tag:theconversation.com,2011:/uk/topics/code-23483/articlescode – The Conversation2024-01-02T16:49:59Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2177332024-01-02T16:49:59Z2024-01-02T16:49:59ZAI can now attend a meeting and write code for you – here’s why you should be cautious<p>Microsoft recently <a href="https://blogs.microsoft.com/blog/2023/09/21/announcing-microsoft-copilot-your-everyday-ai-companion/">launched</a> a new version of all of its software with the addition of an artificial intelligence (AI) assistant that can do a variety of tasks for you. <a href="https://adoption.microsoft.com/en-us/copilot/">Copilot</a> can summarise verbal conversations on <a href="https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/office/join-a-meeting-in-microsoft-teams-1613bb53-f3fa-431e-85a9-d6a91e3468c9">Teams</a> online meetings, present arguments for or against a particular point based on verbal discussions and answer a portion of your emails. It can even write computer code.</p>
<p>This quickly developing technology appears to take us even closer to a future where AI makes our lives easier and takes away all of the boring and repetitive things we have to do as humans. </p>
<p>But while these advancements are all very impressive and useful, we must be cautious in our use of such <a href="https://www.techopedia.com/definition/34948/large-language-model-llm">large language models</a> (LLMs). Despite their intuitive nature, they still require skill to use them effectively, reliably and safely.</p>
<h2>Large language models</h2>
<p>LLMs, a type of “deep learning” neural network, are designed to understand the user’s intent by analysing the probability of different responses based on the prompt provided. So, when a person inputs a prompt, the LLM examines the text and determines the most likely response. </p>
<p><a href="https://chat.openai.com">ChatGPT</a>, a prominent example of an LLM, can provide answers to prompts on a wide range of subjects. However, despite its seemingly knowledgeable responses, ChatGPT <a href="https://venturebeat.com/ai/llms-have-not-learned-our-language-were-trying-to-learn-theirs%EF%BF%BC/">does not</a> possess actual knowledge. Its responses are simply the most probable outcomes based on the given prompt.</p>
<p>When people provide ChatGPT, Copilot and other LLMs with detailed descriptions of the tasks they want to accomplish, these models can excel at providing high-quality responses. This could include generating text, images or computer code. </p>
<p>But, as humans, we often push the boundaries of what technology can do and what it was originally designed for. Consequently, we start using these systems to do the legwork that we should have done ourselves.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="The Microsoft 365 Copilot logo is displayed on a smartphone screen held in a hand." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/562981/original/file-20231201-29-8xiuff.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=53%2C8%2C6000%2C3979&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/562981/original/file-20231201-29-8xiuff.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562981/original/file-20231201-29-8xiuff.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562981/original/file-20231201-29-8xiuff.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562981/original/file-20231201-29-8xiuff.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562981/original/file-20231201-29-8xiuff.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562981/original/file-20231201-29-8xiuff.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Microsoft Copilot is available in Windows 11 and Microsoft 365.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/june-7-2023-brazil-this-photo-2314245893">rafapress/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why over-reliance on AI could be a problem</h2>
<p>Despite their seemingly intelligent responses, we cannot blindly <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-can-we-trust-ai-if-we-dont-know-how-it-works/#:%7E:text=Humans%20are%20largely%20predictable%20to,make%20it%20worthy%20of%20trust.">trust</a> LLMs to be accurate or reliable. We must carefully evaluate and verify their outputs, ensuring that our initial prompts are reflected in the answers provided. </p>
<p>To effectively verify and validate LLM outputs, we need to have a strong understanding of the subject matter. Without expertise, we cannot provide the necessary quality assurance.</p>
<p>This becomes particularly critical in situations where we are using LLMs to bridge gaps in our own knowledge. Here our lack of knowledge may lead us to a situation where we are simply unable to determine whether the output is correct or not. This situation can arise in generation of text and coding. </p>
<p>Using AI to attend meetings and summarise the discussion presents obvious risks around reliability. While the record of the meeting is based on a transcript, the meeting notes are still generated in the same fashion as other text from LLMs. They are still based on language patterns and probabilities of what was said, so they require verification before they can be acted upon. </p>
<p>They also suffer from interpretation problems due to <a href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/9016769">homophones</a>, words that are pronounced the same but have different meanings. People are good at understanding what is meant in such circumstances due to the context of the conversation.</p>
<p>But AI is not good at deducing context nor does it understand nuance. So, expecting it to formulate arguments based upon a potentially erroneous transcript poses further problems still. </p>
<p>Verification is even harder if we are using AI to generate computer code. Testing computer code with test data is the only reliable method for validating its functionality. While this demonstrates that the code operates as intended, it doesn’t guarantee that its behaviour aligns with real-world expectations. </p>
<p>Suppose we use generative AI to create code for a sentiment analysis tool. The goal is to analyse product reviews and categorise sentiments as positive, neutral or negative. We can test the functionality of the system and validate the code functions correctly – that it is sound from a technical programming point of view. </p>
<p>However, imagine that we deploy such software in the real world and it starts to classify sarcastic product reviews as positive. The sentiment analysis system lacks the contextual knowledge necessary to understand that sarcasm is not used as positive feedback, and quite the opposite. </p>
<p>Verifying that a code’s output matches the desired outcomes in nuanced situations such as this requires expertise. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/chatgpt-turns-1-ai-chatbots-success-says-as-much-about-humans-as-technology-218704">ChatGPT turns 1: AI chatbot's success says as much about humans as technology</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<p>Non programmers will have no knowledge of software engineering principles that are used to ensure code is correct, such as planning, methodology, testing and documentation. Programming is a complex discipline, and software engineering emerged as a field to manage software quality. </p>
<p>There is a significant risk, as my own <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/372606390_Experimenting_with_ChatGPT_for_Spreadsheet_Formula_Generation_Evidence_of_Risk_in_AI_Generated_Spreadsheets#fullTextFileContent">research</a> has shown, that non-experts will overlook or skip critical steps in the software design process, leading to code of unknown quality.</p>
<h2>Validation and verification</h2>
<p>LLMs such as ChatGPT and Copilot are powerful tools that we can all benefit from. But we must be careful to not blindly trust the outputs given to us. </p>
<p>We are right at the start of a great revolution based on this technology. AI has infinite possibilities but it needs to be shaped, checked and verified. And at present, humans beings are the only ones who can do this.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/217733/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Simon Thorne does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Microsoft Copilot can summarise meetings and even formulate arguments. But as good as that sounds, we shouldn’t blindly trust its accuracy.Simon Thorne, Senior Lecturer in Computing and Information Systems, Cardiff Metropolitan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/799372017-06-28T14:59:36Z2017-06-28T14:59:36ZThe DRC is revisiting its mining code. Why reform is long overdue<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/176004/original/file-20170628-25818-w7fiae.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption"> A worker walks near the Congolese state mining company Gecamines' in the southern province of Katanga</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">REUTERS/Jonny Hogg </span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) recently <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-05-22/congo-to-revisit-mine-law-proposals-rejected-by-industry-in-2015">announced plans</a> to reintroduce the shelved changes to the country’s mining code.</p>
<p>The current mining code, introduced in 2002, was based on a draft prepared <a href="http://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=434e2344-7d5f-4623-b2cb-cd502f0fc076">under the auspices of the World Bank</a>. Its primary objective was to relaunch the industrial mining sector following the Congo Wars of 1996 to 2003 by opening it up to foreign investors. While it has been successful in achieving this goal, the benefits to Congolese people are more difficult to discern. </p>
<p>Today the DRC is Africa’s largest copper producer and the world’s largest cobalt producer. Its mining sector contributes <a href="https://eiti.org/democratic-republic-of-congo#contribution-of-the-extractive-industry-to-the-economy">22% of GDP and 28% of government revenue</a>. Yet the most recent Human Development Report ranks the DRC <a href="http://hdr.undp.org/en/countries/profiles/COD">176 out of 188 countries</a>, with a life expectancy of 59 and 77% of the population living below the income poverty line.</p>
<p>The latest round of changes were originally submitted to parliament in March 2015, but the amendment process <a href="http://af.reuters.com/article/drcNews/idAFL5N16I5EV">was suspended</a> due to collapsed commodity prices and fierce industry opposition.</p>
<p>It’s now back on the agenda. As in the past a major debate will ensue between the Congolese Government, civil society and the DRC mining industry. The strongest opposition to the proposed changes comes from the large multinational mining corporations, who argue that increasing taxes will hold back the sector’s potential.</p>
<p>However, a review of the major tax changes reveals them to align with regional standards. The DRC’s high operating costs are offset by the equally high quality of its mineral deposits, and the current tax rate exerted over the sector is low. In addition, reviving the reform process presents an opportunity to address a number of concerns related to transparency and local development.</p>
<h2>Debunking industry myths</h2>
<p>In the past, propositions that provoked the most debate were those that tried to reduce the tax advantages enjoyed by mining companies. The most important proposed tax changes to the DRC’s mining code are:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>increasing taxes on profits from 30% to 35%;</p></li>
<li><p>increasing the government’s stake in new mining projects from 5% to 10% and;</p></li>
<li><p>increasing royalties from 2% to 3.5% for copper and cobalt.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>When compared to mining tax regimes in other African countries, the proposed changes do not place the DRC outside of the norm. Most African countries demand a 10% government stake in mining projects. The proposed copper royalty tax is also within the range imposed by many governments in the region, such as Zambia (6%), Ghana (5%) and Tanzania (4%).</p>
<p>Likewise, the DRC’s proposed profit tax is within the range of other countries, though it sits at the top end. Both Cameroon and Ghana impose the same 35% profit tax as the DRC is considering.</p>
<p>But the mining industry’s response to these comparisons is twofold. They say the DRC provides an extremely challenging operational environment, with exceptionally high transport and power costs. And they say what matters is not individual tax rates, but the overall tax burden (including both formal and informal taxes).</p>
<p>Both points are questionable. </p>
<h2>Costs, and the opaque world of taxes</h2>
<p>A <a href="https://resourcegovernance.org/sites/default/files/documents/nrgi-sortir-de-impasse-fiscale-rdc.pdf">report</a> published last year by the Natural Resource Governance Institute - which works with governments on natural resource management - shows the DRC’s production costs to be extremely favourable compared to regional competitors. In 2013 the average production cost of copper in the DRC was $3,672 per tonne. This same cost was $4,582 in Zambia and $4,931 in South Africa. </p>
<p>High quality Congolese mineral deposits appear to offset high operational expenses to generate low production costs (and therefore high profits). Indeed, last year <a href="http://www.miningweekly.com/article/drc-mines-still-attractive-investment-prospect-for-china-despite-risks-2016-08-05/rep_id:3650">the research firm BMI reported</a> that the DRC will remain a “destination of choice” for mining investors in the coming years due to its low production costs and high quality minerals.</p>
<p>The concern about the overall tax rate as opposed to individual tax changes is entirely legitimate. Yet the few non-industry studies that exist suggest this overall rate to be extremely low. Research by Professors <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Stefaan_Marysse2/publications">Stefaan Marysse</a> and <a href="http://uccc.academia.edu/TshimangaMbuyiKasekaClaudine">Claudine Tshimanga</a> - prominent political economists working on the DRC - revealed a tax rate of 21% for one of the country’s largest copper mines, well below the World Bank’s recommended <a href="http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTOGMC/Resources/336099-1156955107170/drcgrowthgovernanceenglish.pdf">46% tax rate</a> for the country. </p>
<p>Similarly, a recent fiscal study conducted by the German Society for International Cooperation found that between 2011 and 2014, total state revenue collected by the mining sector amounted to <a href="https://www.uantwerpen.be/images/uantwerpen/container2673/files/Publications/Annuaire/2015-2016/07%20Radley.pdf">a mere 6 percent of total mining sector revenue</a> for the same period.</p>
<h2>What’s been left out</h2>
<p>Yet there’s a danger that the heated debates about tax rates and royalties will drown out the urgency of addressing other big issues, many of which have been left out of the draft revision. Global Witness - a non profit focused on the links between natural resource exploitation, conflict and poverty - <a href="https://www.globalwitness.org/en/press-releases/democratic-republic-congo-plans-water-down-laws-against-mining-corruption/">has been calling attention to these omissions</a>. These include the removal of “crucial regulations banning politicians and senior army figures from owning mining rights”, an opaque tender process and insufficient beneficial ownership disclosure requirements. </p>
<p>In addition, many mining companies <a href="http://news.banro.com/manual-releases/Banro-s-Mining-Convention-And-Titles-Confirmed-By-">have signed “conventions”</a> with the DRC government that exist outside of the tax and legal structure established by the country’s mining code. There’s no provision within the current draft to address this loophole. </p>
<p>Lastly, for a number of years Congolese civil society <a href="http://www.congomines.org/reports/1247-propositions-d-amandements-de-la-societe-civile-au-projet-de-revision-du-code-minier">has been pushing hard</a> for improvements to the code on environmental and local development issues. For example, existing policy provides little guidance on critical issues such as forced displacement. Only three of the mining code’s 344 articles refer to the relationship between title holders and people living in title holders’ concessions. </p>
<h2>Time to seize the opportunity</h2>
<p>The DRC’s mining code is 15 years old. Extremely advantageous fiscal incentives were included back in 2002 to attract foreign investors to the country. Yet they have minimised the benefits of increased mining production to the Congolese government and people. The proposed tax changes bring the DRC up to date with today’s regional standards and should be supported.</p>
<p>But when the DRC’s parliament reopens in September, its members would do well to incorporate civil society concerns on key transparency, environmental and local development issues. Fail to do so, and Congolese people - particularly those directly affected by mining projects - will be locked into another decade or more of inadequate mining legislation. Change is long overdue, and the opportunity must not be missed.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/79937/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ben Radley receives funding from The Leverhulme Trust. </span></em></p>The Democratic Republic of the Congo has scheduled its 15-year-old mining code for review. The country must ensure reform that benefits its people.Ben Radley, PHD Researcher at the International Institute of Social Studies, Erasmus University RotterdamLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/639712016-08-25T09:51:21Z2016-08-25T09:51:21ZThis little-known pioneering educator put coding in the classroom<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/135034/original/image-20160822-18708-1n0go6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Seymour Papert lectures on LOGO, computers and education.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3APapert-moscow-1987.jpg">Shen-montpellier</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A man who was arguably the most influential educator of the last 50 years – though he was not widely known to the American public – died on July 31. A respected mathematician and early pioneer of artificial intelligence, Seymour Papert was 88. His career presaged much of today’s focus on education in science, technology, engineering and mathematics, and helped shape the classroom of today and of the future.</p>
<p>As an academic, he paved the way for generations of researchers. In their 1969 book <a href="https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/perceptrons">“Perceptrons,”</a> Papert and his MIT colleague Marvin Minsky were early advocates of the need to investigate the computational details of how early artificial intelligence actually functioned. Today that approach underpins evaluations of neural networks, which foster <a href="https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/research/publication/deep-learning-methods-and-applications/">deep learning</a>, a computational technique widely used in <a href="http://www.computerworld.com/article/3088712/data-analytics/putting-deep-learning-to-work.html">data analytics</a>.</p>
<p>But perhaps his most powerful legacy sprang from his research into learning, specifically the role of computers in education. Papert argued that learning was most successful when students were engaged in creative acts – when they were making things. For him, computers allowed and encouraged creation in a broad range of areas, and could therefore be a key to unlocking better teaching and learning.</p>
<p>As early as the mid-1960s, he was advocating for children to be taught to <a href="https://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.1/5835/AIM-247.pdf?sequence=2">program computers</a>. At the time, of course, even the smallest computers were the <a href="http://www.computerhistory.org/timeline/1964/#169ebbe2ad45559efbc6eb35720a7bd4">size of office filing cabinets</a>. They weren’t used in schools; <a href="http://childrenstech.com/blog/archives/17504">his idea was considered extreme</a> and <a href="http://www.papert.org/articles/GhostInTheMachine.html">elitist</a>. Papert persisted. Today, every modern student should be grateful to him.</p>
<h2>Inventing LOGO</h2>
<p>In 1967 Papert channeled his research interest in coding and children into the development of the programming language <a href="http://el.media.mit.edu/logo-foundation/what_is_logo/history.html">LOGO</a>. It was intended to help students ranging in age from 5 to 17 learn mathematical concepts through programming and the use of words. Students gave simple instructions to a turtle – first a physical robot and later an icon on a screen – such as “LEFT 90” to turn 90 degrees to the left or “FORWARD 5” to advance a specific distance in a straight line. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/mOly9i7hmzk?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A LOGO turtle returns to life.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>LOGO was powerful for its day, and very easy to learn and use. Many generations of students used LOGO in their mathematics classes to extend their understanding of geometry and arithmetic and to solve complex problems. </p>
<h2>Creating learning opportunities</h2>
<p>In 1980 Papert wrote <a href="http://www.wired.com/2007/03/the_origins_of_/">“Mindstorms: Children, Computers, and Powerful Ideas”</a> articulating his vision of how children should use a computer: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>the child programs the computer and, in doing so, both acquires a sense of mastery over a piece of the most modern and powerful technology and establishes an intimate contact with some of the deepest ideas from science, from mathematics, and from the art of intellectual model building.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Papert strongly advocated that children need to be creators. He believed that this was best done through playful exploration. Papert believed that children could take control of their own learning by using the materials around them, fostering their independence and curiosity. Otherwise students would be relying heavily on answers from textbooks and or teachers. They would not be developing key skills such as problem solving, developing independence, or building on their knowledge but rather being told of outcomes secondhand.</p>
<p>Throughout the 1980s, computers started appearing in school classrooms. They were typically used to teach elementary programming languages such as LOGO and BASIC. The <a href="https://hourofcode.com/us">movement to teach children to code</a> had begun.</p>
<p>Today the most <a href="https://tltl.stanford.edu/content/you-cannot-think-about-thinking-without-thinking-about-what-seymour-papert-would-think">popular first programming language</a>, especially for primary school students, is <a href="https://scratch.mit.edu/">Scratch</a>, developed by Mitch Resnick and colleagues at MIT in 2003. Papert was a <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/02/technology/seymour-papert-88-dies-saw-educations-future-in-computers.html?_r=0">mentor and friend</a> to Resnick; LOGO’s user-friendliness survives in the newer language, which also adds the ability for students to build communities <a href="http://cacm.acm.org/magazines/2009/11/48421-scratch-programming-for-all/fulltext">online and through social media</a>.</p>
<iframe src="https://embed-ssl.ted.com/talks/mitch_resnick_let_s_teach_kids_to_code.html" width="100%" height="360" frameborder="0" scrolling="no" webkitallowfullscreen="" mozallowfullscreen="" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<p>Efforts to teach children to code – Papert’s vision – have been taken up by several large scale initiatives and organizations such as <a href="https://code.org">code.org</a>, <a href="https://coderdojo.com/">Coderdojo</a> and <a href="https://hourofcode.com/">hourofcode.com</a>. These organizations work hard to reach every student, including girls, who are often underrepresented in computing classes, as well as across the socioeconomic spectrum. And they operate globally: Code.org, for example, has materials <a href="http://example.com/">available in 45 languages</a> and coding groups in <a href="https://code.org/about">more than 180 countries</a>.</p>
<h2>Lessons in three dimensions</h2>
<p>Papert was also enormously interested in how children could learn through experimentation and play. He stated that “education has very little to do with explanation, <a href="http://www.legofoundation.com/da-dk/newsroom/articles/2016/honoring-seymour-papert">it has to do with engagement</a> and falling in love with the material.” </p>
<p>In 1985, Papert started a collaboration with the LEGO Group, working on connecting LEGO bricks to a computer. This idea moved beyond the physical turtle robots originally controlled by LOGO, and became the first widely used programmable robotics system for children. Even today LEGO’s programmable robot system is named Mindstorms, after Papert’s book. The <a href="https://education.lego.com/en-us/middle-school/explore">Mindstorms kits</a> are used extensively in elementary and middle-school classrooms across the world and also in competitions such as the <a href="http://www.firstinspires.org/robotics/fll">FIRST LEGO League</a> where young students design, build and program a robot using LEGO to compete a series of challenges. The challenge changes on a yearly basis, but always requires students to program instructions into their robot and complete as many tasks as possible within two-and-a-half minutes.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/dJSeMeAGmXE?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A student-programmed robot performs in a FIRST Lego League competition.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Underpinning Papert’s vision was his work on learning and thinking. This was influenced by the Constructivist theory developed by Swiss psychologist <a href="http://www.piaget.org/">Jean Piaget</a>, who argued that learning is constructed by having the learner <a href="http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/">actively engaged in learning</a> rather than passively receiving information. From this starting point, Papert developed his own <a href="https://tltl.stanford.edu/content/seymour-papert-s-legacy-thinking-about-learning-and-learning-about-thinking">Constructionist theory of learning</a>, in which he argued that people build knowledge most effectively when they are consciously building something – whether practical or theoretical.</p>
<p>Computers, programming and robotics provide ideal platforms to enable children to construct elements of the world around them. Though the man himself didn’t get much popular recognition, Papert’s legacy remains in each and every classroom where students are actively engaged in learning.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/63971/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Leon Sterling receives funding from the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Therese Keane does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Seymour Papert’s vision has helped computers become widespread in education today, and gave birth to the movement to teach children to program.Therese Keane, Senior Lecturer in Education, Swinburne University of TechnologyLeon Sterling, Professor Emeritus, Swinburne University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/586002016-05-03T15:02:52Z2016-05-03T15:02:52ZCode-a-cola: how to hide secret messages using fizzy drinks<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/121018/original/image-20160503-19828-1g3t053.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Next time you see someone spilling a drink in a bar, you could actually be witnessing a spy secretly decoding an encrypted message. This might sound like something from a Bond movie. But a team from Israel has used some rather niffy chemistry to come up with a way to use common chemicals such as cola as the encryption key to code and decode hidden messages.</p>
<p>Spies have long tried to make coded or encrypted messages even more secure by hiding them in something seemingly innocuous, from the secret wax writing tablet devised by <a href="https://www.awesomestories.com/asset/view/GORGO-300-Battle-of-Thermopylae">Demaratus, King of Sparta</a>, to the “<a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-13141473">lemon juice spies</a>” of World War I. This practice is known as steganography.</p>
<p>In the case of lemon juice invisible ink, the chemistry is <a href="http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/bring-science-home-invisible-ink/">quite simple</a>. Write the message in juice and when it dries the text disappears. But if you heat it up, the acids from the lemon react with the sugars to caramelise them, turning them brown. And, hey presto, the message is revealed.</p>
<p>The Israeli team of researchers from the Weizmann Institute of Science have continued this tradition with some chemistry that is ingenious enough for any spy movie. Their method, published in the journal <a href="http://nature.com/articles/doi:10.1038/ncomms11374">Nature Communications</a>, is complex to devise but simple to use, and combines encryption, steganography and password protection.</p>
<p>It all rests on fluorescent molecules that can be made to give off different wavelengths of light when they come into contact with certain chemicals. Measuring the wavelengths gives you a code that you then need to decrypt to read the message. The scientists built the molecules that contain the code in their lab but the chemicals could be familiar products such as a particular cola, instant coffee or mouthwash. </p>
<h2>How it works</h2>
<p>To encode the message, you use a simple cipher, where each letter is replaced with another symbol, or in this case with a set of numbers. So if your message was “open sesame”, to encode the word “open” you could use: </p>
<p>O = 4350</p>
<p>P = 4650</p>
<p>E = 1350</p>
<p>N = 4050</p>
<p>You also assign a wavelength of light (measured in nanometers, nm) to each letter. </p>
<p>O = 500nm</p>
<p>P = 520nm</p>
<p>E = 540nm</p>
<p>N = 560nm </p>
<p>You then put the molecule in your chosen chemical, for example cola, and measure the amount of light that it gives off at each wavelength. (This can be done with a simple and cheap hand-held device, although 007 would probably have the function built into his watch.) </p>
<p>Fluorescence is measured with arbitrary units, so to get the same numbers for both the coding and decoding instruments they must be set up the same way, which actually adds another layer of security. Adding the value of this measurement to the cipher numbers gives you your final code. So if you measure 689 at 500nm, you add this number to 4350, giving a final value of 5039 for the letter O. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/121016/original/image-20160503-19856-1qhldxm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/121016/original/image-20160503-19856-1qhldxm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=618&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121016/original/image-20160503-19856-1qhldxm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=618&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121016/original/image-20160503-19856-1qhldxm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=618&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121016/original/image-20160503-19856-1qhldxm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=777&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121016/original/image-20160503-19856-1qhldxm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=777&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121016/original/image-20160503-19856-1qhldxm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=777&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">From keyboard to chemicals.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Margulies et al. Nature Communications</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Finally, you transmit the numbers and the fluorescent molecule to whomever you want to read your message. The molecule could be concealed by drying it onto a letter, for example. All the recipient would need to do is place the letter in the correct brand of cola and measure the light released to decode the message. The encryption is specific to the chemical you’ve used to create it. So if you tried to decode the message using mouthwash rather than cola, you’d get the wrong values and the resulting letters wouldn’t make any sense.</p>
<h2>Added protection</h2>
<p>The Israeli team have also included a neat way to password-protect the message by making the light given off by the molecule dependent on the order in which you add other chemicals to it. So you can get a different encryption key by adding mouthwash then cola rather than the other way round. </p>
<p>The whole system may seem rather complex, but the research team have tested it with untrained volunteers and shown that with a few minutes instruction it is really quite easy to use. </p>
<p>So look a bit closer next time you notice someone spill their coffee on some papers (especially if they have a high tech watch on) … they might just be decoding a secret message.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/58600/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark Lorch is a member of the Royal Society of Chemistry.</span></em></p>Scientists have found a way to encrypt messages using common chemicals such as cola and mouthwash.Mark Lorch, Senior Lecturer in Biological Chemistry, Associate Dean for Engagement, University of HullLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/578612016-04-18T10:53:24Z2016-04-18T10:53:24ZWhen it comes to computing, rural schools are at risk of being left behind<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/118798/original/image-20160414-2629-83old1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Rural schools don't always have the latest tech.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Monkey Business Images/Shuttertock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>On our way to a school just outside the small Cumbrian village of Wigton to run a computing session, we were delayed by a tractor and a herd for cows crossing the road. </p>
<p>The school we were heading to has a total of 67 pupils across six years, where <a href="http://theconversation.com/are-mixed-grade-classes-any-better-or-worse-for-learning-38856">mixed age</a> classes are a necessity. This is a fairly typical school for the area, even the laptops the teachers are using are old and slow, as is the internet connection. </p>
<p>Rural schools such as the one we were visiting face distinct challenges when it comes to teaching computing — many schools in rural locations are struggling to even know how to get started. These schools feel very removed from the “<a href="http://www.rcuk.ac.uk/research/xrcprogrammes/digital/">digital economy</a>” which the computing curriculum is supposed to be preparing our pupils for. </p>
<p>These schools are below the radar when it comes to developing materials for the new curriculum. Resources tend to focus on single age classrooms of moderate size, taking it as given that the computers available are capable of at least running <a href="https://scratch.mit.edu/">Scratch</a> – an educational program used to create animations, games and stories – with the assumption also given that students will have access to iPads for coding apps such as <a href="http://www.scratchjr.org/">scratch JR</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/118895/original/image-20160415-11167-15ymxm5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/118895/original/image-20160415-11167-15ymxm5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118895/original/image-20160415-11167-15ymxm5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118895/original/image-20160415-11167-15ymxm5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118895/original/image-20160415-11167-15ymxm5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118895/original/image-20160415-11167-15ymxm5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118895/original/image-20160415-11167-15ymxm5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Teachers toolkit.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sunny studio/Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These remote areas are even more prone to have the teacher skills gap, which has been recognised a major challenge for <a href="http://theconversation.com/gove-departs-just-as-disaster-looms-for-computing-in-schools-29123">computing curriculum</a>. Where in more populous areas there may be opportunities for twilight sessions or bringing in external contractors to support teaching, these sorts of resources are just not available in these more rural locations. </p>
<p>There are no “specialist” teachers in small schools, and when faced with the specialist language of computing teachers can quickly feel out of their depth.</p>
<p>For both teachers and students computers are often more a source of frustration rather than creativity. More than once it has been reported to me that computing lessons can be taken up by turning on the laptops, logging-on, helping the kids find the right program – just these steps can take the whole hour.</p>
<p>In these areas schools don’t always know where to look for support. Although <a href="http://www.teachprimarycomputing.org.uk/the-resources/">Computing At Schools</a> (CAS) has been busily developing resources for primary schools even finding CAS can feel like a big step. </p>
<p>In rural schools, there are also fewer opportunities to bring in volunteers from the community through schemes such as after school <a href="https://www.codeclub.org.uk/">code clubs</a>. This is revealing in that it shows yet another resource that is not available to these schools, and also demonstrates that there are fewer high tech jobs among parents of these children. </p>
<h2>Joining the dots</h2>
<p>The challenges faced by rural schools need be to be addressed, because although, the spotlight of the digital future might currently be on topics like “smart cities”, rural areas are not going to be left behind in the “digital economy” — as the <a href="http://www.abovederwent.org.uk/broadband.html">Cumbria fibre role-out</a> demonstrates. loin</p>
<p>The more remote places will soon be <a href="http://www.connectingcumbria.org.uk/">just as connected</a> and with connection speed no longer a barrier to competition, those living in the remotest parts of the UK will have no choice but to be part of the coming digital economy. </p>
<p>These school falling further and further behind is not inevitable, these schools have the potential to soon be demonstrating some of the most exciting ways of teaching computing to the youngest pupils. </p>
<p>These schools may not have great access to technology tools but they do still tend to have a school field, so learning how to adapt <a href="http://csunplugged.org/">unplugged approaches</a> to teaching computing can make the computing curriculum more tangible. Teaching computing without computers becomes a great way for kids to really grasp the fundamentals of computing.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/118903/original/image-20160415-11155-1ixe049.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/118903/original/image-20160415-11155-1ixe049.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118903/original/image-20160415-11155-1ixe049.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118903/original/image-20160415-11155-1ixe049.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118903/original/image-20160415-11155-1ixe049.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118903/original/image-20160415-11155-1ixe049.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118903/original/image-20160415-11155-1ixe049.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Using hands-on tools instead of screens and keyboards can engage pupils imagination.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Authors provided.</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Teachers working in mixed age classrooms are in a prime position <a href="http://theconversation.com/why-schools-need-to-introduce-computing-in-all-subjects-53793">to introduce computing across the curriculum</a> – teachers are with the same pupils for much of the day and have the flexibility to integrate computing across a range of subjects. </p>
<p>As the pupils we worked with in Wigton can tell you “an algorithm” is a set of instructions, and primary schools are full of instructions. With the pressures on time and resources computing could be taught in all parts of the school day, from art and reading, to play time. </p>
<p>I have found that once you ensure teachers have a solid understanding of the curriculum itself they begin to see opportunities to teach computing — for example, writing an algorithm for tidying up the art area. </p>
<p>The pupils we worked with in Wigton really enjoyed using Scratch Jr on the iPads we brought in, but also learned a great deal about algorithms and debugging by playing with Lego. Which just goes to show that with the right resources targeted at these sorts of schools, these pupils will be ready for the digital economy, despite the remoteness of their surroundings.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/57861/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Benjamin Wohl receives funding from RCUK digital economy theme. </span></em></p>The Government changed the curriculum in 2014 so that all school children would be taught coding, but two years on this is far from reality.Bea Wohl, PhD student, Lancaster UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/524012015-12-16T11:06:30Z2015-12-16T11:06:30ZHow to crack British intelligence service’s devilish Christmas puzzle<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/106072/original/image-20151215-23202-jzr0rd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Easy-peasy?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.gchq.gov.uk/press_and_media/news_and_features/Pages/Directors-Christmas-puzzle-2015.aspx">GCHQ</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Calling all aspiring spooks. Robert Hannigan, director of Britain’s security and intelligence organisation <a href="http://www.gchq.gov.uk/Pages/homepage.aspx">GCHQ</a>, has included <a href="http://www.gchq.gov.uk/press_and_media/news_and_features/Pages/Directors-Christmas-puzzle-2015.aspx">a rather tantalising puzzle</a> with his Christmas card this year. He hopes that it will exercise your grey cells over the holiday period.</p>
<p>If you can solve the puzzle, along with the others that it will lead to, you can email the solution to GCHQ (the Government communications headquarters) before January 31. A winner will be drawn from all the correct answers – and doubtless be named to much fanfare.</p>
<p>So what do you need to do to be in with a chance?</p>
<p>The puzzle requires that you shade in squares on the 25x25 grid shown above. But which ones? Well, a few of the “black” squares have been completed for you, but most you will have to do yourself. By way of a clue, each row and cell has a sequence of numbers attached to it. The numbers represent a sequence of shaded cells, that need to separated from each other by at least one blank cell. For example, the row marked “7 3 1 1 7” should contain a sequence of seven shaded cells, followed by at least one blank cell, then three shaded cells, followed by at least one blank cell – and so on. The problem is made trickier because each horizontal row intersects a vertical column, each with its own sequence code.</p>
<h2>Paper and pen</h2>
<p>So how do you reach the solution? One way of cracking it is to resort to old-fashioned paper and pen. Just sit down, put on your thinking cap and try to reason it out.</p>
<p>It is not that difficult to get started. In fact, it is already started, and it is easy to fill in a few more squares. Take a look at row 22 on the horizontal axis – the one that has the sequence “1 3 1 3 10 2”. These numbers add up to 20 and as there are six blocks, you need at least five blank squares to separate them. As we only have 25 squares in the row, this pattern can only fit in one way – the first square in the row has to be shaded, and the rest just follow, with only one blank square between each run of shaded squares.</p>
<p>Are there any others like this? Column seven (“7 1 1 1 1 1 7”) sums up to 19. As we have seven numbers we need at six least separators. This also adds up to 25, so this row is easy to complete, too. The figure below shows the grid once we have filled in row 22 and column seven (the blank squares are marked in yellow).</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/106086/original/image-20151215-23176-1lga4db.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/106086/original/image-20151215-23176-1lga4db.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/106086/original/image-20151215-23176-1lga4db.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/106086/original/image-20151215-23176-1lga4db.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/106086/original/image-20151215-23176-1lga4db.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/106086/original/image-20151215-23176-1lga4db.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/106086/original/image-20151215-23176-1lga4db.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">State of grid after completing row 22 and column seven.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Any others where the row or column is also easy to complete? Yes, but I’ll leave it to you to find them.</p>
<p>Once you have completed the “easy” rows/columns, you then need to start looking for other ways of completing the remaining rows and columns, or even reasoning about individual cells. In many ways, it is like completing <a href="https://theconversation.com/good-at-sudoku-heres-some-youll-never-complete-5234">a Sudoku</a> puzzle. You should find that you never have to guess, but perhaps using a pencil and having a rubber to hand might be a good idea.</p>
<p>One more hint, colour in the blank squares, too – just use a different shade. This might sound obvious but leaving a square blank, once you have determined that it “must” be blank, might mean that it gets mistakenly shaded later. You can see in the figure above that I’ve have coloured the blank squares yellow, so we know that we should not make them black later.</p>
<h2>Getting mathematical</h2>
<p>If you don’t want to exercise the brain, you can get a computer to do it for you.</p>
<p>Jean Francois Puget presents one such – <strong>SPOILER ALERT: the next link reveals the solution</strong> – <a href="https://www.ibm.com/developerworks/community/blogs/jfp/entry/Solving_The_GCHQ_Christmas_Puzzle_As_A_MIP_With_Python?lang=en">methodology</a>, which is based on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integer_programming">mixed integer programming</a>.</p>
<p>You define the problem using variables, zeroes for white cells and ones for black cells. You next define constraints. For example, each row/column has to have the correct sequence of blacks cells in each row/column, separated by at least one white cell. You also need to define an objective function. This is usually something you are trying to minimise (for example, waste) or maximise (for example, profit). In the case of this puzzle, there is nothing to minimise or maximise, as once we have a valid solution we cannot improve on it.</p>
<p>Once we have defined the variables, constraints and objection function, we can hand it over to one of the many solvers that are available online and it will return the solution.</p>
<p>The downside of mathematical approaches to complex problems is that there may be a solution, but it could take <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-the-maths-behind-an-exam-timetable-22090">millions of years</a> to find it. Fortunately, this puzzle can be solved quickly.</p>
<h2>Other approaches</h2>
<p>If you don’t fancy either of the above two approaches, there are many other options. In a <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-get-ants-to-solve-a-chess-problem-22282">previous article</a> we discussed how ants could be used to solve chess puzzles. So if ants can play chess, they could certainly solve the GCHQ puzzle.</p>
<p>Whether it is worth the effort to develop the computer model required, however, is open to debate. The same could also be argued for the many other <a href="http://www.springer.com/gp/book/9781461469391">meta-heuristic approaches</a>. Almost any of them could solve this puzzle, but is it worth the development effort?</p>
<p>The puzzle has generated a lot of media interest and many people are trying to solve it. As we have shown above, there are already solutions on the internet and there is even more information about the subsequent puzzles on <a href="https://www.reddit.com/r/puzzles/comments/3w6ja9/gchqs_christmas_puzzler_thread_spoilers_tagged/">Reddit</a>. That does seem to go against the spirit of the puzzle, however, and the spirit of the season. Why not just print the grid, get out a pen and exercise the grey matter sometime over the festive period? You may even win the honest way.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/52401/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Graham Kendall does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Have you got the keen eye and quizzical mind of a professional spy? Let’s find out …Graham Kendall, Professor of Computer Science and Provost/CEO/PVC, University of NottinghamLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.