tag:theconversation.com,2011:/uk/topics/chris-froome-11326/articlesChris Froome – The Conversation2019-07-24T12:59:32Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1208482019-07-24T12:59:32Z2019-07-24T12:59:32ZSwimmer protests at the World Championships renew calls for urgent anti-doping reforms<p>When Chinese swimmer Sun Yang recently won his fourth gold medal for the 400 metres freestyle alongside another gold in the 200 metres freestyle at the 2019 World Championships in Gwangju, South Korea, his achievements were overshadowed by fellow competitors who refused to stand on the podium with him.</p>
<p>First Australian silver medallist Mack Horton in the 400 metres and then British bronze medallist <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/av/swimming/49088383">Duncan Scott</a> in the 200 metres freestyle. Horton and Swimming Australia have since been <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2019/jul/23/mack-horton-reprimanded-by-swimming-world-body-over-sun-snub">officially warned</a> by the <a href="http://www.fina.org/">international swimming federation</a> FINA, for the protest. Both athletes have also been subject to <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-australia-49079846">online abuse</a> and <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/swimming/2019/07/23/duncan-scott-sent-death-threats-refusing-stand-podium-alongside/">death threats</a> for their actions. </p>
<p>This is not the first time Horton has <a href="https://theconversation.com/horton-wins-by-naming-the-elephant-in-the-room-at-rio-olympics-63661">protested against Yang</a>, who was <a href="https://10daily.com.au/news/sport/a190724bpvks/this-is-why-people-are-booing-champion-chinese-swimmer-sun-yang-20190724">previously been suspended</a> by the China Anti-Doping Agency in 2014 – and is under investigation again after Yang’s bodyguard allegedly smashed his <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/23/sports/sun-yang-swimming-doping.html">blood vial sample with a hammer</a> during an out-of-competition doping test at <a href="http://www.china.org.cn/sports/2019-01/28/content_74416396.htm">Yang’s home in China</a>. Yang <a href="https://www.swimmingworldmagazine.com/news/sun-yang-facing-lifetime-ban-after-incident-with-drug-testers/">said</a> the incident happened because he believed the doping control officer was not properly accredited. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-07-21/sun-yang-doping-case-more-complicated-than-it-seems/11328364">FINA tribunal</a> has since ruled that, although smashing blood vials is not advisable, Yang did not commit an anti-doping rule violation as the officer was not fully qualified. But the World Anti-Doping Agency has not accepted these findings and is currently appealing the case <a href="https://10daily.com.au/news/sport/a190724bpvks/this-is-why-people-are-booing-champion-chinese-swimmer-sun-yang-20190724">in the Court of Arbitration for Sport</a>.</p>
<p>The incident has renewed suspicions about Yang, who previously served a three month suspension in 2014 for the prohibited substance trimetazidine. This is a stimulant usually used to treat patients suffering from angina. Yang claimed he was unaware the drug had been added to the banned list, and had been using it since 2008 to <a href="https://10daily.com.au/news/sport/a190724bpvks/this-is-why-people-are-booing-champion-chinese-swimmer-sun-yang-20190724">treat heart palpitations</a>.</p>
<h2>Varying testing conditions</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.3aw.com.au/podium-protest-aussie-swimmer-mack-horton-refuses-to-stand-next-accused-cheat-sun-yang/">Horton’s dad has spoken out to explain that</a> the protests from his son and others came from frustration at the perceived lack of consistency internationally in the way athletes are treated when it comes to testing. </p>
<p>This is in part due to the fact that the World Anti-Doping Agency relies on <a href="https://www.wada-ama.org/en/what-we-do/the-code/code-signatories">World Anti-Doping Code signatories</a>, such as international federations and national anti-doping organisations, to implement and enforce the rules. Yet, between signatories there is disparity in the resources available, technical expertise and commitment. This means that athletes in different regions are subject to varying testing conditions.</p>
<p>Research has shown the impact this disparity can have on the views of athletes. A study of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1441352315000819">645 elite Danish athletes</a>, for example, found that 85% of them believed that “doping control is downgraded [by officials] in certain countries because medals have higher priority”. Almost half of the athletes also believed that “doping control in other countries is sometimes so unprofessional that it is possible to cheat”. </p>
<p>And as the case of Yang and Horton highlights, this difference in anti-doping conditions between nations can lead to a sense of injustice between athletes. It can also impact how athletes feel about testing in rival nations.</p>
<h2>Innocent until proven guilty?</h2>
<p>It appears then that Yang’s high-profile success has made him a symbolic target for frustration at the system. But it also shows how the label of drugs cheat is not easily shaken off. </p>
<p>Indeed, US sprinter Justin Gatlin served two separate bans for doping and was <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/athletics/40842008">booed at the 2017 World Championships</a>. Likewise, some still have suspicions about British cyclist Chris Froome after it was leaked that he had produced an adverse analytical finding, even though he was <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2018/jul/02/chris-froome-cleared-by-uci-in-anti-doping-investigation">later cleared</a> of any wrongdoing. Yang also seems to be subject to the same treatment.</p>
<p>Burden of proof on the prosecutor, and rehabilitation through punishment are characteristics of democratic societies. Yet when it comes to doping, it appears athletes remain chastised by competitors and the public – even after serving bans. Suspicions can even remain in place for those who have been found <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/cycling/tour-de-france-2018-team-sky-thomas-froome-general-classification-punch-fans-video-a8465856.html">not guilty</a>. </p>
<p>Yang served his previous suspension and was found innocent of any wrongdoing by FINA. So in smashing his blood test and questioning the accreditation of the officer, he did not demand anything that is not expected in any other facet of society – that authorities follow correct procedure. </p>
<p>Indeed, every athlete should have the right to be treated according to correct procedure given the severe repercussions of anti-doping rule violations. And Yang’s case highlights the need to reevaluate how we protect those accused of anti-doping violations as well as how to rehabilitate athletes. </p>
<h2>The athlete movement</h2>
<p>There has been pressure on the World Anti-Doping Agency from multiple sportspeople and organisations to increase the input of athletes in anti-doping governance. British Paralympian Ali Jawad, for example, released <a href="https://www.sportsintegrityinitiative.com/rio-2016-silver-medalist-ali-jawad-unveils-athlete-led-proposals-for-logical-and-pragmatic-governance-reform-of-world-anti-doping-agency/">The Alternative</a>, a document setting out his proposal World Anti-Doping Agency governance reforms. </p>
<p>Similarly, <a href="https://athletescan.com/en/governments-athletes-and-anti-doping-organizations-call-reforms-after-emergency-summit-white-house">AthletesCan</a>, the organisation responsible for representing Canadian athletes, the <a href="https://www.ukad.org.uk/news/article/anti-doping-leaders-unite-with-international-athlete-community-in-calling-f">National Anti-Doping Organisations</a> and <a href="https://www.sportsintegrityinitiative.com/statement-by-global-athletes-on-continued-criticism-by-wada-against-the-worlds-athletes-and-other-anti-doping-reformers/">The Reformers</a>, an international collective of politically active athletes, have all released statements demanding greater representation for athletes. </p>
<p>Given then the support Horton has <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2019/jul/22/mack-horton-accused-of-disrespecting-china-after-protesting-sun-yangs-win">received from other swimmers</a>, such protests exemplify the need for increased athlete representation on the World Anti-Doping executive committee to make decisions on their behalf. </p>
<p>The World Anti-Doping Agency has acknowledged this and said it is willing to <a href="https://www.wada-ama.org/en/media/news/2018-11/wada-foundation-board-approves-wide-ranging-governance-reform">strengthen the athlete voice</a> in decision making. But that this will only happen when athletes can determine a method to nominate a representative that adequately represents the cultural and sporting diversity of athletes under the World Anti-Doping Agency umbrella. Which is clearly quite the task, given the issue is so fraught with geopolitical tensions.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/120848/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Daniel Read does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Why swimmers are protesting against China’s Sun Yang at the World Championships.Daniel Read, PhD Candidate at the Institute for Sport Business, Loughborough UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/892522017-12-18T16:30:49Z2017-12-18T16:30:49ZElite sport: time to scrap the therapeutic exemption system of banned medicines<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/199714/original/file-20171218-27547-1jwnmk3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.paimages.co.uk/image-details/2.23232631">PA</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Four-time Tour de France winner <a href="https://www.britishcycling.org.uk/gbcyclingteam/new/bio/Chris_Froome">Chris Froome’s</a> positive test for high levels of the asthma drug <a href="https://beta.nhs.uk/medicines/salbutamol-inhaler/">salbutamol</a> in September during the Vuelta a Espana race has prompted much debate on the rules surrounding medicines in sport.</p>
<p>In essence, some drugs are not allowed, and others are allowed up to a threshold level under a <a href="https://ukad.org.uk/medications-and-substances/about-TUE/">Therapeutic Use Exemption</a> (TUE). This creates problems in establishing the threshold level and around accidental over-use, but also opens the door to unethical behaviour.</p>
<p>Team Sky cyclist Froome, who did not have a TUE for salbutamol, but was using it under normal guidelines that the <a href="https://www.wada-ama.org/">World Anti-Doping Agency</a> (WADA) <a href="http://www.cyclingweekly.com/news/latest-news/everything-you-need-to-know-about-chris-froomes-salbutamol-case-362848">allows</a>, defended his use of the drug for treating his asthma and said he <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/cycling/2017/12/14/chris-froome-have-not-broken-rules-sure-truth-will-told/">hadn’t broken any rules</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/199715/original/file-20171218-27541-1xy0gsc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/199715/original/file-20171218-27541-1xy0gsc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=675&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/199715/original/file-20171218-27541-1xy0gsc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=675&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/199715/original/file-20171218-27541-1xy0gsc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=675&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/199715/original/file-20171218-27541-1xy0gsc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=848&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/199715/original/file-20171218-27541-1xy0gsc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=848&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/199715/original/file-20171218-27541-1xy0gsc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=848&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Salbutamol is a drug used to treat asthma.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.paimages.co.uk/image-details/2.34035233">PA</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This case and others throw up broader questions about how to regulate medical drug use in elite cycling.</p>
<p>If an athlete has evidence from a doctor, they can be allowed to take a medical drug that is on the <a href="https://www.wada-ama.org/en/what-we-do/the-prohibited-list">prohibited list</a> via the TUE system. The idea, as Froome’s teammate <a href="http://www.cyclingweekly.com/news/latest-news/sir-bradley-wiggins-rider-profile-72520">Bradley Wiggins</a> said in defence of his own TUE for pollen allergies, is to level the playing field by removing the disadvantage of an illness. However, taken in large doses, there are some medicines which also have stimulating effects – which is why they are banned.</p>
<p>Given the potential for exploiting this loophole, and the lack of consistency, it might be fairer if the TUE system was completely scrapped. This would also be in the interests of athletes’ short and long-term health.</p>
<h2>Taking advantage of the system</h2>
<p>There are many ways in which an unscrupulous and determined athlete can exploit the TUE process. An obvious strategy is to find a doctor willing to bend the rules and write prescriptions for unnecessary medicines. Another might be to fake an illness or manipulate the results of diagnostic tests. </p>
<p>There is some research to show this may happening in practice. For example, in a large Danish <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0955395913000364">study</a>, 51% of respondents believed that athletes in their sport where being allowed unnecessary TUEs.</p>
<p>In November, <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sport/othersports/article-5025457/Ex-British-Cycling-coach-Shane-Sutton-hired-China.html">Shane Sutton</a>, the former Team Sky coach <a href="http://www.cyclingweekly.com/news/latest-news/we-used-tues-to-get-marginal-gains-says-former-team-sky-and-british-cycling-coach-shane-sutton-359307">said</a> that TUEs were part of their “marginal gains” performance strategy. The leading athletics coach, <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/athletics/41811637">Alberto Salazar</a>, who was until recently British distance runner <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/othersports/athletics/7914182/Mo-Farah-profile.html">Mo Farah’s</a> coach, obtained TUEs for his group of elite athletes, and upon investigation it was <a href="https://www.propublica.org/article/records-in-nike-oregon-alberto-salazar-doping-investigation-do-not-match">revealed</a> that some of their medical records were altered. </p>
<p>There is a clear difference between the letter of the law and the spirit of the law, but in a highly competitive context like sport, managers will follow the letter of the law to avoid punishment while trying to gain as much advantage as possible.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/199716/original/file-20171218-27538-wi4vff.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/199716/original/file-20171218-27538-wi4vff.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/199716/original/file-20171218-27538-wi4vff.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/199716/original/file-20171218-27538-wi4vff.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/199716/original/file-20171218-27538-wi4vff.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/199716/original/file-20171218-27538-wi4vff.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/199716/original/file-20171218-27538-wi4vff.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">British cyclist Chris Froome celebrates winning the Tour de France in 2015.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.paimages.co.uk/image-details/2.23660981">PA</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
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</figure>
<h2>Inconsistencies</h2>
<p>The purpose of allowing access to medicines ostensibly seems to be a supportive, athlete-centred policy. But if an athlete sprains their ankle they have no choice but to rest until it is healed. They are treated unfairly compared to an athlete who has an illness for which there is a short-term cure. </p>
<p>Another problem is that some athletes have medical support staff who know how to use the TUE system to their advantage. Someone in a less well-resourced environment might find it much harder to get good advice. In such a case, they might simply accept their fate and stop competing until they have recovered, or risk a sanction by inadvertently taking a banned drug without having applied for a TUE.</p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more: <a href="https://theconversation.com/world-cycling-is-broken-its-time-to-lift-the-ban-on-doping-38609">World cycling is broken: it’s time to lift the ban on doping</a></strong></em> </p>
<hr>
<p>One might also imagine there are athletes who believe in the spirit of the law and the values of sport, and so refrain from over-medicalising even if they have the opportunity. They might wish to demonstrate their success is due to hard work, fitness and skill, not supported by artificial stimulants. </p>
<p>The current policy is a compromise between not allowing too much drug use, and the hard line of a blanket no-drugs policy that would discriminate against athletes with treatable health issues. Yet, there is a range of unforeseen consequences if the drugs in question are not available to all athletes, and if there are opportunities to bend the rules. </p>
<h2>Effects on athletes</h2>
<p>While the TUE system appears to be concerned about athletes’ health by allowing them to use medicines, there are some ways in which the use of such medicines is detrimental to their health. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/199717/original/file-20171218-27557-1fmh82b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/199717/original/file-20171218-27557-1fmh82b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/199717/original/file-20171218-27557-1fmh82b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=718&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/199717/original/file-20171218-27557-1fmh82b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=718&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/199717/original/file-20171218-27557-1fmh82b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=718&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/199717/original/file-20171218-27557-1fmh82b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=903&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/199717/original/file-20171218-27557-1fmh82b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=903&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/199717/original/file-20171218-27557-1fmh82b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=903&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sir Bradley Wiggins has benefited from TUEs to help him deal with a pollen allergy.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.paimages.co.uk/image-details/2.28334225">PA</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>If an athlete is ill or in pain, they should rest. Drugs which mask a health problem in order to allow athletes to push themselves for the sake of sport could have an impact in the short and longer term. The over-use of painkillers can lead to addiction, as <a href="http://edition.cnn.com/2017/03/12/health/nfl-painkiller-lawsuit/index.html">found</a> recently in American football. Painkillers also lead to neglecting the underlying medical problem, causing long-term health issues and shortening athletes’ careers.</p>
<p>If a new policy saw the scrapping of TUEs, athletes might still be allowed to use a selection of over-the-counter medicines in low doses. A list of such medicines could be compiled, ensuring there was no confusion about which drugs could be taken. This would help athletes of integrity trust the system to protect them from unscrupulous athletes, doctors and coaches. </p>
<p>And if WADA aims to ensure a level playing field, promote the health of athletes and foster a consistent, coherent and transparent approach, then perhaps the only way forward is to prevent the abuse of TUEs is by removing them completely.</p>
<p>The global sports community needs to be serious about clean sport, and such a drastic solution might be necessary. Those who suffer illness might not get to compete to the same extent, but athletes would have to accept that fairness and health are good principles to follow, and accept their fate much like athletes who miss out due to broken bones or concussion.</p>
<p>This might sound brutal and inhumane, and WADA might look for ways to soften the blow for those athletes in genuine need, but at the very least, we need to recognise the complex and sometimes hidden problems in the current approach, and seek ways to solve them.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/89252/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The Therapeutic Use Exemption system of banned medicines in sport creates more problems than it solves, is open to abuse and is simply unfair.Paul Dimeo, Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Health Sciences and Sport, University of StirlingVerner Møller, Professor of Sports Science, Aarhus UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/613162016-07-07T10:42:55Z2016-07-07T10:42:55ZHow does a Tour de France favourite win on the scorching mountain slopes?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/129234/original/image-20160704-19091-olrq5k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=260%2C344%2C1700%2C1122&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Peak performance? How riders prepare decides their fate.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/willj/7558625860/in/photolist-cvVW8w-fi3bdP-hBaCJG-6mKNGU-nWE8Ra-afYAbt-57d1VZ-edVqy1-3o8nt-e17hBy-5x4da-4be1RR-jWRWbd-6mKMm7-fiemFb-8oSmZi-8mmVY1-8mn4aA-a5SbKJ-ag2phq-nWRMGS-a7d1zg-fhWr8B-fie2GG-8Awzh-5YqtgA-dh7bii-2gT6Tp-2napqV-agFg2C-afYAR2-afYAiF-fhdnkY-ag2m3w-aCzAX-aCzEV-57d6fR-4be2ir-8rYx5k-8rMn8f-3o8rb-4be2Ec-fhdcRo-fifHkG-a7fTLj-3o8ni-hk73Z-71bfJR-9PGE4P-71bcYg">will_cyclist/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The Tour de France is winding its way from the flat, windswept coast of northern France down through the Loire valley and <a href="http://www.letour.com/le-tour/2016/us/overall-route.html">the lumpy terrain</a> of the Massif Central. So far, it has been a time for the bulky sprinters and the <a href="https://velovoices.com/peloton-primer/peloton-primer-types-of-rider/">puncheurs</a> who specialise in short, maximum efforts. But as with every Tour, the race will be won on the long, winding slopes of the mountain stages when the summer heat and relentless gradient can sap both strength and morale. </p>
<p>This year’s edition <a href="http://www.cyclingweekly.co.uk/news/racing/tour-de-france/seven-key-climbs-of-the-2016-tour-de-france-196139">will take the riders up passes</a> in the Alps and Pyrenees as well as up the Provencal monster of Mont Ventoux. The race will reach altitudes of more than 2,000m above sea level, while temperatures are likely to nudge 40˚C. </p>
<p>That combination of heat and altitude is a huge challenge for general classification contenders such as Britain’s Chris Froome, Colombia’s Nairo Quintana and Spain’s Alberto Contador. Understanding the physiological effects such extremes can cause will help define who is wearing the yellow jersey in Paris.</p>
<h2>Peaks and troughs</h2>
<p>One of this year’s most compelling tests will fall during stage 12, when the riders face a 184km slog to the summit of Mont Ventoux. It peaks at 1,912m after a 15.7km climb with an average gradient of almost 9%. The mountain <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/2012/jul/14/archive-1967-simpson-death-tour-de-france">has a tragic history</a> and a daunting reputation thanks to its exposed, volcanic slopes which provide the bunch with little respite from the glaring sun. </p>
<p>The effects of a combination of heat and altitude, as often experienced on Ventoux, are not well understood. There is some <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24748530">recent evidence</a> to suggest an additive effect of heat and altitude, which can reduce exercise performance by as much as half compared to about a 35% reduction due to either heat or altitude in isolation. The paucity of research on the combined effects means athletes and coaches still tend to focus their efforts on each factor in isolation.</p>
<p>So what can you do to prepare for the brutality of racing up a mountain in the burning heat of the day – the riders are scheduled to start climbing Ventoux at about 4pm on Bastille Day (July 14)? </p>
<h2>Climate control</h2>
<p>The good news is that acclimatisation works. It has repeatedly been shown that <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9309637">cycling performance is impaired in the heat</a>, but that this can be overcome by a period of <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20724560">heat acclimatisation</a>. The athlete is repeatedly exposed to exercise in warm conditions in order to elevate their core body temperature and stress their cardiovascular system. In many <a href="http://www.gssiweb.org/en/Article/sse-153-heat-acclimatization-to-improve-athletic-performance-in-warm-hot-environments">scientific studies</a> in this field, acclimatisation to the heat is often achieved using environmental chambers to artificially replicate a warm environment. However, for obvious reasons, many cycling teams choose to take their key climbers to warm weather training camps. </p>
<p>It can can reduce core temperature and heart rate, both at rest and during exercise. These measures are often used to determine whether an athlete has become heat acclimatised – but how does it happen? </p>
<p>Reductions in heart rate, both at rest and during exercise, occur in response to an expansion in plasma volume. An expansion of plasma volume allows the cardiovascular system to meet the demands of increasing peripheral blood flow to the skin, while preserving skeletal muscle blood flow and that to the core. Increases in skin blood flow are important as it represents a key avenue by which heat generated via exercise (made worse during exercise in the heat) is transferred from the body core to the skin and helps defend against <a href="http://www.webmd.com/first-aid/hyperthermia">hyperthermia</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/129236/original/image-20160704-19110-1rq9k6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/129236/original/image-20160704-19110-1rq9k6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/129236/original/image-20160704-19110-1rq9k6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129236/original/image-20160704-19110-1rq9k6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129236/original/image-20160704-19110-1rq9k6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129236/original/image-20160704-19110-1rq9k6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129236/original/image-20160704-19110-1rq9k6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129236/original/image-20160704-19110-1rq9k6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Heat can hamper riders’ ability.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/evilnick/191172022/in/photolist-hTNMm-2pWdV-2pDQ6w-g9DSC-cKZ21o-8cDuaD-iwh8B-6aZWUa-2ShPr-ihVQK-ebHgiB-39p6P-4Un7TT-6Hn84y-jc76Gy-5pcixw-5kMM1V-9ejYU3-6sb6e-bX53B4-cvtAxY-5FYsdK-bX54i6-au2Byw-dNRBv7-bX53tZ-cerpnu-sojdB-8xJETJ">evil nick/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Preventing large increases in core and skin temperature are important in determining performance. It <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25943669">is thought</a> that feedback <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21197543">from these regions</a> helps to determine an athlete’s pacing – in other words, the hotter you get, the less you think you can push it. </p>
<p>It is not uncommon that during the Tour, temperatures on Ventoux and in the Alps and Pyrenees will exceed 30˚C. That means that whichever of the Tour favourites is better acclimatised will have lower core and skin temperatures at crucial moments and will be able to go harder than their rivals.</p>
<h2>Height restriction</h2>
<p>The effects of altitude alone on cycling power output and endurance capacity <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26629912">are well known</a>, largely occurring as a result of the reduction in the partial pressure of oxygen in the atmosphere. This effectively means that for each breath a cyclist takes at altitude they are getting less oxygen to the muscles, which elevates the physiological strain. The heart rate goes up, and the power output goes down.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/129241/original/image-20160704-19127-1sn1nfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/129241/original/image-20160704-19127-1sn1nfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/129241/original/image-20160704-19127-1sn1nfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129241/original/image-20160704-19127-1sn1nfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129241/original/image-20160704-19127-1sn1nfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129241/original/image-20160704-19127-1sn1nfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129241/original/image-20160704-19127-1sn1nfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129241/original/image-20160704-19127-1sn1nfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">More oxygen equals better performance.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com">Anna Kireieva/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Altitude training can prepare riders for these extremes, too. Long periods of altitude work can drive an increase in haemoglobin and red blood cells via erythropoiesis – the same effect as can be artificially and illegally achieved with the <a href="http://www.runnersworld.com/sweat-science/how-does-epo-work">use of the infamous drug, EPO</a>.</p>
<p>This is an important adaptation because an increase in red blood cells and haemoglobin improves the blood’s ability to move oxygen around your body. This means that more oxygenated blood reaches the muscles, helping to meet the metabolic demand of cycling at a given intensity more easily. Riders can therefore sustain a higher power output on the mountain slopes for a longer period of time compared to an individual who has not undergone altitude training (or taken EPO).</p>
<p>So let’s say that we arrive at Mont Ventoux on July 14 with the sun blazing and the racing hard. We will essentially be faced with a test of the favourites’ preparation. Has Froome done the altitude work to get enough oxygen to his legs when Quintana attacks? And when these two hot favourites start trading blows, will Contador or Italy’s Fabio Aru have done enough warm weather training to stay cool? It will look like an old-fashioned fight between the lean and lycra-clad, but beneath it all, the scientific foundations that will define the result have already been decided.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/61316/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>When the road heads higher and the mercury is rising, the world’s top cyclists get to test the quality of their preparation.Steve Faulkner, Research associate, Loughborough UniversityKaty Griggs, Research Assistant and PhD student, Loughborough UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/449982015-07-24T12:00:42Z2015-07-24T12:00:42ZThe performance story that is pushing Chris Froome towards Tour number two<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/89621/original/image-20150724-7608-1p4psa1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=266%2C21%2C1597%2C1204&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Performance review. Froome approaches the Champs Elysees.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/sean_hickin/14410377998/in/photolist-nXoXk5-oewjMh-ofuLXv-cHT1q9-cHSZTm-cHYqy9-egbLSX-eghwVo-tHaAmj-ocxKHo-ntj99b-egbFEK-egbFxH-nCRME4-adqRns-cFksrh-cFksZw-nZ75Ke-nX5Hpr-cHLtZ3-feNbXB-vFt49M-oepL8o-ffVNh3-fgTnpq-cJcrW1-cHJSgJ-it3Wy2-cHJRUJ-fhAxTd-ffC7UA-rmwv6N-amZjbK-cJcs11-oehDha-oepCJf-nX6UmT-ocy3kG-nYNUQ3-spy7JY-w3pT1K-fdYf53-nX6p2c-ogmxrK-nX63Ph-nX6SwR-nX5DJ1-nX5W32-ocx67W-nX5RA6">sean_hickin</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Assuming no last minute collapses in form or bone-breaking crashes, Chris Froome will ride along Champs-Élysées on Sunday as the winner of the 2015 Tour de France and the only British man in history to win the race twice. This was achieved in a Tour characterised by high speed crashes, <a href="http://news.sky.com/story/1521348/froome-spectator-threw-urine-in-my-face">the throwing of urine and abuse at Froome</a>, reports of a <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/cycling/33517897">data hack into his Sky team’s files</a> to cast doubt on the legitimacy of his success, and a spectre of doping that refuses to leave the mountains. </p>
<p>Then of course, there is the small matter of 3,400km of bike racing against highly motivated rivals. Victory in this most brutal test of human endurance is within reach, but what explains why Froome chose to push his body so hard in pursuit of success? </p>
<p>Is he just that rare breed of cyclist who can excel on the flat, in the mountains, and in team and individual time trials? Or, is there something else more elusive that shapes a champion? The narratives that elite athletes construct and detail in their autobiographies are becoming an <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/14690292/16/part/P3">established source of data</a> for scholars <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/14690292/16/part/P1">who seek access</a> to the underlying identities of elite athletes to understand a champion mindset. <a href="http://road.cc/content/review/133063-climb-chris-froome">Froome’s autobiography The Climb</a> gives us useful look at how he has constructed his narrative. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/89625/original/image-20150724-7593-j91e4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/89625/original/image-20150724-7593-j91e4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/89625/original/image-20150724-7593-j91e4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=311&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/89625/original/image-20150724-7593-j91e4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=311&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/89625/original/image-20150724-7593-j91e4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=311&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/89625/original/image-20150724-7593-j91e4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/89625/original/image-20150724-7593-j91e4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/89625/original/image-20150724-7593-j91e4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Goal oriented. Paris.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/lukema/10919087774/in/photolist-hCTbo3-dQwCx8-dETREF-qDPWWW-KiZT7-8bBCzB-eMNmWu-949ZBd-4ZPGgx-96mXF2-mT123P-p6Chvu-5eBrvj-eXCZfd-nVNXt5-8F8cfJ-rHDAVC-e9QQz9-bt3Pdb-8sKWEw-baAxAx-vuBknr-cCp1rG-imjiGp-rBp7tY-bqq2mX-oPLNkY-rLSuRw-aBy3ot-qXij1C-dMBRHq-o7Xfri-rtSCKM-8YVabu-9iqpjR-mVt9HU-9xFdYh-8YRU4e-dUtzbz-sXgLWZ-cDvEbj-rJzFzy-9pgPCU-fHfnfn-a5rVxN-eej7Mn-e6sa1X-rUaMQu-azX8Up-qwQnjk">Luke Ma</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Suffering</h2>
<p>Froome depicts his passage from being a skinny kijana (youngster) racing his mentor in the Ngong Hills in Kenya to triumph in the 2013 Tour de France. His story comprises a number of intertwined narratives of which the most dominant is a performance narrative. The term, coined by <a href="http://journals.humankinetics.com/wspaj-back-issues/wspaj-volume-15-issue-2-fall/performance-discovery-and-relational-narratives-among-women-professional-tournament-golfers">Kitrina Douglas and David Carless</a>, involves a single-minded dedication to sport, and the prioritization of winning above all else that might impact on the athlete’s mental well-being, identity, and self-worth. In addition to being dominant in Froome’s memoir it can be seen as the prevailing narrative in other autobiographies, such as that of <a href="http://www.goodreads.com/book/show/5497240-no-limits">Olympic champion Michael Phelps</a>. </p>
<p>Froome’s performance narrative is framed by accounts of suffering. In fact, his repetitive use of the word reminds the reader that suffering, particularly on his bike, is what characterises his life. His Kenyan birthplace is known for its world class runners but has had little success in cycling. What it also has is mountains, and it is in these mountains that Froome developed his highly focused resilience. As onlookers we have seen his single-minded motivation, against the odds, towards becoming a multiple Tour winner. His resilience is evident in the face of pretty much <a href="http://www.cyclingnews.com/http://www.cyclingnews.com/news/tour-de-france-froome-hits-back-at-jalaberts-comments">relentless doping insinuations</a> in the French press and particularly through social media, as well as in his response to urine being thrown at him, and in the searing conditions of the Tour. </p>
<p>It is in the mountains though where we get to see Froome’s solace in suffering. And perhaps it has been no better demonstrated this year than in the mountain finish at La Pierre-Saint-Martin when Froome attacked to gain more than a minute on all of his main rivals. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/wuW7w9mC8R4?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Official coverage highlights from Stage 10 of the 2015 Tour.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Quest questions</h2>
<p>We all experience adversity, and champions are no different, but perhaps it is their response to the distress and disappointment that provides the transformational processes that motivate them beyond mere coping. This is apparent in many sporting autobiographies such as in the memoirs of Olympic swimming champions, <a href="http://amandabeard.net/">Amanda Beard</a> and <a href="http://www.biography.com/people/ian-thorpe-20930179">Ian Thorpe</a>, where adversity and the positive outcomes, framed as “adversarial growth”, are central. </p>
<p>These accounts tend towards a more quest-focused narrative which involve the confrontation of adversity, seeking of meaning, an explicit drive to gain something positive from the adversity, and a rejection of the performance narrative. Froome’s story involves adversity and despite the lows he achieved ultimate success. Froome recounts harsh school conditions, <a href="http://www.decodedscience.com/chris-froomes-parasite-what-is-bilharzia-anyway/33544">illness (bilharzia)</a>, his mother’s death in 2008 while he was riding in Spain, and the frustrations of 2012 when he was assigned the <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/men/active/10951513/Michael-Barry-the-truth-about-cycling-domestiques.html">role of domestique</a> for Bradley Wiggins, nurturing his team leader through the stages to Paris (<a href="http://road.cc/content/news/93418-sean-yates-bradley-wiggins-nearly-quit-2012-tour-de-france-after-chris-froome">with only the odd false step</a>).</p>
<p>Adversity was also evident in the build up to this second victory; a broken wrist in the 2014 Tour meant a stage five withdrawal and no replay of his 2013 glory. Unlike Beard and Thorpe though, Froome has never rejected the performance narrative, even if in modern cycling it contains its own dangers. </p>
<p>It may be the primary device explaining Froome’s drive, motivation, and sacrifice for cycling, but there is a limit to the pervasive script of this narrative. Froome has consistently attempted to draw a definitive red line as to the limit of his performance. His team this week was <a href="http://www.skysports.com/cycling/news/15264/9919955/chris-froomes-tour-de-france-stage-10-power-data-revealed-by-team-sky">forced to reveal power data</a> which claimed to show estimates put forward by an expert were massive overestimates. In a sport damaged by the admissions of Lance Armstrong, it is a curious by-product that Froome and Team Sky are as eager to shout about both the normality and exceptionality of his performance. </p>
<p>As Froome prepares to ride the remaining mountains on his road to Paris, we will be watching to see if that performance narrative will continue to produce the effort, sacrifice, and team ethic required for this and future tour victories.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/44998/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Karen Howells does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>It’s not enough to be an elite athlete these days, you have to construct your own narrative for success.Karen Howells, Lecturer in Sport and Fitness, The Open UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/443122015-07-10T11:50:51Z2015-07-10T11:50:51ZHow cycling’s dark history continues to haunt the Tour de France<p>Is this the age of clean cycling? New testing methods, better attitudes among professional teams and a proactive stance from governing bodies all seem to suggest that the sport has cleaned up its act. Everyone who loves the sport will hope that this is true, but the shadow of the dark years still looms large. Look no further than this year’s Tour de France, where three of its four main contenders have all been touched by the scandal in recent years – though it must be stressed that none has ever been caught taking controlled substances with the intention of improving their performance.</p>
<p>Britain’s Chris Froome, who <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/sport/2015/jul/06/tour-de-france-crash-stage-suspended">holds the</a> first-placed yellow jersey at the time of writing, <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/sport/2015/jun/24/chris-froome-missed-drug-test-tour-de-france">admitted to</a> having missed a test only last month. This was due to lack of communication between himself and the staff of an Italian hotel at which he was staying. Though not in itself a violation of the <a href="https://www.wada-ama.org/en/what-we-do/the-code">World Anti-Doping Code</a>, the very fact he needed to publicly defend this scenario shows how deeply rooted suspicions are in the sport.</p>
<p>Neither was this the first time that Froome has come under the microscope. Two years ago, his <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/cycling/23399875">first Tour victory</a> was marred by implied and unfounded accusations – to which he <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2364096/Tour-France-2013-Chris-Froome-angrily-denies-doping-claims-stunning-stage-win.html">expressed anger</a> at the time. The following year, meanwhile, former Olympic cycling champion Nicole Cooke <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/sport/2015/mar/11/nicole-cooke-uci-chris-froome-steroid-tues">publicly criticised</a> the world cycling association, Union Cycliste International (UCI), for allowing Froome to use corticosteroids for medical reasons during a race that he went on to win. This was after doubts were cast over the processes through which Froome legitimately obtained the controlled therapeutic use exemption to compete. Cooke called on the UCI to apologise to the rest of the competitors for letting them down, though made clear that the cyclist did not deserve to have the title removed.</p>
<p>Then there is Alberto Contador, who has served a doping ban, albeit in controversial and somewhat murky circumstances. The Spaniard <a href="http://www.cyclingweekly.co.uk/racing/tour-de-france/contador-wins-2010-tour-de-france-as-cavendish-takes-final-stage-58705">won the</a> 2010 Tour de France before <a href="http://espn.go.com/olympics/cycling/story/_/id/7545798/alberto-contador-stripped-2010-tour-de-france-title">testing positive</a> for small levels of clenbuterol, another banned steroid. He claimed it may have entered his body through contaminated meat. While the Court of Arbitration for Sport did not conclude that he had taken the steroid intentionally, it decided it was his responsibility and that he should face the standard two-year ban. He was stripped of the 2010 title and also his 2011 Giro D'Italia win, even though the latter was after the positive test, which recently led Contador <a href="http://www.cyclingweekly.co.uk/racing/giro-ditalia/this-is-my-third-giro-ditalia-win-insists-alberto-contador-174528">to insist</a> he should still be recognised as the winner.</p>
<p>Contador’s 2010 victory then attracted further controversy after the Cycling Independent Reform Commission (CIRC) <a href="http://www.uci.ch/mm/Document/News/CleanSport/16/87/99/CIRCReport2015_Neutral.pdf">report</a> into the state of the sport post-<a href="http://www.forbes.com/fdc/welcome_mjx.shtml">Lance-Armstrong</a> found that the Spaniard <a href="http://www.cyclingnews.com/news/circ-contador-given-favourable-treatment-by-uci-after-2010-tour-de-france-doping-positive">had received</a> favourable treatment from the UCI in the run-up to being sanctioned. According to the report, the association only decided to support taking steps against Contador after the German media and the World Anti-Doping Agency both pursued the case.</p>
<p>Italy’s Vincenzo Nibali is the third of this year’s top Tour de France contenders. He has never been found to have taken controlled substances before a race. He rides for Astana, three of whose members of the Astana <a href="http://www.cyclingweekly.co.uk/news/latest-news/vincenzo-nibali-rage-astana-doping-revelations-141021">were caught doping</a> last year. Other accusations <a href="http://road.cc/content/news/124298-tour-de-france-leader-vincenzo-nibali-insists-italian-cycling-cleaning-its-act">include that</a> a team member was associated with the doping doctor <a href="http://velonews.competitor.com/2014/12/news/ferrari-doping-inquiry-reveals-38-cyclists-with-alleged-ties-to-doping_355587">Michele Ferrari</a>, that the manager Alexandre Vinokourov <a href="http://www.cyclingweekly.co.uk/news/latest-news/vinokourov-banned-for-a-year-but-announces-retirement-87664">was banned for</a> blood doping while still competing in 2007, and a senior member of the team previously worked with known doper, the late <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/men/active/recreational-cycling/10827554/Marco-Pantani-modern-cyclings-most-tragic-figure.html">Marco Pantani</a>.</p>
<p>Nibali recently hit back that <a href="http://velonews.competitor.com/2015/04/news/nibali-astana-is-a-symbol-of-clean-and-honest-sport_365363">Astana was</a> a “symbol of clean and honest sport”, but most recently there was fresh controversy as Astana rider Lars Boom <a href="https://theconversation.com/drafts/44312/Nibali%20recently%20hit%20back%20that%20%5BAstana%20was%5D(http:/velonews.competitor.com/2015/04/news/nibali-astana-is-a-symbol-of-clean-and-honest-sport_365363">was caught</a> with low levels of cortisol in his blood ahead of the Tour de France. He was still allowed to race, since this doesn’t necessarily mean he was doping, but it was a revelation that Astana could have done without.</p>
<h2>What to believe?</h2>
<p>It remains possible that we are now in an era of tougher regulations which are respected by team managers and riders. Top riders like Froome, Nibali and Bradley Wiggins all say that the sport is much cleaner now, as does Columbia’s <a href="http://deadspin.com/can-nairo-quintana-end-europes-stranglehold-on-the-tour-1716023888">Nairo Quintana</a>, the final top-four contender in this year’s tour.</p>
<p>Two important reports <a href="http://www.cyclingnews.com/news/anti-doping-denmark-report-reveals-widespread-doping-under-riis-at-csc">have attempted</a> to draw a line between past misdemeanours and current practice: the <a href="http://www.uci.ch/mm/Document/News/CleanSport/16/87/99/CIRCReport2015_Neutral.pdf">CIRC report</a> I mentioned earlier and another into Danish cycling by <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/cycling/33239760">Anti-Doping Denmark</a>. Both point to ongoing controversy, however. The Danish analysis finds cases of doping up to and including this year. The CIRC report claimed that 90% of the peloton is still doping. This claim has been hotly disputed by David Millar, the British rider <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/cycling/15922346">caught doping</a> while a member of the Cofidis team. He <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/othersports/cycling/11458165/Cycling-doping-report-I-do-not-recognise-this-almost-tabloidesque-account.html">claims that</a> “the majority of riders winning the biggest races are clean”.</p>
<p>Whatever the reality, the grilling that Chris Froome faced in 2013 is unlikely to be repeated any time soon. Many reporters, stakeholders and fans have put their faith in <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/cycling/24300072">new UCI president</a> Brian Cookson and in the World Anti-Doping Agency to clean the sport up, with added scrutiny from pressure groups seeking a collective anti-doping approach such as <a href="http://www.mpcc.fr/index.php/en/mpcc-uk">Movement for Credible Cycling</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/drafts/44312/www.theouterline.com">The Outer Line</a>.</p>
<p>Arguably these shifts in attitudes and behaviours have occurred because people have come to believe that others have changed – in this case that winning Grand Tour races without doping is possible. This is a huge change from 15 years ago when the best cyclists thought they needed to dope to win, despite the blanket denials at the time.</p>
<p>To some extent the story has moved on to other sports, <a href="http://www.mirror.co.uk/sport/other-sports/athletics/roger-black-athletics-been-tainted-5997750">most recently athletics</a>. Yet in cycling the intensity of the current anti-doping efforts, including among investigative journalists, means that even trivial incidents such as Froome’s recent hotel debacle are made to seem indicative of doping risks. Missing tests has now become an act of public contrition, where really there should be privacy. Guilt by association is commonly implied, even if proof of wrongdoing is lacking.</p>
<p>The reputational implications of past doping sanctions are still hard for any individual to shake off, not to say the sport as a whole. The highest echelons of cycling might be cleaner, but the spectre of accusations and the merest hint of any scandal will continue to haunt the world’s greatest cycling race. The sport has not yet escaped from its past – it may be many years before it does.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/44312/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paul doesn't have any current funding related to this subject matter, but has previously received funding from the World Anti-Doping Agency, the Fulbright Commission and British Academy for projects focused on other aspects of drug use in sport.
</span></em></p>While world cycling insists it has cleaned up its act, it remains in suspicious times until further notice.Paul Dimeo, Senior Lecturer in Sport, University of StirlingLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/280702014-07-04T04:57:44Z2014-07-04T04:57:44ZTour de France’s doping history clouds a ‘cleaner’ sport<p>With the start of the 101st Tour de France only one day away, the topic of doping in cycling will no doubt start to rear its ugly head. While the riders cover 3,664km in 21 stages over three weeks in an extraordinary feat of human endurance, the aftershocks of the Lance Armstrong affair continue to colour our approach to the event and its champions.</p>
<p>Armstrong was meant to be the saviour of modern day cycling as it sought to recover from the <a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/special_report/1998/07/98/tour_de_france/134842.stm">Festina scandal of 1998</a>. He was credited with an intense attention to detail and dedicated scientific approach to his preparation; his cycling team was revered for a scientific and systematic approach to training and racing. Both parties were seen as having “too much to lose” to be caught up in the doping scandals that surrounded the sport during the late 1990s and early 2000s. Unfortunately as we now know, this was not the case. </p>
<p>So where does this leave the current crop of cyclists as they push out on the start from the start line of this year’s Tour? Even the most cynical of us hope that the riders are clean, or at least cleaner than the previous decades. The anti-doping debate is also testament to the hope that people involved in the sport want change, and want to believe that professional cycling has cleaned up its act.</p>
<p>Media, sponsor and fan pressure is starting to force teams to take a <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/cycling/20147726">“zero tolerance”</a> stance on doping, and is undoubtedly behind the decision of Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI) President, Brian Cookson, to create the Cycling <a href="http://www.cyclingweekly.co.uk/news/latest-news/uci-president-brian-cookson-announces-cycling-independent-reform-commission-19368">Independent Reform Commission (CIRC)</a>. Cookson’s actions have won many admirers including International Olympic Committee President, Thomas Bach, who said he was “impressed” with the UCI’s efforts to stamp out doping in the sport.</p>
<h2>Change on the horizon?</h2>
<p>But is the attitude towards doping in cycling actually changing in the peloton itself? It is difficult to say for certain. Thanks to the history of the sport there will always be scepticism about whether riders are clean. It is unfortunate, but inevitable, that riders and teams who carry the yellow jersey that has been stained by years of doping and cheating, will be questioned. It was no great surprise that many in the sport viewed <a href="http://www1.skysports.com/cycling/news/15264/9164881/chris-froome-hopes-to-silence-doping-doubters-with-another-dominant-season-in-2014">Chris Froome and Team Sky’s dominance</a> at last year’s Tour with a level of suspicion.</p>
<p>The introduction of the <a href="http://www.wada-ama.org/en/Science-Medicine/Athlete-Biological-Passport/">biological passport</a> for athletes in 2008 appears to have had an effect on athlete behavior and attitudes towards doping in the sport. The biological passport monitors certain parameters of a cyclist’s blood over time, making it more difficult for them to dope without detection. The passport does not test for specific banned substances, rather for the manipulation of blood parameters that suggest doping has occurred. Encouragingly, the biological passport has <a href="http://sports.espn.go.com/oly/cycling/news/story?id=6192949">stood up to legal challenges</a>. But it will take more evidence to show that the biological passport provides a long-term deterrent to doping within the sport.</p>
<p>So, why is doping such a big issue in cycling and other endurance-based sports? Well it improves performance, quite significantly, and in some cases <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0056151">by as much as 6%</a> according to research work by Yannis Pitsiladis. Therefore, assuming that professional cycling is cleaning up its act, the Tour should be significantly slower than the 1990s and 2000s. This can be tracked as the Tour often visits the same routes and mountains year on year, affording historical comparisons.</p>
<p><a href="https://twitter.com/Scienceofsport">Sports scientists such as Ross Tucker</a> from South Africa have performed these comparisons, which demonstrate that from 2009, the average performance speed and power outputs of top tour riders fell by 5-10%. This is apparent from the fact that the tour winners of 2010 to 2012 being barely able to make the top ten in tours from the 1990s and 2000s. </p>
<p>Cycling power output carries with it some important physiological implications because the cyclist/bicycle system is “closed”: physiological power can be directly measured as mechanical power by a power meter on the bike. Therefore it is possible to estimate, with a few assumptions, what kind of physiology determines a given output. The performances of some riders in the Armstrong era were such that it is hard to believe they were the result of the “normal” training processes, however gifted they were. </p>
<p>In time, technological, training and nutritional advances might slowly narrow the gap between recent performances and those of the 1990s and 2000s. Last year <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-23368970">Chris Froome’s ascent of the main mountain stages</a> (Ax-3-Domaines and Mont Ventoux) matched the level of performance seen in the Armstrong era.</p>
<h2>Speculation and accusation</h2>
<p>Unsurprisingly following Froome’s performance in the mountains fingers started to be pointed at both him and Team Sky. Following a period of concerted pressure from the media, Sky eventually released Froome’s power data for “expert” review. Dave Brailsford, Team Sky Principal, suggested that their reluctance to release Froome’s data was <a href="http://velonews.competitor.com/2013/07/news/qa-brailsford-on-why-froome-wont-release-power-data_293771">due to the actions of “pseudo scientists”</a> who misinterpret power output data either inadvertently, or deliberately, to make it say more or less what they want.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/52885/original/knpvtdp4-1404300115.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/52885/original/knpvtdp4-1404300115.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/52885/original/knpvtdp4-1404300115.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=445&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/52885/original/knpvtdp4-1404300115.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=445&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/52885/original/knpvtdp4-1404300115.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=445&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/52885/original/knpvtdp4-1404300115.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/52885/original/knpvtdp4-1404300115.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/52885/original/knpvtdp4-1404300115.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dave Brailsford.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/johnthescone/577882709/in/photolist-T4NoZ-bjwqvX-bjvsFe-bjtoTF-8RKRZR-8RNZ3m-8RNYzq-8RNYhS-8RKRCT-8RKRgB-anfV85-bjtquR-bjtrL6-dvLK9k-dvSfwG-fpgJoD-anfP4q-6z1Pd5-6z1QPA-6yWHQc-hpAuxS-6z1TRw-6yWKsv-6yWHsn-6z1Rx9-6z1N9W-6z1RbG-6yWFna-6z1LE9-6z1TcS-6z1KF9-6z1RR3-6z1PX1-6z1KZm-6z1Txu-6yWGaH-6z1PA3-6yWMop-6z1Mxb-6z1Qfj-6z1S8Q-6z1STw-5GVAh4-5GVPFz-ccEmqf-ccEiZC-ccEiU7-bVi4pn-ccEmvC-bjvH4c">johnthescone</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In some respect Brailsford is absolutely correct, there are many things that influence performance which power output data alone fails to capture (weather, race tactics, equipment calibration), making definitive conclusions difficult. It would be a misapplication of science to accuse a rider of doping due to an unrealistic performance, even though many do. </p>
<p>But secrecy and refusal to openly discuss performances inevitably leads to the speculation about their veracity. What most people strive for is a cleaner sport: at times there appears to be a polarised approach, either look to the future and deny everything from the past, or examine every detail and challenge every performance which from time to time leads to unfair accusations. A balanced approach is probably somewhere in the middle. </p>
<p>At the weekend, all eyes will turn to Froome and Team Sky as Tour favourites. Their performances are currently seen as the benchmark for the rest of the peloton, as well as cycling fans who want to know what it takes to win the Tour.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/28070/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>James Hopker does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>With the start of the 101st Tour de France only one day away, the topic of doping in cycling will no doubt start to rear its ugly head. While the riders cover 3,664km in 21 stages over three weeks in an…James Hopker, Senior Lecturer, University of KentLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.