of smartphones and easy online access that made selfie an everyday and ever-present spectacle and practice.</p>
<h2>Selfies and the rise of attention economy</h2>
<p>The emergence of selfie phenomenon can be partly explained by peoples’ increasingly important drive for attentional capital in the forms of quantifiable likes, shares and followers. The selfie is a symptom of the attention economy, as it draws on intimate and sometimes revealing images in a magnet-like manner. As a result, “instafame” has allured celebrities and stars, rappers and gangsters, presidents and popes to take selfies, but they are not reserved just for the elite. More than 296,417,695 images have been tagged in Instagram alone, when writing this article, suggesting that selfies can be found in just about everyone’s social media profiles.</p>
<p>Research by <a href="http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/abs/10.1108/EJM-07-2015-0509?journalCode=ejm">Eagar and Dann</a> (2016) identifies selfies as an important “self-branding” practice. They also point out various kinds of popular selfies that proliferate quickly, including autobiography, parody, propaganda, romance, self-help, travel, and the coffee-table-and-book selfies. Other ubiquitous trends include selfies at the gym, toilet, funeral, museum, swimming pool, in front of mirror, or alongside luxury or other objects, or while wearing a <em>hijab</em> – and with or without a selfie-stick.</p>
<p>Yet emerging research has found that selfies are not only the product of narcissism but they also may entail a feeling of being in control of one’s own expression as well as empowerment. Selfies have been considered as potent ways for negotiating one’s identity-related tensions, such those related to body ideals, gender, ethnicity, sexuality or religion – or even ways to combat censorship in countries with limited freedom of speech. Selfies have also been recognized as a powerful cultural form because of their ability to transcend linguistic and cultural boundaries.</p>
<h2>Brand selfies and consumer microcelebrity</h2>
<p>New digital technologies are evidently changing the ways in which meanings and identity of both consumers and brands are constructed. This is why, in my <a href="https://theconversation.com/champagne-les-quatre-mythes-fondateurs-dune-icone-mondiale-70430">ongoing research on champagne</a>, I decided to study how consumers post selfies featuring some of the most popular champagne brands.</p>
<p>By means of visual analysis of consumer-made selfies on champagne brand Instagram accounts, I was able to uncover some key dynamics that explain how the brand selfies impact and potentially contest even well-established brands, such as Moët & Chandon, Dom Pérignon, or Veuve Clicquot, the three most talked-about champagne brands online in my data. A total of 6,820 images were gathered during six weeks in April/May 2014, from which a random sample of 120 images were analysed in detail. The objective was to compare how brand account images differ from consumer-made selfie-images, which constituted as much as 40% of all brand-tagged images, to illuminate their distinct nature.</p>
<p>It became quickly clear that the studied brand-controlled accounts did not use selfies in their visual communications, and even the presence of people (only 25% of images on average) or faces (13%) was rare. Instead, the brands’ postings often echoed typical champagne advertising images depicting a “still life” of inanimate objects, artefacts and scenery mainly focused on the product close-up – including the brand logo (75%), bottle(s) (63%), wine (25%), and bubbles (13%). They also ensured, as one might imagine, that no other brands were present or identifiable. All attention was reserved for the focal champagne brand and its principal, historically shaped associations that most often included “heritage/tradition” (55%), “class/status” (45%), and even “magic” (22%) (see figure 1).</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/166842/original/file-20170426-2828-176cal5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/166842/original/file-20170426-2828-176cal5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/166842/original/file-20170426-2828-176cal5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=245&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/166842/original/file-20170426-2828-176cal5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=245&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/166842/original/file-20170426-2828-176cal5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=245&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/166842/original/file-20170426-2828-176cal5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=307&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/166842/original/file-20170426-2828-176cal5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=307&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/166842/original/file-20170426-2828-176cal5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=307&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Figure 1: Champagne brands expressed in Instagram brand accounts.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Maria Federley</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Consumers’ brand selfies presented sharp and visible contrast to these “official” brand images. While the appearance of bottles, wine and bubbles in selfie-images was as frequent as in the brand images, they presented a large number of human bodies (95% of selfie images and 1.5 people per image on average), with as many as 53% of the images featuring face(s). This shift in focus impacts the overall feeling of the images in significant ways. Notably, the presence of human bodies and identifiable faces break the brand’s singularity and gives it an often banalized expression.</p>
<p>In addition, consumers’ brand selfies were not focused on a single champagne brand, but nearly 40% of the images contained or tagged several brands at once. Instead of being focused on the brand, the selfies were systematically centred on the “self”, making the brand necessarily more peripheral (see Figure 2). More often than not, the brand was only mentioned with a hashtag in textual commentary but not visible in the image.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/166843/original/file-20170426-2855-134xh11.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/166843/original/file-20170426-2855-134xh11.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/166843/original/file-20170426-2855-134xh11.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=292&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/166843/original/file-20170426-2855-134xh11.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=292&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/166843/original/file-20170426-2855-134xh11.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=292&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/166843/original/file-20170426-2855-134xh11.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=367&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/166843/original/file-20170426-2855-134xh11.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=367&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/166843/original/file-20170426-2855-134xh11.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=367&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Figure 2: Brand selfies of various kinds.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Maria Federley</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>What emerges from the consumers’ brand selfies is an incontestable expression of what I call “microcelebrity”. This highly popular category, constituting 67% of all the consumer-made images, can be understood as a collection of visual practices and strategies that mimic celebrities’ postings aimed to signal fame and attractiveness to others. For example, common brand selfies entail “mirror selfies”, “gym selfies”, “bathroom selfies”, “bikini selfies”, and “party selfies”, in other words, “ordinary” people posing as if they were famous stars. These postings commonly joined with follower and attention-seeking hashtags such as #follow4follow", #followme, #like4like and #pickoftheday (see Figure 3).</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/166844/original/file-20170426-2838-1w5jv0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/166844/original/file-20170426-2838-1w5jv0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/166844/original/file-20170426-2838-1w5jv0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=288&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/166844/original/file-20170426-2838-1w5jv0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=288&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/166844/original/file-20170426-2838-1w5jv0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=288&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/166844/original/file-20170426-2838-1w5jv0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=363&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/166844/original/file-20170426-2838-1w5jv0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=363&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/166844/original/file-20170426-2838-1w5jv0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=363&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Figure 3: Brand selfies and consumer celebrities.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Maria Federley</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Above all, these findings reveal that selfies as a new form of visual self-presentation practice have come to offer alternative constructions of brands with new kinds of material and expressive features. Notably, they indicate that selfies (and the self) are becoming the nodal point at which official brand images and consumer microcelebrity assemblages intersect. This powerful shift potentially undermines stable, historically built symbolic and material properties of heritage brands, and makes visible a profound heterogeneity of alternative and often chaotic brand images – at least from the point of view of the brand manager.</p>
<h2>New challenges for branding</h2>
<p>Companies and marketing scholars have long understood that social media have accelerated processes of brand co-creation with customers. Yet very often this phenomenon has been considered only in terms of online consumer-to-brand or consumer-to-consumer verbal dialogues or narratives – hence, word-of-mouth – leaving the visual aspects aside. New forms of visual practices, including the selfie, force the marketers to <em>see</em> and re-consider the visual dimension of their co-creation strategies. The problem is that until recently, most social-media monitoring tools base their analysis on text, not images or video. We thus seem to lack comprehensive tools and even vocabulary for addressing the arguably slippery, elusive but also excessive and voluminous visual. This makes the brand managers’ tasks increasingly difficult.</p>
<p>Although experienced marketing professionals may have an intuitive understanding towards the visual, <a href="http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/abs/10.1108/EJM-08-2015-0517">in my research</a> I have hoped to offer more concrete approaches in this regard. Through visual content analysis of both official and consumer-made champagne Instagram images, I worked to understand the kinds of expressive and material assemblages of identities that the social media images construct. This allowed us to map out the focal elements that consumer-generated images – although most often arguably unintentionally – reinforce in the official brand expressions and meanings, and also those that effectively disrupt and destabilize them.</p>
<p>For example, it was not uncommon that the studied official champagne brand accounts, and perhaps by accident, expressed symbolic and material elements in their postings that were largely in contradiction and dissonance, at least in terms of stylistic consistency, with their historically stabilized brand vision (for example, postings with “wrong” kinds of champagne glasses, or combining champagne with “wrong” kinds of subcultural symbols).</p>
<p>How can companies manage brand co-creation through selfies? Despite the above-described challenges, I believe that powerfully resonant, charismatic, and meaningful brands can always play an important role in leading the creative production of social-media images and interactions. On a practical level, this could simply mean campaigns where brands teach people to take “desired” types of images with the “right” types of expressive and material ingredients.</p>
<p>However, the question at stake is more fundamental: a contemporary brand can no longer rely on strategies that follow a logic that aims to “control” and “own” every association and aspect about their brand. Instead, they need to embrace a whole new conception of a brand which is more “open source” by default. This means that successful brands need to allow for more diversity and flexibility in the expressions and meanings that “fit” it. An excellent example is the <a href="http://digiday.com/marketing/top-5-viewed-gopro-videos/">GoPro brand</a> that relies exclusively on consumer-created visual communications across all of their (official) communications. In a similar manner, successful brands will need to relinquish control – at least in a much greater degree – to gain resonance with the selfie-obsessed social media world.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>The source research for this article was published as <a href="http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/abs/10.1108/EJM-08-2015-0517">“Heterotopian Selfies: How Social Media Destabilizes Brand Assemblages”</a>, in the European Journal of Marketing, 2016, Vol. 50 (9/10), pp. 1789-1813.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/76738/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joonas Rokka ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>As companies strive to take advantage of the selfie phenomenon, they’re also realizing that consumers’ self-portraits constitute a whole new form of brand co-creation.Joonas Rokka, Professeur associé en marketing, EM Lyon Business SchoolLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/747522017-04-05T04:36:04Z2017-04-05T04:36:04ZClimate-driven species on the move are changing (almost) everything<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/164004/original/image-20170405-5725-3be5u6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">When species are pushed to the top of the mountain, where else is left to go?</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Tero Mustonen</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Last year in Paris, for the very first time, English sparkling wine beat champagne in a <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/howaboutthat/7094055/English-sparkling-wine-beats-French-champagne-to-top-title.html">blind tasting event</a>. Well established French Champagne houses have started <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2015/dec/09/champagne-taittinger-to-produce-english-sparkling-wine-in-kent">buying fields in Britain</a> to grow grapes, and even the <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/theroyalfamily/8492607/Royal-family-to-produce-its-own-wine-from-Windsor-Great-Park-grapes.html">royal family</a> is investing in this new venture. </p>
<p>At the same time, coffee-growing regions are <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0124155">shrinking and shifting</a>. Farmers are being forced to move to higher altitudes, as the band in which to grow tasty coffee moves up the mountain.</p>
<p>The evidence that climate change is affecting some of our most prized beverages is simply too great to be ignored. So while British sparkling wine and the beginning of the “coffeepocalypse” were inconceivable just a few decades ago, they are now a reality. It’s unlikely that you’ll find many climate deniers among winemakers and coffee connoisseurs. But there are far greater impacts in store for human society than disruptions to our favourite drinks.</p>
<p>Dramatic examples of climate-mediated change to species distributions are not exceptions; they are fast becoming the rule. As our study published last week in the journal <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/355/6332/eaai9214">Science</a> shows, climate change is driving a universal major redistribution of life on Earth. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/163516/original/image-20170401-27270-hluam7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/163516/original/image-20170401-27270-hluam7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/163516/original/image-20170401-27270-hluam7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/163516/original/image-20170401-27270-hluam7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/163516/original/image-20170401-27270-hluam7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/163516/original/image-20170401-27270-hluam7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/163516/original/image-20170401-27270-hluam7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/163516/original/image-20170401-27270-hluam7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Documented and predicted changes in species distribution are occurring all over the globe.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/355/6332/eaai9214">Pecl et al. 2017</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These changes are already having serious consequences for economic development, livelihoods, food security, human health, and culture. They are even influencing the pace of climate change itself, producing feedbacks to the climate system. </p>
<h2>Species on the move</h2>
<p>Species have, of course, been on the move since the dawn of life on Earth. The geographical ranges of species are naturally dynamic and fluctuate over time. But the critical issue here is the magnitude and rate of climatic changes for the 21st century, which are comparable to the largest global changes in the past <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/341/6145/486">65 million years</a>. Species have often adapted to changes in their physical environment, but never before have they been expected to do it so fast, and to accommodate so many human needs along the way.</p>
<p>For most species – <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ecog.00967/full">marine, freshwater, and terrestrial species alike</a> – the first response to rapid changes in climate is a shift in location, to stay within their preferred environmental conditions. On average, species are moving towards the poles at <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/333/6045/1024">17km per decade on land</a> and <a href="http://www.nature.com/nclimate/journal/v3/n10/abs/nclimate1958.html">78km per decade in the ocean</a>. On land, species are also moving to <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/106/5/1479.short">cooler, higher elevations</a>, while in the ocean some fish are <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2008.01488.x/full">venturing deeper</a> in search of cooler water.</p>
<h2>Why does it matter?</h2>
<p>Different species respond at different rates and to different degrees, with the result that <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1890/070037/abstract">new ecological communities</a> are starting to <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ele.12731/full">emerge</a>. Species that had never before interacted are now intermingled, and species that previously depended on one another for food or shelter are forced apart.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/6d-3Nv2n-Xk?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Why do changes in species distribution matter?</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This global reshuffling of species can lead to pervasive and often unexpected consequences for both biological and human communities. For example, the range expansion of plant-eating <a href="https://theconversation.com/sydneys-waters-could-be-tropical-in-decades-heres-the-bad-news-31523">tropical fish</a> can have catastrophic impacts by overgrazing <a href="https://theconversation.com/underwater-health-check-shows-kelp-forests-are-declining-around-the-world-68569">kelp forests</a>, affecting biodiversity and important fisheries.</p>
<p>In wealthier countries these changes will create substantial challenges. For developing countries, the impacts may be devastating. </p>
<h2>Knock-on effects</h2>
<p>Many changes in species distribution have implications that are immediately obvious, like the <a href="http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/370/1665/20140135">spread of disease vectors</a> such as mosquitoes or agricultural pests. However, other changes that may initially appear more subtle can also have great effects via impacting global climate feedbacks. </p>
<p>Mangroves, which store more carbon per unit area than most tropical forests, are <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.12341/full">moving towards the poles</a>. Spring blooms of microscopic sea algae are projected to weaken and <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/2015JC011167/full">shift into the Arctic Ocean</a>, as the global temperature rises and the seasonal Arctic sea ice retreats. This will change the patterns of “biological carbon sequestration” over Earth’s surface, and may lead to less carbon dioxide being removed from the atmosphere.</p>
<p>Redistribution of the vegetation on land is also expected to influence climate change. With more vegetation, less solar radiation is reflected back into the atmosphere, <a href="http://www.nature.com/nclimate/journal/v3/n7/abs/nclimate1858.html">resulting in further warming</a>. “<a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1466-8238.2008.00396.x/full">Greening of the Arctic</a>”, where larger shrubs are taking over from mosses and lichens, is expected to substantially change the reflectivity of the surface. </p>
<p>These changes in the distribution of vegetation are also affecting the culture of <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13280-015-0671-7">Indigenous Arctic communities</a>. The northward growth of shrubs is leading to <a href="http://www.arcticbiodiversity.is/the-report/report-for-policy-makers">declines</a> in the low-lying mosses and lichens eaten by caribou and reindeer. The opportunities for Indigenous reindeer herding and hunting are greatly reduced, with economic and cultural implications.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/163517/original/image-20170401-27266-yku27m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/163517/original/image-20170401-27266-yku27m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/163517/original/image-20170401-27266-yku27m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/163517/original/image-20170401-27266-yku27m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/163517/original/image-20170401-27266-yku27m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/163517/original/image-20170401-27266-yku27m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/163517/original/image-20170401-27266-yku27m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Reindeer in the Arctic are very important components of Indigenous and traditional ways of life.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Snowchange 2016 /Tero Mustonen</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Winners and losers</h2>
<p>Not all changes in distribution will be harmful. There will be winners and losers for species, and for the human communities and economic activities that rely on them. For example, coastal fishing communities in northern India are benefiting from the <a href="http://eprints.cmfri.org.in/8435/1/Global_Climate_Change_Vivekanandan_89-92.pdf">northward shift</a> in the oil sardine’s range. In contrast, skipjack tuna is projected to become <a href="http://www.nature.com/nclimate/journal/v3/n6/full/nclimate1838.html">less abundant</a> in western areas of the Pacific, where many countries depend on this fishery for economic development and food security.</p>
<p>Local communities can help forge solutions to these challenges. Citizen science initiatives like <a href="http://www.redmap.org.au">Redmap</a> are boosting traditional scientific research and can be used as an early indication of <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-you-can-help-scientists-track-how-marine-life-reacts-to-climate-change-33370">how species distributions are changing</a>. Having local communities engaged in such participatory monitoring can also <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2010.01874.x/abstract">increase the chances of timely and site-specific management interventions</a>.</p>
<p>Even with improved monitoring and communication, we face an enormous challenge in addressing these changes in species distribution, to reduce their adverse impacts and maximise any opportunities. Responses will be needed at all levels of governance. </p>
<p>Internationally, the impacts of species on the move will affect our capacity to achieve virtually all of the United Nations <a href="http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/">Sustainable Development Goals</a>, including good health, poverty reduction, economic growth, and gender equity. </p>
<p>Currently, these goals do not yet adequately consider effects of climate-driven changes in species distributions. This needs to change if we are to have any chance of achieving them in the future. </p>
<p>National development plans, economic strategies, conservation priorities, and supporting policies and governance arrangements will all need to be recalibrated to reflect the realities of climate change impacts on our natural systems. At the regional and local levels, a range of responses may be needed to enable affected places and communities to survive or thrive under new conditions. </p>
<p>For communities, this might include changed farming, forestry or fishing practices, new health interventions, and, in some cases, alternative livelihoods. Management responses such as <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11027-009-9186-5">relocating coffee production</a> will itself have spillover effects on other communities or natural areas, so adaptation responses may need to anticipate indirect effects and negotiate these trade-offs. </p>
<p>To promote global biodiversity, protected areas will need to be managed to explicitly recognise novel ecological communities, and to promote connectivity across the landscape. For some species, <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/106/24/9721.short">managed relocations</a> or direct interventions may be needed. Our commitment to conservation will need to be reflected in funding levels and priorities.</p>
<p>The success of human societies has always depended on the living components of natural and managed systems. For all our development and modernisation, this hasn’t changed. But human society has yet to appreciate the full implications for life on Earth, including human lives, of our current unprecedented climate-driven species redistribution. Enhanced awareness, supported by appropriate governance, will provide the best chance of minimising negative consequences while maximising opportunities arising from species movements.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/74752/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gretta Pecl receives funding from several sources including the Australian Research Council, Fisheries Research development Corporation, National Environment Research Council, Inspiring Australia and Holsworth. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Adriana Vergés receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ekaterina Popova receives funding from Natural Environment Research Council, UK. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jan McDonald has received funding from the National Climate Change Adaptation Research Facility and the Western Australian Marine Science Institute. She on a board member of the National Environmental Law Association.</span></em></p>From luxuries like champagne to the very livelihoods of fishing communities in the developing world – the climate-driven shifts in species will affect us all.Gretta Pecl, Deputy Associate Dean Research, ARC Future Fellow & Editor in Chief (Reviews in Fish Biology & Fisheries), University of TasmaniaAdriana Vergés, Senior Lecturer in marine ecology, UNSW SydneyEkaterina Popova, Senior Scientist, ocean modelling, National Oceanography CentreJan McDonald, Professor of Environmental Law, University of TasmaniaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/670282016-10-18T06:45:53Z2016-10-18T06:45:53ZWine and climate change: 8,000 years of adaptation<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/141657/original/image-20161013-3944-6yq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Wine has been adapting since the Little Ice Age.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Coiron%2C_Ard%C3%A8che%2C_feuille_de_vigne_fossile_du_Plioc%C3%A8ne_vitis_previnifera_sap..jpg">JPS68/Wikimedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>These days it is almost impossible to say anything moderately optimistic about climate change. </p>
<p>But geographers, archaeologists, historians, agronomists and biologist can show some positive effects, because they allow for the immense creativity and resilience of human societies, and of living things in general, as demonstrated throughout the ages and across the great variety of different habitats on the planet. One of those positive effects could be the evolution of wine.</p>
<h2>Continual advancements in wine-making</h2>
<p>Wine-making is a branch of agriculture that arose from whim rather than necessity, as an expression of cultural identity. It has shown itself capable of adapting to the various climatic changes that have occurred in the last 8,000 years, since <em>Vitis vinifera</em> was first domesticated and disseminated. As a result, its methods – and the quality of the wine produced – never ceased to improve. </p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.franceculture.fr/emissions/la-fabrique-de-l-histoire/les-grandes-crises-climatiques-34-le-petit-age-glaciaire">Little Ice Age</a> (from the 15th to 19th century) is a good example of this phenomenon. Northern Europeans had learned to grown vines under sunny skies. But the falling temperatures of the Little Ice Age forced them to abandon what had become an increasingly uncertain crop, and look to the south to satisfy the requirements of Christian worship, via Holy Communion, and the emerging taste for good wine, which had become an essential part of life in more refined circles. </p>
<p>This is why we now have beautiful vineyards on the Atlantic (<a href="http://www.visit-saintes.com/things-to-do/cognac-pineau/">Saintonge</a>, where wine is distilled to make cognac; Bordeaux in France; Alto Douro and Madeira in Portugal; Jerez and Constanti in Spain) and the Mediterranean in Spain, Sicily and Cyprus.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/140754/original/image-20161006-32734-supwfq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/140754/original/image-20161006-32734-supwfq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/140754/original/image-20161006-32734-supwfq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=896&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140754/original/image-20161006-32734-supwfq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=896&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140754/original/image-20161006-32734-supwfq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=896&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140754/original/image-20161006-32734-supwfq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1125&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140754/original/image-20161006-32734-supwfq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1125&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140754/original/image-20161006-32734-supwfq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1125&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A cork oak being stripped from its bark.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AIAPH_Saca_del_corcho.jpg">Instituto Andaluz del Patrimonio Histórico</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Shipping delicate wines by means of long sea journeys also sparked ingenuity. This is how the Dutch invented the sulfur stick that was burned to sterilise the barrels. The English began fortifying wines with spirits in order to stabilising wines containing a great deal of residual sugar post-fermentation and, along with the Flemish, invented thick <a href="http://avis-vin.lefigaro.fr/connaitre-deguster/o28482-la-bouteille-de-vin-trois-siecles-de-bons-et-loyaux-services">black wine bottles</a> made in coal-fired furnaces. These were useful for portioning out the contents of a barrel and could prolong the ageing process – as long as they were capped with a <a href="http://www.atlantico.fr/decryptage/bouchon-liege-cette-invention-sans-laquelle-vins-francais-auraient-jamais-ete-aussi-bons-jean-robert-pitte-915253.html">cork</a> made of a natural material discovered by the English in Portugal.</p>
<p>In the remaining northernmost vineyards, the cold prevented the grapes from ripening properly. The resulting wines were often terribly sour. In addition, the final stages of fermentation were hindered by the arrival of the first cold front and would not resume until the following spring. </p>
<p>These two problems eventually led to invention of the bubbles in Champagne, by adding sugar from the Caribbean to the very young wine and keeping it in tightly corked bottles, causing second fermentation and heavy carbonation.</p>
<h2>Roasted grapes</h2>
<p>The opposite phenomenon has now been occurring for some time. Rising temperatures – interspersed with climatic anomalies such as the late frosts that occurred across Europe last spring, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/aug/26/french-wine-production-to-fall-10-this-year-after-fierce-spring-weather">devastating many vineyards</a> – are having troubling effects.</p>
<p>At the other extreme, varieties of grapes with very thin skin are roasting in the sun in hot weather. Until now, the leaves of these vines were thinned so as to let in more sunlight. Grapes are <a href="http://www.nature.com/nclimate/journal/vaop/ncurrent/fig_tab/nclimate2960_ft.html">ripening too early</a> overall, and the harvest must be carried out quickly so as to maintain some level of acidity and eschew heavy, flat-tasting wines with a high level of alcohol and a short shelf-life.</p>
<p>This trend is not only visible in southern regions but also far north, in <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212977414000222">France’s Alsace region</a>, for example. And during very hot summers, water scarcity can be so severe that many grapes dry on the vine before ripening.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/25Y74v8aTIY?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A closer look at grape varieties (France 3 Burgundy, 2014).</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The emergence of new methods</h2>
<p>New methods must be developed, and this is very much an ongoing process. To begin with, vineyards with too much sun exposure (such as those in southern plains and slopes facing south) should be discarded in favour of higher ground (for example, the upper areas in the Napa and Sonoma Valleys in California, the mountains of Cévennes and Priorat in France and the Golan Heights or the Judean Hills in Israel); or areas facing north (Ventoux, Lubéron, Alpilles, Corbières in France). Eventually, this could also apply to regions further north (France’s Valais, Condrieu, the northern part of Côtes-du-Rhône, Beaujolais, and even Burgundy).</p>
<p>Newly planted vines will have to be irrigated to ensure their survival, but cautiously and just for a few years, for deeper rooting.</p>
<p>Soils will need to be carefully selected to reflect changing circumstances. Total or partial ground cover could prove to be an effective means of preventing excess evaporation in certain kinds of soils.</p>
<p>The way we train vines – pruning and trimming in particular – should be adapted so that ripening occurs at regular intervals. And we should not be so dogmatic about vine varieties.</p>
<h2>Northern bound</h2>
<p>Moving vines further north could produce benefits. Pilot plantations of Marsanne and Syrah grapes in Beaujolais show promise which, once confirmed, should lead us to reconsider the <a href="http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/iprenforcement/docs/observatory/gi-designations_en.pdf">current legislation on protected designation of origin</a>. Making red wine out of Pinot-Noir grapes in Champagne would probably result in some very good wines, as it already has in Oregon, southern Germany, Austria, and the Czech Republic.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/140757/original/image-20161006-32723-1rwuogh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/140757/original/image-20161006-32723-1rwuogh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140757/original/image-20161006-32723-1rwuogh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140757/original/image-20161006-32723-1rwuogh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140757/original/image-20161006-32723-1rwuogh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140757/original/image-20161006-32723-1rwuogh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140757/original/image-20161006-32723-1rwuogh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A vineyard in Hokkaido, in northern Japan.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/14degrees/14975911220">Robert Thomson/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Traditionally, <a href="http://www.persee.fr/doc/geo_0003-4010_1983_num_92_510_20178">the Japanese Island of Hokkaido</a>, with its Siberian-like winters, only produced mediocre hybrid varieties of wine. Today, forward-thinking winemakers are producing very fine wines using white grape varieties from the Rhine region. England is once again being covered with vineyards, producing great wines.</p>
<p>One fact is particularly telling: Queen Elizabeth had 16,000 vines of Pinot-Noir, Pinot Meunier and Chardonnay planted in <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/theroyalfamily/8492607/Royal-family-to-produce-its-own-wine-from-Windsor-Great-Park-grapes.html">Windsor Great Park</a> to produce her own sparkling wine. Champagne, which up until now hasbeen used for royal toasts, had better watch out.</p>
<p>The bottom line is, nothing is lost, and no tragedy will befall good wine growers and wine lovers should climate change continue. </p>
<p>It will be quite a while before Greenland becomes a wine-growing region. In the meantime, we won’t be short of a drink. It’s also worth noting that we now produce more good local wines across all latitudes than ever before in the history of winemaking.</p>
<p><em>Translated from the French by Alice Heathwood for <a href="http://www.fastforword.fr/en/">Fast for Word</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/67028/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jean-Robert Pitte does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Wine lovers can rest assured. Wine will adapt to climate change.Jean-Robert Pitte, Professeur émérite en géographie, ancien président de l’Université Paris-Sorbonne, Sorbonne UniversitéLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/505442015-12-30T10:41:03Z2015-12-30T10:41:03ZFrench vineyards blow dust off the barrels and embrace a digital revolution in wine<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/101559/original/image-20151111-21206-btd9u5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">In the Champagne region, near Épernay, at the end of the day. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://farm5.staticflickr.com/4125/5096691266_45febf4f2d_o.jpg">Foter/Flickr</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Most commonly associated with notions such as tradition, authenticity and <em>terroir</em>, the French wine industry doesn’t instantly jump to mind as a leader in innovation. But its deep traditions are no impediment to finding new ways to showcase the sector’s know-how, enhance its reputation, and promote engagement with and exchanges about wine. </p>
<p>For France, the challenge is both commercial and cultural. While the wines of the Champagne and Burgundy regions were granted Unesco <a href="http://www.english.rfi.fr/visiting-france/20150705-unesco-puts-champagne-burgundy-wines-world-heritage-list">world-heritage status</a> in July, the <a href="http://ec.europa.eu/growth/single-market/index_en.htm">European single market</a> is structured to empower the “free movement of goods and services”, with all the risks and opportunities that entails. To meet this challenge, in July 2014 a French senator <a href="http://www.senat.fr/leg/ppl13-617.html">proposed a bill</a> emphasizing the importance of the wine industry’s shaking off some of its dust: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>We must empower the important actors in the wine industry to better promote this patrimony and culture via new technologies, so as to not compromise its future. Such promotion has become urgent … in a context of global competition and conflicts between winemaking practices that are starkly different.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The text concludes by noting that the responsible enjoyment of wine and its culture requires knowledge and education – and today, its communication is necessarily digital.</p>
<p>The use of digital tools for purely commercial purposes has its place, of course, and it’s growing quickly: Just this year, more than 500 e-commerce websites accounted for more than <a href="http://www.vinetsociete.fr/magazine/article/barometre-sowine-ssi-2014-le-web-un-role-de-plus-en-plus-moteur-dans-la-consommation-de-vin-en-france">10% of the wine sold</a> in France. Still, even double-digits sales increases can be offset by unforeseen events in a unpredictable and highly competitive market.</p>
<h2>In the digital vineyards</h2>
<p>The challenge is thus how to use digital media to convey the essence of wine itself. Many foods and beverages have leveraged digital communication, but wine, with its distinct character and evocative force, occupies a unique place in our society. Online tools must not only faithfully convey a wine’s image, but also create an experience that is every bit as vivid as the real thing, if not more so. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/101424/original/image-20151110-21232-1gcjaaw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/101424/original/image-20151110-21232-1gcjaaw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/101424/original/image-20151110-21232-1gcjaaw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/101424/original/image-20151110-21232-1gcjaaw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/101424/original/image-20151110-21232-1gcjaaw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/101424/original/image-20151110-21232-1gcjaaw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=541&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/101424/original/image-20151110-21232-1gcjaaw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=541&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/101424/original/image-20151110-21232-1gcjaaw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=541&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">CaptureDrync.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.google.fr/imgres?imgurl=http%3A%2F%2Flab.cdn.vente-privee.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2014%2F08%2FCaptureDrync.jpg%253F23da05&imgrefurl=http%3A%2F%2Flab.vente-privee.com%2Fvin-e-commerce-33-entretenir-le-contact-avec-le-cross-canal%2F&h=888&w=1238&tbnid=_A6fmPUDmcIOVM%3A&docid=QwEa4e9Hw9V0cM&ei=7bZBVo_aFoSuUeSbnbgO&tbm=isch&iact=rc&uact=3&dur=1375&page=6&start=106&ndsp=23&ved=0CDEQrQMwDzhkahUKEwjPhP7Lw4XJAhUEVxQKHeRNB-c">lab.vente-privee.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Here augmented reality has the potential to allow aficionados to interact with both physical and virtual environments – vineyards, cellars, exhibitions and catalogues. </p>
<p>One example is Bordeaux’s <a href="http://www.laciteduvin.com/accueil.html">Cité du vin</a>, which promises a “unique experience” with immersive interactive displays, virtual settings, fragrant environments and more. These experiential features are also part of the <a href="http://www.beaune-tourism.com/discover/burgundy-wines/burgundys-vineyards/burgundys-cite-des-vins">Cité des vins</a> in Burgundy (Beaune). Both sites harness digital technologies to support three phases of the wine experience: awareness, exploration and appropriation. </p>
<p>By fully immersing us in the world of wine, digital media can enhance our subjectivity, and enable a kind of rediscovery of magic – <a href="http://www.english.upenn.edu/%7Emgamer/Etexts/biographia.html">“the willing suspension of disbelief</a>”, as Coleridge put it. For example, virtual tours can be created through the use of drones, which capture aerial images of vineyards that are then remodelled. This opportunity to live in the present yet rediscover the world in new and wonderful ways is the promise of digital media.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/101423/original/image-20151110-21190-1njtbsi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/101423/original/image-20151110-21190-1njtbsi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/101423/original/image-20151110-21190-1njtbsi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/101423/original/image-20151110-21190-1njtbsi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/101423/original/image-20151110-21190-1njtbsi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/101423/original/image-20151110-21190-1njtbsi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/101423/original/image-20151110-21190-1njtbsi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Example of augmented reality - Château Puech-Haut.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.augmented-reality.fr/2014/05/realite-augmentee-et-vin-une-histoire-pleine-de-promesses/">Avina Conseil</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Narrating the story of wine</h2>
<p>While sensory immersion can open new doors, digital media is at its richest when it plays a narrative role. The most striking example of this is seen in the context of wine tourism. Already more than 10,000 vineyards, wine cellars and other facilities welcome more than 8m visitors annually – and the best is awarded the distinction <a href="http://atout-france.fr/services/le-label-vignobles-decouvertes">Vignobles et Découvertes</a>. Many regions have already developed digital apps that allow users to tour vineyards (<a href="http://www.smart-bordeaux.fr/">Smart Bordeaux</a>), follow wine trails and learn about local events (<a href="https://itunes.apple.com/fr/app/geovina-lr-vin-et-tourisme/id813527346?mt=8">GeoVina Languedoc-Roussillon</a>), or get involved in wine tourism (<a href="http://www.proximamobile.fr/article/oenotourisme-bourgogne">Œnotourisme Bourgogne</a>). And an online game, <a href="http://blog.vinoga.com">Vinoga</a>, combines social networking and e-commerce to put the user in the boots of a wine-maker. </p>
<p>While there’s still considerable room for the improvement of such apps, they make it clear that, when it comes to communication, a traditional website that conveys basic information – where, what, who and how – is no longer sufficient. Certain regions of France have worked to get this movement off the ground: A Nantes-based firm, <a href="http://www.komka.fr/">Komka Vigneron</a>, offers a customisable website adapted to the needs of winemakers and vineyards. Ultimately, effective marketing requires not only digital tools, but also a deep understanding of what a region can offer both nationally and internationally. </p>
<p>Together, such apps, websites and experiences can help build communities of wine enthusiasts. Furthermore, they all reflect a shared desire to be more conscious of the food and wine that we consume, to take back control, and to defend and share it.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/50544/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jean-Jacques Boutaud ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>Digital-media tools such as augmented reality, apps and online games have a vast potential to reinvigorate communication about wine.Jean-Jacques Boutaud, Professeur en Sciences de l’information et de la communication, Université de Bourgogne – UBFCLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/488932015-11-03T19:04:58Z2015-11-03T19:04:58ZFruity, with a hint of gobbledygook: it’s time to give up on wine wankery<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/99625/original/image-20151026-18443-1g7x5vb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Most people appear happy to describe wine in one or two words. And yet ... </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">John</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Barnyardy. Herbacious. Unctuous. Chewy. Hedonistic. Ponderous. Shallow. Backward.
The wine industry has been using evocative descriptors to characterise the taste and aroma of its products for generations. But how does the industry justify such precise language to describe such a subjective experience? </p>
<p>Especially given empirical research, which <a href="http://chemse.oxfordjournals.org/content/27/8/747">has demonstrated</a> that the average consumer struggles to recognise descriptions of the wine that experts identify on the label, it is likely the wine industry alienates consumers more than it attracts them. </p>
<p>Furthermore, although wine experts use a larger vocabulary to describe wine, and discriminate between two wines <a href="http://www.researchgate.net/publication/229345925_Conceptual_vs._perceptual_wine_spaces_Does_expertise_matter">more effectively</a> than novices, a body of evidence suggests that wine expertise is a questionable label with respect to the degree of <a href="http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=8651753">rating variability</a> in wine judging.</p>
<p>This plight of wine label irrelevance afflicting wine consumers is typically met with the response of a need for wine education, according to the wine sector. Is it that such consumers are simply out of touch with the wine industry, or is it that the wine industry is out of touch with itself? </p>
<p>We believe the evidence clearly points towards the latter. Welcome to the concept of Wine Wankery.</p>
<p>Previous studies (such as these, by <a href="http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/abs/10.1108/EUM0000000000617?journalCode=ejm">Spawton</a>, <a href="http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/abs/10.1108/eb008688">Hall & Winchester</a>, and <a href="http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/abs/10.1108/17511060910967980">Geraghty & Torres</a>) have suggested there are three to four types of wine consumer:</p>
<ol>
<li> Connoisseurs or enthusiasts – those who know a lot about wine <br></li>
<li> Enjoyment-based or casual wine consumers – those who enjoy quaffing their wine and are not too fussed on impressing anyone with it <br></li>
<li> Risk averse or value seeking wine consumers – those who do not know a lot about wine and look for special offers <br></li>
<li> Image conscious or aspirational wine consumers – those who are not experts in wine and are insecure about their lack of knowledge.</li>
</ol>
<p>While there is limited evidence on the proportions of the population that make up each of the above groups, the limited evidence available suggests that fewer than <a href="http://www.researchgate.net/publication/235974938_Understanding_Psychological_Profiles_of_Different_Segments_of_Wine_Consumers_in_Australia">one in five wine drinkers</a> are connoisseurs. It is clear that most wine drinkers are not particularly sophisticated, suggesting that overly complex wine labels are irrelevant to most of the market. </p>
<p>The reality of the market is that most wine consumers are likely to seek a more simple explanation of what they drink. Most people are interested in wine being cheap, and tasting reasonably good. The UK’s biggest selling wines are big brands, and these are mainly sold through the major supermarkets. </p>
<p>Brands such as Yellowtail, Jacob’s Creek and Hardy’s show that the majority of consumers are not into expensive wines nor are they enthusiastic oenologists. Moreover, consumer purchase patterns that hold true in FMCG (Fast Moving Consumer Goods) markets <a href="http://academyofwinebusiness.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/wine_grow.pdf">also hold true</a> in those where consumers purchase wine. It may be a surprise to many that bulk wine brands are likely to get more consumer loyalty than boutique, expensive brands.</p>
<p>Given that wine operates in a market just like any other consumer product, why does this industry put so much effort into Wine Wankery?</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/99623/original/image-20151026-18446-b65trn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/99623/original/image-20151026-18446-b65trn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/99623/original/image-20151026-18446-b65trn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/99623/original/image-20151026-18446-b65trn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/99623/original/image-20151026-18446-b65trn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/99623/original/image-20151026-18446-b65trn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/99623/original/image-20151026-18446-b65trn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/99623/original/image-20151026-18446-b65trn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">nocturnika</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When you read wine magazines or a wine industry journal, ironically much more page space is dedicated to the premium and boutique end of the market. This segment actually represents a disproportionately smaller portion of the wine market in sales volume. </p>
<p>The proportions vary by sales format, but somewhere between 1% and 20% of sales volume is attributed to the premium end of the market. On the other hand, the high volume brands get almost no coverage in wine magazines and journals, yet these brands are responsible for most of the sales. Most people appear happy to describe wine in one or two words. But those who write about wine need to fill space in a wine magazine, so two words isn’t nearly enough detail. </p>
<p>Perhaps wine that’s made to a formula is just not as sexy … Or is it simply that at the high volume end of the market, the consumer isn’t interested in wine descriptions? The appeal of wine is in its diversity and nuance, which attracts people to the category. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/99629/original/image-20151026-18454-1n72s4r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/99629/original/image-20151026-18454-1n72s4r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/99629/original/image-20151026-18454-1n72s4r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/99629/original/image-20151026-18454-1n72s4r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/99629/original/image-20151026-18454-1n72s4r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/99629/original/image-20151026-18454-1n72s4r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/99629/original/image-20151026-18454-1n72s4r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/99629/original/image-20151026-18454-1n72s4r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ula Peiciute</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Even across social media, the wine industry works toward the few customers who are enthusiasts or connoisseurs. This year, successful wine apps <a href="https://www.vivino.com/">Vivino</a>, and <a href="https://itunes.apple.com/us/app/delectable-wines-wine-scanner/id512106648?mt=8">Delectable</a>, which have millions of subscribers, began releasing data on users’ behaviours. Both of these apps use label recognition from the user’s phone to reveal information on the wine being photographed, as well as reviews from other users. These are game changer apps because the user doesn’t need to put the data in manually, unlike previous wine apps.</p>
<p>These millions of consumers may sound like a lot of users on which claims on wine market trends can be made. The problem with these app owners releasing data on their users’ behaviours is that their users aren’t “typical” wine consumers. A recent example from digital trends, on the Delectable app illustrates the situation. </p>
<p>If the industry was to use customer profiles and <a href="http://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/delectable-is-turning-everyone-into-a-wine-connoisseur/">data on usage</a> from these apps, it would be easy to believe that <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/02/arts/international/a-popular-app-charts-changing-tastes-in-wine.html?_r=1">Growers Champagne and Loire Valley reds</a> are the big trends in the wine market. Given that most subscribers on delectable reside in the US, you’d be forgiven for thinking that small producers of lesser-known wines were storming into households all over the country. </p>
<p>But, the latest Impact data on the <a href="http://www.winespectator.com/display/show/id/impact_databank_report">US market</a> shows that sweet red wines are still a fast-growing category, also that New Zealand Sauvignon blanc has grown almost 20% over the past year, and Prosecco sales being the big increase in the segment of foreign sparkling wine category. </p>
<p>What these results show is that these app users are more likely to resemble the small proportion of connoisseurs, and that any analysis from these apps will encourage the industry to be more out of touch with their assertions with respect to real wine drinkers. </p>
<p>Most consumers have probably had enough of wine wankery, and it’s probably time the wine industry got to terms with the fact it’s just another consumer product like any other.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/48893/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Maxwell Winchester is a member of the Liberal Party. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Damien Wilson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The reality of the market is that most wine industry sales are very simple and bulk oriented. People are interested in wine being cheap, and tasting reasonably good. So why is the language so flowery?Associate Professor Maxwell Winchester, Discipline Leader, Marketing , Victoria UniversityDamien Wilson, Hamel Family Chair in Wine Business, Sonoma State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/397152015-04-02T18:01:17Z2015-04-02T18:01:17ZRevealed: why your Pinot noir is actually a Pinot blanc (or was that a Pinot gris?)<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76919/original/image-20150402-9339-1c4wxwl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Heard it on the (research) grapevine.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/naotakem/3853875261/in/photolist-6Sy7Rc-fvoNod-i43igS-g64YSM-gUpdXv-gW2Y5K-hzRnaf-94soLF-hfWukG-hbUqTw-ZSkfV-4evkLo-ad3wtA-p6ETbS-q3Anhu-6ogSYP-oLgoP6-peYg1U-71mzYN-6SCanS-f73KFZ-p7kGg2-gw8MPq-jSaj1m-qZZ4vw-91ga6z-o1b43E-5q56D7-5aveEh-amrhhb-5pZLKK-k5F6C4-8f9Zus-axkBfc-dJxBWf-nDaExk-k5EPhD-bAfy8-q93sBe-6bsTZB-8j3x9G-mLFxHT-dDWmtj-bFi6yr-8j3x9Q-pgYcts-dj5xJw-ph17Vi-qHu7G1-fZjvEA">Naotake Murayama</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The diversity within grapevine varieties is incredibly rich. This is good news for viticulturists – grape cultivators – and wine makers because it allows them to adapt their wine production according to the conditions in their vineyards and to the wines they want to make. </p>
<p>Pinot is one of the most ancient grapevine varieties and the Pinot family is an invaluable source for the production of a wide range of wines from around the world. There’s the Pinot noir from Burgundy, California or New Zealand, Pinot Meunier in Champagne, Pinot gris in Alsace or Pinot blanc in Italy. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76920/original/image-20150402-9339-1owjpow.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76920/original/image-20150402-9339-1owjpow.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76920/original/image-20150402-9339-1owjpow.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76920/original/image-20150402-9339-1owjpow.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76920/original/image-20150402-9339-1owjpow.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76920/original/image-20150402-9339-1owjpow.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76920/original/image-20150402-9339-1owjpow.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cultivating pinot.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/jimfischer/8224090877/in/photolist-dwJBGi-6Sy7Rc-hzRnaf-94soLF-71mzYN-6SCanS-f73KFZ-hfWukG-hbUqTw-p7kGg2-gw8MPq-jSaj1m-ZSkfV-4evkLo-qZZ4vw-ad3wtA-91ga6z-o1b43E-5q56D7-5aveEh-amrhhb-5pZLKK-p6ETbS-k5F6C4-8f9Zus-axkBfc-q3Anhu-dJxBWf-6ogSYP-oLgoP6-nDaExk-peYg1U-k5EPhD-4DdwEN-pc3uHZ-axoiGE-p28sYA-bAfy8-q93sBe-6bsTZB-gaeQr-91jiJo-91gaCv-91jhim-9vNEtk-9vRGU3-8j3x9G-4SaLfY-mLFxHT-dDWmtj">Jim Fischer</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The vine stocks used in viticulture are obtained by grafting. It means that for any given variety, all stocks are identical – or almost all. Spontaneous events in the genomes of some vines can arise which leads to differences between individual plants. </p>
<p>Along with colleagues, we’ve been studying the fascinating Pinot family for 15 years at a special wine research unit at INRA Colmar, in France. In a new study, published in PLOS Genetics, we revealed for the first time the molecular and cellular mechanisms that lead to differences between plants of the Pinot family. And, in particular, on the spontaneous mutations that underpin the change of berry colour. </p>
<h2>Spontaneous mutations</h2>
<p>A unique chromosomal region in the grapevine genome controls berry colour. Two genes located in this region can induce <a href="http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-biosynthesis-pathway.htm">the biosynthesis pathway</a> – the biochemical reactions that create anthocyanins, the complex red pigment molecules that give a grape variety its berry colour. But when the two genes are inactivated by a mutation, this pathway stays switched off and the variety is white (as Pinot blanc). </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76943/original/image-20150402-9335-1vxc9c3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76943/original/image-20150402-9335-1vxc9c3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=897&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76943/original/image-20150402-9335-1vxc9c3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=897&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76943/original/image-20150402-9335-1vxc9c3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=897&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76943/original/image-20150402-9335-1vxc9c3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1127&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76943/original/image-20150402-9335-1vxc9c3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1127&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76943/original/image-20150402-9335-1vxc9c3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1127&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Different varieties.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/sdbaywinefoodfest/3653839577/in/photolist-6ySTd6-5AW8Tr-5FNLTn-8gt8Td-92Yf9W-4evkLo-8GTs6z-5dUkby-dFAKR3-e9VTFz-4PiAJ3-4giRip-7gwT6b-pc3tHx-j4tdk9-i3KNj4-jhWjqc-5T5RTK-e4D4bD-hzQYdp-qhBaRw-aBjeTt-aBmUUY-qpjPLd-gqUMM9-aQCR5i-8Ycw36-9hWhNg-ksBiZo-qmnWjT-7crNHb-7zAMD3-9hBJS5-7UudnN-bnXscg-4Caj6K-ahueS5-grKS4f-nysXo2-cTt9aw-pJTLD5-pJTLyf-pJTLtW-7VES1Q-qprVdx-aBqPMW-b8rU6P-da8XJC-onbSRN-">Fast Forward Event Productions</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Almost all coloured varieties, including Pinot noir, display both the active (leading to the black colour) and the inactive form of these genes. Through a detailed molecular analysis of a collection of 33 clones of Pinot noir, Pinot gris and Pinot blanc, we showed that large-scale exchanges between the maternal and paternal (homologous) chromosomes in the grape, leads to the replacement of the chromosomal region that enables the creation of anthocyanins by the corresponding region on the other chromosome that prevents it.</p>
<p>Thanks to this transfer of information between these two chromosomes, which is a rare naturally occurring event, Pinot blanc-type cells can emerge from a Pinot noir. In the 33 clones we studied, we identified four new chromosomes displaying independent replacements that were responsible for the loss of the anthocyanin-making mechanism, with a size reaching up to a quarter of the length of the entire chromosome. </p>
<p>After occurring in a cell, these mutations then propagate progressively to form a distinct cell layer in the shoot, leading to what is called chimeric plants. This is how Pinot gris arises from Pinot noir: a Pinot noir skin surrounds internal cells that have mutated to Pinot blanc. All of the known Pinot gris are chimeras that associate these two types of tissues. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76918/original/image-20150402-9345-auyyzv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76918/original/image-20150402-9345-auyyzv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=200&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76918/original/image-20150402-9345-auyyzv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=200&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76918/original/image-20150402-9345-auyyzv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=200&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76918/original/image-20150402-9345-auyyzv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=252&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76918/original/image-20150402-9345-auyyzv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=252&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76918/original/image-20150402-9345-auyyzv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=252&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pinot noir (left), Pinot gris (centre), and Pinot blanc (right).</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinot_noir#/media/File:Pinot_noir,_Pinot_gris_and_Pinot_blanc.png">Agne27</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In <a href="http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/abs/10.1139/g04-006#.VR1bnGaAGpo/http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00122-009-1250-8">a previous study</a>, we reported multiple occurrences of chimerism by using molecular markers. Such cellular structures do not threaten the plant’s fitness and stay stable through vegetative propagation of the plant by grafting. </p>
<p>Occasionally, cellular rearrangements in the chimera lead to the homogenisation of the whole plant. This is how Pinot blanc can emerge from a Pinot gris – when the internal mutated cells invade the coloured skin, which then spreads the mutations throughout the plant. </p>
<p>Diversity within varieties is the result of a series of rare events. It implies that a mutation must first occur in a cell that is, or will become, part of the shoot. Then the mutated cell must multiply to form a distinct cell layer. If it is formed, the chimera must then survive the annual pruning of shoots and be selected for vegetative propagation. </p>
<p>In this study, berry colour was used as a model trait to shed light on the molecular and cellular mechanisms behind the colour variations of the Pinot family. Through these mechanisms, the grapevine stocks drift over time and grapevine genome evolves. Of course, similar molecular and cellular mechanisms may impact other propagated plants, which creates diversity. </p>
<p>Viticulturists can only select these very rare events when they observe them (though some viticulturists pretend to have selected specific stocks fully adapted to their terroir, it is possible that they use diversity created by spontaneous mutations). But the diversity created when these mutations happen are great for creating flavour – the difference, for example, between a chardonnay and chardonnay muscaté. There are also different clones of Syrah that show very different levels of resistance to the Syrah decline (a disease) – <a href="http://www.nature.com/hdy/journal/v104/n4/full/hdy2009161a.html">a result of this clonal diversity</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/39715/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Frédérique Pelsy receives funding from the Region Alsace and from the French Ministry of Agriculture</span></em></p>Spreading mutations and chimeric plants – there’s a lot going on in the Pinot grape.Frédérique Pelsy, Research Scientist, InraeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/351042014-12-26T12:43:34Z2014-12-26T12:43:34ZWine drinking in America today<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/68014/original/image-20141223-32210-1c6gkvd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A new generation of wine drinkers</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">J. Olsen</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>What beverage has grown continuously in consumption for the past 20 years in America? Wine.</p>
<p>According to the <a href="http://www.wineinstitute.org/resources/statistics/article86">Wine Institute</a>, in 1993 Americans only drank 1.74 gallons of wine per capita. In 2013 that figure had risen to 2.82 gallons. This makes the US the largest wine consuming nation in the world at over 329 million cases of wine sold in 2013, according to <a href="http://www.winespectator.com/webfeature/show/id/49995">Impact Databank</a>.</p>
<p>Wine is now becoming part and parcel of America’s culture with over 7700 wineries across the country, in all of the fifty states. The increase in popularity is attributed to several factors, including the fact that Americans dine out more and enjoy matching wine to cuisine. The <a href="http://www.nextavenue.org/article/2014-07/why-boomers-should-drink-wine-millennials">Millennial population</a> has been embracing wine at record numbers. Television and movies regularly feature wine and wine drinking - just think of The Good Wife’s Alicia Florrick and Scandal’s Olivia Pope and their oversized glasses of red wine. </p>
<h2>What wines do Americans drink and where do they buy them?</h2>
<p>According 2014 Nielsen scan data,(as cited in <a href="http://www.winebusiness.com">winebusiness.com</a>) Americans prefer red wine at 51% of the dollar volume sold, then white at 46% and rose at 6%. The five most popular varietals are, in rank order: 1) Chardonnay, 2) Cabernet Sauvignon, 3) Pinot Grigio, 4) Merlot and 5) Pinot Noir. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/67768/original/image-20141219-31567-qbqe3e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/67768/original/image-20141219-31567-qbqe3e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67768/original/image-20141219-31567-qbqe3e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67768/original/image-20141219-31567-qbqe3e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67768/original/image-20141219-31567-qbqe3e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67768/original/image-20141219-31567-qbqe3e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67768/original/image-20141219-31567-qbqe3e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">varietals.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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<p>A new <a href="http://www.winebusiness.com/news/?go=getArticle&dataid=142634">study</a> by Sonoma State University shows that Americans buy wine most frequently at wine/liquor stores, followed by grocery stores such as Safeway, and then at discount or warehouse stores, such as Costco, Target, or Walmart. The most common price point is $10 - $15 per bottle to drink at home and $20 – 30 per bottle when dining out. However, when it comes to restaurants, 21% of the sample said they prefer to buy wine by the glass for $5 – 10 per glass. Only 16% reported buying organic wine.</p>
<p>When going to the store to buy a bottle of wine, our research showed that most Americans consider first the variety of grape, then the price and only then the brand. A full 38% will make a decision based on how attractive the label is – not a surprising fact given there are over 60,000 labels on the market. Many rely on the recommendation of friends or store employees in making a choice. Social media also assists in making decisions with 76% of American wine drinkers owning a smart phone and 24% currently using wine apps like hello vino and delectable. </p>
<h2>A short history of wine in America</h2>
<p>When Spanish explorer Ponce de Leon arrived in Florida in 1513, he was followed by Spanish and French Huguenot settlers who began making wine with the native American grape, Muscadine, as early as 1565. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/67766/original/image-20141219-31573-1g2q913.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/67766/original/image-20141219-31573-1g2q913.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=907&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67766/original/image-20141219-31573-1g2q913.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=907&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67766/original/image-20141219-31573-1g2q913.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=907&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67766/original/image-20141219-31573-1g2q913.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1140&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67766/original/image-20141219-31573-1g2q913.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1140&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67766/original/image-20141219-31573-1g2q913.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1140&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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<p>It’s New Mexico, however, that receives recognition for establishing the first vitus vinifera vineyards (classic wine grapes from Europe) in 1629 when Spanish missionaries planted cuttings of the “<a href="http://www.wine-searcher.com/grape-924-mission">Mission grape.</a>” Wine came to California in 1769 when the Spanish built the San Diego mission, and then continued to move north with the establishment of 20 other missions until concluding with the Sonoma mission in 1823. Today, due to its dry and sunny climate, California produces more than <a href="http://www.wineinstitute.org/files/CA%20Wines%20Stat%20Profile%202013.pdf">90%</a> of US wine. </p>
<p>It should not be forgotten that Thomas Jefferson attempted to establish a winery and plant vitus vinifera vineyards in Virginia in the late 1700’s and early 1800’s. He was, however, not successful due to attacks of black rot and the pest <a href="http://wine.about.com/od/vineyardvocab/g/Phylloxera.htm">phylloxera</a>. Because of this many of the East Coast and Midwest American wineries still use native American or hybrid grapes, such as the Concord, Niagara, Norton and Catawba: they are more tolerant of those climates. Brotherhood Winery in New York, for example, established in 1839 and the oldest continually operated winery in America, continues to use some native American grapes as well as the classic vitus vinfera, especially Riesling.</p>
<p>The geographical range of those early American wineries is wide. The Wollersheim Winery in Wisconsin was originally established in 1842 by Count Harazathy from Hungary, before he headed west to start California’s oldest premium winery Buena Vista in 1857. Stone Hill Winery in Missouri dates from 1847, Meiers Winery in Ohio from 1856, and the Renault Winery of New Jersey 1864. Further south, Wiederkehr Wine Cellars and Post Famile Vineyards of Arkansas both started in 1880, and the Val Verde Winery of Texas began in 1883. The oldest continually operated sparkling winery in California is Korbel Champagne Cellars founded in 1882.</p>
<h2>Wine Tourism Growing Across the US</h2>
<p>Today it seems clear that wine tourism is growing across America. The most visited winery is the Biltmore Estate in North Carolina, <a href="http://www.wineinstitute.org/files/CA%20Wines%20Stat%20Profile%202013.pdf">boasting</a> nearly 1 million tourists annually. Both Napa Valley and Sonoma County rely on wine tourism as one of their major economic drivers. In 2012 both counties earned over $1.4 billion in tourism revenues, attracting more than 7 million tourists.</p>
<p>The upward trend for wine consumption in America is positive, and expected to keep growing at a small but steady rate of around 2 to 3 % per year. The only stumbling block to this could be changes in regulatory requirements, negative sentiments around alcohol consumption, and/or competition from other beverages such as craft beer. </p>
<p>At this point, many Americans seem to have embraced wine as a beverage to complement food, and to help create a relaxed and fun social atmosphere with friends and family.</p>
<p><em>This article is part of The Conversation’s holiday series on wine. <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/wine-2014">Click here</a> to read more articles in the series.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/35104/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Liz Thach does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>What beverage has grown continuously in consumption for the past 20 years in America? Wine. According to the Wine Institute, in 1993 Americans only drank 1.74 gallons of wine per capita. In 2013 that figure…Liz Thach, Professor management and wine business, Sonoma State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/134482013-04-28T18:40:16Z2013-04-28T18:40:16ZAddictive, harmful, hoxic, celebrated. Cheers to that!<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/22363/original/t9z5r4ns-1365686361.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Gwydion M Williams</span> </figcaption></figure><p>There are very many things in the world that truly fascinate me. Concepts, products or behaviours which are often widely accepted, but are actually very bizarre - if we take a moment to reflect on them… </p>
<p>Things that would be hard to explain to an alien life-form, for example! </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/22362/original/jtx3nb2g-1365686179.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/22362/original/jtx3nb2g-1365686179.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=605&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/22362/original/jtx3nb2g-1365686179.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=605&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/22362/original/jtx3nb2g-1365686179.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=605&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/22362/original/jtx3nb2g-1365686179.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=761&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/22362/original/jtx3nb2g-1365686179.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=761&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/22362/original/jtx3nb2g-1365686179.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=761&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Flickr / Repoort</span></span>
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<p>Diet soda is one. A strange idea. A product for which we expend enormous quantities of energy to develop and produce, vast sums of carbon released in the process, and all for the intended and advertised outcome of, well, zero! </p>
<p>Something that takes large inputs and is designed to give us nothing - in a world that is finite.</p>
<p>Totally bizarre.</p>
<p>Another concept which stumps me, is alcohol. Have you ever stood back and thought about how we treat this drug - because let’s be honest, that’s what it is. Now I am going to openly acknowledge that I enjoy a glass of wine, or bubbles, or a cool beer. But at the end of the day, this is an addictive, behaviour-influencing substance - linked to cancers, mental illness, physical injury and more. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/22363/original/t9z5r4ns-1365686361.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/22363/original/t9z5r4ns-1365686361.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/22363/original/t9z5r4ns-1365686361.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/22363/original/t9z5r4ns-1365686361.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/22363/original/t9z5r4ns-1365686361.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=571&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/22363/original/t9z5r4ns-1365686361.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=571&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/22363/original/t9z5r4ns-1365686361.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=571&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Flickr / Gwydion M Williams</span></span>
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<p>And yet, when our day goes well, we have champagne… When our friends visit, we have a beer… When the day goes badly, we often have a glass of wine or something ‘harder’. We use alcohol to relax, we use it to have the confidence to speak to the opposite sex. It is a social lubricant, a mark of accomplishment, power and celebration, a representation of coming-of-age and a sophisticated accompaniment to food. </p>
<p>One would be hard pressed to think of another addictive drug that we treat this way. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/22361/original/5tngjwmm-1365686070.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/22361/original/5tngjwmm-1365686070.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/22361/original/5tngjwmm-1365686070.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/22361/original/5tngjwmm-1365686070.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/22361/original/5tngjwmm-1365686070.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/22361/original/5tngjwmm-1365686070.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/22361/original/5tngjwmm-1365686070.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Flickr / Greencolander</span></span>
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<p>Imagine a friend came to you, told you he or she is using an addictive substance. That he or she uses this substance to relax some nights each week, uses it most nights, uses it to have the confidence to do things he or she would otherwise not do, and uses lots of it with friends for leisure - wouldn’t alarm bells be ringing? </p>
<p>But if it’s alcohol, everyone relaxes! Breathes a sigh of relief and shouts “cheers”!</p>
<p>Some say that with increasing evidence linking alcohol to chronic disease, it is an inevitability that alcohol (particularly hard alcohol) will go down the same track as tobacco in the coming 50 years. Be seen in a similarly dangerous light… Hard to imagine, but then again, maybe it would have been hard to imagine for the smokers living in the 50s, a time when “Doctors smoked X”…</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/22360/original/gty7t2tv-1365685328.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/22360/original/gty7t2tv-1365685328.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=629&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/22360/original/gty7t2tv-1365685328.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=629&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/22360/original/gty7t2tv-1365685328.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=629&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/22360/original/gty7t2tv-1365685328.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=790&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/22360/original/gty7t2tv-1365685328.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=790&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/22360/original/gty7t2tv-1365685328.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=790&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Flickr / Gwydion M. Williams</span></span>
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<p>Either way, I think it is healthy once in a while, to take a step back from our glass and realise this isn’t a harmless staple of living… This isn’t bread or water. </p>
<p>This is ethyl alcohol, or ethanol. </p>
<p>We know it can be addictive, we know it’s harmful to our health and we know it causes an enormous burden to our society. Yet whether it’s a birth, a graduation, a dinner party or a camping trip - it’s likely to be there.</p>
<p>I’m not arguing we all stop drinking. Just be conscious of it.</p>
<p>The alcohol industry may spend large sums to help us resist questioning our relationship with alcohol, but let’s be honest - this relationship is truly bizarre.</p>
<p>-</p>
<p>Connect with Sandro on Twitter, via <a href="https://twitter.com/sandrodemaio">@sandrodemaio</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/13448/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
There are very many things in the world that truly fascinate me. Concepts, products or behaviours which are often widely accepted, but are actually very bizarre - if we take a moment to reflect on them…Sandro Demaio, Australian Medical Doctor; Fellow in Global Health & NCDs, University of CopenhagenLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.