tag:theconversation.com,2011:/uk/topics/florida-15445/articlesFlorida – The Conversation2024-03-13T12:37:43Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2218362024-03-13T12:37:43Z2024-03-13T12:37:43ZLeprosy cases are rising in the US – what is the ancient disease and why is it spreading now?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581098/original/file-20240311-22-xteppq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=21%2C10%2C7167%2C4031&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Leprosy can be caused by two different bacteria, one of which was only identified in 2008.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/illustration/leprosy-bacteria-illustration-royalty-free-illustration/1193685361?phrase=leprosy&adppopup=true">Kateryna Kon/Science Photo Library via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The word “leprosy” conjures images of biblical plagues, but the disease is still with us today. Caused by infectious bacteria, <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/leprosy">some 200,000 new cases are reported each year</a>, according to the World Health Organization. In the United States, leprosy has been entrenched for more than a century in parts of the South where people came into contact with armadillos, the principle proven linkage from animal to humans. However, the more recent outbreaks in the Southeast, <a href="https://epi.ufl.edu/2023/10/16/leprosy-in-florida-medical-experts-monitoring-unusual-new-cases-of-hansens-disease/">especially Florida</a>, have not been associated with animal exposure.</em></p>
<p><em>The Conversation talked with <a href="https://www.ae-info.org/ae/Member/Schwartz_Robert">Robert A. Schwartz</a>, professor and head of dermatology at Rutgers New Jersey Medical School, to explain what researchers know about the disease.</em></p>
<h2>What is leprosy and why is it resurfacing in the US?</h2>
<p>Leprosy is caused by two different but similar bacteria — <em>Mycobacterium leprae</em> and <em>Mycobacterium lepromatosis</em> — the latter <a href="https://doi.org/10.1309/AJCPP72FJZZRRVMM">having just been identified in 2008</a>. Leprosy, <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/leprosy/index.html">also known as Hansen’s disease</a>, is avoidable. Transmission among the most vulnerable in society, including migrant and impoverished populations, remains a pressing issue.</p>
<p>This <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/ijd.15998">age-old neglected tropical disease</a>, which is still <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/leprosy">present in more than 120 countries</a>, is now a growing challenge in parts of North America. </p>
<p>Leprosy is beginning to occur regularly within parts of the southeastern United States. Most recently, Florida has seen a heightened incidence of leprosy, accounting for <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2023.13938">many of the newly diagnosed cases</a> in the U.S. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2908.220367">surge in new cases</a> in central Florida highlights the urgent need for health care providers to <a href="https://www.hrsa.gov/sites/default/files/hrsa/hansens-disease/hd-surveillance-form.pdf">report them</a> immediately. Contact tracing is critical to <a href="https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/336679/9789290228073-eng.pdf">identifying sources and reducing transmission</a>. </p>
<p>Traditional risk factors include zoonotic exposure and having recently lived in leprosy-endemic countries. Brazil, India and Indonesia have each <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/leprosy">noted more than 10,000 new cases</a> since 2019, according to the World Health Organization data, and more than a dozen countries have reported between 1,000 to 10,000 new cases over the same time period.</p>
<h2>Why was leprosy stigmatized in biblical times?</h2>
<p>Evidence suggests that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1556/oh.2011.29038">leprosy has plagued civilization</a> since at least the second millennium B.C. </p>
<p>From that time until the mid-20th century, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/jid.1953.65">limited treatments were available</a>, so the bacteria could infiltrate the body and cause prominent physical deformities such as disfigured hands and feet. Advanced cases of leprosy cause facial features resembling that of a lion in humans.</p>
<p>Many mutilating and distressing skin disorders such as skin cancers and deep fungal infections were also confused with leprosy by the general public. </p>
<p>Fear of contagion has led to <a href="https://doi.org/10.53854%2Fliim-2904-18">tremendous stigmatization and social exclusion</a>. It was such a serious concern that the Kingdom of Jerusalem had a specialized hospital to care for those suffering from leprosy.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581102/original/file-20240311-139405-n6zvdy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Bandaged feet and legs of a person with leprosy." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581102/original/file-20240311-139405-n6zvdy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581102/original/file-20240311-139405-n6zvdy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581102/original/file-20240311-139405-n6zvdy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581102/original/file-20240311-139405-n6zvdy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581102/original/file-20240311-139405-n6zvdy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581102/original/file-20240311-139405-n6zvdy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581102/original/file-20240311-139405-n6zvdy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Leprosy has sometimes been confused with other mutilating skin disorders.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/feet-of-a-leper-royalty-free-image/157530061?phrase=leprosy&adppopup=true">visual7/E+ via Getty Images</a></span>
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</figure>
<h2>How infectious is leprosy?</h2>
<p>Research shows that prolonged in-person contact via respiratory droplets is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-023-08627-9">the primary mode of transmission</a>, rather than through normal, everyday contact such as embracing, shaking hands or sitting near a person with leprosy. People with leprosy generally do not transmit the disease once they begin treatment. </p>
<p>Armadillos represent the only known <a href="https://doi.org/10.3201%2Feid2112.150501">zoonotic reservoir</a> of leprosy-causing bacteria that threaten humans. These small mammals are common in Central and South America and in parts of Texas, Louisiana, Missouri and other states, where they are sometimes kept as pets or farmed as meat. Eating armadillo meat is not a clear cause of leprosy, but capturing and raising armadillos, along with preparing its meat, are risk factors.</p>
<p>The transmission mechanism between zoonotic reservoirs and susceptible individuals is unknown, but it is strongly suspected that direct contact with an infected armadillo poses a significant risk of developing leprosy. However, many cases reported in the U.S. have demonstrated an <a href="https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2908.220367">absence of either zoonotic exposure or person-to-person transmission</a> outside of North America, suggesting that transmission may be happening where the infected person lives. But in many cases, the source remains an enigma.</p>
<p>Some people’s genetics might make them <a href="https://doi.org/10.1056/nejmoa0903753">more susceptible to leprosy infections</a>, or their immune systems are less capable of resisting the disease. </p>
<p>Stigma and discrimination have <a href="https://doi.org/10.53854%2Fliim-2904-18">prevented people from seeking treatment</a>, and as a result, “concealed” cases contribute to transmission. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/4mqZvCUtxGg?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The number of leprosy cases in the U.S. has more than doubled over the past decade, and Florida has become a hot spot for it.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>How do you recognize it?</h2>
<p>Leprosy primarily affects the skin and peripheral nervous system, causing physical deformity and desensitizing one’s ability to feel pain on affected skin. </p>
<p>It may begin with loss of sensation on whitish patches of skin or reddened skin. As the bacteria spread in the skin, they can cause the skin to thicken with or without nodules. If this occurs on a person’s face, it may rarely produce a smooth, attractive-appearing facial contour known as lepra bonita, or “pretty leprosy.” The disease can progress to causing eyebrow loss, enlarged nerves in the neck, nasal deformities and nerve damage. </p>
<p>The onset of symptoms can sometimes take <a href="https://doi.org/10.1128%2FCMR.00079-13">as long as 20 years</a> because the infectious bacteria have a lengthy incubation period and proliferate slowly in the human body. So presumably many people are infected long before they know that they are.</p>
<p>Fortunately, worldwide efforts to screen for leprosy are being enhanced thanks to organizations like the <a href="https://www.st-lazarus.us/">Order of Saint Lazarus</a>, which was originally founded in the 11th century to combat leprosy, and the <a href="https://ahri.gov.et/">Armauer Hansen Research Institute</a>, which conducts immunologic, epidemiological and translational research in Ethiopia. The nongovernmental organization <a href="https://www.bombayleprosy.org/">Bombay Leprosy Project</a> in India does the same.</p>
<h2>How treatable is it?</h2>
<p>Leprosy is not only preventable but treatable. Defying stigma and advancing early diagnosis via proactive measures are critical to the mission of controlling and eradicating it worldwide. </p>
<p>Notably, the World Health Organization and other agencies provide <a href="https://doi.org/10.25259/ijdvl_278_2023">multi-drug therapy</a> at no cost to patients. </p>
<p>In addition, vaccine technology to combat leprosy is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2019.12.050">in the clinical trials stage</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acsinfecdis.3c00371">could become available</a> in coming years. In studies involving nine-banded armadillos, this protein-based vaccine delayed or diminished leprous nerve damage and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41541-018-0050-z">kept bacteria at bay</a>. Researchers believe that the vaccine can be produced in a low-cost, highly efficient manner, with the long-term prospect of eradicating leprosy.</p>
<p>If health care professionals, biomedical researchers and lawmakers do not markedly enhance their efforts to eliminate leprosy worldwide, the disease will continue to spread and could become a far more serious problem in areas that have been largely free of leprosy for decades. </p>
<p>The World Health Organization launched a plan in 2021 for achieving <a href="https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/340774/9789290228509-eng.pdf?sequence=1">zero leprosy</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221836/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Prof. Robert A. Schwartz is associated with the Order of Saint Lazarus, an international non-governmental organization committed to the fight against leprosy.</span></em></p>People often think of leprosy as a bygone disease, relevant primarily in biblical times. But in fact, it is still present in more than 120 countries, and the US is seeing an uptick in cases.Robert A. Schwartz, Professor and Head of Dermatology, Rutgers New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2170552024-03-07T13:28:59Z2024-03-07T13:28:59ZHow Florida’s home insurance market became so dysfunctional, so fast<p>Imagine saving for years to buy your dream house, only to have <a href="https://www.insurancebusinessmag.com/us/news/property/homeowners-to-face-huge-premium-jump-as-insurers-seek-50-premium-hike-476805.aspx">surging property insurance costs</a> keep homeownership forever out of reach. </p>
<p>This is a common problem in Florida, where average insurance premiums cost homeowners an eye-watering <a href="https://www.newsnationnow.com/business/your-money/florida-home-insurance-prices">US$6,000 a year</a>. That’s <a href="https://www.npr.org/2023/10/26/1208590263/florida-homeowners-insurance-soaring-expensive">more than triple</a> the national average and about three times what Floridians paid on average for insurance premiums in 2018. </p>
<p>What’s more, several major insurance carriers have <a href="https://www.pnj.com/story/money/2023/07/12/florida-insurance-crisis-farmers-insurance-home-insurance-what-to-know/70407302007/">left the state</a> over the past year, leaving residents with <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-08-10/hurricane-season-2023-florida-s-biggest-property-insurer-is-nonprofit-citizens?sref=Hjm5biAW">limited alternatives</a>.</p>
<p>As <a href="https://www.ju.edu/directory/latisha-nixon-jones.php">a law professor</a> who specializes in disaster preparedness and resilience, I think it’s important to understand what’s driving costs higher – not least because other states could soon face a similar predicament. </p>
<p>Three primary factors are driving the insurance challenge. First, natural disasters are becoming more common and costly. Second, <a href="https://www.investopedia.com/terms/r/reinsurance.asp">the price of reinsurance</a> is skyrocketing. And finally, Florida’s litigation-friendly environment compounds the issue by making it easy for customers to sue their insurers.</p>
<h2>Disasters, like sea levels, are on the rise</h2>
<p>With its location on the beautiful-yet-hurricane-prone Gulf of Mexico, Florida has long been vulnerable to the elements. Natural disasters cost the state <a href="https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/FE1075">$5 billion to $10 billion</a> every year, the federal government estimated in 2018, the last year for which data was available.</p>
<p>Yet that likely understates the case today, since disasters have only become bigger, more common and more expensive since then. For example, climate change has <a href="https://abcnews.go.com/US/climate-change-making-atlantic-hurricanes-strengthen-weak-major/story.">made oceans warmer</a>, which <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-42669-y">research suggests</a> fuels stronger, more intense hurricanes. </p>
<p>As a result, Florida has experienced billion-dollar disasters an average of <a href="https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/billions/state-summary/FL">four times annually</a> over the past five years – up from about one each year in the 1980s.</p>
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<p>This surge in disasters doesn’t just put lives at risk; it also wreaks havoc with the insurance market, as carriers are inundated with claims from one catastrophe after another. This makes it harder for them to turn a profit or obtain reinsurance to protect their stakeholders.</p>
<h2>Why reinsurance matters</h2>
<p>Insurance companies, in essence, make money two ways. First, they <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-021-01121-9">pool risk</a> among policyholders. Risk-pooling is the practice of taking similarly situated individuals or properties, grouping them together, and charging similar prices for insurance since they face the same risk.</p>
<p>Second, they reduce risk by acquiring reinsurance. Reinsurance acts as a safeguard for insurance companies – it’s essentially insurance for the insurers. Reinsurers pledge to cover a specified portion or type of insurance claim – for instance, catastrophic hurricanes – which provides a layer of financial protection.</p>
<p>The new era of climate disasters has thrown a wrench into the process. Reinsurance companies, grappling with a surge in claims due to more frequent and severe disasters, have found themselves forced to <a href="https://www.law.com/dailybusinessreview/2023/07/12/floridas-critical-reinsurance-market-improves-but-at-a-price/?slreturn=20231012224549">raise their premiums</a> for insurance carriers. Carriers, in turn, have passed the burden to policyholders.</p>
<p>To try to navigate these challenges, some companies have chosen to limit coverage for specific types of damage. For example, some insurance companies in Florida will no longer offer hurricane or flood coverage. And in extreme cases, insurance companies have withdrawn entirely from the state. </p>
<p>Understanding this complex relationship between insurers, reinsurers and policyholders is key to understanding the broader implications of the <a href="https://www.fox13news.com/news/florida-home-insurance-crisis-cost-price-premium-institute-rates">Florida insurance crisis</a>. It underscores the urgent need for comprehensive solutions and collaborative efforts to address evolving challenges in the insurance ecosystem.</p>
<h2>Learning from Florida … one way or another</h2>
<p>Florida isn’t taking all this sitting down. In December 2022, state lawmakers responded to growing property market instability by passing <a href="https://www.flsenate.gov/Session/Bill/2022A/2A">Senate Bill 2A</a>, a package of insurance reforms. </p>
<p>One major part was a rule change designed to discourage policyholders from suing their insurers. Previously, Florida law let insured individuals recover attorney fees if they secured any amount through litigation against their insurer. </p>
<p>The idea is that making this change will discourage needless lawsuits. However, my research as an <a href="https://engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/clevstlrev/vol71/iss3/5/">environmental justice professor</a> shows that attempts to exclude attorneys from the negotiation process often lead to more expensive litigation and less access to justice.</p>
<p>The bill also restricts <a href="https://www.myfloridacfo.com/docs-sf/insurance-consumer-advocate-libraries/ica-documents/aob-consumer-protection-tips-brochure.pdf?sfvrsn=690bdde6_5">assignment of benefits</a>, a mechanism that permits third-party entities like roofing companies to negotiate with insurance companies on behalf of Florida residents. While assignment of benefits <a href="https://www.myfloridacfo.com/division/consumers/consumerprotections/assignmentofbenefits">increased advocacy</a>, it was also linked to skyrocketing claims costs.</p>
<p>The balancing act between providing ample opportunities and containing costs has <a href="https://floridaphoenix.com/2023/10/13/advocates-hailed-a-new-law-to-help-stabilize-fls-housing-crisis-but-implementation-has-been-rocky/">sparked debate</a> among justice advocates. Florida’s legislative response reflects an ongoing effort to strike an equilibrium, ensuring fairness and accessibility while addressing the challenges faced by both insurers and policyholders.</p>
<p>Florida’s actions to address the property insurance crisis raise a critical question: Will the state serve as a blueprint for disaster-prone regions, or act as a cautionary tale? After all, states such as California and Louisiana have also seen insurance companies withdrawing from their markets. Will their legislatures draw inspiration from Florida’s? </p>
<p>For now, it’s too early to tell: The policies have only been in place since the latest round of hurricanes. But in the meantime, the rest of the U.S. will be watching – especially policymakers who care about resilience, and those who want to make sure vulnerable populations don’t get the short end of the stick.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/217055/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Latisha Nixon-Jones does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Florida home insurance premiums have shot up threefold in just five years.Latisha Nixon-Jones, Associate Professor of Law, Jacksonville UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2151272024-02-13T13:20:14Z2024-02-13T13:20:14ZFlowers grown floating on polluted waterways can help clean up nutrient runoff and turn a profit<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573604/original/file-20240205-30-14awa7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C6173%2C4087&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The cut flowers could pay for themselves and even turn a profit.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Margi Rentis</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Flowers grown on inexpensive floating platforms can help clean polluted waterways, over 12 weeks extracting 52% more phosphorus and 36% more nitrogen than the natural nitrogen cycle removes from untreated water, according to our <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envadv.2023.100405">new research</a>. In addition to filtering water, the cut flowers can generate income via the <a href="https://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/chart-gallery/gallery/chart-detail/?chartId=106472">multibillion-dollar floral market</a>. </p>
<p>In our trials of various flowers, giant marigolds stood out as the most successful, producing long, marketable stems and large blooms. Their yield matched typical <a href="https://www.lsuagcenter.com/articles/page1662131594449">flower farm production</a>.</p>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.epa.gov/nps/basic-information-about-nonpoint-source-nps-pollution">Water pollution</a> is caused in large part by runoff from farms, urban lawns and even septic tanks. When it rains, excess phosphorus, nitrogen and other chemicals wash into lakes and rivers.</p>
<p>These nutrients feed algae, leading to widespread and harmful algae blooms, which can severely lower oxygen in water, creating “<a href="https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2021/goal-14/">dead zones</a>” where aquatic life cannot survive. Nutrient runoff is a critical issue as urban areas expand, affecting the health of water ecosystems. </p>
<p>Water pollution is an escalating crisis in our area of Miami-Dade and Broward counties in Florida. The <a href="https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/b5d43852c8984a4c8db4d077ec04bd35">2020 Biscayne Bay fish kill</a>, the largest mass death of aquatic life on record for the region, serves as a stark reminder of this growing environmental issue.</p>
<h2>How we do our work</h2>
<p>We study <a href="https://case.fiu.edu/earth-environment/agroecology/">sustainable agriculture</a> and <a href="https://crestcache.fiu.edu/">water pollution</a> in South Florida.</p>
<p>Inspired by traditional floating farm practices, including the Aztecs’ <a href="https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20221009-the-return-of-aztec-floating-farms">chinampas in Mexico</a> and the <a href="https://www.pbs.org/video/the-secret-islands-of-the-everglades-lncj6r/">Miccosukees’ tree island settlements in Florida</a>, we tested the idea of growing cut flowers on floating rafts as a way to remove excess nutrients from waterways. Our hope was not only that the flowers would pay for themselves, but that they could provide jobs here in Miami, the center of the U.S. cut-flower trade.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573507/original/file-20240205-23-zkmaeu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An outdoor tank contains a large floating perforated mat. Each hole contains a young plant." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573507/original/file-20240205-23-zkmaeu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573507/original/file-20240205-23-zkmaeu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573507/original/file-20240205-23-zkmaeu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573507/original/file-20240205-23-zkmaeu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573507/original/file-20240205-23-zkmaeu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573507/original/file-20240205-23-zkmaeu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573507/original/file-20240205-23-zkmaeu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Chemical conditions in the test tanks were the same as in nearby polluted waterways.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jazmin Locke-Rodriguez</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We floated 4-by-6-foot (1.2-by-1.8-meter) mats of inexpensive polyethylene foam called <a href="http://www.beemats.com/">Beemats</a> in 620-gallon (2,300-liter) outdoor test tanks that mirrored water conditions of nearby polluted waterways. Into the mats we transplanted flower seedlings, including zinnias, sunflowers and giant marigolds. The polluted tank water was rich in nutrients, eliminating the need for any fertilizer. As the seedlings matured into plants over 12 weeks, we tracked the tanks’ improving water quality. </p>
<p>Encouraged by the success of the marigolds in our tanks, we moved our trials to the nearby canals of Coral Gables and Little River. We anchored the floating platforms with 50-pound (22.7-kilograms) weights and also tied them to shore for extra stability. No alterations to the landscape were needed, making the process simple and doable.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573517/original/file-20240205-15-ot28qz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Closeup photo of base of a marigold plant showing a tangle of visible roots." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573517/original/file-20240205-15-ot28qz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573517/original/file-20240205-15-ot28qz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573517/original/file-20240205-15-ot28qz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573517/original/file-20240205-15-ot28qz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573517/original/file-20240205-15-ot28qz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573517/original/file-20240205-15-ot28qz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573517/original/file-20240205-15-ot28qz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some plants grow roots in places – such as the stem – other than where their original roots began.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jazmin Locke-Rodriguez</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What still isn’t known</h2>
<p>The success of the giant marigolds might be linked to the extra roots that grow from their stems known as <a href="https://propg.ifas.ufl.edu/05-cuttings/01-terminology/01-cuttingterms-adventitiousroot.html">adventitious roots</a>. These roots likely help keep the plants stable on the floating platforms. Identifying additional plants with roots like these could help broaden plant choices. </p>
<p>Future raft designs may also need modifications to ensure better stability and growth for other cut-flower and crop species. </p>
<h2>What’s next</h2>
<p>Our promising findings show floating cut-flower farms could be a sustainable option for mitigating water pollution. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">How floating cut-flower farms can clean polluted waterways.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>One of us (Locke-Rodriguez) is expanding this research and working to scale up floating farms in South Florida as a demonstration of what could take place in the many locations facing similar issues worldwide.</p>
<p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take on interesting academic work.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215127/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jazmin Locke received funding from the USDA-NIFA-NNF and NSF-CREST as a PhD student to help fund this dissertation research at Florida International University.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span><a href="mailto:jayachan@fiu.edu">jayachan@fiu.edu</a> receives funding from USDA-NIFA. </span></em></p>Phosphorus and nitrogen contribute to water pollution and cause harmful algal blooms. New research shows how mats of floating flower beds can take advantage of these nutrients while cleaning the water.Jazmin Locke-Rodriguez, Post Doctoral Associate in the Institute of Environment, Florida International UniversityKrishnaswamy Jayachandran, Professor of Agroecology, Florida International UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2223652024-02-08T13:37:50Z2024-02-08T13:37:50ZWhat’s sociology? A sociologist explains why Florida’s college students should get the chance to learn how social forces affect everyone’s lives<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573612/original/file-20240205-25-cpme8v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=464%2C226%2C7475%2C3916&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Studying this discipline helps you understand how society works.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/portrait-of-a-mid-adult-man-in-the-classroom-royalty-free-image/1468066295?adppopup=true">FG Trade/E+ via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In January 2024, Florida <a href="https://www.flbog.edu/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/Agenda-Item-for-Board-Approval-9.pdf">officially voted to reduce</a> the number of students enrolled in sociology courses. </p>
<p>That might sound baffling if you haven’t tuned into this cultural skirmish. But for me – I’m the <a href="https://www.asanet.org/for-press/press-releases/joya-misra-elected-115th-asa-president-jennifer-a-reich-voted-vice-president/">American Sociological Association’s current president</a> and a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=Jc-a1IwAAAAJ&view_op=list_works&sortby=pubdate">professor of sociology and public policy</a> at the University of Massachusetts Amherst – it’s both disturbing and an opportunity to help the public better understand my academic discipline. </p>
<p>Sociology is the study of social life, social change and the social causes and <a href="https://www.asanet.org/about/what-is-sociology/">consequences of human behavior</a>.</p>
<p>Sociologists analyze how society is structured and how people interact with one another in groups, organizations and society.</p>
<p>A central concept to sociology is the “<a href="https://guides.temple.edu/c.php?g=247388&p=1647916">sociological imagination</a>.” As defined by the scholar <a href="https://sociology.plus/charles-wright-mills-profile-theories-and-contribution-to-sociology/">C. Wright Mills</a>, it’s the ability to link someone’s experiences to societal forces or historical trends; for example, connecting losing a job to waves of unemployment due to a recession.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Sociology can change how you see the world.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why does sociology matter?</h2>
<p>Because my discipline helps identify how social structures work, it provides insight into how to fix processes that malfunction. Sociological research has helped address questions like why <a href="https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/H/bo20809880.html">700 people died during a Chicago heat wave</a> in 1995, or why <a href="https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/C/bo22781921.html">the space shuttle Challenger exploded</a> in 1986, identifying strategies to avoid such catastrophes in the future.</p>
<p>The research that sociologists conduct can identify better approaches for <a href="https://theconversation.com/breast-cancer-awareness-campaigns-too-often-overlook-those-%20with-metastatic-breast-cancer-heres-how-they-can-do-better-190877">supporting people with breast cancer</a>. It can explain how social media platforms like X, formerly Twitter, <a href="https://theconversation.com/twitters-design-stokes-hostility-and-controversy-heres-why-and-how-it-might-change-166555">profit from hostility between users</a>.</p>
<p>Sociologists do studies that show that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122418823184">jobs with unpredictable schedules</a> are bad for your health and that <a href="https://theconversation.com/homicide-rates-are-up-in-young-men-austerity-and-inequality-may-be-to-blame-112980">homicide rates typically increase as inequality grows</a>. </p>
<p>Sociologists also study inequalities, such as gender or racial inequalities in workplaces. These studies can show how workplaces can create <a href="https://hbr.org/2023/11/creating-an-organizational-culture-thats-more-inclusive-for-black-employees">more inclusive cultures</a> that benefit Black workers as well as other employees. </p>
<p>Learning about sociology can help students hone their <a href="https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/critical-thinking-skills">critical thinking skills</a> by training them to evaluate evidence, analyze data and clearly communicate its meaning – all skills needed in most well-paid jobs.</p>
<p>Sociology also <a href="https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/resumes-cover-letters/soft-skills">provides students with soft skills</a>, giving them a better understanding of how to work effectively with others, including those with different backgrounds and experiences.</p>
<p>The Medical College Admission Test, or MCAT, an exam required for anyone wishing to attend medical school, <a href="https://students-residents.aamc.org/whats-mcat-exam/psychological-social-and-biological-foundations-behavior-section-overview">emphasizes sociological concepts</a> because they give future doctors tools for how to engage with their patients most effectively. </p>
<p>In 2020, more than 25,000 students earned a bachelor’s degree in sociology, and approximately 1,300 earned a master’s degree, with another <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d21/tables/dt21_325.92.asp">600 earning a Ph.D</a>.</p>
<p>Many people who <a href="https://www.themuse.com/advice/sociology-degree-major-jobs-careers">majored in sociology</a> work as <a href="https://www.youtube.com/shorts/2E2IXPbCZkY">social workers</a>, teachers, school counselors, market research analysts, human resource coordinators, tech workers, paralegals, public relations professionals, urban planners and community health workers.</p>
<h2>Curbing sociology in Florida</h2>
<p>The boards that oversee the education of hundreds of thousands of students enrolled in Florida’s public colleges and universities <a href="https://www.insidehighered.com/news/governance/trustees-regents/2024/01/18/dei-spending-banned-sociology-scrapped-florida">voted to reduce the number of students who study sociology</a> on those campuses.</p>
<p>They officially removed principles of sociology from the lists of classes that count as <a href="https://www.flbog.edu/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/Agenda-Item-for-Board-Approval-9.pdf">core courses that satisfy requirements</a> for undergraduate degrees. </p>
<p>This change, made in January 2024, was in response to a law that Gov. Ron DeSantis signed in 2023. That measure <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2023/05/15/politics/desantis-signs-dei-defunding-bill/index.html">bans general education college credits for instruction</a> “based on theories that systemic racism, sexism, oppression, and privilege are inherent in the institutions of the United States and were created to maintain social, political, and economic inequities.”</p>
<p>Introductory sociology classes, such as the <a href="https://openstax.org/details/books/introduction-sociology-3e">principles of sociology</a> course taught in Florida’s public colleges and universities, teach students how a variety of social institutions work, such as families, education, religion, health care, the economy, politics, the criminal justice system and the media.</p>
<p>Students also learn about topics such as globalization and inequality – whether it’s tied to wealth, income, race, gender, age or whether people live in urban or rural areas. </p>
<p>Sociology is a major that most students first become acquainted with in college, often through courses that satisfy general education requirements. As a result of this policy change, it is likely that enrollment in sociology classes will <a href="https://www.nea.org/nea-today/all-news-articles/latest-target-floridas-culture-wars-sociology">drastically drop in Florida</a>, and fewer students will major in sociology. </p>
<p>Sociology courses, by considering inequalities by wealth, income, race, gender, sexuality and age, may <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2024/jan/26/florida-sociology-classes-ron-desantis-condemned">seem overly “woke” to conservatives</a>. But sociological findings are based on scientific analysis of data from objective sources, such as the U.S. Census Bureau. </p>
<h2>Global history of censorship</h2>
<p>U.S. conservatives are not the only ones who have tried to ban the spread of sociological knowledge. </p>
<p>Sociology has been censored for long periods in many countries, including <a href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/soviet-and-post-soviet-sociology">Russia</a>, <a href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-030-16303-7">Hungary</a> and <a href="https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202204/15/WS6258dd30a310fd2b29e57302.html">China</a>.</p>
<p>In April 2019, <a href="https://theconversation.com/sociology-and-philosophy-are-just-the-first-victims-in-bolsonaros-culture-war-120052">then-president Jair Bolsonaro of Brazil also lashed out at sociology</a>. Since January 2023, <a href="https://www.gov.br/planalto/en/composition/biography-president-of-the-republic">Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva</a> is again serving as Brazil’s president. Because he married sociologist <a href="https://www.batimes.com.ar/news/latin-america/smiley-and-discreet-the-sociologist-marrying-brazils-lula.phtml">Rosângela Lula da Silva</a> in 2022, sociology is safe for the time being in Brazil.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222365/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joya Misra is currently the president of the American Sociological Association. </span></em></p>The boards that oversee the education of students enrolled in Florida’s public colleges and universities are trying to restrict enrollment in sociology courses on those campuses.Joya Misra, Provost Professor of Sociology and Public Policy, UMass AmherstLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2223492024-02-07T13:13:04Z2024-02-07T13:13:04ZCould flag football one day leapfrog tackle football in popularity?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573480/original/file-20240205-21-8bd16d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=12%2C6%2C2032%2C1355&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Youth flag football players run drills with their coach before a game in Dayton, Ohio, on Oct. 8, 2023.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/flag-football-team-beavercreek-raiders-run-drills-with-news-photo/1850858257?adppopup=true">Megan Jelinger/The Washington Post via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>One hundred years into the future, what if millions of people gathered every February, not to watch the Super Bowl, but to instead watch the annual world flag football championship?</p>
<p>Once a casual activity played at family reunions, the competitive sport of flag football is “<a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/2023/10/22/flag-football-why-sport-is-becoming-so-popular-with-girls-kids/71270522007/">soaring</a>,” “<a href="https://www.cnn.com/2023/10/17/sport/flag-football-nfl-olympics-cec/index.html">exploding</a>” and “<a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/flag-football-popularity-girls-women/">skyrocketing in popularity nationwide</a>,” according to mainstream news outlets.</p>
<p>There’s some data behind the breathless headlines: According to the <a href="https://nflflag.com/about">NFL’s official flag football program</a>, since 2015 the number of kids ages 6 to 12 who play flag football has risen by 38%, to more than 1.5 million.</p>
<p>In my recent book, “<a href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-030-76457-9">Emerging Sports as Social Movements</a>,” I explore nontraditional sports like flag football and disc golf. One of my key findings is that splashy headlines about trendy sports rarely capture a sport’s true reach and staying power. </p>
<p>For every sport like pickleball that gains widespread, sustained popularity, there are several – <a href="https://www.usara.com/new-to-adventure-racing/whatisadventureracing">adventure racing</a>, paintball and wakeboarding – that remain firmly ensconced in their niche.</p>
<p>In the case of flag football, there are a handful of recent trends that truly do point to a promising future. But there are also some red flags that could end up hampering its growth.</p>
<h2>A fun, fast, safer alternative</h2>
<p>Though its rules are similar to tackle football, flag football is currently gaining attention for what makes it different. </p>
<p>It’s considered a no-contact sport. A “tackle” involves snatching one of two flags that hang from the hips of the ball carrier. While players face injury risks, they sustain <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/traumaticbraininjury/pubs/youth_football_head_impacts.html">far fewer head impacts</a> than athletes who play tackle football.</p>
<p>With the public’s concerns about brain injuries <a href="https://www.usnews.com/news/health-news/articles/2023-01-24/youth-football-participation-declining-amid-safety-concerns">on the rise</a>, many parents are opting for flag football instead of tackle for their kids.</p>
<p>Obscurity is a powerful barrier to emerging sports. But getting noticed may not be a problem for flag football.</p>
<p>The International Olympic Committee <a href="https://www.nfl.com/partners/flag-football/">announced in October 2023</a> that flag football would be headed to the Summer Games in Los Angeles in 2028. It’s not clear yet if active NFL players can compete, but if they are eligible – and if the U.S. assembles a “<a href="https://www.sportingnews.com/us/nba/news/dream-team-roster-history-usa-1992-olympics/4o78v2slilky1inrskk8h6wkb">Dream Team</a>” like the Olympic men’s basketball team of 1992 that included superstars Michael Jordan, Larry Bird and Magic Johnson – flag football could get on the radar of millions of casual sports fans in 2028.</p>
<p>The Olympic version of flag football is fast-paced.</p>
<p>Games are shorter than a typical game of tackle football. Five players compete on 50-yard fields with 10-yard end zones for two 20-minute halves. This format made its first big appearance in the <a href="https://olympics.com/en/news/flag-football-rules-players-origins-things-to-know">2022 World Games</a> in Birmingham, Alabama, where the U.S. men won gold and the women took home silver.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">A short overview of how to play flag football.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The NFL cultivates the grassroots</h2>
<p>Although it may come as a surprise, the NFL is embracing flag football and taking its growth seriously.</p>
<p>In 2021, the NFL and Nike committed <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/nfl-and-nike-court-a-new-football-market-girls-11612854854">US$5 million in equipment</a> to support high school flag football teams across the nation. The NFL’s <a href="https://playfootball.nfl.com/about-youth-football/find-a-league/">official flag football program</a> operates more than 1,600 local leagues and receives sponsorships from top brands like Visa, Gatorade and Subway.</p>
<p>Most NFL teams are currently supporting the grassroots of flag football with summer camps, clinics and regional tournaments.</p>
<p>During last year’s Super Bowl, an estimated 115 million viewers watched <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/videos/sports/Ad-Meter/2023/02/13/ad-meter-2023-nfl-run/11245547002/">a flag football TV commercial</a> featuring Mexican quarterback Diana Flores bobbing and spinning to evade NFL players and celebrities as they attempted to take her flag. </p>
<p>On Feb. 4, 2024, the Pro Bowl – the NFL’s annual all-star game – sidelined tackle football for the second year in a row. In its place was a 7-on-7 flag football game that aired on ESPN and ABC and streamed on ESPN+.</p>
<p>Prior to that game, on Feb. 2-3, the league also hosted the <a href="https://www.nfl.com/news/nfl-hosts-12-international-youth-flag-football-teams-at-2024-pro-bowl-games">International NFL Flag Championships</a> as part of the Pro Bowl Games, featuring young athletes from 12 countries.</p>
<h2>By the numbers</h2>
<p>Flag football may be having a moment, but the question remains: Is the sport actually experiencing a meaningful surge in participation that could extend into the future?</p>
<p>According to figures collected annually by the <a href="https://www.nfhs.org/">National Federation of High Schools</a>, 21,980 students played high school flag football in 2023. To put this number in context, however, tackle football attracted 47 times more students – roughly 1 million players – the same year. Track and field, basketball and soccer have roughly 1 million participants apiece.</p>
<p>Interest in flag football seems to be concentrated in a few regions, with roughly <a href="https://www.nfhs.org/">80% of high school players</a> living in just three states: Florida, Georgia and New York.</p>
<p>Though high school participation in flag football has <a href="https://www.nfhs.org/">increased steadily</a> since 2007, almost all the growth comes from the girls’ side.</p>
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<p>A nationwide <a href="https://sportsmarketanalytics.com/home.aspx">sports participation survey</a> finds that the number of casual players of flag football is up, but core participation is down. The study defines “casual players” as those who play fewer than 50 times per year, whereas “core players” participate 50 or more times each year.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://sportsmarketanalytics.com/home.aspx">share of Americans</a> who play casually increased by 41% between 2016 and 2022. But core participation declined by 13% during this period.</p>
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<p>For sustainable growth, nontraditional sports need to generate excitement among both core and casual players. Top-down investments and marketing strategies may attract new players, but grassroots organizing keeps them coming back.</p>
<p>Take pickleball. In recent years, the sport has generated plenty of cultural clout, with high-profile athletes like LeBron James investing in the professional circuit, and <a href="https://www.paddletek.com/blogs/news/celebrities-in-pickleball">celebrity pickleball players</a> making headlines. There has also been <a href="https://theconversation.com/pickleballs-uphill-climb-to-mainstream-success-193052">tremendous growth</a> in pickleball’s social and physical infrastructure. For these reasons, both casual and core participation in pickleball <a href="https://sportsmarketanalytics.com/home.aspx">more than doubled</a> between 2016 and 2022.</p>
<h2>Red sport, blue sport</h2>
<p>In the end, the future of flag football may hinge on the public debate over tackle football’s safety. Over the past decade, <a href="https://theconversation.com/childrens-high-impact-sports-can-be-abuse-experts-explain-why-222651">several studies</a> have found a link between repeated head impacts and the risk for serious brain injuries, <a href="https://www.bu.edu/cte/our-research/significant-research-findings/">including chronic traumatic encephalopathy</a>, or CTE.</p>
<p>Yet <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/sanfrancisco/news/california-youth-tackle-football-ban-clears-first-legislative-hurdle-assembly-committee-ab734/">recent efforts</a> to make tackle football safer for young athletes have been met with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1353/jsm.2019.0002">fierce resistance</a> from families, fans and organizers. In many regions of the U.S., tackle football is deeply ingrained in the culture, leading to strong opposition to any changes.</p>
<p>New rules to protect NFL players have seeped into mainstream politics. For instance, in 2019, former <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/bobcook/2019/02/03/donald-trump-who-wants-more-violence-in-the-nfl-doesnt-want-his-son-playing-football/?sh=5ffeb68a342a">President Donald Trump</a> dubbed the NFL’s concussion protocol “soft” and said that safety measures were “ruining the game.”</p>
<p>Meanwhile, Democratic state lawmakers in New York, Illinois and California have <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/sacramento/news/governor-newsom-says-he-wont-sign-bill-banning-tackle-football-for-young-kids/">introduced bills to ban tackle football for kids under 12</a>, often citing flag football as a suitable alternative. None of these bills, however, have passed.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two teenaged girls fight for a ball." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573483/original/file-20240205-27-v9xcvh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573483/original/file-20240205-27-v9xcvh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573483/original/file-20240205-27-v9xcvh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573483/original/file-20240205-27-v9xcvh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573483/original/file-20240205-27-v9xcvh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=553&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573483/original/file-20240205-27-v9xcvh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=553&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573483/original/file-20240205-27-v9xcvh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=553&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Flag football has become more popular among girls and women.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/long-beach-ca-lilianna-sarmiento-of-jordan-reaches-for-a-news-photo/1743556245?adppopup=true">Keith Birmingham/Pasadena Star-News via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Some research shows that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/19406940.2018.1524784">Democrats are more likely to trust concussion science than Republicans</a>. Democrats also <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2021.655890">pay more attention to news about concussions</a> than Republicans. </p>
<p>As beliefs about the dangers of tackle football become polarized, the perceived benefits of flag football will likely follow suit. As I showed in a recent study of sport popularity in 207 areas of the U.S., <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/19406940.2022.2074516">flag football is more popular in regions that tend to vote Democratic</a>, with tackle football more popular in Republican areas.</p>
<p>So in addition to going after the resources needed for sustainable growth – investment, organization, visibility, legitimacy – flag football’s advocates will also need to navigate a nation divided by politics.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222349/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Josh Woods does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The NFL’s embrace of the sport points to a promising future. But gender and political divides could stand in the way.Josh Woods, Professor of Sociology, West Virginia UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2206342024-01-09T17:03:11Z2024-01-09T17:03:11Z2023’s billion-dollar disasters list shattered the US record with 28 big weather and climate disasters amid Earth’s hottest year on record<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568310/original/file-20240108-17-d7axzq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=592%2C875%2C1145%2C839&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Flood water filled streets in downtown Montpelier, Vt., on July 11, 2023.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/person-walks-through-the-flooded-waters-of-main-street-on-news-photo/1524301769?adppopup=true">Kylie Cooper/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>National weather analysts released their 2023 <a href="https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/billions/events/US/1980-2023">billion-dollar disasters</a> list on Jan. 9, just as 2024 was getting <a href="https://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/discussions/hpcdiscussions.php?">off to a ferocious start</a>. A <a href="https://weather.com/storms/winter/video/midwest-to-see-three-rounds-of-snow">blizzard was sweeping across</a> across the Plains and Midwest, and the South and East faced flood risks from <a href="https://www.cnn.com/us/live-news/eastern-us-snow-storm-01-09-24/index.html">extreme downpours</a>. </p>
<p>The U.S. set an unwelcome record for weather and climate disasters in 2023, with <a href="https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/billions/">28 disasters</a> that exceeded more than US$1 billion in damage each. </p>
<p>While it wasn’t the most expensive year overall – the costliest years included multiple hurricane strikes – it had the highest number of billion-dollar storms, floods, droughts and fires of any year since counting began in 1980, with <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/news/us-struck-with-historic-number-of-billion-dollar-disasters-in-2023">six more than any other year</a>, accounting for inflation. </p>
<p><iframe id="FOf4d" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/FOf4d/5/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568442/original/file-20240109-27-h4qldd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A map shows where disasters that did more than $1 billion in damage hit the United States." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568442/original/file-20240109-27-h4qldd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568442/original/file-20240109-27-h4qldd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568442/original/file-20240109-27-h4qldd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568442/original/file-20240109-27-h4qldd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568442/original/file-20240109-27-h4qldd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568442/original/file-20240109-27-h4qldd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568442/original/file-20240109-27-h4qldd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">2023’s billion-dollar disasters. Click the image to expand.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.noaa.gov/news/us-struck-with-historic-number-of-billion-dollar-disasters-in-2023">NOAA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The year’s most expensive disaster started with an <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/151632/relentless-heat-in-the-southwest">unprecedented heat wave</a> that sat over Texas for weeks over the summer and then spread into the South and Midwest, helping fuel a destructive drought. The extreme heat and lack of rain dried up fields, forced ranchers to sell off livestock and restricted commerce on the Mississippi River, causing about <a href="https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/billions/events">US$14.5 billion in damage</a>, according to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s <a href="https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/billions/faq">conservative estimates</a>.</p>
<p>Extreme dryness in Hawaii contributed to another multi-billion-dollar disaster as it fueled <a href="https://theconversation.com/mauis-deadly-wildfires-burn-through-lahaina-its-a-reminder-of-the-growing-risk-to-communities-that-once-seemed-safe-211317">devastating wildfires</a> that destroyed Lahaina, Hawaii, in August. </p>
<p>Other billion-dollar disasters included <a href="https://www.weather.gov/tae/HurricaneIdalia2023">Hurricane Idalia</a>, which hit Florida in August; floods in the <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-climate-change-intensifies-the-water-cycle-fueling-extreme-rainfall-and-flooding-the-northeast-deluge-was-just-the-latest-209476">Northeast</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/epic-snow-from-all-those-atmospheric-rivers-in-the-west-is-starting-to-melt-and-the-flood-danger-is-rising-203874">California</a>; and nearly two dozen other severe storms across the country. States in a swath from Texas to Ohio were hit by multiple billion-dollar storms.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A man with a bicycle walks through a scene of destruction after the fire in Lahaina." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568111/original/file-20240106-25-znwys7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C8%2C1920%2C1258&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568111/original/file-20240106-25-znwys7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568111/original/file-20240106-25-znwys7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568111/original/file-20240106-25-znwys7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568111/original/file-20240106-25-znwys7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568111/original/file-20240106-25-znwys7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568111/original/file-20240106-25-znwys7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A wildfire left almost the entire city of Lahaina, Hawaii, in ashes in August 2023.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/PicturesoftheWeek-Global-PhotoGallery/15a6864806e24d0cbb8b1037cfcf9931/photo">AP Photo/Rick Bowmer</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/el-nino-is-back-thats-good-news-or-bad-news-depending-on-where-you-live-205974">El Niño</a> played a role in some of these disasters, but at the root of the world’s increasingly frequent extreme heat and weather is <a href="https://www.carbonbrief.org/mapped-how-climate-change-affects-extreme-weather-around-the-world/">global warming</a>. The year 2023 was the <a href="https://climate.copernicus.eu/copernicus-2023-hottest-year-record">hottest on record globally</a> and the <a href="https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/news/national-climate-202312">fifth warmest in the U.S.</a></p>
<p>I am <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Shuang-Ye-Wu">an atmospheric scientist</a> who studies the changing climate. Here’s a quick look at what global warming has to do with wildfires, storms and other weather and climate disasters.</p>
<h2>Dangerous heat waves and devastating wildfires</h2>
<p>When greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide from vehicles and power plants, accumulate in the atmosphere, they <a href="https://climate.nasa.gov/faq/19/what-is-the-greenhouse-effect/">act like a thermal blanket</a> that warms the planet. </p>
<p>These gases let in high-energy solar radiation while absorbing outgoing low-energy radiation in the form of heat from the Earth. The <a href="https://theconversation.com/earths-energy-budget-is-out-of-balance-heres-how-thats-warming-the-climate-165244">energy imbalance</a> at the Earth’s surface gradually increases the surface temperature of the land and oceans.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/SN5-DnOHQmE?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">How the greenhouse effect functions.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The most direct consequence of this warming is more days with abnormally high temperatures, as large parts of the country saw in 2023.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/jpl/nasa-data-shows-fierce-surface-temperatures-during-phoenix-heat-wave/">Phoenix</a> went 30 days with daily high temperatures at <a href="https://apnews.com/article/southwest-extreme-heat-wave-922e965ba3d3e42cbffc2ece12d5c114">110 F (43.3 C) or higher</a> and recorded its highest minimum nighttime temperature, with temperatures on July 19 never falling below 97 F (36.1 C).</p>
<p>Although heat waves result from weather fluctuations, <a href="https://www.worldweatherattribution.org/extreme-heat-in-north-america-europe-and-china-in-july-2023-made-much-more-likely-by-climate-change/">global warming has raised the baseline</a>, making heat waves more frequent, more intense and longer-lasting.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564634/original/file-20231209-21-2p0af.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Maps and charts show extreme heat events increasing in many parts of the U.S., both in length of heat wave season and in number of heat waves per year." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564634/original/file-20231209-21-2p0af.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564634/original/file-20231209-21-2p0af.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=474&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564634/original/file-20231209-21-2p0af.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=474&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564634/original/file-20231209-21-2p0af.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=474&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564634/original/file-20231209-21-2p0af.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=595&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564634/original/file-20231209-21-2p0af.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=595&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564634/original/file-20231209-21-2p0af.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=595&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The number of multi-day extreme heat events has been rising. U.S. Global Change Research Program.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.globalchange.gov/indicators/heat-waves">U.S. Global Change Research Program</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>That heat also fuels wildfires.</p>
<p>Increased evaporation removes more moisture from the ground, drying out soil, grasses and other organic material, which <a href="https://theconversation.com/human-exposure-to-wildfires-has-more-than-doubled-in-two-decades-who-is-at-risk-might-surprise-you-207903">creates favorable conditions for wildfires</a>. All it takes is a lightning strike or spark from a power line to start a blaze. </p>
<h2>How global warming fuels extreme storms</h2>
<p>As more heat is stored as energy in the atmosphere and oceans, it doesn’t just increase the temperature – it can also <a href="https://theconversation.com/as-extreme-downpours-trigger-flooding-around-the-world-scientists-take-a-closer-look-a-global-warmings-role-213724">increase the amount of water vapor</a> in the atmosphere. </p>
<p>When that water vapor condenses to liquid and falls as rain, it releases a large amount of energy. This is called <a href="https://wxguys.ssec.wisc.edu/2022/08/31/rain-energy-relationship/">latent heat</a>, and it is the main fuel for all storm systems. When temperatures are higher and the atmosphere has more moisture, that additional energy can fuel <a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-change-is-intensifying-the-water-cycle-bringing-more-powerful-storms-and-flooding-heres-what-the-science-shows-187951">stronger, longer-lasting storms</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two older adults look out a window over a yard turned to mud. The mudline on the house is almost up to the window sill, and the garage's doors have been torn off and are leaning down." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564610/original/file-20231209-29-1llu44.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564610/original/file-20231209-29-1llu44.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564610/original/file-20231209-29-1llu44.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564610/original/file-20231209-29-1llu44.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564610/original/file-20231209-29-1llu44.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564610/original/file-20231209-29-1llu44.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564610/original/file-20231209-29-1llu44.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Tropical Storm Hilary flooded several areas in Southern California, stranding people for days.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/residents-trapped-in-their-home-peer-out-a-window-while-news-photo/1614093982">Josh Edelson/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Tropical storms are similarly fueled by latent heat coming from warm ocean water. That is why they only form when the sea surface temperature reaches a <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/jetstream/tropical/tropical-cyclone-introduction">critical level of around 80 F</a> (27 C).</p>
<p>With <a href="https://climate.nasa.gov/vital-signs/ocean-warming/">90% of the excess heat</a> from global warming being absorbed by the ocean, there has been a significant increase in the <a href="https://climatereanalyzer.org/clim/sst_daily/">global sea surface temperature</a>, including record-breaking levels in 2023.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568113/original/file-20240106-15-yx8vjo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A chart of daily global average ocean temperatures since 1981 shows 2023 heat far above any other year starting in mid-March and staying there through the year." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568113/original/file-20240106-15-yx8vjo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568113/original/file-20240106-15-yx8vjo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=352&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568113/original/file-20240106-15-yx8vjo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=352&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568113/original/file-20240106-15-yx8vjo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=352&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568113/original/file-20240106-15-yx8vjo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=442&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568113/original/file-20240106-15-yx8vjo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=442&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568113/original/file-20240106-15-yx8vjo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=442&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Global ocean heat in 2023 was at its highest in over four decades of records.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://climatereanalyzer.org/clim/sst_daily/">ClimateReanalyzer.org, Climate Change Institute, University of Maine</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Higher sea surface temperatures can lead to <a href="https://www.gfdl.noaa.gov/global-warming-and-hurricanes/">stronger hurricanes</a>, <a href="https://www.lsu.edu/mediacenter/news/2023/07/24keimhurricaneseason.rh.php">longer hurricane seasons</a> and the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-42669-y">faster intensification</a> of tropical storms.</p>
<h2>Cold snaps have global warming connections, too</h2>
<p>It might seem counterintuitive, but global warming can also <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-arctic-warming-can-trigger-extreme-cold-waves-like-the-texas-freeze-a-new-study-makes-the-connection-166550">contribute to cold snaps</a> in the U.S. That’s because it alters the general circulation of Earth’s atmosphere.</p>
<p>The Earth’s atmosphere is constantly moving in large-scale circulation patterns in the forms of near-surface wind belts, such as the trade winds, and upper-level jet streams. <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-arctic-warming-can-trigger-extreme-cold-waves-like-the-texas-freeze-a-new-study-makes-the-connection-166550">These patterns</a> are caused by the temperature difference between the polar and equatorial regions.</p>
<p>As the Earth warms, the polar regions are heating up <a href="https://scied.ucar.edu/learning-zone/climate-change-impacts/warming-polar-regions">more than twice as fast</a> as the equator. This can shift weather patterns, leading to extreme events in unexpected places. Anyone who has experienced a “polar vortex event” knows how it feels when the jet stream dips southward, bringing frigid Arctic air and winter storms, despite the generally warmer winters.</p>
<p>In sum, a warmer world is a more violent world, with the additional heat fueling increasingly more extreme weather events.</p>
<p><em>This article, <a href="https://theconversation.com/2023s-extreme-storms-heat-and-wildfires-broke-records-a-scientist-explains-how-global-warming-fuels-climate-disasters-217500">originally published Dec. 19, 2023</a>, was updated Jan. 9, 2024, with NOAA’s disasters list.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220634/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Shuang-Ye Wu does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>An atmospheric scientist explains how rising temperatures are helping to fuel extreme storms, floods, droughts and devastating wildfires.Shuang-Ye Wu, Professor of Geology and Environmental Geosciences, University of DaytonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2195462024-01-02T16:49:57Z2024-01-02T16:49:57ZPrivatised Moon landings: the two US missions set to open a new era of commercial lunar exploration<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566549/original/file-20231219-23-qde9s6.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C2%2C1839%2C984&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/10836">Photograph: Nasa (Goddard Space Flight Center)</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Two commercial spacecraft are scheduled to launch to the Moon early in 2024 under a Nasa initiative called the Commercial Lunar Payload Service <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/commercial-lunar-payload-services/">CLPS</a>. This programme is intended to kickstart a commercial transportation service that can deliver Nasa experiments and other payloads to the lunar surface.</p>
<p>If successful, these missions will represent the first landings on the Moon by spacecraft designed and flown by private companies. They could potentially open up a new era of commercial lunar exploration and science. </p>
<p>CLPS was inaugurated by Nasa in 2018. An initial pool of nine companies received an invitation to join the programme. They included <a href="https://www.astrobotic.com/">Astrobotic</a> and <a href="https://www.intuitivemachines.com/">Intuitive Machines</a>, the two companies behind these missions. Both missions expect to land within a week after lift-off.</p>
<p>The first launch, and the first Nasa flight of 2024, is the Peregrine lunar lander, built by Pittsburgh-based Astrobotic. It is scheduled to launch at the earliest on January 8. Broadly speaking, the lander is a box the size of a medium-sized garden shed containing several separate experiments. </p>
<p>These include a set of mirrors called a laser retro-reflector array, used for accurate positioning of the lander from orbit. There are also a number of spectrometers – instruments that separate and measure the distinct colours found in light. These will measure radiation on the lunar surface and look for signatures of water in lunar soil.</p>
<p>One of them, the <a href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experiment/display.action?id=PEREGRN-1-02">Neutron Spectrometer System</a>, will look for hydrogen-containing materials on the surface, which can indicate the presence of water below ground. This water could one day be used by human explorers.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Astrobotic Peregrine lander." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566548/original/file-20231219-19-i3ffem.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1917%2C1279&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566548/original/file-20231219-19-i3ffem.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566548/original/file-20231219-19-i3ffem.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566548/original/file-20231219-19-i3ffem.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566548/original/file-20231219-19-i3ffem.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566548/original/file-20231219-19-i3ffem.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566548/original/file-20231219-19-i3ffem.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Astrobotic’s Peregrine lander will touch down near the Gruithuisen Domes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://images.nasa.gov/details/KSC-20231114-PH-ILW01_0100">Isaac Watson/Nasa</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There are two principle sources of dangerous radiation for humans in space. One is the Sun, which unleashes electrons, protons and heavier ions that are accelerated to a significant fraction of the speed of light. </p>
<p>These solar energetic particle events (SEPs) are more likely to occur during the Sun’s peak of activity (solar maximum), which occurs every 11 years. However, that does not mean there is a respite during the solar minimum.</p>
<p>The other source of harmful radiation is galactic cosmic rays (GCRs). These energetic particles originate outside the Solar System, probably in explosive phenomena such as exploding stars (supernovas).</p>
<p>During periods of lower solar activity (including the solar minimum), the Sun’s magnetic field, which extends throughout the Solar System, weakens. This enables <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Solar-cycle-%20modulation-and-anti-correlation-of-GCR-flux-with-solar-activity-Shown-are_fig6_257343697">more GCRs</a> to reach us instead. </p>
<p>Another spectrometer on Peregrine will measure both SEPs and GCRs on the Moon. This is important for examining how dangerous the radiation environment at the lunar surface will be for future human explorers.</p>
<h2>Polar landing</h2>
<p>The second spacecraft to launch early in 2024 is the <a href="https://www.intuitivemachines.com/im-1">Nova-C lander</a>. It is designed by Houston-based Intuitive Machines and has a similar volume to Peregrine, but in the shape of a tall, hexagonal cylinder. It will carry several instruments including its own laser retro-reflector array. Nova-C is currently scheduled to launch in mid-February.</p>
<p>Other instruments include a suite of cameras for producing a 3D image of Nova-C’s landing site. This will allow scientists to estimate how much material is blown away by the landing rocket’s exhaust plume during the descent. Potentially, any material blown away can be imaged to get an idea of the composition of surface material. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Nova-C lander." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566583/original/file-20231219-23-2hpa5p.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566583/original/file-20231219-23-2hpa5p.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566583/original/file-20231219-23-2hpa5p.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566583/original/file-20231219-23-2hpa5p.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566583/original/file-20231219-23-2hpa5p.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566583/original/file-20231219-23-2hpa5p.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566583/original/file-20231219-23-2hpa5p.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A model of the Nova-C lander.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://images.nasa.gov/details/NHQ201905310022">Nasa (Goddard Space Flight Center)</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The “radio observations of the lunar surface photo-electron sheath” (<a href="https://arxiv.org/pdf/2102.02331.pdf">Rolses</a>) instrument is designed to measure how the extremely tenuous lunar atmosphere and the Moon’s surface dust environment affect radio waves. </p>
<p>The behaviour of electrically charged dust particles on the Moon is a technical challenge which future explorers will need to deal with, as the abrasive particles can attach themselves to surfaces and mechanical devices and potentially cause harm if <a href="https://www.wired.com/story/the-%20next-big-challenge-for-lunar-astronauts-moon-dust/">inhaled</a> by astronauts.</p>
<p>A privately built experiment onboard Nova-C is the International Lunar Observatory <a href="https://iloa.org/ilo-x-precursor/">ILO-X</a>, which will aim to capture some of the first images of the Milky Way galaxy from the Moon’s surface. This would demonstrate the concept of lunar-based astronomy.</p>
<h2>Landing locations</h2>
<p>Peregrine’s landing site is a bay on the west side of Mare Imbrium, known as Sinus Viscositatis (Bay of Stickiness). Here, two volcanic mountains called the <a href="https://moon.nasa.gov/resources/482/a-lunar-%20mystery-the-gruithuisen-domes/">Gruithuisen Domes</a> are made of a different material to the surrounding plains. </p>
<p>The plains are a form of basalt, while the domes are composed of silica. Both are volcanic in origin, but one appears to have been formed by lava with a viscosity of mango chutney (the silica), and the other by runnier lava (the basalt). </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Gruithuisen Domes" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566614/original/file-20231219-29-7x7oaq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566614/original/file-20231219-29-7x7oaq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566614/original/file-20231219-29-7x7oaq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566614/original/file-20231219-29-7x7oaq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566614/original/file-20231219-29-7x7oaq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566614/original/file-20231219-29-7x7oaq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566614/original/file-20231219-29-7x7oaq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Gruithuisen Domes appear to have been formed by silica lavas.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://moon.nasa.gov/resources/482/a-lunar-mystery-the-gruithuisen-domes/">Nasa (GSFC)/Arizona State University</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>On Earth, silica lavas typically require the presence both of water and plate tectonics. However, plate tectonics are not known to be present on the Moon, and neither is water in the quantities necessary for silica lavas. The Gruithuisen Domes thus present a geological enigma which Peregrine could go some way to resolving.</p>
<p>The landing location for Nova-C is Malapert A crater – which is of particular interest for lunar exploration, as it lies close to the Moon’s south pole. The surrounding mountains permanently shield this depression from sunlight, leaving it in constant darkness. </p>
<p>Consequently, it is one of the coldest locations in the Solar System and, given the lack of sunlight, a place where water ice delivered by comets hitting the surface over the aeons could remain stable. Future human explorers could use it for life support and making rocket fuel.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Lunar south pole." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566615/original/file-20231219-27-888tuc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566615/original/file-20231219-27-888tuc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566615/original/file-20231219-27-888tuc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566615/original/file-20231219-27-888tuc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566615/original/file-20231219-27-888tuc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566615/original/file-20231219-27-888tuc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566615/original/file-20231219-27-888tuc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An image of the Moon’s South Pole showing the Malapert crater (foreground).</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/5127">Nasa's Scientific Visualization Studio</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There are additional payloads on both spacecraft from private investors. Peregrine contains the “DHL Spacebox”, which will carry personal items from paying customers, while Nova-C contains “The Humanity Hall of Fame” – a list of names to be sent to the Moon for posterity. Such payloads can generate additional funding for the launch companies.</p>
<p>Several other companies are due to launch their first payloads to the Moon in the next couple of years. With greater input from private companies – assuming the these first few missions succeed – we may soon witness a new era in lunar exploration.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/219546/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The Peregrine and Nova-C landers are due to carry out valuable science at two diverse lunar locations.Gareth Dorrian, Post Doctoral Research Fellow in Space Science, University of BirminghamIan Whittaker, Senior Lecturer in Physics, Nottingham Trent UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2169402023-11-29T16:28:13Z2023-11-29T16:28:13ZSkateboard at the Design Museum celebrates 60 years of style, culture and cool<p>Skateboards are not complicated design objects. They consist of little more than a simple deck, usually made of wood, which forms the riding surface. The board is completed by a pair of trucks (pivoted metal turning devices) and four polyurethane wheels.</p>
<p>With a few rare exceptions, none of this involves particularly advanced design, fabrication, materials, technology or aesthetics. So why has the Design Museum – London’s prestigious venue for the celebration of contemporary design – decided to mount <a href="https://designmuseum.org/exhibitions/skateboard?utm_source=paid%20&utm_medium=paid&utm_campaign=Skateboard-Max&gad_source=1&gclid=CjwKCAiAmZGrBhAnEiwAo9qHiRg-ghH95BfTqZqusqdfFfbPOMmxhrtCAGROZiZopaMz-iEasCTABRoCvhUQAvD_BwE">Skateboard</a>, a substantial exhibition devoted to this simple creation?</p>
<p><a href="https://www.redbull.com/gb-en/skateboarding-101-beginner-guide">Skateboarding</a> first emerged in the late 1950s in the US, particularly in California and Florida’s beachside cities. The early pioneers were surfers who used devised skateboards from roller-skates to emulate surfing on asphalt roads and pavements. In the 1970s, their successors enjoyed the benefits of polyurethane wheels and wider boards to explore drained swimming pools, reservoirs, ditches and even new purpose-built skateparks.</p>
<p>By the late 1970s skateboarding was a global phenomenon that represented gritty urban cool, and continued this way into the <a href="https://www.skatedeluxe.com/blog/en/wiki/skateboarding/obstacle-guide/halfpipe/">wooden half-pipe terrains</a> of the 1980s and the urban street settings of the 1990s onwards. With its burgeoning popularity, a distinctive subculture emerged involving fashion, street art, music and rebellious attitudes.</p>
<p>Since the 2010s, skateboarding has morphed again, enjoying <a href="https://theconversation.com/from-outlier-to-olympic-sport-how-skateboarding-made-it-to-the-tokyo-games-165152">Olympic participation</a> in the Tokyo 2020/21 games, extending its reach to more diverse riders in terms of gender, age, ethnicity, sexuality and disability. Japan, Brazil, UK and China have joined the US as big skateboarding countries, establishing it as an intrinsic part of urban life worldwide.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/UnL4o-tUHwI?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
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<h2>Evolution and revolution</h2>
<p>The very simplicity of the skateboard belies a more subtle development over the last 60 years than might first be appreciated, so the Design Museum’s chronological presentation of boards, from the late 1950s to the present day makes good sense. And it’s fascinating, too. The earliest homemade devices are astonishingly makeshift, including an example made by nailing a pair of roller skate wheels and trucks to a piece of wood.</p>
<p>The development of skateboards began with the short surfboard-inspired creations of the 1960s. The first “kicktails” (decks with an angled rear to improve leverage) and polyurethane wheels came along in the early 1970s. The late 1970s saw wider boards and trucks and later advances in the 1980s included double-kick decks with angled nose and rear, and smaller wheels and straight-sided boards in the 1990s.</p>
<p>Along the way, creative graphic designs revealing symbols, logos, cartoon figures, abstract patterns and graffiti were added to underside of decks. For older skate aficionados this is a kind of heaven – an opportunity to reminisce, linger and focus on nostalgic details. </p>
<p>For non-skateboarders, it is equally compelling, revealing the rapid change of skateboard styling and the cool culture that came with it. But it is also a chance to appreciate some of the nuanced design changes. Fibreglass, metal, plastic and wooden decks, the size and geometry of trucks, improved bearings for smoother turns, the introduction of grip-tape to add friction to the top of the deck, and the development of concave riding surfaces are all part of the story.</p>
<p>Some of the objects are well known, such as the Roller Derby from the 1960s (the <a href="https://myskatespots.com/event/roller-derby-skate-board-first-mass-produced-skateboard/">first mass-produced skateboard</a>), and the <a href="https://newtons-shred.co.uk/brands/vision-skateboards/">Vision “Mark Gonzales” model</a> from the 1980s, which was made in the hundreds of thousands. Others are much rarer, including a <a href="https://vintagesurfboardcollectoruk.blogspot.com/2009/12/1967-bilbo-skateboard.html">1960s Bilbo</a> – the first ever commercial UK board – and an experimental <a href="https://www.trendhunter.com/trends/project-rpsd">Jason Knight/Project RPSD deck</a> made from recycled plastic.</p>
<p>And while the exhibition is by no means comprehensive, the overall effect is to show how the skateboarding industry has been vibrant and innovative over the years, constantly evolving its products. For example, we see wheels move from the small “clay” compositions of the 1960s, to the larger 60-65mm diameter polyurethane examples of the 1970s, specifically designed for smooth skateparks. But then they went back again to much smaller wheels in the 1990s, which helped with street-based tricks and manoeuvres.</p>
<h2>A bigger story</h2>
<p>Just as football is more than the ball, skateboarding extends far beyond the skateboard itself. Curators <a href="https://www.jonathanolivares.com/viewmaster/73">Jonathan Olivares</a>, himself a skateboarder, and <a href="https://showstudio.com/contributors/tory_turk">Tory Turk</a> have also carefully interspersed displays with numerous magazines, photographs, books, safety gear, cameras, records, video games and other paraphernalia associated with the culture (including a few magazines and pamphlets from my own collection).</p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/Cyyd7VaMjWv","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<p>This is not just a fetishist display for skate nerds but rather an exploration of objects which connect to much wider social and cultural phenomena. Many of the boards on display, for example, are scarred with the scrapes and bashes of heavy usage and a few are close to destruction, clearly indicating their active life outside of the museum.</p>
<p>The inclusion of things like Aga Wood’s “<a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.636111/full">Right to the City</a>/Ride in the City” board and her social enterprise <a href="https://www.everyoneonboards.com/">Everyone on Boards</a>, alongside women’s skateboard magazines and photographs of older skaters and trans skaters, signals how skateboarding has dramatically extended its political relevance, particularly in the last decade.</p>
<p>These exhibits indicate how skateboarding critiques urban space (including skaters’ right to access to it) and helps build social inclusion. Many of these items, such as the <a href="https://www.thrashermagazine.com/articles/in-da-store/ramp-plans-book/">Thrasher ramp-building guide</a> show how the skate scene is infused with a punkish DIY approach to creativity.</p>
<p>There is even a skateable ramp, designed by Olivares with <a href="https://www.betongpark.co.uk/about">Betongpark</a>, bringing real skateboarding into the museum, and animating it with a sense of informality and fun. Another key component is a film by Olivares with skateboarding chroniclers <a href="http://www.sixstairstudio.com/about.html">Six Stair</a>, providing an excellent history of the phenomenon.</p>
<p>As an exhibition Skateboard is not unique – this summer’s <a href="https://www.londoncallingskateboardinguk.com/">London Calling</a> and 2021’s <a href="https://www.somersethouse.org.uk/whats-on/no-comply">No Comply</a> similarly celebrated the culture of skateboarding. But the Design Museum’s offering is much larger and more ambitious in focus, providing a nuanced look at the complexity of skateboarding and its history, design and objects. Skateboards may be simple, but skateboarding is not.</p>
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<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536131/original/file-20230706-17-460x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536131/original/file-20230706-17-460x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536131/original/file-20230706-17-460x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536131/original/file-20230706-17-460x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536131/original/file-20230706-17-460x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536131/original/file-20230706-17-460x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536131/original/file-20230706-17-460x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Iain Borden does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The desire to transfer the thrills of surfing on to dry land created the monumental culture of skateboarding, now vividly documented in a new exhibition.Iain Borden, Professor of Architecture and Urban Culture, UCLLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2146282023-11-29T13:38:28Z2023-11-29T13:38:28ZLGTBQIA+ sanctuary declarations help cities take a stand to defend rights – but may not have much actual legal impact<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560848/original/file-20231121-25-54tmre.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Minnesotans hold a rally at the state capitol in St. Paul to support trans kids in March 2022. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/st-paul-minnesota-march-6-2022-because-the-attacks-against-news-photo/1385207884?adppopup=true">Michael Siluk/UCG/Universal Images Group via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Several <a href="https://thenationaldesk.com/news/americas-news-now/naacp-joins-other-civil-rights-groups-in-issuing-travel-advisory-for-florida-national-association-for-the-advancement-of-colored-people-diversity-equity-and-inclusion-african-american-studies-history-people-of-color-lgbtq-rights-civil-rights-policy-guns">cities and towns</a>, mostly in the American Midwest and South, are responding to a surge of proposed and approved legislation that restricts gay and transgender people’s rights by declaring they are “sanctuaries” for people who identify as LGBTQIA+. </p>
<p>States like Alabama, Texas, Florida, North Dakota and Montana have <a href="https://www.aclu.org/legislative-attacks-on-lgbtq-rights">passed 84 laws</a> <a href="https://apnews.com/article/lgbtq-laws-states-gender-affirming-zephyr-fc2528326823c8232cb0aaa7ece0beab">in 2023 alone</a> that restrict LGBTQIA+ rights, primarily targeting transgender kids. </p>
<p>Some of these laws require teachers to <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/nbc-out/out-politics-and-policy/north-dakota-advances-record-setting-10-anti-lgbtq-bills-one-day-advoc-rcna78311">call trans students by the name and pronoun</a> they were assigned at birth, for example, and <a href="https://apnews.com/article/desantis-florida-dont-say-gay-ban-684ed25a303f83208a89c556543183cb">prohibit any students</a> from discussing sexual orientation or gender identity. </p>
<p>In September 2023, the small town of Lake Worth Beach, Florida, was the latest to say that it was “a safe place, a sanctuary, a <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2023/09/07/lgbtq-sanctuary-city-florida/70789322007/">welcoming and supportive city</a> for LGBTQIA+ individuals and their families to live in peace and comfort.” </p>
<p>At least 15 states and cities have dubbed themselves <a href="https://www.lgbtmap.org/equality-maps/healthcare/trans_shield_laws">LGBTQIA+ sanctuaries</a> over the last several years.</p>
<p>Sanctuaries are generally considered local refuges, where people who are afraid of persecution or discrimination have legal immunity from particular government policies or laws. </p>
<p>As a <a href="http://jfinn.faculty.wesleyan.edu/">scholar of constitutional law</a> and a student of sanctuary movements, I think that sanctuary declarations of all kinds raise important questions of constitutional law. </p>
<p>The most difficult is the question of whether and when these declarations violate the U.S. Constitution by placing state or local law above federal law.</p>
<p>The short answer is that it depends on what these declarations actually promise. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560853/original/file-20231121-4697-40ulzc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="People hold signs that say 'Love is love,' and 'say gay loud!' Some of the people wear large yellow wigs." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560853/original/file-20231121-4697-40ulzc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560853/original/file-20231121-4697-40ulzc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560853/original/file-20231121-4697-40ulzc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560853/original/file-20231121-4697-40ulzc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560853/original/file-20231121-4697-40ulzc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560853/original/file-20231121-4697-40ulzc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560853/original/file-20231121-4697-40ulzc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">People protest Florida’s anti-LGBTQIA laws during a pride parade in Wilton Manors in June 2023.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/people-protesting-against-florida-gov-ron-desantis-and-news-photo/1499333323?adppopup=true">Joe Raedle/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Sanctuaries’ history in the US</h2>
<p>Sanctuaries are a long-standing part of the United States’ constitutional history. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.lirs.org/news/what-are-sanctuary-cities-and-why-do-they-exist-lirs/">In the 1980s,</a> for example, Los Angeles, Chicago and Boston, among other places, said they would <a href="https://cis.org/Map-Sanctuary-Cities-Counties-and-States">not cooperate with federal immigration</a> officials trying to deport Central American migrants. These cities’ representatives said the migrants were eligible for asylum and had fear of returning to their homelands because of persecution – but federal judges still did not give them the right to stay in the U.S. </p>
<p>More recent examples include the proliferation of <a href="https://theconversation.com/sanctuaries-protecting-gun-rights-and-the-unborn-challenge-the-legitimacy-and-role-of-federal-law-122988">Second Amendment sanctuaries</a> <a href="https://www.bradyunited.org/act/second-amendment-sanctuaries">in local towns and counties</a> in 42 states, which say they will not enforce a variety of federal gun laws. </p>
<p>Now, Tallahassee, Florida, is among the places that is considering <a href="https://gray-wctv-prod.cdn.arcpublishing.com/video/2023/07/14/tallahassee-residents-push-mayor-make-capital-sanctuary-city-lgbtq/">declaring itself a LGBTQIA+ sanctuary</a>. Other places – <a href="https://www.vice.com/en/article/g5qk7w/austin-texas-trans-kids-sanctuary-city">including Austin, Texas</a> and <a href="https://www.latimes.com/world-nation/story/2023-05-12/kansas-city-declares-lgbtq-sanctuary-city">Kansas City, Missouri</a> – have also made themselves LGBTQIA+ sanctuaries over the last few years.</p>
<p>Most of the sanctuaries focus on the rights and protection of trans kids and their families, in particular.</p>
<p>In some places, like Austin, the aim is to create a “safe place, a sanctuary, for <a href="https://www.kxan.com/news/local/austin/leaders-to-declare-austin-a-safe-and-inclusive-city-for-transgender-families/">transgender children and their families.”</a> In Kansas City, the intent is to make the city “a sanctuary for people seeking or <a href="https://apnews.com/article/sanctuary-city-lgbtq-kansas-city-resolution-bccdd5c33818bf9c1270ef2af63e393e">providing gender-affirming care.”</a> </p>
<h2>Are they legal?</h2>
<p>Sanctuary declarations raise important and difficult questions of constitutional law, especially when they claim immunity from federal laws or the U.S. Constitution. That’s because the Constitution <a href="https://constitution.congress.gov/constitution/article-6/">contains Article 6</a>, commonly known as the supremacy clause, which says that the Constitution and federal laws trump any state or local law. </p>
<p>The supremacy of the Constitution to state and local laws is a key part of how the U.S. government works. It means that state and local governments must act within the confines of the Constitution, even when state or local lawmakers disagree with federal law. </p>
<p>So, does the Constitution allow <a href="https://www.hrc.org/press-releases/roundup-of-anti-lgbtq-legislation-advancing-in-states-across-the-country">places to say that they will not follow</a> discriminatory laws, such as those that prevent trans students or faculty from use of the restrooms that match their gender identity?</p>
<p>The answer often depends on a sanctuary declaration’s precise wording and meaning.</p>
<p>Some sanctuary declarations, like the <a href="https://thehill.com/homenews/lgbtq/4192088-this-town-is-floridas-first-lgbtq-sanctuary-city/">Lake Worth Beach resolution</a>, are simply rhetorical statements of support or opposition to a particular cause or policy. They have little or no legal consequences. </p>
<p>Others, like some <a href="https://theconversation.com/sanctuaries-protecting-gun-rights-and-the-unborn-challenge-the-legitimacy-and-role-of-federal-law-122988">Second Amendment resolutions</a>, announce that local officials, often sheriffs or other law enforcement personnel, will not enforce or comply with laws restricting guns that they regard as unconstitutional. </p>
<p>In these sorts of cases, the proclaimed sanctuaries directly challenge what the Constitution says, specifically that the Constitution and federal laws are <a href="https://constitution.congress.gov/constitution/article-6/">“the supreme Law of the Land”</a>. State laws or laws passed by lower levels of government cannot overrule them.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560856/original/file-20231121-19-vf2yk4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Children wear rainbows on their shirts and dance in front of people also wearing rainbows and waving rainbow flags." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560856/original/file-20231121-19-vf2yk4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560856/original/file-20231121-19-vf2yk4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560856/original/file-20231121-19-vf2yk4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560856/original/file-20231121-19-vf2yk4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560856/original/file-20231121-19-vf2yk4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560856/original/file-20231121-19-vf2yk4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560856/original/file-20231121-19-vf2yk4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">People dance during a drag story time in Austin, Texas, in June 2023.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/people-dance-during-a-drag-time-story-hour-at-the-waterloo-news-photo/1497480212?adppopup=true">Brandon Bell/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Devil is in the details</h2>
<p>It is important to note, however, that not all sanctuary declarations violate Article 6. </p>
<p>When it comes to whether sanctuaries declared by states, cities or small towns are legal, the devil is in the details – as with most things concerning the Constitution. </p>
<p>A sanctuary resolution that only says that local officials disagree about what the Constitution means or requires, without pledging to break federal law, is simply <a href="https://www.uscourts.gov/about-federal-courts/educational-resources/about-educational-outreach/activity-resources/what-does">freedom of expression</a>. </p>
<p>Consequently, a claim of sanctuary for LGBTQIA+ people that simply declares a city or a town a safe and welcoming space, without calling for anything else or any kind of direct violation of federal law, is constitutionally protected. This is what the Lake Worth City <a href="https://www.wptv.com/news/region-c-palm-beach-county/lake-worth/city-of-lake-worth-beach-now-lgbtq-sanctuary-city">sanctuary declaration does</a>. </p>
<p>A more complex case arises when sanctuary spaces claim immunity not from federal law, but rather from state or local laws that impede a certain group of people’s rights. These kinds of sanctuary declarations do not ordinarily challenge the authority of Article 6 or the Constitution, in general, because the sanctuary claim is made against state laws, not federal law or the Constitution.</p>
<p>Indeed, in many such instances, these sanctuaries seek to protect people’s federal civil liberties and rights against discriminatory state laws. This is what the <a href="https://www.palmbeachpost.com/story/news/local/lakeworth/2023/09/07/what-is-an-lgbtq-sanctuary-city-lake-worth-beach-just-became-one/70774974007/">Lake Worth Beach resolution</a> and other <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/nbc-out/out-politics-and-policy/kansas-city-declares-lgbtq-sanctuary-city-rcna84126">LGBTQIA+ resolutions do</a>. </p>
<p>These sanctuaries actually reinforce the Constitution’s authority by insisting upon the power of people’s basic, constitutional principles and rights over discriminatory state laws.</p>
<p>Sanctuaries that promise a safe space for people who identify as part of the LGBTQIA+ community do not undermine federal constitutional law. </p>
<p>Instead, they seek to make good on the Constitution’s commitments to equality and human dignity against discriminatory policies. Unlike some sanctuary resolutions, most LGBTQIA+ sanctuaries do not threaten the Constitution – they celebrate it by insisting upon the supremacy of basic constitutional rights and principles without violating Article 6.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/214628/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>John E. Finn is Professor Emeritus of Government at Wesleyan University.</span></em></p>The question of whether local declarations offering sanctuary for LGBTQIA+ people place local law above federal law depends on what the statements actually promise.John E. Finn, Professor Emeritus of Government, Wesleyan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2162542023-11-14T13:25:27Z2023-11-14T13:25:27ZPFAS ‘forever chemicals’ are getting into ocean ecosystems, where dolphins, fish and manatees dine – we traced their origins<p>PFAS, the “forever chemicals” that have been raising health concerns across the country, are not just a problem in drinking water. As these chemicals leach out of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.12.081">failing septic systems</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2021.117983">landfills</a> and wash off <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150393">airport runways</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.129264">farm fields</a>, they can end up in streams that ultimately discharge into ocean ecosystems where fish, dolphins, manatees, sharks and other marine species live.</p>
<p>We study the risks from these persistent pollutants in coastal environments as <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=z697KEMAAAAJ&hl=en">environmental</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=w3It4CgAAAAJ&hl=en">analytical chemists</a> at Florida International University’s Institute of the Environment.</p>
<p>Because PFAS can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2022.107640">enter the food chain</a> and accumulate in marine plants and animals, including fish that humans eat, the spread of these chemicals has <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2022.115165">ecological</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.155316">human health</a> implications. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Reef fish in Biscayne Bay." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558906/original/file-20231111-17-ata3gl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558906/original/file-20231111-17-ata3gl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558906/original/file-20231111-17-ata3gl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558906/original/file-20231111-17-ata3gl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558906/original/file-20231111-17-ata3gl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558906/original/file-20231111-17-ata3gl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558906/original/file-20231111-17-ata3gl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Biscayne Bay and nearby coastal areas are teeming with fish, including many varieties that people eat.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nps.gov/media/photo/gallery-item.htm?pg=898241&id=ccce1eac-1dd8-b71b-0bc0-d80f536c707c&gid=CA49F0A1-1DD8-B71B-0B6B1F1948BFA884">NPS image by Shaun Wolfe</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In a new study, we <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.168413">traced the origins of PFAS contamination</a> in Miami’s <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-21589-w">Biscayne Bay</a> to help pinpoint ways to reduce the harm.</p>
<h2>What are PFAS?</h2>
<p>PFAS – perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances – are a group of human-made contaminants that have been <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-are-pfas-the-forever-chemicals-showing-up-in-drinking-water-an-environmental-health-scientist-explains-185015">used for over 50 years</a>. They’re found in personal care products, such as cosmetics and shampoo, and in water-repellent coatings for nonstick cookware and food packaging. They’re also used in adhesives and aqueous firefighting foams, among other products.</p>
<p>As those PFAS-containing products washed down drains and were thrown in landfills over the years, PFAS chemicals became widespread in the environment. Eventually, these chemicals found their way into aquatic ecosystems, including surface water, groundwater and coastal environments.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558904/original/file-20231111-15-iq9oxm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558904/original/file-20231111-15-iq9oxm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558904/original/file-20231111-15-iq9oxm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558904/original/file-20231111-15-iq9oxm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558904/original/file-20231111-15-iq9oxm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558904/original/file-20231111-15-iq9oxm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558904/original/file-20231111-15-iq9oxm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558904/original/file-20231111-15-iq9oxm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An illustration shows some of the sources of PFAS in the environment.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://scdhec.gov/environment/polyfluoroalkyl-substances-pfas">North Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Control</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The same stability and resistance to degrading that makes these chemicals valuable for water- and stain-proof products also makes them nearly impossible to destroy. Hence, the nickname “forever chemicals.” They persist in the environment for decades to centuries.</p>
<p>That’s a problem, because PFAS have been linked to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41370-018-0097-y">immunological disorders</a>, endocrine, developmental, reproductive and neurological disruption and increased risk of bladder, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00204-020-02808-0">liver</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/jnci/djaa143">kidney</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP12603">testicular cancer</a>. A drinking water study by the U.S. Geological Survey estimated these chemicals were in <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/news/national-news-release/tap-water-study-detects-pfas-forever-chemicals-across-us">at least 45% of tap water</a> across the U.S., and a large percentage of Americans are now believed to have <a href="https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/pfc/index.cfm">PFAS detectable in their blood</a>.</p>
<p>Studies have also found PFAS in a broad range of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2022.107640">marine wildlife</a>, including in the livers of otters and in gulls’ eggs, as well as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2022.115165">in freshwater fish</a> across the U.S. These chemicals have already been shown to affect the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.105358">immune system and liver function of fish</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2015.10.007">marine mammals</a>.</p>
<h2>How PFAS get into the marine environment</h2>
<p>When we began tracking the sources of PFAS in Biscayne Bay, we found hot spots of these chemicals around the exits of urban canals – especially the Miami River, Little River and Biscayne Canal. Each of these canals, we found, is a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.168413">major point source</a> contributing to the presence of PFAS in offshore areas of the Atlantic Ocean.</p>
<p>One major source of that PFAS is sewage contamination from failed septic systems and wastewater leaks in urban areas. This is evident by the presence of the types of PFAS – such as PFOS, PFOA, PFPeA, PFHxS, PFHxA, PFBA and PFBS – that <a href="https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/iris_drafts/recordisplay.cfm?deid=345065">are used as</a> stain and grease repellents and in carpets, food packaging materials and household products.</p>
<p>Another major source is represented by the predominance of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/toxsci/kfad006">6-2 FTS</a> in the Miami River – 6-2 FTS is a fluorotelomer PFAS typically used in aqueous film-forming foam found at military and airport facilities. The Miami River flows past rail yards, industries and Miami International Airport on its way to Biscayne Bay.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A map of Miami's Biscayne Bay and nearby coastal areas that were sampled. The hot spots stand out clearly near canal exits." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558902/original/file-20231111-17-le8qtk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558902/original/file-20231111-17-le8qtk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=847&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558902/original/file-20231111-17-le8qtk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=847&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558902/original/file-20231111-17-le8qtk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=847&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558902/original/file-20231111-17-le8qtk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1065&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558902/original/file-20231111-17-le8qtk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1065&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558902/original/file-20231111-17-le8qtk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1065&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A map from the study shows PFAS hot spots near canals that carry water from the city. Red indicates higher PFAS concentrations, measured in nanograms per liter. Green indicates lower, more diluted PFAS concentrations.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We also used a model to predict how ocean currents would disperse PFAS coming out of those canals and into coastal areas. We found that the PFAS concentrations were highest close to the canals, decreased along the bay and declined as ocean water became deeper and more saline, which makes PFAS less soluble in water. </p>
<p>Overall, PFAS concentrations were almost <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.168413">six times higher</a> in surface waters near land compared with deep-water samples collected 13 to 33 feet (4 to 10 meters) below the surface in the bay and offshore. That suggests the highest risk is to pelagic fish that hang out in surface waters, such as mackerel, tunas and mahi-mahi.</p>
<h2>How marine organisms are at risk</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.168413">levels of PFOS and PFOA</a> in our study were below the Florida Department of Environmental Protection advisory levels in surface water for human health exposure. However, the advisory levels might not be protective of human and marine life. </p>
<p>They do not take into consideration that these chemicals accumulate <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.128602">through the food chain</a>. Higher concentration in the top of the food web means PFAS could pose a greater <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2009.07.079">risk to dolphins</a>, sharks and humans <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.3c00374">that consume fish</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A man leans over the edge of a boat holding a rope attached to sampling devices that are in the water below." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558903/original/file-20231111-21-a6fbtm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558903/original/file-20231111-21-a6fbtm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558903/original/file-20231111-21-a6fbtm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558903/original/file-20231111-21-a6fbtm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558903/original/file-20231111-21-a6fbtm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=574&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558903/original/file-20231111-21-a6fbtm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=574&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558903/original/file-20231111-21-a6fbtm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=574&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Olutobi Daniel Ogunbiyi, an author of this article and lead author of the study, takes water samples in Biscayne Bay.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Many types of PFAS identified in our samples are not regulated, and their potential toxicity is unknown. We believe there is a need for federal and state agencies to develop guidelines and implement action plans to protect people and the aquatic life in Biscayne Bay.</p>
<h2>What you can do about it</h2>
<p>Given the persistence of PFAS and their widespread use, it is not surprising that these forever chemicals are found in almost all water systems in South Florida and are showing up <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143297">in coastal waters around the world</a>.</p>
<p>While scientists look for effective and efficient ways to eliminate and remove these chemicals from water, food and the environment, people can limit their use of PFAS-containing products to reduce the amounts of these chemicals that get into the marine environment.</p>
<p>Here are some <a href="https://www.fda.gov/food/process-contaminants-food/authorized-uses-pfas-food-contact-applications">common products that contain PFAS</a> to watch for: Teflon nonstick cookware; food packaging for fast food and popcorn; water-resistant clothing and cosmetics; and treated carpets.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216254/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Natalia Soares Quinete receives funding from National Science Foundation.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Olutobi Daniel Ogunbiyi receives funding from the National Science Foundation awarded through FIU Institute of Environment and Center for Research and Excellence in Science and Tech. </span></em></p>Scientists found PFAS hot spots in Miami’s Biscayne Bay where the chemicals are entering coastal waters and reaching the ocean. Water samples point to some specific sources.Natalia Soares Quinete, Assistant Professor of Chemistry, Florida International UniversityOlutobi Daniel Ogunbiyi, Ph.D. Candidate in Chemistry, Florida International UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2114822023-10-05T12:33:47Z2023-10-05T12:33:47ZClimate change is a fiscal disaster for local governments − our study shows how it’s testing communities in Florida<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/551841/original/file-20231003-27-j5xxho.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=17%2C4%2C2977%2C2079&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Crews clear lots of destroyed homes in Fort Myers Beach, Fla., in February 2022, four months after Hurricane Ian.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/in-this-aerial-view-construction-crews-clear-lots-of-homes-news-photo/1459509524">Joe Raedle/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Climate change is <a href="https://theconversation.com/looking-for-a-us-climate-haven-away-from-disaster-risks-good-luck-finding-one-211990">affecting communities nationwide</a>, but Florida often seems like ground zero. In September 2022, Hurricane Ian <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/09/29/us/hurricane-ian-florida-damage.html">devastated southwest Florida</a>, killing at least 156 people and causing <a href="https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/data/tcr/AL092022_Ian.pdf">an estimated US$113 billion</a> in damages. Then Hurricane Idalia <a href="https://apnews.com/article/florida-hurricane-idalia-2136985ceea53f5deb600c43aeea1138">shut down the Florida Panhandle</a> in September 2023, augmented by a <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/08/29/science/blue-supermoon.html">blue supermoon</a> that also increased <a href="https://www.tallahassee.com/story/news/local/2023/08/31/hurricane-idalia-super-blue-moon-unusual-post-landfall-storm-surge-into-wakulla-county/70726049007/">tidal flooding</a> in southeast Florida. </p>
<p>Communities can adapt to some of these effects, or at least <a href="https://floridaclimateinstitute.org/docs/climatebook/Ch11-Bloetscher.pdf">buy time</a>, by taking steps such as upgrading stormwater systems and raising roads and sidewalks. But climate disasters and sea-level rise also harm local governments financially by increasing costs and undercutting their property tax bases. Local reliance on property taxes also can discourage cities from steering development out of flood zones, which is essential for reducing long-term risks.</p>
<p>In a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/01944363.2023.2249866">newly published study</a> and supporting <a href="https://cugis.maps.arcgis.com/apps/MapSeries/index.html?appid=754b615fa5db4bbea0ed393a2c730163">online StoryMap</a>, we present the first-ever municipal fiscal impact assessment of sea-level rise in Florida and combine it with a statewide survey of coastal planners and managers. We wanted to know how sea-level rise would affect municipal tax revenues and whether coastal planners and managers are accounting for these fiscal impacts.</p>
<p>Our study finds that over half of Florida’s 410 municipalities will be affected by 6.6 feet of sea-level rise. Almost 30% of all local revenues currently generated by these 211 municipalities come from buildings in areas that will become chronically flooded, potentially by the <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/hazards/sealevelrise/sealevelrise-tech-report.html">end of the century</a>. Yet, planners and managers remain largely unaware of how much climate change will affect local fiscal health. Some communities with the most at risk are doing the least to prepare.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">A year after Hurricane Ian, destruction is still widespread in Fort Myers Beach, Fla.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Property tax and climate change: A Catch-22</h2>
<p>Property taxes are critically important for municipal governments. Nationwide, they provide <a href="https://www.urban.org/policy-centers/cross-center-initiatives/state-and-local-finance-initiative/projects/state-and-local-backgrounders/property-taxes">30% of local revenues</a>. They are one of the few funding sources that local governments control, and climate change directly threatens them.</p>
<p>As climate change warms ocean waters, it <a href="https://theconversation.com/hurricane-ian-capped-2-weeks-of-extreme-storms-around-the-globe-heres-whats-known-about-how-climate-change-fuels-tropical-cyclones-191583">fuels hurricanes and increases their reach and intensity</a>. Climate change also is <a href="https://www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-climate/climate-change-global-sea-level#">raising sea levels</a>, which increases coastal flooding during both storms and high tides, often referred to as <a href="https://www.wusf.org/environment/2021-07-15/sunny-day-high-tide-flooding-may-soon-affect-much-of-floridas-coast">sunny-day flooding</a>. Unlike storms, sea-level rise doesn’t recede, so it threatens to permanently inundate coastal lands over time. </p>
<p>Property tax revenues may decline as <a href="https://sgp.fas.org/crs/homesec/R45999.pdf">insurance companies</a> and <a href="https://floodcoalition.org/2020/05/how-could-rising-floodwaters-impact-your-homes-value/">property markets</a> downgrade property values to reflect climate impacts, such as increasing flood risks and wildfires. Already, a growing number of insurance companies have decided to <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2023/09/03/natural-disaster-climate-insurance/">stop covering some regions and types of weather events</a>, raise premiums and deductibles and drop existing policies as payouts rise in the wake of natural disasters. Growing costs of insuring or repairing homes may further hurt property values and increase home abandonment. </p>
<p>Climate change also makes it more expensive to provide municipal services like water, sewage and road maintenance. For example, high heat buckles roads, rising water tables wash out their substructure, and heavier rains stress stormwater systems. If cities don’t adapt, increasing damage from climate-driven disasters and sea-level rise will create a vicious fiscal cycle, eroding local tax bases and driving up services costs – which in turn leaves less money for adaptation. </p>
<p>However, if cities reduce development in vulnerable areas, their property taxes and other revenues will take a hit. And if they build more seawalls and homes fortified to withstand hurricanes and storms, they will induce more people to live in harm’s way. </p>
<p>In Florida, we found that these theoretical dynamics are already occurring.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/reel/CwA3vzEIlF6","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<h2>Florida’s local revenues at risk</h2>
<p>Our analysis shows that sea-level rise could flood properties that have a combined assessed value of $619 billion and currently generate $2.36 billion in annual property taxes. Five million Floridians live in towns where at least 10% of local revenues comes from properties at risk of chronic and permanent flooding. For 64 municipalities, 50% of their revenues come from these risk zones. </p>
<p>Actual fiscal effects would likely be worse after accounting for other lost revenues, rising expenditures and the impacts of multiple climate hazards, such as hotter weather and more intense hurricanes.</p>
<p>These impacts are not evenly distributed. Municipalities with the greatest fiscal risks are geographically and demographically smaller, denser, wealthier and whiter. Lower-risk municipalities tend to be more populous, more diverse, lower-income and have larger land areas. </p>
<p>For instance, the 6,800 residents of the city of Treasure Island in southwest Florida are 95% white and have a median household income of $75,000. The town occupies 3 square miles of land on a barrier island. In our model, its potential lost revenues due to sea-level rise equal its entire municipal revenue stream. </p>
<p>In contrast, St. Petersburg, the nearest big city, has a population of 246,000 residents that is 69% white and a median household income of $53,800. It covers 72 square miles, with only 12% of its property tax revenues at risk from flooding.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/reel/CwjuLrJt4Uz","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<h2>Heads in the sand</h2>
<p>We see our findings as a wake-up call for state and local governments. Without urgent action to adapt to climate change, dozens of municipalities could end up fiscally underwater. </p>
<p>Instead, many Florida cities are pursuing continued growth through infrastructure expansion. Even after devastating events like Hurricane Ian, administrative boundaries, service obligations and budgetary responsibilities make it hard for municipal leaders to make room for water or retreat onto higher ground. </p>
<p>Treasure Island, for instance, is <a href="https://www.tbnweekly.com/beach_beacon/article_348defb2-0934-11e9-a4a4-eb7ed7651e85.html">allocating property taxes</a> to upgrade the town’s causeway bridge. This protects against modest climate impacts in the short term but will eventually be overwhelmed by bigger storm surges, rising water tables and <a href="https://www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-climate/climate-change-global-sea-level#">accelerating sea-level rise</a>. </p>
<p>These dynamics can worsen <a href="https://e360.yale.edu/features/as-miami-keeps-building-rising-seas-deepen-its-social-divide">displacement and gentrification</a>. In Miami, developers are already buying and consolidating properties in longtime Black and lower-income neighborhoods like <a href="https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/33d28b4ae86840b5b27ea8ba4b4bcc4d">Little Haiti</a>, <a href="https://nextcity.org/features/miami-underdeck-overtown-black-community-gentrification-displacement">Overtown</a> and <a href="https://www.equaltimes.org/welcome-to-miami-speculation?lang=en">Liberty City</a> that are slightly more elevated than areas along the shore.</p>
<p>If this pattern continues, we expect that inland and upland areas of cities like St. Petersburg, Tampa and Miami will attract more resilient, high-end development, while displaced low-income and minority residents are forced to move either out of the region or to coastal zones with declining resources. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Wealthy people in Miami are moving inland to avoid flooding, displacing lower-income residents and people of color.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Charting a different future</h2>
<p>We don’t see this outcome as inevitable, in Florida or elsewhere. There are ways for municipalities to manage and govern land that promote fiscally sound, equitable and sustainable ways of adapting to climate change. The key is recognizing and addressing the property tax Catch-22. </p>
<p>As a first step, governments could assess how climate change will affect their fiscal health. Second, state governments could enact legislation that <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbesrealestatecouncil/2018/09/14/the-case-against-property-taxes-and-two-alternative-taxes-that-work/">expands local revenue sources</a>, such as sales or consumption taxes, vacancy taxes, stormwater impact fees and resilience bonds or fees.</p>
<p>Regional sharing of land and taxes is another way for small, cash-strapped communities to reduce development in vulnerable places while maintaining services for their residents. For example, New Hampshire passed a bill in 2019 to <a href="https://legiscan.com/NH/text/SB285/2019">allow coastal municipalities to merge</a> in response to sea-level rise. </p>
<p>Finally, state governments could pass legislation to help low-income neighborhoods gain more control over land and housing. Tested tools include <a href="https://nextcity.org/urbanist-news/a-lifeline-for-preserving-limited-equity-co-ops-in-new-york">limited equity cooperatives</a>, where residents buy an affordable share in a development and later resell at below-market prices to maintain affordability; <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/07/08/realestate/community-land-trusts-gentrification.html">community land trusts</a>, where a nonprofit buys and holds land title to keep land costs down; and <a href="https://fortune.com/2023/04/08/residents-buying-mobile-home-parks-preserving-affordable-housing-option-low-income-americans/">resident-owned mobile home parks</a>, where residents jointly buy the land. All of these strategies help communities keep housing affordable and avoid displacement. </p>
<p>Shifting away from a business-as-usual development model won’t be easy. But our study shows that Florida, with its flat topography and thousands of miles of coastline, faces cascading fiscal impacts if it continues down its current path.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/211482/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Linda Shi receives funding from the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tisha Joseph Holmes received funding from the Florida Department of Environmental Protection, the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation and the Center for Disease Control and Provention. She is affiliated with REfire Culinary. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>William Butler received funding from the Florida Department of Environmental Protection in support of this research. </span></em></p>A new study of Florida’s fiscal vulnerability to climate change finds that flooding directly threatens many local tax bases.Linda Shi, Assistant Professor of City and Regional Planning, Cornell UniversityTisha Joseph Holmes, Associate Professor of Urban and Regional Planning, Florida State UniversityWilliam Butler, Associate Professor of Urban and Regional Planning, Florida State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2124102023-08-28T21:11:10Z2023-08-28T21:11:10ZHurricane Idalia intensifies over extremely warm Gulf waters, on track for Florida landfall as a dangerous major hurricane<p><em>Forecasters expected Hurricane Idalia to intensify into a <a href="https://www.nhc.noaa.gov">major hurricane</a> as it headed over exceptionally warm waters in the Gulf of Mexico, on track for landfall in Florida on Wednesday, Aug. 30, 2023. <a href="https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/refresh/graphics_at5+shtml/093743.shtml?radii#contents">Hurricane warnings</a> were posted along a wide stretch of Florida’s Gulf coast, from near Sarasota to the Panhandle, including Tampa Bay.</em></p>
<p><em>Hurricane scientist <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=rkIN19EAAAAJ&hl=en">Haiyan Jiang</a> of Florida International University explains how two conflicting forces – <a href="https://climatereanalyzer.org/clim/sst_daily/">record-high ocean heat</a> and wind shear, the latter influenced by El Niño – were determining Idalia’s future, and how they have made the 2023 hurricane season overall <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/news-release/noaa-forecasters-increase-atlantic-hurricane-season-prediction-to-above-normal">difficult to forecast</a>.</em></p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1696457469852274994"}"></div></p>
<h2>What role is ocean temperature playing in Idalia’s forecast?</h2>
<p>Forecasters are watching several factors, but the biggest is the very high <a href="https://www.ospo.noaa.gov/data/sst/contour/gulfmex.cf.gif">sea surface temperature</a> in the Gulf of Mexico. The Gulf is typically warm in late August, and we <a href="https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/climo/">often see hurricanes</a> this time of year. But this summer, the sea surface temperature has been extremely high, with record temperatures <a href="https://climatereanalyzer.org/clim/sst_daily/">far above average</a>.</p>
<p>Near Cuba, sea surface temperatures were close to <a href="https://www.ospo.noaa.gov/data/sst/contour/gulfmex.cf.gif">86 degrees Fahrenheit</a> (30 degrees Celsius) as Idalia passed by the island on Monday. As the storm moves north, it will pass over sea surface temperatures that are even warmer. By Wednesday morning, the storm is forecast to be over waters that are <a href="https://www.ospo.noaa.gov/data/sst/contour/gulfmex.cf.gif">around 88 F (31 C)</a> at the surface. That is very, very high.</p>
<p>The heat isn’t just at the surface – the ocean heat extends deep into the upper ocean layer, or the thermocline, which is roughly 150 feet (50 meters) to 500 feet (150 meters) deep.</p>
<p>That <a href="https://www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-climate/climate-change-ocean-heat-content">accumulated heat</a> provides fuel for the storm.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/545099/original/file-20230828-123419-9k4txk.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A map shows dark red areas with the deepest ocean heat in the Caribbean and stretching up into the Gulf of Mexico." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/545099/original/file-20230828-123419-9k4txk.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/545099/original/file-20230828-123419-9k4txk.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545099/original/file-20230828-123419-9k4txk.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545099/original/file-20230828-123419-9k4txk.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545099/original/file-20230828-123419-9k4txk.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545099/original/file-20230828-123419-9k4txk.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545099/original/file-20230828-123419-9k4txk.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Oceanic Heat Content measures how deep warm water goes, showing the depth from the sea surface to the 26 C (78.8 F) isotherm. Idalia’s forecast path, from west of Cuba on Aug. 28, 2023, toward the Florida Panhandle, follows some of the deepest heat.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://coastwatch.noaa.gov/cwn/products/oceanic-heat-content-mixed-layer-depth-and-depths-20degc-and-26degc-isotherms.html">NOAA Coast Watch</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As the ocean temperature increases, the amount of water vapor available to the storm also increases. Physics show that <a href="https://theconversation.com/2022s-us-climate-disasters-from-storms-and-floods-to-heat-waves-and-droughts-196713">warmer air can hold more water vapor</a>. With more heat and water vapor in the atmosphere, clouds heat up and the storm can rotate faster. It can also bring more intense rainfall.</p>
<h2>Can wind shear weaken the hurricane?</h2>
<p>A few things will weaken a hurricane. One is if the storm encounters cold water. Without warm water as a fuel source, the hurricane can no longer strengthen. In this case, however, the Gulf is exceptionally warm.</p>
<p>Wind shear is another important factor. Wind shear is a difference in wind speed and direction at different heights in a storm. Strong <a href="https://theconversation.com/atlantic-hurricane-season-2023-el-nino-and-extreme-atlantic-ocean-heat-are-about-to-clash-204670">wind shear can tear apart</a> a tropical storm. That’s common in the Atlantic basin during El Niño years like 2023. The question everyone has been asking this year is whether the wind shear will be strong enough to counter the extreme heat, and that doesn’t appear to be happening with Idalia.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1696245604974768580"}"></div></p>
<p>The wind shear was around 16 knots on Monday morning. The <a href="https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/2023/IDALIA.shtml?">moderate wind shear</a> along Idalia’s path wasn’t expected to be strong enough to tear the hurricane apart – it’s still going to rapidly intensify because of the heat.</p>
<p>That wind shear is still beneficial for people in the storm’s path. Without it, a hurricane over water this warm could grow into a catastrophic Category 4 or 5 hurricane. Right now, Idalia is <a href="https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/text/refresh/MIATCPAT5+shtml/291153.shtml">forecast to be a Category 3</a> or close to it, which is still dangerous.</p>
<h2>Does climate change play a role in hurricane intensification?</h2>
<p>Long term, research shows Atlantic hurricane intensity has an <a href="https://doi.org/10.1029/2006GL028836">increasing trend as the climate warms</a>.</p>
<p>If you just look at wind speed, the average intensity of storms across all six major ocean basins isn’t increasing. But rainfall intensity is a different story.</p>
<p>My research shows that over the past 20 years, tropical cyclone-induced rainfall has <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-25685-2">increased by about 1.3% per year</a> on average across the world’s basins and by even more in the Atlantic, about 1.6% per year. We linked the increase in rainfall intensity to increasing sea surface temperature and water vapor. Other researchers have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-22304-y">found the same thing</a>.</p>
<p>Each ocean basin is very different, and there are several reasons that the Atlantic may be seeing more intensification. One is that the Gulf is very warm, making it a source of strong hurricanes. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/545101/original/file-20230828-170871-41k57r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A chart shows average global sea surface temperatures over time. 2023 is far above all other years, and 2022 was also high." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/545101/original/file-20230828-170871-41k57r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/545101/original/file-20230828-170871-41k57r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545101/original/file-20230828-170871-41k57r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545101/original/file-20230828-170871-41k57r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545101/original/file-20230828-170871-41k57r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545101/original/file-20230828-170871-41k57r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545101/original/file-20230828-170871-41k57r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Global ocean temperatures, including in the Atlantic, have been well above previous years. The middle dotted line shows the average.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://climatereanalyzer.org/clim/sst_daily/">Climate Reanalyzer/Climate Change Institute/University of Maine</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>More intense rainfall can mean greater flooding potential, as large parts of Florida saw during <a href="https://www.nesdis.noaa.gov/news/hurricane-ians-path-of-destruction">Hurricane Ian in 2022</a>. Even if wind speed isn’t increasing in every basin, the damage can be higher because intense rainfall could also come from a storm’s rain bands, not just from the eyewall.</p>
<p>Florida residents need to be aware of that risk as they prepare for Idalia.</p>
<p><em>This article, originally published Aug. 28, 2023, was updated with Idalia strengthening into a hurricane.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/212410/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Haiyan Jiang receives funding from NSF, NOAA, and NASA. </span></em></p>A hurricane scientist explains the conflict between 2023’s abnormally high ocean heat and the storm-disrupting wind shear accompanying El Niño.Haiyan Jiang, Professor of Earth and Environment, Florida International UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2118822023-08-21T21:52:21Z2023-08-21T21:52:21ZRon DeSantis shows how ‘ugly freedoms’ are being used to fuel authoritarianism<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543728/original/file-20230821-23-xfr6rf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3000%2C1985&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Republican presidential candidate Florida Gov. Ron DeSantis delivers a speech in Iowa City, Iowa, on Aug. 10, 2023. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Geoff Stellfox/The Gazette via AP)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/ron-desantis-shows-how-ugly-freedoms-are-being-used-to-fuel-authoritarianism" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>At a time when conspiracy theories and far-right nationalist groups are gaining strength, it’s crucial to understand how authoritarians are using the rhetoric of freedom to undermine crucial notions of justice and liberty. </p>
<p>In the United States, under the banner of right-wing demagoguery, “freedom” is being touted as <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/banned-books-list-increased-schools-ban-critical-race-theory-sexuality-pen-america-report/">an excuse to ban books</a> by people of colour, Indigenous people and members of the LGBTQ community. </p>
<p>For example, Florida Gov. Ron DeSantis has signed into law the <a href="https://www.wptv.com/news/education/floridas-governor-to-sign-critical-race-theory-education-bill-into-law">Individual Freedom bill, which bans educators from teaching topics relating mostly to race</a>. </p>
<p>This regressive notion of freedom is used to advance a right-wing education agenda in the name of what DeSantis calls the “war on woke,” which is code for attacking educators and others who refuse to <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/made-by-history/2023/03/28/desantis-wokeism-racism-marginalized/">whitewash history and address a range of systemic injustices</a>.</p>
<p>In Canada, the “universal” concept of freedom has failed to include the inherent rights of Indigenous Peoples and has often served as a cloak for <a href="https://www.ubcic.bc.ca/canadafailingindigenouspeoples">maintaining illegitimate relations of power</a>.</p>
<p>In Canada as well as in the U.S., freedom has historically been shaped by what American historian <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/12/17/opinion/freedom-liberty-racial-hierarchies.html">Tyler Stovall has called “white freedom”</a> — the belief and practice “that freedom is central to white identity, and that only white people can or should be free.”</p>
<p>Freedom in this context has given Canada and the U.S. the right to dominate, colonize and exploit.</p>
<h2>‘Ugly’ freedoms</h2>
<p>The presence of what U.S. academic Elisabeth Anker calls <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/02/04/opinion/ugly-freedom-discrimination-racism-sexism.html">“ugly freedoms”</a> is not new. Its history is repeating itself with a politics that is as cruel as it is dangerous and widespread.</p>
<p>Central to this history has been a struggle over the meaning of freedom and which vision of freedom society should adopt. Those holding up the importance of freedom are no longer just advocates of social justice but also emerging authoritarians.</p>
<p>The appeal to these “ugly” freedoms is being used to legitimize and promote censorship, systemic racism and naked forms of political opportunism. Nowhere is this more apparent than in the state of Florida.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A dark-haired man speaks at a podium with American flags behind him." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543729/original/file-20230821-14265-g9dtmm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543729/original/file-20230821-14265-g9dtmm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543729/original/file-20230821-14265-g9dtmm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543729/original/file-20230821-14265-g9dtmm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543729/original/file-20230821-14265-g9dtmm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543729/original/file-20230821-14265-g9dtmm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543729/original/file-20230821-14265-g9dtmm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ron DeSantis speaks during a news conference at the Celebrate Freedom Foundation Hangar in West Columbia, S.C., in July 2023.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Sean Rayford)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>DeSantis’s ‘freedom’ fixation</h2>
<p>DeSantis has hijacked the notion of freedom.</p>
<p>His political career is marked by an obsessive appropriation and relentless defence of freedoms that are false and illusory. <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2023/04/desantis-disney-lawsuit-free-speech-florida/673903/">He defines himself as “governor of the free state of Florida”</a> and fills his public appearances with self-congratulatory references to freedom.</p>
<p>As a member of U.S. Congress before he became governor, <a href="https://www.news-journalonline.com/story/news/politics/state/2023/05/23/ron-desantis-time-in-congress-represented-volusia-flagler/70169117007/">he was one of the founders of the far-right Freedom Caucus</a>. </p>
<p>He <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/alisondurkee/2023/02/27/heres-what-we-know-about-ron-desantis-book-as-it-hits-the-shelves/?sh=4fc52c012328">launched his presidential campaign with a tour promoting his book titled <em>Courage to Be Free</em></a>. In naming Florida as the freest state in the nation, DeSantis claims he is engaged in a movement for freedom.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1630730107957518338"}"></div></p>
<p>In doing so, <a href="https://spectrumnews1.com/oh/columbus/news/2023/04/13/summit-county-republicans-hear-florida-gov--ron-desantis-talk-successes-in-education--immigration--the-economy">he states repeatedly</a> that in Florida: “We’re No. 1 in economic freedom, No. 1 in education freedom, No. 1 for parental involvement in education … and we’re No. 1 for public higher education. So we lead in Florida, not merely with words.” </p>
<p>Ironically, DeSantis has become the sneering face <a href="https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2023/03/ron-desantis-war-on-freedom/">for the suppression of freedom</a> while proclaiming to be its foremost advocate. </p>
<h2>Authoritarian values</h2>
<p>Freedom for DeSantis is divorced from civic culture and isolated in the regressive discourse of authoritarian values, manufactured ignorance and nefarious power relations. </p>
<p>In the name of individual freedom, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2023/aug/16/florida-ron-desantis-academic-freedom">he bans books from classrooms and libraries. He also passes legislation forbidding teachers from teaching about slavery and racial injustice</a> while <a href="https://apnews.com/article/desantis-slavery-election-2024-1fb51d663e6051051aa23b71421b9479">defending his attacks</a> on diverse and inclusive forms of education with the spurious notion of <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2022/01/19/us/florida-education-critical-race-theory-bill/index.html">protecting young people from feeling uncomfortable</a>.</p>
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<p>Echoing the rise of past and emerging forms of authoritarianism, <a href="https://nymag.com/intelligencer/2023/05/us-education-state-school-laws.html">he bans teachers</a> from addressing Black history, critical ideas and issues related to gender, sexuality and systemic racism. </p>
<p>Amid the wave of repressive policies that make up <a href="https://www.msnbc.com/opinion/msnbc-opinion/new-poll-ron-desantis-anti-woke-backfire-rcna74350">DeSantis’s so-called anti-woke agenda</a>, his anti-democratic model of governance is in direct contradiction of his claim that Florida is the freest state in the union.</p>
<p>He has used state power to punish both his critics and individuals and groups he suggests are unworthy of citizenship. He has <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2023/apr/13/ron-desantis-transgender-education-laws-florida-woke-act">waged a vicious attack against the civil rights of women, gay, transgender and queer youth.</a> </p>
<p>He’s also signed <a href="https://jacobin.com/2022/07/ron-desantis-freedom-branding-rights-education-abortion">a six-week abortion ban</a>, restricted transgender bathroom access, banned gender-affirming care for minors, <a href="https://apnews.com/article/desantis-florida-lgbtq-education-health-c68a7e5fe5cf22ab8cca324b00644119">signed bills that target drag shows</a> and attacked businesses like Disney that disagree with his policies. </p>
<p>He’s also <a href="https://www.vox.com/policy/2023/6/2/23742508/ron-desantis-florida-higher-education-ideological-war">waged a vicious assault on public and higher education</a>, creating a culture that requires teachers to function as agents of state indoctrination.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/florida-republicans-row-with-mickey-mouse-highlights-widening-gap-between-historical-bffs-gop-and-corporate-america-182401">Florida Republicans' row with Mickey Mouse highlights widening gap between historical BFFs GOP and corporate America</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Remembering what freedom really is</h2>
<p>What can be done to preserve freedom as a crucial element in the struggle for democracy in Florida and around the world? </p>
<p>Educators, parents, young people and other stakeholders need to rediscover freedom as an emancipatory force. This requires language that enables people to fight against the ideological and economic conditions that strip them of their liberties and rights.</p>
<p>It’s also essential for the public to develop strategies capable of organizing a mass multicultural struggle in support of a fundamentally democratic conception of freedom — one that enables people to reject “ugly” freedoms that reinforce the scourge of domination and prevents them from living meaningful and just lives.</p>
<p>Genuine freedom must be used in the fight for justice and equality. It should address staggering, ongoing levels of inequality in wealth and power, the poisonous legacy of systemic racism and an anti-intellectual culture that rejects reason.</p>
<p>The hijacking of freedom by far-right politicians like DeSantis not only raises crucial questions about whose freedom is at stake in a time of tyranny, but also how to fight for a version of freedom that is expansive and just. </p>
<p>True freedom furthers rather than destroys the promise of democracy. In an era of rising authoritarianism, a return to a concept of truly democratic freedom is urgently needed, as is collective resistance that makes it possible.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/211882/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Henry Giroux does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The hijacking of freedom by far-right politicians like Florida’s Ron DeSantis raises crucial questions about whose freedom is truly at stake in a time of tyranny.Henry Giroux, Chaired professor for Scholarship in the Public Interest in the Department of English and Cultural Studies, McMaster UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2108632023-08-17T12:36:01Z2023-08-17T12:36:01ZWhat Florida gets wrong about George Washington and the benefits he received from enslaving Black people<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542470/original/file-20230813-44910-sqa38t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C7311%2C5894&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">In this 1853 painting, George Washington stands among Black field workers.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/washington-standing-among-african-american-field-workers-news-photo/90000530?adppopup=true">Buyenlarge/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>If there was anyone who knew the rewards of slavery, it was George Washington. </p>
<p>Over a period of about 50 years, <a href="https://www.mountvernon.org/george-washington/slavery/the-growth-of-mount-vernons-enslaved-community/">the nation’s first president</a> enslaved about 577 Black Americans, starting when he was 11 years old. </p>
<p>One of them was a Black man named Morris who was skilled in carpentry and became an overseer of other enslaved men and women working on a farm at Washington’s Mount Vernon estate in Virginia. Though Morris’ skills afforded him a few extra benefits, he was still unable to buy what he coveted most – freedom.</p>
<p>Despite the existence of <a href="https://www.archives.gov/nhprc/projects/catalog/george-washington">voluminous public records</a> that reveal <a href="https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/george-washington-and-slavery/">Washington’s treatment of Morris and other human property he owned</a>, Florida officials want public school educators to instead emphasize <a href="https://www.fldoe.org/core/fileparse.php/20653/urlt/6-4.pdf">Washington’s efforts to abolish slavery</a>.</p>
<p>As <a href="https://newsroom.asu.edu/expert/calvin-schermerhorn">a scholar of slavery in the U.S.</a>, my research has shown that Washington’s efforts to free Black people pale in comparison to how he fought to keep Black people enslaved.</p>
<h2>Washington’s benefits from slavery</h2>
<p>After marrying <a href="https://www.mountvernon.org/george-washington/martha-washington/george-marthas-courtship/">the widow Martha Custis</a> in 1759, Washington had big plans for Mount Vernon. </p>
<p>Not content to grow only tobacco, he diversified, planting over 60 crop varieties and producing value-added products like flour, beer and whiskey.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="A white man dressed in a military uniform poses for a painting while a Black boy holds a coat." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542677/original/file-20230814-24132-5zqk0u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542677/original/file-20230814-24132-5zqk0u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=906&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542677/original/file-20230814-24132-5zqk0u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=906&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542677/original/file-20230814-24132-5zqk0u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=906&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542677/original/file-20230814-24132-5zqk0u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1139&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542677/original/file-20230814-24132-5zqk0u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1139&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542677/original/file-20230814-24132-5zqk0u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1139&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A portrait of George Washington with an enslaved Black boy.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/general-washington-1799-artist-valentine-green-news-photo/1320418182?adppopup=true">Heritage Art/Heritage Images via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In addition to operating five separate farming units, Washington wanted to nearly triple the size of his Mount Vernon mansion from 3,500 square feet to 11,000. To accomplish that goal, Washington put skilled enslaved carpenters like Morris to work. </p>
<p>Washington hadn’t <a href="https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/02-06-02-0164-0005">paid anything</a> for Morris or his carpentry training. Morris <a href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=chi.082919803&seq=93">was born enslaved</a> to Martha Custis’ first father-in-law, and when Custis and Washington got married, the fruits of Morris’ labor became Washington’s property. </p>
<p>By the time Washington brought him to Mount Vernon in Virginia’s Fairfax County, Morris was 30 years old and had already trained as a carpenter in nearby New Kent County. </p>
<p>In addition to using Black enslaved people, Washington hired white overseers to deploy their “utmost endeavours to hurry and drive” Black workers. </p>
<p>The work never ended for enslaved Black people. Because skilled carpenters were scarce in Fairfax County, Washington hired them out to neighbors to make money once their work was finished at Mount Vernon.</p>
<p>According to <a href="https://sanford.duke.edu/profile/william-darity/">economist William A. “Sandy” Darity Jr.</a> and folklorist <a href="https://www.heydaybooks.com/authors/a-kirsten-mullen/">A. Kirsten Mullen</a>, the lost wages cost generations of African Americans the modern equivalent of $14 trillion in <a href="https://uncpress.org/book/9781469671208/from-here-to-equality-second-edition/">stolen wealth</a>. </p>
<h2>Life as an enslaved overseer</h2>
<p>Washington had different plans for Morris. </p>
<p>Impressed by his carpentry skills, he decided to keep Morris at Mount Vernon and promote him to work as an overseer. </p>
<p>Morris may not have wanted to oversee a dozen other enslaved workers, but Washington held out a carrot. Morris’ wife, Hannah, an enslaved woman who worked on another farm, could live with him. Washington permitted only 1 in 3 married people to live together at Mount Vernon. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A row of beds lines a wall in a room that has a table covered with different shaped bowls." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542675/original/file-20230814-6823-7apt29.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542675/original/file-20230814-6823-7apt29.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542675/original/file-20230814-6823-7apt29.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542675/original/file-20230814-6823-7apt29.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542675/original/file-20230814-6823-7apt29.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542675/original/file-20230814-6823-7apt29.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542675/original/file-20230814-6823-7apt29.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">George Washington’s slave quarters at Mount Vernon, Virginia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/slave-quarters-at-mount-vernon-virginia-news-photo/143078403?adppopup=true">Independent Picture Service/Universal Images Group via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>At 37, Morris started his management career.</p>
<p>It was hard work. </p>
<p>Morris oversaw teams of farm workers, making sure other enslaved people kept shoulders to the plow. He sent progress reports up the management chain and was responsible for crops and livestock. </p>
<p>Morris accounted for tools, responded to emergencies and was accountable for thefts and runaways. When a killing frost struck in 1768, he had to control damage. He had all the headaches of a middle manager with a small fraction of the pay and no ability to move on.</p>
<p>After two seasons, <a href="http://financial.gwpapers.org/?q=content/ledger-1750-1772-pg262">Washington started paying</a> “my overseer Morris” <a href="https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/02-08-02-0114">about one-tenth</a> the salary of a free overseer. </p>
<p>That bought Morris and Hannah a few comforts but wasn’t enough to save any money. Unlike white overseers, who could parlay a few years’ wages into their own farms, Morris and Hannah built no wealth. </p>
<p>And a path to freedom was out of the question, even though his master <a href="https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/01-03-02-0004-0023">called the farm</a> “Morris’.”</p>
<p>Based on Morris’ success, Washington promoted other <a href="https://www.routledge.com/The-Overseers-of-Early-American-Slavery-Supervisors-Enslaved-Labourers/Sandy/p/book/9781032237077">enslaved people into management</a>. </p>
<p>Davy Gray was about 16 years old when Washington brought him to Mount Vernon from his home in Hanover County, 80 miles away. By the time Gray turned 27, he had become overseer of Washington’s Mill Tract farm and went on to manage other farms for three decades. Whenever Mount Vernon had management troubles, Gray filled in. </p>
<p>But unlike the white overseers, Gray couldn’t quit and start his own farming business.</p>
<h2>Washington’s legacy on slavery</h2>
<p>After winning the American Revolution, Washington <a href="https://www.upress.virginia.edu/title/4413/">expressed hesitation</a> over slavery but said of <a href="https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/05-13-02-0150">the children he enslaved</a>, “I Expect to Reap the Benefit of their Labour Myself.”</p>
<p>Washington recognized Black talent, even if he didn’t reward it. </p>
<p>While president, <a href="https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/05-14-02-0356-0001">he commended Gray</a> and wrote that he “carries on his business as well as the white Overseers, and with more quietness than any of them.” </p>
<p>That same year, <a href="https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/05-12-02-0503">Gray begged his master</a> to no avail for adequate food, reporting that “what his people received was not sufficient, and that to his certain knowledge several of them would often be without a mouthful for a day.” </p>
<p>Despite opposition from abolitionists, as president, Washington signed the <a href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part2/2h62.html#:%7E:text=On%20February%2012%2C%201793%2C%20the,to%20rule%20on%20the%20matter.">Fugitive Slave Act of 1793</a> that authorized federal police power to recapture runaway human property.</p>
<p>In one instance, Washington doggedly <a href="https://www.simonandschuster.com/books/Never-Caught/Erica-Armstrong-Dunbar/9781501126413">pursued one of his wife’s enslaved maids</a> for nearly 50 years. <a href="https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/ona-judge/">Ona Judge</a> escaped and never returned to enslavement.</p>
<p>In his will, Washington set free 123 enslaved people, including <a href="https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/06-04-02-0405">a Black woman named Kate</a> who was “old” and presumably freed in 1799, the year Washington died. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A painting shows a white man walking with a young girl as Black men and women work in nearby fields." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542673/original/file-20230814-23-z88y99.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542673/original/file-20230814-23-z88y99.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=385&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542673/original/file-20230814-23-z88y99.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=385&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542673/original/file-20230814-23-z88y99.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=385&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542673/original/file-20230814-23-z88y99.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=484&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542673/original/file-20230814-23-z88y99.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=484&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542673/original/file-20230814-23-z88y99.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=484&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In this 1800 painting, George Washington watches over a group of enslaved Black people working in a field at Mount Vernon.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/american-president-george-washington-watches-over-a-group-news-photo/3438349?adppopup=true">Hulton Archive/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Kate became a midwife at Mount Vernon and performed surgery on infants. She was married to another enslaved manager named Will. When she <a href="https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/05-16-02-0392">applied for the job of midwife</a>, or “Granny,” she argued that “she was full as well qualified for this purpose as those into whose hands it was entrusted.” </p>
<p>At the time, Washington was paying about what an entry level nurse earns today to Mount Vernon’s white midwife, who was married to a white overseer. Though <a href="https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/kate/#2">Kate got the job</a>, with all the responsibility of delivering babies, she received none of the pay.</p>
<p>She did receive her freedom, but her husband, Will, Davy Gray and Morris did not. </p>
<p>Morris died at age 66 on the farm he managed for 25 years.</p>
<p>Like Morris, Gray was property of the <a href="https://www.harpercollins.com/products/first-family-cassandra-a-good?variant=40993035485218">heirs of Martha Washington</a> and likely ended his days enslaved by one of Martha’s grandchildren.</p>
<p><em>This article was updated to correct the spelling of Martha Custis.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/210863/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Calvin Schermerhorn does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Florida’s new standards for teaching social studies include throwbacks to an interpretation of slavery as benign or inconsequential.Calvin Schermerhorn, Professor of History, Arizona State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2114902023-08-14T17:44:40Z2023-08-14T17:44:40ZTommy Tuberville reportedly doesn’t live in Alabama − should he still be its senator?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542482/original/file-20230813-42160-9mvwcr.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=14%2C7%2C4811%2C3205&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Alabama voters elected Sen. Tommy Tuberville on Nov. 3, 2020. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/Election2020SenateTuberville/ee9266cbcd5d4529b2c7a043281f85b4/photo?Query=Tuberville&mediaType=photo&sortBy=creationdatetime:desc&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=596&currentItemNo=178">AP Photo/Butch Dill</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Alabama GOP Sen. Tommy Tuberville has come under scrutiny following reports that he <a href="https://www.al.com/news/2023/08/can-tommy-tuberville-represent-alabama-in-us-senate-if-he-lives-in-florida.html">recently sold</a> the last remaining properties he owns in the state that he represents in the U.S. Senate. Instead, Tuberville <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2023/08/10/tommy-tuberville-floridas-third-senator/">appears to live almost full time</a> at his beach house in the Florida panhandle.</p>
<p>Although details are still emerging about Tuberville’s precise living situation, <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2023/08/10/tommy-tuberville-floridas-third-senator/">The Washington Post’s Glenn Kessler has reported</a> that the Auburn, Alabama, address Tuberville listed when he declared his candidacy for Senate in 2019 is co-owned by his wife and son. Kessler’s review of campaign finance reports and property documents related to Tuberville “indicate that his home is actually a $3 million, 4,000-square-foot beach house he has lived in for nearly two decades in Santa Rosa Beach, Florida.”</p>
<p>Why does this matter? </p>
<p>Because Tuberville is running up against one of the oldest constitutional requirements that apply to anyone running for Congress: that <a href="https://constitution.congress.gov/browse/essay/artI-S3-C3-1/ALDE_00013345/">candidates must live in the state they represent</a> by the time they take office. </p>
<p>But whether Tuberville’s situation actually violates the Constitution – or matters to voters – is another question. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542483/original/file-20230813-82741-fsa66m.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A large white building with a dome atop it." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542483/original/file-20230813-82741-fsa66m.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542483/original/file-20230813-82741-fsa66m.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542483/original/file-20230813-82741-fsa66m.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542483/original/file-20230813-82741-fsa66m.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542483/original/file-20230813-82741-fsa66m.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542483/original/file-20230813-82741-fsa66m.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542483/original/file-20230813-82741-fsa66m.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">To serve in Congress, the U.S. Constitution requires that a member must be an inhabitant of the state they represent.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/CongressDebt/15da08cb69a24b598addbce1b25df374/photo?Query=U.S.%20Congress%20building&mediaType=photo&sortBy=arrivaldatetime:desc&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=864&currentItemNo=24&vs=true">AP Photo/Alex Brandon</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Residency requirements in Congress</h2>
<p>The legal requirement that candidates and members of legislative bodies live in the place they represent is not new. In the case of Congress, it was <a href="https://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/debates_808.asp#1">debated heavily</a> during the Constitutional Convention in 1787. </p>
<p>The framers decided that members of both the House and the Senate would be required only to be “an inhabitant” of the state they represent. Strange as it may sound, this means that House members don’t even need to live in their specific district – just their home state. In fact, a <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/politics/wp/2017/04/21/at-least-20-members-of-the-house-are-registered-to-vote-outside-their-districts/">2017 report from The Washington Post</a> found that about 5% of all House members don’t live in the districts they represent. </p>
<h2>Legal consequences for nonresidency</h2>
<p>In Tuberville’s case, it’s possible that he doesn’t meet the constitutional minimum of state residency. Whether he might face any consequences for this potential violation, however, is unclear. </p>
<p>Courts and congressional committees have looked into similar violations in the past. They have generally opted for a wide interpretation of what is called “<a href="https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/R41946.html#_Toc410112355">inhabitancy</a>,” often settling for evidence that a member paid taxes in or was registered to vote in the state, even if it was at an address that the member spent little to no time in.</p>
<p>Officials at state and local levels, however, where <a href="https://www.ncsl.org/elections-and-campaigns/eligibility-requirements-to-run-for-the-state-legislature">residency requirements can be stronger</a>, have paid the price for being a nonresident. A <a href="https://law.georgia.gov/opinions/2001-3-0">2001 legal opinion</a> from the Georgia attorney general found that if a state legislator “moves his permanent residence outside his district, the office will become vacant as a matter of law,” meaning that the lawmaker would disqualify themselves from serving. </p>
<p>This is precisely what happened in my hometown of Boise, Idaho, when a city councilwoman was <a href="https://www.ktvb.com/article/news/local/208/boise-city-council-president-holli-woodings-details-process-of-councilmember-sanchez-losing-her-seat/277-cec1eaff-2f4d-408b-8412-df26f4cff95b">legally forced out of office</a> after she inadvertently moved out of the district she was representing.</p>
<h2>Why have residency requirements?</h2>
<p>Although it can be inconvenient, there are good reasons to establish legal residency requirements. </p>
<p>The framers discussed many of them: <a href="https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Hamilton/01-04-02-0205">Alexander Hamilton argued</a> that because of the residency requirement, representatives in Congress “will not only bring with them a considerable knowledge of its laws, and a local knowledge of their respective districts.” In other words, representatives with local ties would be more likely to understand the unique needs of their constituents and thus how to best represent them.</p>
<p>But these requirements aren’t without their drawbacks. For instance, <a href="https://www.charlesrhunt.com/_files/ugd/a6ee68_17c414c6c2754735a1e2ba32a6b55f44.docx?dn=Residency%20Requirements%20Preprint.docx">my own research suggests</a> that in states with stricter residency requirements, their state legislative districts as a whole are more gerrymandered – that is, districts are drawn for the purpose of benefiting the election of a particular legislator or party. Why? Because state legislatures that decide their states’ redistricting processes appear to go out of their way to draw misshapen districts to include the homes of incumbents.</p>
<p>Residency requirements also pose a significant hurdle to candidate quality. That’s because, unlike in Congress, states often set even stricter standards for offices like governor and state legislator, in some cases requiring many years of residency before qualifying for candidacy. The more onerous the residency requirement – for example, <a href="https://www.ncsl.org/elections-and-campaigns/eligibility-requirements-to-run-for-the-state-legislature">requiring five rather than two years</a> of residency before holding office – the more otherwise qualified citizens the law excludes from serving. </p>
<p>In <a href="https://www.charlesrhunt.com/_files/ugd/a6ee68_17c414c6c2754735a1e2ba32a6b55f44.docx?dn=Residency%20Requirements%20Preprint.docx">my own analysis</a> of gubernatorial residency requirements, I found that many states prevent as much as one-fifth of their residents from serving as governor as a result of residency requirements and <a href="https://www.elections.alaska.gov/doc/forms/H05.pdf">more than 30% in Alaska’s case</a>.</p>
<p><iframe id="nPH1e" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/nPH1e/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>At a time when <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/running-from-office-9780199397655?cc=us&lang=en&">fewer and fewer Americans show any interest in running for office</a> – even while they disapprove of politicians more and more – this is a serious concern for citizens and lawmakers to reckon with. </p>
<h2>Will Tuberville pay for carpetbagging?</h2>
<p>Even if Tuberville doesn’t face legal trouble, it could become a political liability for him, and the political science research bears this out. In my book, “<a href="https://www.press.umich.edu/12157973/home_field_advantage">Home Field Advantage</a>,” I found that candidates who were born and raised in their home districts consistently outperform so-called “carpetbaggers” – those with few to no ties to their districts – in congressional elections. </p>
<p>This has also played out in high-profile ways in the real world. <a href="https://theconversation.com/dr-oz-should-be-worried-voters-punish-carpetbaggers-and-new-research-shows-why-188569">During 2022’s midterm elections campaign</a>, the news buzzed with Pennsylvania voters’ ridicule for Republican Senate candidate Mehmet Oz’s attempts to come across like a regular Pennsylvanian while – among other mishaps – <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/oz-accused-filming-pennsylvania-campaign-ad-at-new-jersey-home-2022-7">recording campaign videos</a> at his home in New Jersey and <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/ozs-viral-crudite-video-sums-up-campaign-fetterman-pennsylvania-rcna43992">mispronouncing the name of a local grocery store</a> chain. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/kDsFjrXWnnI?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">In the 2020 U.S. Senate race, Tuberville’s GOP primary rival questioned whether he lived in Alabama or Florida.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Some of Tuberville’s rural-state colleagues, like Montana Democrat <a href="https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2018/04/leading-montana-gop-senate-candidate-matt-rosendales-thick-maryland-accent.html">Jon Tester</a> and West Virginia Democrat <a href="https://rollcall.com/2018/11/06/west-virginias-joe-manchin-stays-put-in-trump-country/">Joe Manchin</a>, have also vastly outperformed their party’s expectations in their states, thanks in part to deep local ties and authenticity.</p>
<p>On the other hand, Tuberville is a Republican in GOP-dominated Alabama and <a href="https://www.al.com/news/2022/11/tuberville-sticking-with-trump-he-doesnt-have-to-learn-the-ropes.html">a loyal soldier for former President Donald Trump</a> in a state where Trump is popular. Plus, although Tuberville was born and raised in Arkansas, he became a hero in Alabama in the 2000s as a <a href="https://www.espn.com/college-football/story/_/id/30253791/former-college-football-coach-tommy-tuberville-wins-alabama-senate-seat">successful head coach</a> for the Auburn University football program. </p>
<p>Tuberville also has plenty of time to clean up this mess, as he is not up for reelection again until 2026. However, unless he can show some more concrete evidence of residency, a lawsuit challenging his local credentials may not be out of the question.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/211490/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Charlie Hunt does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The framers decided that members of both the House and Senate would be required to be “an inhabitant” of the state they represent.Charlie Hunt, Assistant Professor of Political Science, Boise State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2107742023-08-14T12:26:30Z2023-08-14T12:26:30ZFlorida’s academic standards distort the contributions that enslaved Africans made to American society<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541753/original/file-20230808-23-3nwz2o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=7%2C70%2C996%2C726&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Enslaved Africans built landmarks like the White House, the U.S. Capitol and New York's Wall Street. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/group-of-freed-african-american-slaves-along-a-wharf-during-news-photo/515185532?adppopup=true">Bettmann via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The state of <a href="https://www.politico.com/news/2023/08/01/kamala-harris-ron-desantis-black-history-00109170">Florida ignited a controversy</a> when it released a <a href="https://www.fldoe.org/core/fileparse.php/20653/urlt/6-4.pdf">set of 2023 academic standards</a> that require fifth graders to be taught that enslaved Black people in the U.S. “developed skills which, in some instances, could be applied for their benefit.”</p>
<p>As a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=566DVVQAAAAJ&view_op=list_works&sortby=pubdate">researcher</a> specializing in the <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=en&user=566DVVQAAAAJ&sortby=pubdate&citation_for_view=566DVVQAAAAJ:u-x6o8ySG0sC">history of race and racism in the U.S.</a>, I – like a <a href="https://www.wfla.com/news/education/critics-call-floridas-new-standards-for-teaching-african-american-history-insulting/">growing chorus of critics</a> – see that education standard as flawed and misleading.</p>
<p>Whereas Florida would have students believe that enslaved Black people “benefited” by developing skills during slavery, the reality is that enslaved Africans contributed to the nation’s social, cultural and economic well-being by using skills they had already developed before captivity. What follows are examples of the skills the Africans brought with them as they entered the Americas as enslaved:</p>
<h2>1. As farmers</h2>
<p>During the period between 1750 and 1775, the majority of the enslaved Africans that landed in the Carolinas came from the traditional <a href="https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20210307-how-rice-shaped-the-american-south">rice-growing regions in Africa</a> known as the Rice Coast.</p>
<p>Subsequently, rice joined cotton as one of the <a href="https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20210307-how-rice-shaped-the-american-south">most profitable agricultural products</a>, not only in North Carolina and South Carolina but in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1086/ahr.115.1.125">Virginia and Georgia</a> as well.</p>
<p>Other African food staples, such as <a href="https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674008342">black rice</a>, <a href="https://www.goodreads.com/en/book/show/7200344">okra</a>, <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/food/a-new-years-tradition-born-from-slavery/2011/12/21/gIQA63UfKP_story.html">black-eyed peas</a>, yams, <a href="https://www.goodreads.com/en/book/show/7200344">peanuts</a> and watermelon, made their way into North America via slave ship cargoes.</p>
<p>Ship captains <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/759158601">relied on African agricultural products</a> to feed the <a href="https://www.nps.gov/articles/the-middle-passage.htm">12 million</a> enslaved Africans transported to the Americas through a brutal voyage known as the Middle Passage. In some cases the <a href="https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/history-in-the-making/vol15/iss1/10">Africans stowed away food</a> as they boarded the ships. These foods were essential for the enslaved to survive the harsh conditions of their trans-Atlantic trip in the hulls of ships.</p>
<p>Once on plantations in the land now known as the United States, enslaved people occasionally were able to <a href="https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1264&context=history-in-the-making">cultivate small gardens</a>. In these gardens, reflecting a small amount of freedom, enslaved men and women grew their own food. Some of the crops consisted of produce originating in Africa. From these they <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/how-enslaved-chefs-helped-shape-american-cuisine-180969697/">added unique ingredients</a>, such as hot peppers, peanuts, okra and greens, to adapt West African stews into gumbo or jambalaya, which took rice, spices and heavily seasoned vegetables and meat. These dishes soon became staples in what would become known as <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/how-enslaved-chefs-helped-shape-american-cuisine-180969697/">down-home cooking</a>. Crop surpluses from the communal gardens were sometimes sold in local markets, thus providing income that some enslaved people used to purchase freedom. Some of these African-derived crops became central to Southern cuisine.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A farmer displays a handful of peanuts." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541757/original/file-20230808-29-qn6cof.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541757/original/file-20230808-29-qn6cof.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541757/original/file-20230808-29-qn6cof.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541757/original/file-20230808-29-qn6cof.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541757/original/file-20230808-29-qn6cof.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541757/original/file-20230808-29-qn6cof.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541757/original/file-20230808-29-qn6cof.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">African crops like peanuts and okra became central to Southern cuisine.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/sudanese-farmer-displays-a-handful-of-peanuts-harvested-on-news-photo/1227995255?adppopup=true">Ashraf Shazly/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>2. As cooks and chefs</h2>
<p>The culinary skills that the West Africans brought with them served to enhance, transform and produce unique eating habits and culinary practices in the South. Although enslaved Africans were forced to cook for families that held them as property, they also cooked for themselves, typically using a large pot that they had been given for the purpose.</p>
<p>Using skills from various West African cultures, these cooks often worked together to prepare communal meals for their fellow enslaved people. The different cooking styles produced a range of popular meals centering on <a href="https://www.pulse.com.gh/ece-frontpage/what-africas-slaves-brought-to-american-cuisine/2rkxxvd">one-pot cooking</a> to include stews or gumbos, or layering meat with greens. The meals comprised a high proportion of corn meal, animal fat and bits of meat or vegetables. Communal gardens, maintained by the enslaved, might supplement the meager supplies and what was available from hunting or fishing. Some of the cooks who emerged from these conditions <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2952566?casa_token=662izW38zxAAAAAA%3Alz9N4OhwxS2VuzmWJcdxKenY8Uk5dWP_U4XSXQKwe379BFbCbFdPSF9iVGfIHwRg3M-d1sgcw5AAxSZ58KeasDHCuSN-st0ed01jn11FMqk9WiDRra4">became some of the highest regarded and valued</a> among the enslaved in the regions.</p>
<p>Enslaved chefs blended African, Native American and European traditions to create <a href="https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20220201-hercules-posey-george-washingtons-unsung-enslaved-chef">unique Southern cuisines</a> that featured roasted beef, veal, turkey, duck, fowl and ham. Desserts and puddings featured jellies, oranges, apples, nuts, figs and raisins. Stews and soups changed, given the season, sometimes featuring oysters or fish.</p>
<h2>3. As artisans and builders</h2>
<p>Slave ship manifests reveal that enslaved Africans included some who were <a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Workers_on_Arrival/D2hyDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=enslaved+wood+workers+and+craftsmen&pg=PR11&printsec=frontcover">woodcarvers and metalworkers</a>. Others were skilled in various traditional crafts, including pottery making, weaving, basketry and wood carving. These crafts were instrumental in filling the perpetual <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1845390?casa_token=7qITcPXFjl0AAAAA%3Axy1lL9AsdasmaJCcYcc-FoIFMczQCDWCM3MqcF1QybJ8ojJ9j0IHXefJUVblkASDA5ZXwUPOhC3tb749l73WuFG14Kn-1xync8CxBBODA6MxkvhNbv4&seq=3">scarcity of skilled labor on plantations</a>.</p>
<p>When <a href="https://archive.org/details/greatauctionsale00does">planters and traders</a> considered purchasing an enslaved Black person, one of the key factors influencing their decision and the price was their skills. Slave auction sales included carpenters, blacksmiths and shoemakers.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Another_s_Country/yO2Cwx6AkH0C?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=enslaved+african+builders&pg=PA30&printsec=frontcover">Architectural designs showing West African</a> influences have been identified in structures excavated from some colonial plantations in various areas of the <a href="https://discoversouthcarolina.com/articles/discover-the-lowcountry">South Carolina Lowcountry</a>. These buildings, with clay-walled architecture, demonstrate that the West Africans came with building skills. <a href="https://thereader.mitpress.mit.edu/300-years-of-african-american-invention-and-innovation/">Excavated clay pipes in the Chesapeake</a> region reveal West African pottery decorative techniques.</p>
<p>Across the nation, <a href="https://ibw21.org/editors-choice/15-american-landmarks-that-were-built-by-slaves/">multiple landmarks were built by the enslaved</a>. These include the White House, the U.S. Capitol and the Smithsonian Castle in Washington, Fraunces Tavern and Wall Street in New York, and Fort Sumter in South Carolina.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A group of enslaved African women and a man sit on the steps of a porch." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541754/original/file-20230808-17-sfs7m2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541754/original/file-20230808-17-sfs7m2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=602&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541754/original/file-20230808-17-sfs7m2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=602&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541754/original/file-20230808-17-sfs7m2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=602&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541754/original/file-20230808-17-sfs7m2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=757&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541754/original/file-20230808-17-sfs7m2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=757&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541754/original/file-20230808-17-sfs7m2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=757&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Enslaved African women brought new medical practices and skills to the U.S. from their native lands.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/group-of-women-and-a-man-presumably-enslaved-sit-on-the-news-photo/53265526?adppopup=true">Hulton Archive via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>4. As midwives, herbalists and healers</h2>
<p>As Africans entered the Americas, they brought <a href="https://collegeofphysicians.org/programs/education-blog/medicinal-practices-enslaved-peoples">knowledge of medicinal plants</a>. Some enslaved women were midwives who used medical practices and skills from their native lands. In many cases, while many of these plants were unavailable in the Americas, enslaved Africans’ knowledge, and that gleaned from Native Americans, helped them to identify a range of plants that could be beneficial to treat a wide range of illnesses among both the enslaved and the enslavers. <a href="https://collegeofphysicians.org/programs/education-blog/medicinal-practices-enslaved-peoples">Enslaved midwives</a> delivered babies and, in some cases, provided the means for either avoiding pregnancies or performing abortions. They also treated respiratory illnesses. </p>
<p>These <a href="https://vc.bridgew.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1376&context=undergrad_rev">practices and knowledge grew</a> as they began incorporating techniques from Native American and European sources. They employed an interesting array of these practices to identify herbs, produce devices and to facilitate <a href="https://nmaahc.si.edu/explore/stories/historical-significance-doulas-and-midwives">childbirth</a> and <a href="https://collegeofphysicians.org/programs/education-blog/medicinal-practices-enslaved-peoples">maternal health and well-being</a>. They utilized several <a href="https://midwiferyinearlyamerica.wordpress.com/2014/10/29/childbirth-and-the-antebellum-american-south/">herbal remedies</a> such as cedar berries, tansy and cotton seeds to end pregnancies.</p>
<p>In 1721, of the <a href="https://curiosity.lib.harvard.edu/contagion/feature/the-boston-smallpox-epidemic-1721">5,880 Bostonians who contracted smallpox, 844 died</a>. Even more would have died had it not been for a <a href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/article/smallpox-epidemic-boston-onesimus-african-indigenous/">radical technique introduced by an enslaved person named Onesimus</a>, who is credited with helping a small portion of the population survive.</p>
<p>Onesimus, purchased by Cotton Mather in 1706, was being groomed to be a domestic servant. In 1716, Onesimus informed Mather that he had survived smallpox and no longer feared contagion. He described a practice known as <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d42859-020-00006-7">variolation</a> derived by West Africans to fight various infections. </p>
<p>This was a method of intentionally infecting an individual by rubbing pus from an infected person into an open wound. Onesimus explained how this treatment resulted in significantly milder symptoms, eliminating the likelihood of contracting the disease. As physicians began to wonder about this mysterious method to prevent smallpox, they developed the technique known as vaccinations. Smallpox today has been eradicated worldwide primarily because of the medical advice rendered by Onesimus.</p>
<p>Regardless of how Florida’s education standards misrepresent history, the reality is that the Africans forced to come to America brought an enormous range of skills. They were farmers, cooks, chefs, artisans, builders, midwives, herbalists and healers. Our country is richer because of their skills, techniques and knowledge.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/210774/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rodney Coates does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>While a Florida curriculum implies that enslaved Africans ‘benefited’ from skills acquired through slavery, history shows they brought knowledge and skills to the US that predate their captivity.Rodney Coates, Professor of Critical Race and Ethnic Studies, Miami UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2109742023-08-09T12:32:33Z2023-08-09T12:32:33ZThe heroic effort to save Florida’s coral reef from extreme ocean heat as corals bleach across the Caribbean<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541348/original/file-20230806-200746-p7nvgb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C17%2C828%2C580&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Elkhorn coral fragments rescued from overheating ocean nurseries sit in cooler water at Keys Marine Laboratory.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.climate.gov/news-features/event-tracker/noaa-and-partners-race-rescue-remaining-florida-corals-historic-ocean">NOAA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Armed with scrub brushes, <a href="https://divingwithapurpose.org/">young scuba divers</a> took to the waters of Florida’s Alligator Reef in late July to try to help corals struggling to survive 2023’s extraordinary marine heat wave. They carefully scraped away harmful algae and predators impinging on staghorn fragments, under the supervision and training of interns from <a href="https://icareaboutcoral.org">Islamorada Conservation and Restoration Education</a>, or I.CARE.</p>
<p>Normally, I.CARE’s volunteer divers would be transplanting corals to waters off the Florida Keys this time of year, as part of a <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/southeast/habitat-conservation/restoring-seven-iconic-reefs-mission-recover-coral-reefs-florida-keys">national effort to restore the Florida Reef</a>. But this year, everything is going in reverse.</p>
<p>As water temperatures spiked in the Florida Keys, scientists from universities, coral reef restoration groups and government agencies launched <a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/coral-reefs-off-coast-of-florida-bleached-as-water-temperatures-top-100-degrees-fahrenheit">a heroic effort</a> to save the corals. Divers have been in the water every day, <a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/coral-reefs-off-coast-of-florida-bleached-as-water-temperatures-top-100-degrees-fahrenheit?fbclid=IwAR1fhi0rBA2WrtlmBNFgAK5cIHqOcQDBo3dSUx_RS1XOFUvHoBHFoYwee7E">collecting thousands of corals</a> from ocean nurseries along the Florida Keys reef tract and moving them to cooler water and into giant tanks on land. </p>
<p>Marine scientist Ken Nedimyer and his team at <a href="https://reefrenewalusa.org/">Reef Renewal USA</a> moved an entire <a href="https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Coral-tree-nursery%C2%A9%3A-an-innovative-approach-to-in-Nedimyer-Gaines/02e1e8a6253b9a894edf92cf3131e0aaf56bc02c">coral tree nursery</a> from shallow waters off Tavernier to an area 60 feet deep and <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/07/31/climate/coral-reefs-heat-florida-ocean-temperatures.html">2 degrees Fahrenheit (1.1 Celsius) cooler</a>. Even there, temperatures were running about 85 to 86 F (30 C). </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A diver with a collection bag retrieves corals from a stand underwater." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541398/original/file-20230807-20-ec3q71.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541398/original/file-20230807-20-ec3q71.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=768&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541398/original/file-20230807-20-ec3q71.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=768&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541398/original/file-20230807-20-ec3q71.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=768&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541398/original/file-20230807-20-ec3q71.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=965&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541398/original/file-20230807-20-ec3q71.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=965&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541398/original/file-20230807-20-ec3q71.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=965&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Marine scientist Ken Nedimyer collects still-healthy elkhorn coral fragments for moving. The tree structure keeps the corals free of harmful algae.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://reefrenewalusa.org/beat-the-heat/">Reef Renewal USA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Their efforts are part of an emergency response on a scale never before seen in Florida.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://floridascoralreef.org/">Florida Reef</a> – a nearly 350-mile arc along the Florida Keys that is crucial to fish habitat, coastal storm protection and <a href="https://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/science/socioeconomic/factsheets/floridakeys.html">the local economy</a> – began experiencing <a href="https://www.climate.gov/news-features/event-tracker/noaa-and-partners-race-rescue-remaining-florida-corals-historic-ocean">record-hot ocean temperatures</a> in June 2023, weeks earlier than expected. The continuing heat has triggered <a href="https://www.aoml.noaa.gov/cheeca-rocks-reef-completely-bleached/">widespread coral bleaching</a> off Florida in particular, but also beyond.</p>
<p>By mid-August, coral bleaching <a href="https://research.noaa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/NOAA-Deep-Dive-Coral-Briefing.pptx-5.pdf%22%22">had been reported</a> in the Bahamas, Cuba, Mexico, Belize, El Salvador, Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia, as well as Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. This is particularly devastating because some of the healthiest remaining coral reefs are in the <a href="https://www.iucn.org/sites/default/files/import/downloads/caribbean_coral_reefs___status_report_1970_2012.pdf">southern Caribbean</a>. Scientists worry they may be seeing the sixth mass bleaching of Caribbean corals since 1995 and the <a href="https://www.agrra.org/coral-bleaching">third within the past 12 years</a>, and the heat is <a href="https://www.epa.gov/climate-indicators/climate-change-indicators-sea-surface-temperature">likely to continue</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A white coral mound with groves and a tag on the side." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541480/original/file-20230807-6265-nodvp1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541480/original/file-20230807-6265-nodvp1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541480/original/file-20230807-6265-nodvp1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541480/original/file-20230807-6265-nodvp1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541480/original/file-20230807-6265-nodvp1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541480/original/file-20230807-6265-nodvp1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541480/original/file-20230807-6265-nodvp1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A bleached mound of coral at the Cheeca Rocks monitoring site in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary that had been previously tagged shows the coral skeleton.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.aoml.noaa.gov/cheeca-rocks-reef-completely-bleached/">NOAA AOML</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While corals can recover from mass bleaching events, long periods of high heat can leave them weak and vulnerable to disease that can <a href="https://www.surfrider.org/news/soaring-ocean-temperatures-trigger-coral-bleaching-event-in-south-florida">ultimately kill them</a>.</p>
<p>That’s what scientists and volunteers have been scrambling to avoid. </p>
<h2>The heartbeat of the reef</h2>
<p>The Florida Reef has struggled for years under the pressure of overfishing, disease, storms and global warming that have decimated its live corals. </p>
<p>A massive <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/southeast/habitat-conservation/restoring-seven-iconic-reefs-mission-recover-coral-reefs-florida-keys">coral restoration effort</a> – the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Mission: Iconic Reef – has been underway since 2019 to restore the reef with transplanted corals, particularly those most resilient to the rising temperatures. But even the hardiest coral transplants are now at risk.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/PDJXgxHs7Ak?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Divers involved in NOAA’s Mission: Iconic Reef show how staghorn and elkhorn corals are being transplanted to help the Florida Reef recover.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Reef-building corals are the foundation species of shallow tropical waters due to their unique symbiotic relationship with microscopic algae in their tissues.</p>
<p>During the day, these algae photosynthesize, producing both food and oxygen for the coral animal. At night, coral polyps feed on plankton, providing nutrients for their algae. The result of this symbiotic relationship is the coral’s ability to build a calcium carbonate skeleton and reefs that <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/corals#overview">support nearly 25% of all marine life</a>.</p>
<p>Unfortunately, corals are very temperature sensitive, and the extreme ocean heat off South Florida, with <a href="https://www.miamiherald.com/news/local/environment/climate-change/article277828813.html">some reef areas reaching temperatures in the 90s,</a> has put them under extraordinary stress.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two images show a colorful coral with fish swimming over it and the same coral bleached, looking ghostly white." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541343/original/file-20230806-225752-p7nvgb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541343/original/file-20230806-225752-p7nvgb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541343/original/file-20230806-225752-p7nvgb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541343/original/file-20230806-225752-p7nvgb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541343/original/file-20230806-225752-p7nvgb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541343/original/file-20230806-225752-p7nvgb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541343/original/file-20230806-225752-p7nvgb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A boulder brain coral, <em>Colpophyllia natans</em>, before and after bleaching during the 2014 marine heat wave in the Florida Keys.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Photos by Michael Childress and Kylie Smith</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When corals get too hot, they expel their symbiotic algae. The corals appear white – bleached – because their carbonate skeleton shows through their clear tissue that lack any colorful algal cells.</p>
<p>Corals <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/coral_bleach.html">can recover</a> new algal symbionts if water conditions return to normal within a few weeks. However, the increase in global temperatures due to the effects of greenhouse gas emissions from human activities is causing <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nature22901">longer and more frequent</a> periods of coral bleaching worldwide, leading to <a href="https://www.hawaii.edu/news/2022/10/11/coral-reefs-climate-change-threat/">concerns for the future</a> of coral reefs.</p>
<h2>A MASH unit for corals</h2>
<p>This year, the Florida Keys reached an alert level 2, indicating extreme risk of bleaching, about six weeks earlier than normal.</p>
<p>The early warnings and forecasts from <a href="https://coralreef.noaa.gov/">NOAA</a>’s <a href="https://coralreefwatch.noaa.gov/">Coral Reef Watch Network</a> gave scientists time to begin preparing labs and equipment, track the locations and intensity of the growing marine heat and, importantly, recruit volunteers.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two charts show ocean temperatures far above normal." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544101/original/file-20230822-28-k0267g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544101/original/file-20230822-28-k0267g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544101/original/file-20230822-28-k0267g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544101/original/file-20230822-28-k0267g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544101/original/file-20230822-28-k0267g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544101/original/file-20230822-28-k0267g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544101/original/file-20230822-28-k0267g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This year’s maximum sea surface temperature (top chart, black bar) and degree heating weeks (lower chart, black bar), a measure of accumulated heat stress, have been the highest since record-keeping began.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://coralreefwatch.noaa.gov/data/vs/ts_figures/ts_multi_year/vs_ts_multiyr_florida_keys.png">NOAA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>At the <a href="https://www.fio.usf.edu/keys-marine-lab/">Keys Marine Laboratory</a>, scientists and trained volunteers have dropped off thousands of coral fragments collected from heat-threatened offshore nurseries. Director Cindy Lewis described the lab’s giant tanks as looking like “a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_Army_Surgical_Hospital">MASH unit</a> for corals.”</p>
<p>Volunteers there and at other labs across Florida will hand-feed the tiny creatures to keep them alive until the Florida waters cool again and they can be returned to the ocean and eventually transplanted onto the reef.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543388/original/file-20230818-19-i65j2j.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A map shows high heat off Florida and the Bahamas, as well as in the tropical Pacific along the equator, where warm water indicates El Nino conditions." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543388/original/file-20230818-19-i65j2j.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543388/original/file-20230818-19-i65j2j.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543388/original/file-20230818-19-i65j2j.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543388/original/file-20230818-19-i65j2j.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543388/original/file-20230818-19-i65j2j.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=634&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543388/original/file-20230818-19-i65j2j.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=634&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543388/original/file-20230818-19-i65j2j.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=634&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Degree heating weeks is a measure of accumulated heat stress over the previous 12 weeks. At 4-degree Celsius-weeks (7.2 Fahrenheit-weeks), coral bleaching is expected. Above 8 C-weeks (14.4 F-weeks), significant bleaching and mortality are expected to begin.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://coralreefwatch.noaa.gov/product/5km/index_5km_dhw.php">NOAA Coral Reef Watch</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Protecting corals still in the ocean</h2>
<p><a href="https://icareaboutcoral.org">I.CARE</a> launched another type of emergency response. </p>
<p>I.CARE co-founder Kylie Smith, a coral reef ecologist and a former student of mine in marine sciences, discovered a few years ago that coral transplants with large amounts of fleshy algae around them were <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00338-019-01823-7">more likely to bleach</a> during times of elevated temperature. Removing that algae may give corals a better chance of survival.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541347/original/file-20230806-213730-ugyy8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two photos show young people being trained to work with coral fragments and then on a dive clearing algae from around corals." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541347/original/file-20230806-213730-ugyy8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541347/original/file-20230806-213730-ugyy8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=299&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541347/original/file-20230806-213730-ugyy8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=299&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541347/original/file-20230806-213730-ugyy8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=299&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541347/original/file-20230806-213730-ugyy8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541347/original/file-20230806-213730-ugyy8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541347/original/file-20230806-213730-ugyy8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Youth members of Diving With a Purpose attend a training session and coral maintenance dive with the Islamorada Conservation and Restoration Education team in Islamorada, Fla.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">I.CARE</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Smith’s group typically works with local dive operators to train recreational divers to assist in transplanting and maintaining coral fragments in an effort to restore the reefs of Islamorada. In summer 2023, I.CARE has been training volunteers, like the young divers from <a href="https://divingwithapurpose.org/">Diving with a Purpose</a>, to remove algae and coral predators, such as <a href="https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=419934">coral-eating snails</a> and <a href="https://www.marinebio.org/species/bearded-fireworms/hermodice-carunculata">fireworms</a>, to help boost the corals’ chances of survival.</p>
<h2>Monitoring for corals at risk</h2>
<p>To help spot corals in trouble, volunteer divers are also being trained as reef observers through Mote Marine Lab’s <a href="https://mote.org/research/program/coral-reef-science-monitoring/bleachwatch">BleachWatch</a> program.</p>
<p>Scuba divers have long been attracted to the reefs of the Florida Keys for their beauty and accessibility. The lab is training them to recognize bleached, diseased and dead corals of different species and then use an online portal to submit bleach reports across the entire Florida Reef. </p>
<p>The more eyes on the reef, the more accurate the maps showing the areas of greatest bleaching concern.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A diver looks at a mounds of bleached corals" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541346/original/file-20230806-96278-k8vdyv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541346/original/file-20230806-96278-k8vdyv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541346/original/file-20230806-96278-k8vdyv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541346/original/file-20230806-96278-k8vdyv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541346/original/file-20230806-96278-k8vdyv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541346/original/file-20230806-96278-k8vdyv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541346/original/file-20230806-96278-k8vdyv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ian Enochs, a research ecologist and lead of NOAA’s Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Lab Coral Program, found that every coral in the Cheeca Rocks area had bleached by Aug. 1, 2023.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.aoml.noaa.gov/cheeca-rocks-reef-completely-bleached/">NOAA AOML</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Rebuilding the reef</h2>
<p>While the marine heat wave in the Keys will inevitably kill some corals, many more will survive.</p>
<p>Through <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00338-020-01948-0">careful analysis</a> of the species, genotypes and reef locations experiencing bleaching, scientists and practitioners are learning valuable information as they work to protect and rebuild a more resilient coral reef for the future.</p>
<p>That is what gives hope to Smith, Lewis, Nedimyer and hundreds of others who believe this coral reef is worth saving. Volunteers are crucial to the effort, whether they’re helping with coral reef maintenance, reporting bleaching or raising the awareness of what is at stake if humanity fails to stop warming the planet.</p>
<p><em>This article was updated Aug. 22, 2023, to correct the description of the impact of degree-heating weeks accompanying two charts. At 4-degree Celsius-weeks, coral bleaching is expected. Above 8 C-weeks, signficant bleaching and mortality are expected.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/210974/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Childress does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Ocean temperatures have hit record highs off the Florida Keys. Scientists and volunteer divers are racing to save these valuable creatures.Michael Childress, Associate Professor of Biological Sciences & Environmental Conservation, Clemson UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2107632023-07-31T21:12:00Z2023-07-31T21:12:00ZTrump facing multiple criminal charges, investigations: 59 articles explain what you need to know<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540207/original/file-20230731-248519-j7ghqt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=33%2C6%2C4455%2C2981&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Former President Donald Trump is under legal scrutiny.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/Trump/b8d497cca6b64a5bb06baee018092205/photo">AP Photo/Gerald Herbert</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The Conversation U.S. has commissioned more than four dozen articles relating to the various criminal investigations into the activities of former president Donald Trump before he took office, while he was in the White House in office, and since he left office.</p>
<p>There are four criminal cases that have been made public. It can be hard to keep track of all the different developments in each and what they mean for the country and for democracy.</p>
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<p>To help you make sense of it all, here is a list of articles about each of those cases. We have also included articles on related topics, such as the potential prosecution of a former president, the importance of the rule of law to American democracy and some basics of how criminal cases are developed and prosecuted.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521346/original/file-20230417-14-llf0n.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=8%2C3%2C1183%2C710&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Sketch of man looking glum." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521346/original/file-20230417-14-llf0n.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=8%2C3%2C1183%2C710&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521346/original/file-20230417-14-llf0n.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=359&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521346/original/file-20230417-14-llf0n.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=359&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521346/original/file-20230417-14-llf0n.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=359&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521346/original/file-20230417-14-llf0n.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521346/original/file-20230417-14-llf0n.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521346/original/file-20230417-14-llf0n.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Donald Trump appears in court in New York City in a courtroom sketch by Jane Rosenberg.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://i.guim.co.uk/img/media/6fa532e81c5de5a4afe9a2a30a38e58312e1a1d3/0_0_3024_1814/master/3024.jpg?width=1200&quality=85&auto=format&fit=max&s=4f81991d2b7e63b853af67c410069ade">Jane Rosenberg/Reuters</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2 id="General-related"></h2>
<h2>Prosecuting an ex-president</h2>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/trump-is-facing-various-criminal-charges-heres-what-we-can-learn-from-legal-cases-against-nixon-and-clinton-196559">Trump is facing various criminal charges – here’s what we can learn from legal cases against Nixon and Clinton</a> – Jan. 12, 2023.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/as-charges-loom-over-trump-prosecutors-come-under-fire-a-criminal-justice-expert-explains-whats-at-stake-198948">As charges loom over Trump, prosecutors come under fire – a criminal justice expert explains what’s at stake</a> – Feb. 1, 2023.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/trumps-unprecedented-call-for-protests-is-the-latest-sign-of-his-aim-to-degrade-americas-institutions-202225">Trump’s unprecedented call for protests is the latest sign of his aim to degrade America’s institutions</a> – March 20, 2023.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/prosecuting-a-president-is-divisive-and-sometimes-destabilizing-heres-why-many-countries-do-it-anyway-188565">Prosecuting a president is divisive and sometimes destabilizing – here’s why many countries do it anyway</a> – March 31, 2023.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/how-the-indictment-of-donald-trump-is-a-strange-and-different-event-for-america-according-to-political-scientists-203100">How the indictment of Donald Trump is a ‘strange and different’ event for America, according to political scientists</a> – April 4, 2023.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/donald-trump-and-the-dying-art-of-the-courtroom-sketch-203736">Donald Trump and the dying art of the courtroom sketch</a> – April 18, 2023.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/the-presidential-campaign-of-convict-9653-203027">The presidential campaign of Convict 9653</a> – April 18, 2023.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/trumps-political-action-committee-wants-a-60-million-refund-on-paying-his-legal-fees-3-key-things-to-know-about-pacs-210776">Trump’s political action committee wants a $60 million refund on paying his legal fees – 3 key things to know about PACs</a> - Aug. 4, 2023.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/donald-trumps-right-he-is-getting-special-treatment-far-better-than-most-other-criminal-defendants-210934">Donald Trump’s right − he is getting special treatment, far better than most other criminal defendants</a> - Aug. 9, 2023.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/hitler-burr-and-trump-show-trials-put-the-record-straight-for-history-but-can-also-provide-a-powerful-platform-for-the-defendant-211327">Hitler, Burr and Trump: Show trials put the record straight for history but can also provide a powerful platform for the defendant</a> - Aug. 11, 2023.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/trumps-free-speech-faces-court-ordered-limits-like-any-other-defendants-2-law-professors-explain-why-and-how-trumps-lawyers-need-to-watch-themselves-too-211459">Trump’s free speech faces court-ordered limits, like any other defendant’s – 2 law professors explain why, and how Trump’s lawyers need to watch themselves too</a> - Aug. 11, 2023.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/trumps-mug-shot-is-now-a-means-of-entertainment-and-fundraising-but-it-will-go-down-in-history-as-an-important-cultural-artifact-212579">Trump’s mug shot is now a means of entertainment and fundraising − but it will go down in history as an important cultural artifact</a> - Sept. 1, 2023.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/do-unbiased-jurors-exist-to-serve-at-trumps-trials-in-the-age-of-social-media-211322">Do unbiased jurors exist to serve at Trump’s trials in the age of social media?</a> - Sept. 7, 2023.</li>
</ul>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518608/original/file-20230330-2836-xyrjtj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=51%2C25%2C5623%2C3751&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A finger of a person off-camera points at Donald Trump, who sits with folded arms." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518608/original/file-20230330-2836-xyrjtj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=51%2C25%2C5623%2C3751&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518608/original/file-20230330-2836-xyrjtj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518608/original/file-20230330-2836-xyrjtj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518608/original/file-20230330-2836-xyrjtj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518608/original/file-20230330-2836-xyrjtj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518608/original/file-20230330-2836-xyrjtj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518608/original/file-20230330-2836-xyrjtj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Former President Donald Trump has been indicted by a Manhattan grand jury.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/Election2024Trump/fdf2a5bcf6a848a1b418a7f3383fa70a/photo">AP Photo/Evan Vucci</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/do-federal-or-state-prosecutors-get-to-go-first-in-trying-trump-a-law-professor-untangles-the-conflict-207402">Do federal or state prosecutors get to go first in trying Trump? A law professor untangles the conflict</a> – June 8, 2023.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/even-after-an-indictment-on-federal-charges-persecuted-donald-trump-could-win-again-206469">Even after an indictment on federal charges, ‘persecuted’ Donald Trump could win again</a> – June 8, 2023.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/trump-indictments-wont-keep-him-from-presidential-race-but-will-make-his-reelection-bid-much-harder-197677">Trump indictments won’t keep him from presidential race, but will make his reelection bid much harder</a> – June 9, 2023.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/prosecuting-a-former-president-is-not-an-easy-decision-a-criminal-law-professor-explains-why-203469">Prosecuting a former president is not an easy decision. A criminal law professor explains why</a> – June 13, 2023.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/a-jury-of-ex-presidents-no-but-trumps-fate-will-be-decided-by-12-citizen-peers-in-a-hallowed-tradition-of-us-democracy-207384">A jury of ex-presidents? No, but Trump’s fate will be decided by 12 citizen peers, in a hallowed tradition of US democracy</a> – June 15, 2023.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/georgia-indictment-and-post-civil-war-history-make-it-clear-trumps-actions-have-already-disqualified-him-from-the-presidency-211652">Georgia indictment and post-Civil War history make it clear: Trump’s actions have already disqualified him from the presidency</a> - Aug. 18, 2023.</li>
</ul>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519432/original/file-20230404-28-pony0a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=11%2C34%2C7634%2C5307&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A suited man sits at a courtroom table with uniformed court officers standing behind him and attorneys sitting on his left and right." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519432/original/file-20230404-28-pony0a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=11%2C34%2C7634%2C5307&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519432/original/file-20230404-28-pony0a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519432/original/file-20230404-28-pony0a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519432/original/file-20230404-28-pony0a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519432/original/file-20230404-28-pony0a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519432/original/file-20230404-28-pony0a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519432/original/file-20230404-28-pony0a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Former U.S. President Donald Trump sits with his attorneys for his arraignment at the Manhattan criminal court on April 4, 2023, in New York City.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/former-u-s-president-donald-trump-sits-with-his-attorneys-news-photo/1479825853?adppopup=true">Pool/ Getty Images News via Getty Images North America</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2 id="NewYork"></h2>
<h2>New York state’s charges of business records falsification</h2>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/manhattan-grand-jury-votes-to-indict-donald-trump-showing-he-like-all-other-presidents-is-not-an-imperial-king-196451">Manhattan grand jury votes to indict Donald Trump, showing he, like all other presidents, is not an imperial king</a> – March 30, 2023.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/trumps-indictment-stretches-us-legal-system-in-new-ways-a-former-prosecutor-explains-4-key-points-to-understand-198970">Trump’s indictment stretches US legal system in new ways – a former prosecutor explains 4 key points to understand</a> – March 31, 2023.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/donald-trump-faces-his-arrest-with-a-public-perp-walk-into-a-manhattan-courtroom-this-could-energize-not-humiliate-the-former-president-203211">Donald Trump faces his arrest with a public perp walk into a Manhattan courtroom – this could energize, not humiliate, the former president</a> – April 4, 2023.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/forget-stormy-daniels-and-michael-cohen-its-accountants-who-could-seal-trumps-fate-203128">Forget Stormy Daniels and Michael Cohen – it’s accountants who could seal Trump’s fate</a> – April 4, 2023.</li>
</ul>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519397/original/file-20230404-22-oq9f9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A white man with white hair and a dark suit waves, as he is surrounded by men in dark suits." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519397/original/file-20230404-22-oq9f9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519397/original/file-20230404-22-oq9f9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519397/original/file-20230404-22-oq9f9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519397/original/file-20230404-22-oq9f9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519397/original/file-20230404-22-oq9f9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=561&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519397/original/file-20230404-22-oq9f9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=561&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519397/original/file-20230404-22-oq9f9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=561&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Former President Donald Trump waves as he arrives at the Manhattan Criminal Court on April 4, 2023.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://media.gettyimages.com/id/1479789001/photo/new-york-grand-jury-votes-to-indict-former-president-trump.jpg?s=612x612&w=gi&k=20&c=vuu187Ll_8vqS3ArhiVdRXLfiwpxvdMR_sZEYWoROPI=">Kena Betancur/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/trumps-indictment-is-unprecedented-but-it-would-not-have-surprised-the-founding-fathers-203134">Trump’s indictment is unprecedented, but it would not have surprised the Founding Fathers</a> – April 5, 2023.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/what-trumps-business-fraud-charges-mean-a-former-prosecutor-explains-the-34-felony-counts-and-obstacles-ahead-for-manhattans-da-203319">What Trump’s business fraud charges mean – a former prosecutor explains the 34 felony counts and obstacles ahead for Manhattan’s DA</a> – April 5, 2023.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/trumps-latest-personal-attacks-on-judges-could-further-weaken-peoples-declining-trust-in-american-rule-of-law-203218">Trump’s latest personal attacks on judges could further weaken people’s declining trust in American rule of law</a> – April 6, 2023.</li>
</ul>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539970/original/file-20230728-23-595wvj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Boxes are stacked in a windowless room." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539970/original/file-20230728-23-595wvj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539970/original/file-20230728-23-595wvj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=535&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539970/original/file-20230728-23-595wvj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=535&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539970/original/file-20230728-23-595wvj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=535&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539970/original/file-20230728-23-595wvj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=673&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539970/original/file-20230728-23-595wvj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=673&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539970/original/file-20230728-23-595wvj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=673&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The federal indictment against Donald Trump includes photos such as this one, allegedly of boxes of documents, including classified material, stored in unsecured spaces at Trump’s Mar-a-Lago resort and home.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.justice.gov/storage/US_v_Trump-Nauta_23-80101.pdf">U.S. Department of Justice</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2 id="Federal-classified"></h2>
<h2>Department of Justice charges for hoarding classified documents</h2>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/special-counsels-like-the-one-leading-the-department-of-justices-investigation-of-trump-are-intended-to-be-independent-but-they-arent-entirely-195640">Special counsels, like the one leading the Department of Justice’s investigation of Trump, are intended to be independent – but they aren’t entirely</a> – Dec. 14, 2022.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/doj-probes-biden-document-handling-what-is-classified-information-anyway-197584">DOJ probes Biden document handling – what is classified information, anyway?</a> – Jan. 10, 2023.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/trump-charged-under-espionage-act-which-covers-a-lot-more-crimes-than-just-spying-207373">Trump charged under Espionage Act – which covers a lot more crimes than just spying</a> – June 9, 2023.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/trump-indictment-unsealed-a-criminal-law-scholar-explains-what-the-charges-mean-and-what-prosecutors-will-now-need-to-prove-207469">Trump indictment unsealed – a criminal law scholar explains what the charges mean, and what prosecutors will now need to prove</a> – June 9, 2023.</li>
</ul>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531249/original/file-20230611-23-dl1h4f.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2953%2C1921&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A man obscured in shadow, sitting in front of airplane windows." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531249/original/file-20230611-23-dl1h4f.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2953%2C1921&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531249/original/file-20230611-23-dl1h4f.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531249/original/file-20230611-23-dl1h4f.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531249/original/file-20230611-23-dl1h4f.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531249/original/file-20230611-23-dl1h4f.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531249/original/file-20230611-23-dl1h4f.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531249/original/file-20230611-23-dl1h4f.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Former President Donald Trump on his airplane on June 10, 2023, two days after his federal indictment.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/former-president-donald-trump-speaks-to-staff-and-reporters-news-photo/1258608437?adppopup=true">Jabin Botsford/The Washington Post via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/if-you-want-to-die-in-jail-keep-talking-two-national-security-law-experts-discuss-the-special-treatment-for-trump-and-offer-him-some-advice-207482">‘If you want to die in jail, keep talking’ – two national security law experts discuss the special treatment for Trump and offer him some advice</a> – June 12, 2023.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/how-the-exposure-of-highly-classified-documents-could-harm-us-security-and-why-there-are-laws-against-storing-them-insecurely-207484">How the exposure of highly classified documents could harm US security – and why there are laws against storing them insecurely</a> – June 14, 2023.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/despite-threats-of-violence-trumps-federal-indictment-happened-with-little-fanfare-but-that-doesnt-mean-the-far-right-movement-is-fading-an-extremism-scholar-explains-207770">Despite threats of violence, Trump’s federal indictment happened with little fanfare – but that doesn’t mean the far-right movement is fading, an extremism scholar explains</a> – June 15, 2023.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/trumps-trial-will-soon-be-underway-in-florida-heres-why-prosecutors-had-little-choice-in-selecting-any-other-courthouse-location-207892">Trump’s trial will soon be underway in Florida – here’s why prosecutors had little choice in selecting any other courthouse location</a> – June 21, 2023.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/why-trumps-prosecution-for-keeping-secret-documents-is-lawful-constitutional-precedented-nonpartisan-and-merited-207970">Why Trump’s prosecution for keeping secret documents is lawful, constitutional, precedented, nonpartisan and merited</a> – July 14, 2023.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/despite-calls-for-her-to-recuse-herself-from-trumps-criminal-case-judge-aileen-cannons-situation-doesnt-meet-the-standard-for-when-a-judge-should-step-away-210335">Despite calls for her to recuse herself from Trump’s criminal case, Judge Aileen Cannon’s situation doesn’t meet the standard for when a judge should step away</a> – July 25, 2023.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/trump-faces-additional-charges-4-essential-reads-to-understand-the-case-against-him-for-hoarding-classified-documents-210624">Trump faces additional charges – 4 essential reads to understand the case against him for hoarding classified documents</a> – July 27, 2023.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/trumps-classified-documents-indictment-does-more-than-allege-crimes-it-tells-a-compelling-story-211713">https://theconversation.com/trumps-classified-documents-indictment-does-more-than-allege-crimes-it-tells-a-compelling-story-211713</a> - Aug. 23, 2023.</li>
</ul>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A middle-aged man wearing a navy blue suit, white shirt and red tie is seen on a large screen talking on a telephone." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/475451/original/file-20220721-14415-rf13tn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/475451/original/file-20220721-14415-rf13tn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475451/original/file-20220721-14415-rf13tn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475451/original/file-20220721-14415-rf13tn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475451/original/file-20220721-14415-rf13tn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475451/original/file-20220721-14415-rf13tn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475451/original/file-20220721-14415-rf13tn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A visual of President Donald Trump is shown during the July 12, 2022, congressional hearings investigating the attack on the Capitol.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/july-12-2022-a-visual-of-president-donald-trump-is-shown-as-news-photo/1241888427?adppopup=true">Demetrius Freeman/The Washington Post via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2 id="Federal-2020election"></h2>
<h2>Department of Justice charges in effort to overturn the 2020 election results</h2>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/even-if-jan-6-referrals-turn-into-criminal-charges-or-convictions-trump-will-still-be-able-to-run-in-2024-and-serve-as-president-if-elected-196851">Even if Jan. 6 referrals turn into criminal charges – or convictions – Trump will still be able to run in 2024 and serve as president if elected</a> – Dec 19, 2022.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/what-the-criminal-referral-of-trump-means-a-constitutional-law-expert-explains-the-jan-6-committee-action-196841">What the criminal referral of Trump means – a constitutional law expert explains the Jan. 6 committee action</a> – Dec. 19, 2022.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/the-jan-6-committee-makes-its-case-against-trump-his-allies-and-their-conspiracy-to-commit-an-insurrection-five-essential-reads-196754">The Jan. 6 committee makes its case against Trump, his allies and their conspiracy to commit an insurrection: Five essential reads</a> – Dec. 20, 2022.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/targeting-trump-for-prosecution-4-essential-reads-on-how-the-jan-6-investigation-laid-the-groundwork-for-the-special-counsel-210026">Targeting Trump for prosecution – 4 essential reads on how the Jan. 6 investigation laid the groundwork for the special counsel</a> – July 18, 2023.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-a-target-letter-3-things-to-know-about-how-the-justice-department-notifies-suspects-like-donald-trump-ahead-of-possible-charges-210032">What is a target letter? 3 things to know about how the Justice Department notifies suspects, like Donald Trump, ahead of possible charges</a> – July 18, 2023.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/trump-indicted-in-jan-6-case-but-his-3-upcoming-trials-may-not-keep-him-off-the-campaign-trail-210403">Trump indicted in Jan. 6 case – but his 3 upcoming trials may not keep him off the campaign trail</a> - Aug. 1, 2023.</li>
</ul>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541046/original/file-20230803-13675-6dd92w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A man in a suit and tie holds up a clenched fist while he stands in front of a row of U.S. flags." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541046/original/file-20230803-13675-6dd92w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541046/original/file-20230803-13675-6dd92w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541046/original/file-20230803-13675-6dd92w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541046/original/file-20230803-13675-6dd92w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541046/original/file-20230803-13675-6dd92w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541046/original/file-20230803-13675-6dd92w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541046/original/file-20230803-13675-6dd92w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Donald Trump gestures as he arrives to make a speech on Jan. 6, 2021.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/TrumpIndictment/4f81299225474fc5b484851456fc476a/photo">AP Photo/Jacquelyn Martin</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/the-most-serious-trump-indictment-yet-a-criminal-law-scholar-explains-the-charges-of-using-dishonesty-fraud-and-deceit-to-cling-to-power-210600">The most serious Trump indictment yet – a criminal law scholar explains the charges of using ‘dishonesty, fraud and deceit’ to cling to power</a> - Aug. 1, 2023.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/george-washington-knew-when-it-was-time-to-go-unlike-trump-because-the-founders-worried-about-the-judgment-of-history-210160">George Washington knew when it was time to go, unlike Trump, because the founders worried about the judgment of history</a> - Aug. 2, 2023.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/immunity-for-witnesses-is-a-key-tool-of-prosecutors-whether-theyre-charging-trump-or-other-alleged-criminals-heres-how-it-works-and-what-the-limits-are-210442">Immunity for witnesses is a key tool of prosecutors, whether they’re charging Trump or other alleged criminals – here’s how it works and what the limits are</a> - Aug. 2, 2023.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/could-trump-turn-his-politics-of-grievance-into-a-get-out-of-jail-card-neither-prosecution-nor-even-jail-time-have-prevented-former-leaders-in-israel-brazil-and-kenya-from-mounting-comebacks-208273">Could Trump turn his politics of grievance into a get-out-of-jail card? Neither prosecution nor even jail time have prevented former leaders in Israel, Brazil and Kenya from mounting comebacks</a> - Aug. 2, 2023.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/trump-indictment-heres-how-prosecutors-will-try-to-prove-he-knowingly-lied-and-intended-to-break-the-law-210533">Trump indictment: Here’s how prosecutors will try to prove he knowingly lied and intended to break the law</a> - Aug. 3, 2023.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/trump-may-try-to-delay-his-first-federal-trial-its-a-common-legal-strategy-to-fend-off-a-criminal-conviction-210363">Trump may try to delay his first federal trial – it’s a common legal strategy to fend off a criminal conviction</a> - Aug. 3, 2023.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/a-brief-history-of-the-ku-klux-klan-acts-1870s-laws-to-protect-black-voters-ignored-for-decades-now-being-used-against-trump-202923">A brief history of the Ku Klux Klan Acts: 1870s laws to protect Black voters, ignored for decades, now being used against Trump</a> - Aug. 4, 2023.</li>
</ul>
<h2 id="Georgia"></h2>
<h2>Georgia charges about 2020 election interference</h2>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/michigan-ag-charges-16-people-in-fake-electors-scheme-4-essential-reads-on-how-the-electoral-college-works-210081">Michigan AG charges 16 people in fake electors scheme: 4 essential reads on how the Electoral College works</a> – July 20, 2023.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/georgias-indictment-of-trump-is-a-confirmation-of-states-rights-a-favorite-cause-of-republicans-since-reagan-210610">Georgia’s indictment of Trump is a confirmation of states’ rights, a favorite cause of Republicans since Reagan</a> - Aug. 14, 2023.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/fulton-county-charges-donald-trump-with-racketeering-other-felonies-a-georgia-election-law-expert-explains-5-key-things-to-know-211582">Fulton County charges Donald Trump with racketeering, other felonies – a Georgia election law expert explains 5 key things to know</a> - Aug. 14, 2023.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/black-female-prosecutors-like-fani-willis-face-the-unequal-burden-of-both-racist-and-sexist-attacks-200219">Black female prosecutors like Fani Willis face the unequal burden of both racist and sexist attacks</a> - Aug. 15, 2023.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/trump-out-on-bail-a-criminal-justice-expert-explains-the-system-of-cash-bail-212179">Trump out on bail – a criminal justice expert explains the system of cash bail</a> - Aug. 25, 2023.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/judicial-orders-restricting-trumps-speech-seek-to-balance-his-own-constitutional-rights-212321">Judicial orders restricting Trump’s speech seek to balance his own constitutional rights</a> - Aug 28, 2023.</li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/rico-is-often-used-to-target-the-mob-and-cartels-but-trump-and-his-associates-arent-the-first-outside-those-worlds-to-face-charges-212239">RICO is often used to target the mob and cartels − but Trump and his associates aren’t the first outside those worlds to face charges</a> - Aug. 31, 2023.</li>
</ul><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/210763/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
Scholarly experts explain many aspects and angles of the criminal cases involving former president Donald Trump.Jeff Inglis, Politics + Society Editor, The Conversation USLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2048842023-07-24T12:59:14Z2023-07-24T12:59:14ZDeSantis’ ‘war on woke’ looks a lot like attempts by other countries to deny and rewrite history<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536350/original/file-20230707-15-306n0k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">SB 266 aims to stop college professors from teaching about systemic racism.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/florida-governor-ron-desantis-speaks-to-police-officers-in-news-photo/1467938775">Spencer Platt/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A <a href="https://www.flsenate.gov/Session/Bill/2023/266">Florida law</a> that took effect on July 1, 2023, restricts how educators in the state’s public colleges and universities can teach about the racial oppression that African Americans have faced in the United States. </p>
<p>Specifically, <a href="https://www.flsenate.gov/Session/Bill/2023/266/BillText/er/PDF">SB 266</a> forbids professors to teach that systemic racism is “inherent in the institutions of the United States.” Similarly, they cannot teach that it was designed “to maintain social, political and economic inequities.” </p>
<p>We are professors who teach the modern history of the <a href="https://gufaculty360.georgetown.edu/s/contact/00336000014RpbOAAS/rochelle-a-davis">Middle East</a> and <a href="https://www.conncoll.edu/directories/faculty-profiles/eileen-kane/">Eastern Europe</a>, and we know that even democratically elected governments suppress histories of their own nations that don’t fit their ideology. The goal is often to smother a shameful past by casting those who speak of it as unpatriotic. Another goal is to stoke so much fear and anger that citizens welcome state censorship. </p>
<p>We see this playing out in Florida, with SB 266 being the most extreme example in a series of recent <a href="https://www.chronicle.com/article/here-are-the-states-where-lawmakers-are-seeking-to-ban-colleges-dei-efforts">U.S. state bills</a> that critics call “<a href="https://pen.org/more-than-meets-the-dei/">educational gag orders</a>.” The tactics that Gov. Ron DeSantis is using to censor the teaching of American history in Florida look a lot like those seen in the illiberal democracies of Israel, Turkey, Russia and Poland. </p>
<p>Here are four ways SB 266 relates to attempts used by modern governments to censor history. </p>
<h2>1. Invent a threat</h2>
<p>One strategy that DeSantis shares with other world leaders is to invent a threat that taps into anxieties and then declare war against it.</p>
<p>In Russia, President Vladimir Putin has been waging a brutal war against Ukraine in the name of “<a href="https://www.rapsinews.com/legislation/20140505/271257417.html">denazifying” the country</a>. This claim that Ukraine is a Nazi bastion <a href="https://theconversation.com/putins-claim-to-rid-ukraine-of-nazis-is-especially-absurd-given-its-history-177959">is a fabrication</a>. Nevertheless, it stokes <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/05/09/world/europe/russia-victory-day-may-9.html">real fear and hatred of Nazis</a>, whose 1941 invasion of the USSR led to <a href="https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2018/06/21/stalin-no-longer-liable-wwII-deaths-a61939">27 million Soviet deaths</a>.</p>
<p>In Turkey, President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan <a href="https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/europe-and-central-asia/turkey/report-turkey/">labels critics of state violence “terrorists</a>.” More than 146 Turkish academics who signed a 2016 peace petition condemning Turkey’s violence against its Kurdish citizens faced trials for “<a href="https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/12/05/turkey-academics-trial-signing-petition">spreading terrorist propaganda</a>.” Ten were convicted and served jail terms before Turkey’s Constitutional Court, in a 9-8 decision in 2019, <a href="https://www.scholarsatrisk.org/actions/academics-for-peace-turkey/">overturned their convictions</a> because of the violation of their freedom of expression. </p>
<p>In Florida, the phantom threat is “<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-wokeness-has-become-the-latest-battlefront-for-white-conservatives-in-america-207122">wokeness</a>,” a reference to a term that the <a href="https://www.vox.com/culture/21437879/stay-woke-wokeness-history-origin-evolution-controversy">Black Lives Matter movement made mainstream</a>. To “stay woke” means to be self-aware and committed to racial justice. Republicans have co-opted the term and use it sarcastically to denigrate progressive ideas and drown out discussions about the reasons for America’s <a href="https://home.treasury.gov/news/featured-stories/racial-inequality-in-the-united-states">stark racial inequities</a>. </p>
<h2>2. Criminalize historical discussions</h2>
<p>Once a fake threat has been ginned up, world leaders can use it to create new laws to criminalize speech and critical discussions of history. </p>
<p>In Russia, Putin uses so-called “<a href="https://novayagazeta.eu/articles/2023/02/03/russias-ministry-of-higher-education-approves-new-history-curriculum-includes-notion-of-instability-belt-around-russia-en-news">memory laws</a>” to, among other things, prevent knowledge about the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/12/28/world/europe/russia-memorial-human-rights.html">scale of crimes</a> committed by former Soviet leader Joseph Stalin against the Soviet people from the 1930s to the 1950s. And in 2018, Poland’s right-wing leadership added an amendment to one of its own memory laws to defend the “<a href="https://foreignpolicy.com/2023/03/21/poland-distorts-holocaust-history-gross-jedwabne/">good name</a>” of Poland and the Polish people against accusations of complicity in the Holocaust. Historians who defy this gag order have <a href="https://www.newyorker.com/news/our-columnists/the-historians-under-attack-for-exploring-polands-role-in-the-holocaust">faced harassment</a> and death threats.</p>
<p>Similarly, the Turkish government has a law against “denigrating the Turkish nation” <a href="https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2019/10/turkey-nationalism-killer-penal-code-article-has-come-back.html">that makes it a crime</a> to acknowledge the early-20th-century <a href="https://theconversation.com/armenian-genocide-us-recognition-of-turkeys-killing-of-1-5-million-was-tangled-up-in-decades-of-geopolitics-129159">Armenian genocide</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/24/magazine/the-era-of-people-like-you-is-over-how-turkey-purged-its-intellectuals.html">Turkey’s purge of its intellectuals</a> resulted in the firing of more than 6,000 university instructors in an effort to silence critical teaching about the nation’s past and present.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.flsenate.gov/Session/Bill/2023/266/BillText/er/PDF">SB 266</a>, meanwhile, requires general education courses to “provide instruction on the historical background and philosophical foundation of Western civilization and this nation’s historical documents.” It also prohibits general education core courses from “teaching certain topics or presenting information in specified ways.”</p>
<p>The vagueness is deliberate. Teaching virtually anything related to <a href="https://www.versobooks.com/products/2270-racecraft">America’s history of racism</a>, particularly as it relates to racial inequalities in the present, could be seen as violating SB 266. Florida professors may refrain, for example, from teaching that <a href="https://newjimcrow.com/">Jim Crow laws</a> were designed to deny African Americans equal rights. These are the same laws that <a href="https://press.princeton.edu/books/hardcover/9780691172422/hitlers-american-model">Hitler used as a model</a> for the Nuremberg Laws that stripped Jewish citizens of Germany of civil rights.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536352/original/file-20230707-23-8v0ego.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Demonstrators hold signs that read 'Protect Black history' and 'Black history is US history'" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536352/original/file-20230707-23-8v0ego.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536352/original/file-20230707-23-8v0ego.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536352/original/file-20230707-23-8v0ego.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536352/original/file-20230707-23-8v0ego.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536352/original/file-20230707-23-8v0ego.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536352/original/file-20230707-23-8v0ego.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536352/original/file-20230707-23-8v0ego.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Demonstrators protest Gov. Ron DeSantis’ plan to eliminate AP courses on African American studies in Florida high schools.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/demonstrators-protest-florida-governor-ron-desantis-plan-to-news-photo/1247974907">Joshua Lott/The Washington Post via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>3. Punish transgressors</h2>
<p>With laws in place that criminalize dissenting interpretations of history, governments can then punish those who violate them. Punishment can involve threatening arrest and imprisoning individuals, and stripping funding from institutions. </p>
<p>For example, in 2011 Israel enacted the <a href="https://www.adalah.org/en/law/view/496#:%7E:text=The%20%E2%80%9CNakba%20Law%E2%80%9D%20authorizes%20the,as%20a%20day%20of%20mourning.%E2%80%9D">Nakba Law</a>, which authorizes the minister of finance to cut funding to institutions that commemorate or acknowledge what Palestinians refer to as the Nakba – or “catastrophe” in Arabic. The <a href="https://www.un.org/unispal/about-the-nakba/">Nakba</a> is the displacement of more than half of the Indigenous Palestinian population and destruction of their communities that resulted from the creation of the state of Israel in 1948.</p>
<p>Likewise, <a href="https://www.flsenate.gov/Session/Bill/2023/266/BillText/er/PDF">SB 266</a> defunds diversity, equity and inclusion efforts in public colleges and universities and empowers school administrators and boards to take action against those who defy the rules. It comes in the wake of Florida’s 2022 <a href="https://www.flgov.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Stop-Woke-Handout.pdf">“Stop WOKE” law</a> – which restricted discussions about race in K-12 schools and led teachers to <a href="https://www.thenation.com/article/politics/book-bans-florida-public-schools/">purge their classrooms</a> of books they worried could get them a five-year jail sentence.</p>
<h2>4. Write new history</h2>
<p>With actual historical events denied or suppressed, governments can then rewrite history to further monopolize truth and impose ideology. Russia offers the most egregious example of this. </p>
<p>In 2021, Putin published a 20-page article, “<a href="http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/66181">On the Historical Unity of the Russians and Ukrainians</a>,” in which he argued that the Ukrainian and Russian people are one and the same. <a href="https://huri.harvard.edu/news/putin-historical-unity">Alarmed critics</a> rightly saw this as a preemptive justification for escalating his war against Ukraine, which he did with a <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/live/2022/02/24/world/russia-ukraine-putin">full-scale invasion of the country</a> in February 2022. </p>
<p>Like <a href="https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2022/4/28/23037788/ron-desantis-florida-viktor-orban-hungary-right-authoritarian">right-wing ideologues in other parts of the world</a>, DeSantis claims to be defending U.S. history from falsehoods <a href="https://floridaphoenix.com/2021/03/17/gov-desantis-has-found-a-new-culture-war-enemy-critical-race-theory/">pushed by ideologues</a>. In his attempts to rewrite history, calls for a reckoning with America’s history of anti-Blackness are <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2023/feb/04/conservatives-ron-desantis-florida-education">ridiculed as indoctrination</a>, and <a href="https://www.edweek.org/teaching-learning/revamped-florida-civics-education-aims-for-patriotism-will-it-catch-on-elsewhere/2022/07">bigotry gets repackaged as patriotism</a>. </p>
<p>If the way governments are rewriting history in other parts of the world is a guide, DeSantis’ and other states’ legislation could be the prelude to an even greater assault on accurate history and freedom of thought.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/204884/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Eileen Kane receives funding from the MacArthur Foundation</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rochelle Anne Davis does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Tactics used to censor the teaching of American history in Florida schools bear much in common with those seen in the illiberal democracies of Israel, Turkey, Russia and Poland.Rochelle Anne Davis, Professor of Cultural Anthropology, Georgetown UniversityEileen Kane, Professor of History, Connecticut CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2097702023-07-14T12:49:06Z2023-07-14T12:49:06ZCorals are starting to bleach as global ocean temperatures hit record highs<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537483/original/file-20230714-23-yzqhp8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C23%2C5176%2C3422&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Mass coral bleaching in 2014 left the Coral Reef Monitoring Program monitoring site at Cheeca Rocks off the Florida Keys a blanket of white.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.aoml.noaa.gov/coral-bleaching-cheeca-rocks/">NOAA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The water off South Florida is <a href="https://coralreefwatch.noaa.gov/data/vs/ts_figures/ts_multi_year/vs_ts_multiyr_florida_keys.png">over 90 degrees Fahrenheit</a> (32 Celsius) in mid-July, and scientists are already seeing signs of coral bleaching off Central and South America. Particularly concerning is how early in the summer we are seeing these high ocean temperatures. If the <a href="https://theconversation.com/ocean-heat-is-off-the-charts-heres-what-that-means-for-humans-and-ecosystems-around-the-world-207902">extreme heat</a> persists, it could have dire consequences for coral reefs.</p>
<p>Just like humans, corals can handle some degree of stress, but the longer it lasts, the more harm it can do. Corals can’t move to cooler areas when water temperatures rise to dangerous levels. They are stuck in it. For those that are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00338-022-02232-z">particularly sensitive to temperature stress</a>, that can be devastating.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537405/original/file-20230713-21-o01eyh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two photos shows a coral on two different dates, one healthy and reddish in color, the other white." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537405/original/file-20230713-21-o01eyh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537405/original/file-20230713-21-o01eyh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=246&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537405/original/file-20230713-21-o01eyh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=246&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537405/original/file-20230713-21-o01eyh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=246&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537405/original/file-20230713-21-o01eyh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=310&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537405/original/file-20230713-21-o01eyh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=310&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537405/original/file-20230713-21-o01eyh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=310&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A transplanted coral in the Port of Miami that was healthy in early 2023 had bleached in the warm water by July 11, 2023.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">NOAA/University of Miami</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=WS4sEzgAAAAJ&hl=en">I lead</a> the <a href="https://www.aoml.noaa.gov/coral-reef-ecosystems/">Coral Program</a> at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Lab in Miami, Florida. Healthy coral reef ecosystems are important for humans in numerous ways. Unfortunately, <a href="https://theconversation.com/el-nino-is-coming-and-ocean-temps-are-already-at-record-highs-that-can-spell-disaster-for-fish-and-corals-202424">marine heat waves are becoming more common</a> and more extreme, with potentially devastating consequences for reefs around the world that are already in a fragile state.</p>
<h2>Why coral reefs matter to everyone</h2>
<p>Coral reefs are hot spots of biodiversity. They are often referred to as the <a href="https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/okeanos/explorations/10index/background/biodiversity/biodiversity.html">rainforests of the sea</a> because they are home to the highest concentrations of species in the ocean.</p>
<p>Healthy reefs are vibrant ecosystems that support fish and fisheries, which in turn <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/education/resource-collections/marine-life/coral-reef-ecosystems#">support economies and food for millions of people</a>. Additionally, they provide billions of dollars in economic activity every year through tourism, particularly in places like the Florida Keys, where people go to scuba dive, snorkel, fish and experience the natural beauty of coral reefs.</p>
<p>If that isn’t enough, <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/centers/pcmsc/science/role-reefs-coastal-protection">reefs also protect shorelines</a>, beaches and billions of dollars in coastal infrastructure by buffering wave energy, particularly during storms and hurricanes. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/IEWJAEkGeNk?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">What goes into a coral reef?</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But corals are quite <a href="https://scied.ucar.edu/learning-zone/climate-change-impacts/corals-and-climate">sensitive to warming water</a>. They host a microscopic symbiotic <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/tutorial_corals/coral02_zooxanthellae.html">algae called zooxanthella</a> that photosynthesizes just like plants, providing food to the coral. When the surrounding waters get too warm for too long, the zooxanthellae leave the coral, and the coral can turn pale or white – a process known as bleaching.</p>
<p>If corals stay bleached, they can become energetically compromised and ultimately die.</p>
<p>When corals die or their growth slows, these beautiful, complex reef habitats start disappearing and can eventually erode to sand. A recent paper by <a href="https://www.aoml.noaa.gov/tag/john-morris/">John Morris</a>, a scientist in my lab in Florida, shows that around <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-23394-4">70% of reefs are now net erosional in the Florida Keys</a>, meaning they are losing more habitat than they build.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two maps show large areas of above average heat, particularly along the equator in the Pacific, which is an indicator of El Nino, and in much of the Atlantic." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537391/original/file-20230713-21-xyfqps.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537391/original/file-20230713-21-xyfqps.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=670&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537391/original/file-20230713-21-xyfqps.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=670&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537391/original/file-20230713-21-xyfqps.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=670&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537391/original/file-20230713-21-xyfqps.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=842&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537391/original/file-20230713-21-xyfqps.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=842&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537391/original/file-20230713-21-xyfqps.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=842&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">About 40% of the global ocean was experiencing a marine heat wave in July 2023. NOAA’s experimental forecasts for August and October show sea surface temperatures well above average in many regions. An increase of 1 degree Celsius = 1.8 degrees Fahrenheit.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://psl.noaa.gov/marine-heatwaves/#report">NOAA PSL</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Unfortunately, these critical coral reef habitats are in decline around the world because of extreme bleaching events, disease and numerous other human-caused stressors. In the Florida Keys, coral cover has decline by about <a href="https://www.climate.gov/news-features/features/mission-iconic-reefs-noaa-aims-restore-florida-keys-climate-resilient-corals">90% over the past several decades</a>.</p>
<h2>Coral bleaching in 2023</h2>
<p>In the Port of Miami, where we have found <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-33467-7">particularly resilient coral communities</a>, a doctoral candidate in my lab, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Allyson-Demerlis">Allyson DeMerlis</a>, documented the first coral bleaching of her experimentally <a href="https://reefresilience.org/management-strategies/restoration/coral-populations/coral-gardening/outplanting/">outplanted corals</a> on July 11, 2023.</p>
<p>Other scientists we work with have reported coral bleaching off of Colombia, El Salvador, Costa Rica and Mexico in the eastern Pacific, as well as along the Caribbean coasts of Panama, Mexico and Belize.</p>
<p>We have yet to see widespread coral death associated with this particular marine heat wave, so it is possible the corals could recover if sea surface temperatures cool down soon. However, global sea surface <a href="https://theconversation.com/ocean-heat-is-off-the-charts-heres-what-that-means-for-humans-and-ecosystems-around-the-world-207902">temperatures are at record highs</a>, and large parts of the Atlantic and eastern Pacific are <a href="https://coralreefwatch.noaa.gov/satellite/bleachingoutlook_cfs/index.php">under bleaching alerts</a>. At this point, the evidence points to the potential for a very negative outcome.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537387/original/file-20230713-29-3fo0qw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A chart of every year's global daily average sea surface temperature shows 2023 far above all other years since satellite records started in 1981." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537387/original/file-20230713-29-3fo0qw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537387/original/file-20230713-29-3fo0qw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537387/original/file-20230713-29-3fo0qw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537387/original/file-20230713-29-3fo0qw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537387/original/file-20230713-29-3fo0qw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537387/original/file-20230713-29-3fo0qw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537387/original/file-20230713-29-3fo0qw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sea surface temperatures have been off the charts. The thick black line is 2023. The orange line is 2022. The 1982-2011 average is the middle dashed line.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://climatereanalyzer.org/clim/sst_daily/">ClimateReanalyzer.org/NOAA OISST v2.1</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/el-nino-is-back-thats-good-news-or-bad-news-depending-on-where-you-live-205974">El Niño</a> is contributing to the problem this year, but the longer-term trends of rising ocean heat are <a href="https://climate.nasa.gov/">driven by global warming</a> fueled by human activities.</p>
<p>To put that into context, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/srep16762">a paper</a> by NOAA scientist <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=rEv8BNoAAAAJ&hl=en">Derek Manzello</a> showed that in the Florida Keys, the number of days per year in which water temperatures were higher than 90 F (32 C) had increased by more than 2,500% in the two decades following the mid-1990s relative to the prior 20 years. That is a remarkable increase in the number of days that corals are experiencing particularly stressful warm water.</p>
<h2>What can we do to protect corals?</h2>
<p>First, we cannot give up on corals.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.aoml.noaa.gov/people/alice-webb/">Alice Webb</a>, a coral reef scientist working with our group, recently published <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-26930-4">a study</a> based on years of our research in the Florida Keys. She modeled reef habitat persistence under climate, restoration and adaptation scenarios and found that protecting reefs is going to take everything – active restoration of reefs, helping corals acclimate or adapt to changing temperatures, and, importantly, human curbing of greenhouse gas emissions.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A map shows warm ocean temperatures across a large part of the Atlantic and Pacific around North America." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537410/original/file-20230713-17-5rc865.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537410/original/file-20230713-17-5rc865.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537410/original/file-20230713-17-5rc865.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537410/original/file-20230713-17-5rc865.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537410/original/file-20230713-17-5rc865.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=634&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537410/original/file-20230713-17-5rc865.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=634&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537410/original/file-20230713-17-5rc865.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=634&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sea surface temperatures off South Florida were abnormally high in mid-July 2023.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://coralreefwatch.noaa.gov/product/5km/index_5km_sst.php">Coral Reef Watch/NOAA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Major restoration efforts are underway in the Florida Keys as part of the NOAA-led <a href="https://marinesanctuary.org/mission-iconic-reefs/">Mission Iconic Reefs</a>. We are also assessing how different coral individuals perform under stress, hoping to identify those that are particularly stress-tolerant by combing through the massive amounts of <a href="https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/umrsmas/bullmar/2023/00000099/00000002/art00006">data from restoration projects and coral nurseries</a>.</p>
<p>We are also evaluating stress-hardening techniques. For example, in tide pools, corals are exposed to large swings in temperature over short periods, making them more resilient to subsequent thermal stress events. We are exploring whether it’s possible to replicate that natural process in the lab, before corals are planted onto reefs, to better <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00338-022-02232-z">prepare them for stressful summers in the wild</a>.</p>
<p>Coral bleaching on a large scale has really been documented only since the early 1980s. When I talk to people who have been fishing and diving in the Florida Keys since before I was born, they have amazing stories of how vibrant the reefs used to be. They know firsthand how bad things have become because they have lived it.</p>
<p>There isn’t currently a single silver-bullet solution, but ignoring the harm being done is not an option. There is simply too much at stake.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/209770/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ian Enochs receives funding from NOAA. </span></em></p>Water temperatures in the 90s off Florida in July are alarming, a NOAA coral scientist writes. Scientists in several North American countries have already spotted coral bleaching off their coasts.Ian Enochs, Research Ecologist, National Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2058132023-06-05T12:08:48Z2023-06-05T12:08:48ZSaying that students embrace censorship on college campuses is incorrect – here’s how to discuss the issue more constructively<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528662/original/file-20230526-23-mtq53t.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=68%2C43%2C5682%2C3785&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">It's not true that college students reject challenging ideas wholesale and oppose conservative views.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/male-college-professor-gestures-during-lecture-royalty-free-image/1213738982?phrase=college+campus+class&adppopup=true">SDI Productions/E+/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The claim that <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/11/08/us/ut-austin-free-speech.html">college students censor</a> viewpoints with which they disagree is now common. Versions of this claim include the falsehoods that <a href="https://www.insidehighered.com/news/students/free-speech/2023/04/13/shouting-down-speakers-who-offend">students “shut down</a>” most invited speakers to campuses, reject challenging ideas and <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2019/08/19/the-growing-partisan-divide-in-views-of-higher-education-2/">oppose conservative views</a>. </p>
<p>Such cynical distortions dominate discussions of higher education today, misinform the public and threaten both democracy and higher education.</p>
<p>Indeed, <a href="https://firstamendmentwatch.org/deep-dive/classes-are-over-but-the-campus-free-speech-debate-still-rages/">politicians in states</a> such as <a href="https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/23574019-dec-28-2022-memo?responsive=1&title=1">Florida</a>, <a href="https://www.texastribune.org/2019/05/17/texas-free-speech-college-campus-legislation/">Texas</a> and <a href="https://www.statenews.org/government-politics/2023-05-17/republican-bill-free-speech-college-campuses-passes-ohio-senate">Ohio</a> argue that a so-called “free speech crisis” on college campuses justifies stronger government control over what gets taught in universities. </p>
<p>Since 2020, numerous state legislatures have attempted to censor forms of speech on campuses by citing exaggerations about students and their studies. Passing laws to ban certain kinds of speech or ideas from college campuses is no way to promote true free speech and intellectual diversity. <a href="https://www.chronicle.com/article/here-are-the-states-where-lawmakers-are-seeking-to-ban-colleges-dei-efforts">The most common targets of such censorship</a> are programs that discuss race, gender, sexuality and other forms of multiculturalism.</p>
<p>My concerns over public discourse about higher education extend from <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/campus-misinformation-9780197531273?cc=us&lang=en&">my book</a> on popular misinformation about universities and why it threatens democracy. In it, I show that many negative perceptions of students and universities rest on factual distortions and exaggerations.</p>
<p>The character of public debates about higher education is important. Millions of Americans rely on a healthy system of university education for professional and personal success. Rampant cynicism about higher education, leading to <a href="https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2022/07/26/public-support-higher-education-wobbling">declines in public support</a> for it, only undermines their pursuits.</p>
<p>Based on my research, I offer alternative ways to frame debates about higher education. They can lead to discussions that are more constructive and accurate while better protecting fundamental American values such as free speech and democracy.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528663/original/file-20230526-28782-m9kgkc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A man in a dark suit standing at a lectern with the sign 'Florida, the education state' on it." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528663/original/file-20230526-28782-m9kgkc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528663/original/file-20230526-28782-m9kgkc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528663/original/file-20230526-28782-m9kgkc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528663/original/file-20230526-28782-m9kgkc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528663/original/file-20230526-28782-m9kgkc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528663/original/file-20230526-28782-m9kgkc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528663/original/file-20230526-28782-m9kgkc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">One bill signed in May 2023 by Florida Gov. Ron DeSantis, center, includes restrictions that bar public colleges in Florida from spending money on diversity, equity and inclusion programs.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/florida-governor-ron-desantis-takes-questions-from-the-news-photo/1255657321?adppopup=true">Thomas Simonetti for The Washington Post via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>1. Avoid stereotypes about college students</h2>
<p>The idea that college students are hostile to opposing viewpoints is <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/03/the-myth-of-the-free-speech-crisis">false</a>. Pundits and media personalities have promoted this falsehood aggressively. Such figures <a href="https://www.gq.com/story/free-speech-grifting">have benefited</a>, politically or financially, from sensationalism about a college “free speech crisis.”</p>
<p>In opinion polls, college students typically <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2018/03/16/the-campus-free-speech-crisis-is-a-myth-here-are-the-facts/">express stronger support</a> for free speech and diverse viewpoints than other groups. Partisan organizations often <a href="https://reason.com/2017/03/15/students-at-elite-colleges-are-the-most/">cherry-pick</a> that data to make it seem otherwise. But poll results tell only part of the story about college campuses today.</p>
<p><a href="https://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=1122">Several thousand institutions</a> make up U.S. higher education. The system includes hundreds of thousands of students from different backgrounds. College campuses are often more demographically and intellectually diverse than surrounding communities.</p>
<p>Judgments about higher education based on sweeping generalizations about college students conflict with the full realities of campus life. A wider range of perspectives, including from students themselves, can enrich debates about university education.</p>
<h2>2. Consider all forums for free speech in universities</h2>
<p>Universities protect free speech <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2019/06/free-speech-crisis-campus-isnt-real/591394/">more effectively</a> than do other parts of society. They don’t do so perfectly, but more effectively.</p>
<p>Universities are major centers for the study of the First Amendment, the free press, human rights, cultural differences, international diplomacy, conflict resolution and more. Many institutions require students to take basic speech and writing courses that enhance their skill in argument and debate.</p>
<p><a href="https://newrepublic.com/article/142218/colleges-right-reject-hateful-speakers-like-ann-coulter">Manufactured outrage</a> about college students who protest invited speakers fuels sensationalism about free speech on campuses. Despite occasional disruptions over bigoted speakers, universities offer <a href="https://www.pennpress.org/9780812250077/free-speech-on-campus/">numerous forums for free speech</a>, open debate and intellectual diversity.</p>
<p>Just one large university holds thousands of classes, meetings, performances and other events on a daily basis. People freely express their views and pursue new ideas in those settings. Now multiply that reality by several thousand different institutions.</p>
<p>Debates over free speech in higher education can be improved by acknowledging the many forums in which people speak freely every day.</p>
<h2>3. Recognize the true threats to free speech on campuses</h2>
<p>For the past several years, many state legislatures have promoted the falsehood that universities are hostile to various ideas. The most commonly cited examples are conservative ideas, traditional expressions of patriotism and great works of Western literature.</p>
<p>The notion of hostility to such ideas on college campuses has surfaced in numerous bills that create <a href="https://www.aaup.org/article/political-interference-academic-freedom-and-free-speech-public-universities#.ZGY-waXMI2z">new forms of state interference</a> in education. Thirty-five <a href="https://www.chronicle.com/article/here-are-the-states-where-lawmakers-are-seeking-to-ban-colleges-dei-efforts">pieces of legislation</a> banning diversity, equity and inclusion programs in colleges have been introduced in state legislatures. So far, three of them have been signed into law, while four are pending final legislative approval.</p>
<p>Tenure for faculty members, which protects independent thought, is also <a href="https://apnews.com/article/politics-colleges-and-universities-florida-state-government-texas-education-4f0fe0c5c18ed227fabae3744e8ff51d">under assault</a> in states such as Florida and Texas. Politicians in those states justify ending tenure protections by claiming that professors teach students to censor free speech.</p>
<p>Such rising government interference creates a genuine threat to free speech on college campuses and in society beyond. <a href="https://thehill.com/changing-america/enrichment/arts-culture/3675842-banned-book-authors-say-new-wave-of-censorship-is-most-dangerous-yet/">A historic increase in state censorship</a>, which began with higher education, has spilled over into censorship of materials about race, gender, sexuality and multiculturalism in K-12 schools and public libraries.</p>
<p>Advocacy organizations like the <a href="https://www.the74million.org/article/the-aclus-fight-against-classroom-censorship-state-by-state/">ACLU</a> and the <a href="https://www.aaup.org/issues/political-interference-higher-ed">American Association of University Professors</a> have condemned this censorship. So have <a href="https://pen.org/conservatives-oppose-educational-gag-orders-too/">numerous conservative leaders</a>.</p>
<p>Informed scrutiny of university policies and what faculty members teach is always welcome. But cynical distortions have fueled anti-democratic censorship of universities, not constructive efforts to improve them.</p>
<h2>4. Understand the role of academic freedom</h2>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528665/original/file-20230526-11640-dg7men.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Many graduates in academic gowns walking past a huge crowd in a stadium." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528665/original/file-20230526-11640-dg7men.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528665/original/file-20230526-11640-dg7men.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=417&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528665/original/file-20230526-11640-dg7men.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=417&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528665/original/file-20230526-11640-dg7men.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=417&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528665/original/file-20230526-11640-dg7men.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=524&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528665/original/file-20230526-11640-dg7men.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=524&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528665/original/file-20230526-11640-dg7men.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=524&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Academic freedom isn’t a luxury found only in the Ivy League. It exists at community colleges such as Long Beach City College in California, whose June 9, 2022, graduation ceremony is seen here.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/long-beach-city-college-graduation-ceremony-allowed-news-photo/1402026204?adppopup=true">Brittany Murray/MediaNews Group/Long Beach Press-Telegram via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The ability of citizens to exercise academic freedom is not only vital in education. It’s also training for democracy.</p>
<p>Academic freedom includes the freedom to attend a university of one’s choice. The freedom to learn what one chooses in that university. The freedom of an institution to offer a wide range of subject matters to students. And the freedom to teach or conduct research without political interference.</p>
<p>These freedoms are not reserved for Ivy League universities. U.S. higher education includes state schools and <a href="https://educationusa.state.gov/your-5-steps-us-study/research-your-options/community-college">community colleges</a> that serve middle- and working-class communities. Those institutions are the backbone of many professions, from health care and technology to engineering and education.</p>
<p>The quality of public debate over free speech in higher education matters. Government interference with colleges does not punish elites. It rewards deeply cynical views of higher education and restricts a freedom that should be available to all Americans.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/205813/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bradford Vivian does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The quality of public debate over free speech in higher education matters. And the debate right now gets the facts all wrong.Bradford Vivian, Professor of Communication Arts and Sciences, Penn StateLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2065622023-06-02T14:46:14Z2023-06-02T14:46:14ZFlorida ‘freakishness’: why the sunshine state might have lost its appeal<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529789/original/file-20230602-15-p8li4i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Florida's Clearwater Beach.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Viaval Tours/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Florida is known worldwide for its beaches, resorts and theme parks, but has recently made headlines for a different reason. The state has been rocked by political controversies, bitter debates and <a href="https://eu.theledger.com/story/news/crime/2023/01/31/florida-mass-shootings-lakeland-fl-2023/69857845007/">fatal shootings</a> at odds with its previously laid back holiday destination image.</p>
<p>In his 1947 book, Inside USA, writer John Gunther <a href="https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2023/05/24/ron-desantis-florida-man-curse-00098444">described</a> Florida’s “freakishness in everything from architecture to social behaviour unmatched in any American state”. If Gunther had been writing today, he might be just as judgemental. </p>
<p>Florida’s recent political turmoil can be attributed to some highly contentious policies. The state has witnessed heated debates and legislative battles on issues including abortion, gun control, education, LGBTQ+ rights and voting rights. </p>
<p>Florida has been derided as “the worst state” in which <a href="https://www.thrillist.com/travel/nation/ranking-the-united-states-of-america-from-best-to-worst">to live</a>, one of the worst in which <a href="https://moneyinc.com/worst-states-to-live-in-america/">to be unemployed</a> or a student, and not a good place to <a href="https://espnswfl.com/listicle/florida-is-the-worst-state-in-the-country-to-die/">die</a>. </p>
<p>Even Donald Trump, who moved to his Florida Mar-a-Lago home during his presidency, has <a href="https://thehill.com/homenews/campaign/3963585-trump-throws-new-insults-at-the-state-of-florida-in-new-attack-on-desantis/#:%7E:text=In%20his%20latest%20series%20of,affordable%20states%20to%20live%20in.">called</a> it “among the worst states” to live in or retire to. This was an attack on Florida governor Ron DeSantis, who is also running for the Republican presidential nomination.</p>
<p>What was once considered by many to be a purple state – one that could either be Republican or Democrat – is now <a href="https://www.npr.org/2022/11/10/1135856131/how-florida-a-one-time-swing-state-turned-red">fiercely Republican</a>. In recent years, the divide between those of <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0002764218759576">different political beliefs</a> has become toxic.</p>
<h2>Importance of international image</h2>
<p>International tourism and trade is huge business for Florida. In 2022, more than <a href="https://www.flgov.com/2023/04/28/governor-ron-desantis-meets-with-united-kingdom-secretary-of-state-for-business-and-trade-kemi-badenoch/">1.1 million people visited Florida from the UK</a>, the second largest group of international visitors on an annual basis. The UK is also Florida’s eighth largest trade partner with bilateral trade reaching $5.8 billion (£4.6 billion) in 2022. So state leaders might worry about tarnishing its image abroad.</p>
<p>Business leaders are already fretting about a fall in <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/miami/news/florida-grappling-with-lag-in-international-tourism/">international visitor numbers</a> linked to COVID and negative media coverage of the state. Around US$50 million was invested in marketing the state to tourists in 2023, this is expected to rise dramatically in 2024. The state’s ability to attract workers to keep its tourism and other industries going is weakening, reports suggest. </p>
<p>Heather DiGiacomo, chief of staff at the Florida Department of Juvenile Justice, <a href="https://floridapolitics.com/archives/487868-thats-a-problem-florida-state-agencies-challenged-with-lack-of-job-applicants-struggle-to-retain-low-wage-workers/">told</a> Florida senators that applications for jobs at state-run agencies were down and staff retention was down too. “These turnover rates … impacts the number of well-trained staff available to mentor new staff and puts additional strain on current staff without longer shifts in detention.”</p>
<p>Republican governor Ron DeSantis, now <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2023/05/24/politics/cnn-poll-republican-primary-field/index.html">a presidential candidate</a>, has been at the centre of Florida’s significant political divisions. The Republican state legislature’s controversial partisan bills, such as the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/ng-interactive/2022/apr/20/ron-desantis-florida-electoral-map-gerrymandering-republican-advantage">recent</a> redrawing of the electoral map to benefit the Republican party, was signed into law despite intense opposition.</p>
<p>While his conservative <a href="https://apnews.com/article/desantis-laws-2024-president-election-abortion-florida-668ae3101e3d7d7f61dd9925b419ee6e">policies</a> on <a href="https://www.flgov.com/2023/02/08/governor-ron-desantis-highlights-plan-to-provide-a-historic-2-billion-in-tax-relief-for-florida-families/">taxes</a>, regulation and <a href="https://flgov.com/2023/05/10/governor-ron-desantis-signs-strongest-anti-illegal-immigration-legislation-in-the-country-to-combat-bidens-border-crisis/#:%7E:text=Signs%20One%20Bill-,Governor%20Ron%20DeSantis%20Signs%20Strongest%20Anti%2DIllegal%20Immigration%20Legislation%20in,to%20Combat%20Biden's%20Border%20Crisis&text=JACKSONVILLE%2C%20Fla.,federal%20government's%20reckless%20border%20policies.">immigration</a> have won strong support from conservatives, critics <a href="https://eu.tallahassee.com/story/news/politics/2023/05/19/ron-desantis-stances-presidential-campaign-disney-lgbtq-woke-book-bans/70009493007/">argue</a> that he prioritises partisan politics over the needs of all Floridians. His outspoken handling of the COVID pandemic sparked controversy, with accusations of <a href="https://thehill.com/homenews/3840143-desantiss-record-on-covid-19-heres-what-he-said-and-did/">downplaying</a> the severity of the virus and prioritising economic interests. </p>
<p>Florida’s restrictive abortion laws have also attracted national and international attention. In April 2023, the state passed <a href="https://www.foxnews.com/media/florida-legislature-passes-six-week-heartbeat-bill-limit-abortion">the foetal heartbeat bill</a>, which prohibits abortions once a foetal heartbeat is detected, typically at around six weeks gestation. This law has faced significant <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2023/apr/13/florida-democrat-lauren-book-fight-six-week-abortion-ban">backlash</a> from reproductive rights advocates, who argue that many individuals may not even be aware of their pregnancy at such an early stage.</p>
<h2>School shootings and gun laws</h2>
<p>The Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School Public Safety Act was passed into Florida state law after the <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/police-respond-shooting-parkland-florida-high-school-n848101">Parkland school shooting</a> in 2018, in which 17 people were killed. It raised the age for a firearm purchase from 18 to 21 and allowed schools to employ armed “guardians”. Critics <a href="https://www.latimes.com/nation/la-na-florida-gun-control-20180305-story.html">argued</a> that it fell short of addressing the root causes of gun violence in Florida. </p>
<p>There were <a href="https://eu.theledger.com/story/news/crime/2023/01/31/florida-mass-shootings-lakeland-fl-2023/69857845007/">seven mass shootings</a> in Florida in the first two months of 2023. Despite this, the state has just <a href="https://apnews.com/article/guns-desantis-florida-government-ac7adbc200cc4c1bb429ea84357f73be">passed a law</a> that will come into effect on July 1 that will allow anyone who can legally own a gun in Florida to carry one without the need for a permit. </p>
<p>Florida’s partisan divide has been exacerbated by the introduction and passage of several laws that discriminate against the LGBTQ+ community. These laws cover areas including adoption, education, and transgender rights.</p>
<p>This year a massive LGBTQ event in a Florida theme park, which typically attracts 150,000 people, is taking out extra security measures, after new <a href="https://www.npr.org/2022/03/28/1089221657/dont-say-gay-florida-desantis">“don’t say gay” state laws</a> were introduced in 2022. These rules ban teachers from discussing topics including sexual orientation. More generally, travel <a href="https://www.eqfl.org/updated-travel-advisory-HRC">advisory warnings</a> have been issued on the risks of travel to the state for LGBTQ+, African American and Latino people. A recent <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/made-by-history/2023/05/15/conversion-therapy-political-history/">federal ruling</a> overturned municipal bans on conversion therapy.</p>
<p>Although the “don’t say gay” bill was originally only aimed at third grade students and under, the bill has since been <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2023/apr/19/florida-education-board-approves-expansion-dont-say-gay-bill">extended</a> by Florida’s Board of Education to apply to all school pupils.</p>
<p>DeSantis has also become embroiled in a long legal and political <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/us-politics/disney-vs-desantis-feud-florida-b2346425.html">battle</a> with the Walt Disney Company, a major state employer, over the “don’t say gay” legislation. Disney recently announced it was cancelling a US$1 billion office complex project in the state. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.npr.org/2021/06/02/1002405412/on-the-first-day-of-pride-month-florida-signed-a-transgender-athlete-bill-into-l">Bills</a> that restrict transgender students’ participation in school sports teams consistent with their gender identity have also sparked <a href="https://news.wfsu.org/state-news/2023-01-09/a-federal-judge-has-reopened-the-fight-over-floridas-transgender-athlete-law">heated debate</a>.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, changes in voting laws brought in by the state, including stricter identification requirements and limitations on the drop boxes where voters can leave mail-in ballots, have been <a href="https://www.brennancenter.org/our-work/analysis-opinion/florida-changes-law-boost-unjust-voter-fraud-prosecutions">criticised</a> for making it more difficult for some people to vote.</p>
<p>Florida’s recent political turmoil has thrust the state into the national, and global, spotlight. Its deeply partisan divide, controversial policies and gun laws have created a toxic political climate, which has the ability to significantly damage the sunshine state’s appeal.</p>
<p><em>This article previously stated that the Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School Public Safety Act did not introduce restrictions on the purchase of firearms or background checks. It has been amended to clarify that the act raised the age restriction of purchases to 21.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/206562/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dafydd Townley does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Florida’s image as a safe sun and theme park destination may be threatened by recent political divisions and gun crime.Dafydd Townley, Teaching Fellow in International Security, University of PortsmouthLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2059852023-05-28T11:32:31Z2023-05-28T11:32:31ZAs teams from the U.S. Sun Belt proceed to the Stanley Cup finals, has the NHL forgotten its Canadian fans?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528121/original/file-20230524-7504-oejtzw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C62%2C3772%2C2445&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Vegas Golden Knights defenseman Nicolas Hague celebrates after scoring against the Edmonton Oilers during Game 5 of an NHL hockey Stanley Cup second-round playoff series on May 12 in Las Vegas.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/John Locher)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/as-teams-from-the-u-s--sun-belt-proceed-to-the-stanley-cup-finals--has-the-nhl-forgotten-its-canadian-fans" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Hockey is supposed to be Canada’s game. Yet the last two Canadian-based NHL teams in the Stanley Cup playoffs, the <a href="https://toronto.ctvnews.ca/maple-leafs-eliminated-from-playoffs-after-3-2-loss-against-panthers-1.6396932">Toronto Maple Leafs</a> and the <a href="https://www.nhl.com/news/edmonton-oilers-eliminated-in-second-round-by-golden-knights/c-344396382">Edmonton Oilers</a>, have been eliminated from the tournament. This lengthens the <a href="https://www.sportsnet.ca/nhl/article/canadas-stanley-cup-drought-hits-30-years-after-golden-knights-oust-oilers/">three-decade drought</a> since a Canadian team won the Stanley Cup. </p>
<p>The Vegas Golden Knights, Dallas Stars, Florida Panthers, and Carolina Hurricanes made it to the final four teams vying for the Stanley Cup. <a href="https://www.nbcsandiego.com/news/sports/nhls-final-four-comprised-of-only-sun-belt-teams-for-first-time/3229451/">For the first time in NHL history</a>, the final four are located in the U.S. Sun Belt in places Canadian snowbirds usually go to escape the snow and ice, not play on it.</p>
<p>The Florida Panthers will play against the winner of the Western Conference Final for the Stanley Cup.</p>
<p>What does the success of these teams mean for the NHL? And should Canadian hockey fans be frustrated with the success of non-traditional hockey markets at the expense of Canadian teams?</p>
<h2>The NHL expands southward</h2>
<p>The fact that the final four teams are from non-traditional markets in the United States represents a success for the NHL’s Sun Belt expansion strategy. The plan was to seek new revenue by expanding the game to large U.S. cities with no hockey history. </p>
<p>NHL superstar <a href="https://www.nhl.com/news/gretzky-trade-to-los-angeles-shocked-hockey-world/c-679887">Wayne Gretzky’s 1988 trade to Los Angeles</a> was the perfect catalyst to start the expansion strategy. <a href="https://www.nhl.com/news/nhl-expansion-history/c-281005106">The addition of the San Jose Sharks in 1991</a> as an inter-state rival to Gretzky’s Kings began this process. Next were new teams in Tampa Bay, Miami and Anaheim. The Winnipeg Jets moved to Phoenix, and the Hartford Whalers to North Carolina. </p>
<p>Additional NHL teams were added in Nashville, Atlanta (since moved to Winnipeg) and Columbus, Ohio. The NHL targeted these unlikely destinations while ignoring Canadian markets like Québec City and Hamilton despite <a href="https://mowatcentre.munkschool.utoronto.ca/the-new-economics-of-the-nhl/">research suggesting Canada could support more franchises</a>. The team in Minnesota was moved to Dallas, and an expansion team was added in Las Vegas, resulting in more teams being based in the U.S. Sun Belt than Canada.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528122/original/file-20230524-27-7d3729.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Disappointed men in blue hockey jerseys stand in an ice rink." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528122/original/file-20230524-27-7d3729.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528122/original/file-20230524-27-7d3729.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528122/original/file-20230524-27-7d3729.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528122/original/file-20230524-27-7d3729.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528122/original/file-20230524-27-7d3729.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528122/original/file-20230524-27-7d3729.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528122/original/file-20230524-27-7d3729.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Toronto Maple Leafs captain John Tavares and teammates react after losing to the Florida Panthers in an NHL Stanley Cup playoff game in Toronto on May 12.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Chris Young</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Sun Belt expansion strategy was not without its <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/sports/hockey/bettmans-sunbelt-strategy-hits-a-rut/article1198429/">problems</a>, and some argued that strong markets in Canada and elsewhere had to <a href="https://mowatcentre.munkschool.utoronto.ca/wp-content/uploads/publications/19_the_new_economics_of_the_nhl.pdf">subsidize</a> some of the weaker expansion teams. However, most of these new teams have <a href="https://www.sportsbusinessjournal.com/Journal/Issues/2017/01/23/Franchises/Sun-Belt.aspx">achieved success</a>. </p>
<p>Since 1993 — the last time a Canadian-based team won the Stanley Cup — Sun Belt teams have won eight times, while Canadian-based teams have lost in the finals on six occasions. Four losses were at the hands of Sun Belt teams: in 2004 Calgary lost to Tampa Bay, the Carolina Hurricanes beat the Edmonton Oilers in 2006, Anaheim defeated Ottawa the following year and most recently Tampa Bay beat Montréal in 2021.</p>
<h2>Canadian hockey vs. the Sun Belt</h2>
<p>Many Canadians might feel frustrated this year with four unconventional hockey markets left to compete for the Stanley Cup. Disappointment might be made worse by comparing the four U.S. cities left in the playoffs with traditionally hockey-crazy markets like Toronto or Edmonton. </p>
<p>Texas, North Carolina, Nevada and Florida have a combined population of 65 million people — almost ten times the combined population of Edmonton and the Greater Toronto Area (GTA). But according to <a href="https://www.usahockey.com/membershipstats">2022 USA Hockey registration reports</a>, those four states have less than 50,000 players in organized hockey.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, the GTA alone <a href="https://gthlcanada.com/about-gthl/">has more players</a> in hockey. Edmonton, a city of one million people, had <a href="https://www.hockeyedmonton.ca/content/quikcard-edmonton-minor-hockey-week-2023">10,000 kids participate</a> in a single minor hockey tournament last year.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528126/original/file-20230524-23-z0j3jo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A man in a green hockey jersey shoots a puck toward a goaltender in a white jersey." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528126/original/file-20230524-23-z0j3jo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528126/original/file-20230524-23-z0j3jo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528126/original/file-20230524-23-z0j3jo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528126/original/file-20230524-23-z0j3jo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528126/original/file-20230524-23-z0j3jo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528126/original/file-20230524-23-z0j3jo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528126/original/file-20230524-23-z0j3jo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Vegas Golden Knights goaltender Adin Hill blocks a shot by Dallas Stars defenseman Joel Hanley during Game 3 of the NHL Stanley Cup Western Conference finals in Dallas on May 23.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/LM Otero)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Perhaps there are fewer players in the U.S. states because of the dearth of hockey rinks. <a href="http://sk8stuff.com/m_clubs.asp">Texas, North Carolina, Nevada and Florida have fewer than 75 rinks in total</a>. Meanwhile, the <a href="https://www.toronto.ca/explore-enjoy/recreation/skating-winter-sports/public-leisure-skating/#location=&lat=&lng=">GTA</a> and <a href="https://www.edmonton.ca/activities_parks_recreation/arenas">Edmonton</a> have more indoor rinks than each of the four U.S. states. </p>
<p>Fewer players and rinks undoubtedly contribute to the lack of NHL players produced in these four U.S. states. Only 22 players born in the four states have played more than 100 games in the NHL. This compares to the <a href="https://www.quanthockey.com/">347 players from the GTA and Edmonton</a>.</p>
<h2>Tickets and ratings</h2>
<p>It’s not surprising that there are more players and rinks in Canada, but what about fans? Three of the remaining teams in this year’s playoffs are in <a href="https://theathletic.com/3200274/2022/03/23/florida-panthers-remain-the-nhls-best-deal-for-fans-but-the-others-may-surprise-you/">the cheapest eight NHL markets for tickets</a>. That suggests demand is not driving up ticket prices in these non-traditional markets. Toronto has the league’s most expensive tickets, while small-market Edmonton has the 14th most expensive tickets. </p>
<p>While it is difficult to access television ratings for specific regions, we know that Canadians are hockey consumers. This year, the Toronto-Florida series averaged around <a href="https://brioux.tv/blog/2023/05/08/round-2-ratings-suggest-leaf-fans-just-cant-look/">3.5 million viewers in Canada</a> compared to <a href="https://twitter.com/Zone_NHL/status/1659209293315579911">1.378 million in the U.S.</a> meaning that, per capita, 22 times more Canadians watched the series.</p>
<p>The Vegas-Oilers series averaged <a href="https://mediaincanada.com/2023/05/02/ratings-up-4-for-first-round-of-stanley-cup-playoffs/">1.7 million viewers in Canada</a> compared to less than <a href="https://twitter.com/Zone_NHL/status/1659209293315579911">1.2 million in the U.S.</a> resulting in almost 13 times more Canadian viewers per capita.</p>
<p>Perhaps Canadians have a right to be disappointed with four non-traditional hockey markets left to battle for the Cup, particularly when comparing hockey culture between the two regions. But as the old adage in sports goes: just wait until next year.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/205985/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>John Valentine does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Should Canadian hockey fans be frustrated with the success of non-traditional hockey markets at the expense of Canadian teams?John Valentine, Associate Professor Health & Community Studies, MacEwan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2059452023-05-19T04:09:49Z2023-05-19T04:09:49ZPenguin Random House, PEN America, authors and parents sue Florida county for removing books on race and LGBTQ themes<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527152/original/file-20230519-25-ufh7u8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=5%2C5%2C3948%2C2626&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A banned books display in a US bookshop</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ted Shaffrey/AP</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>A new <a href="https://pen.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/1-Complaint.pdf">lawsuit</a> against a Florida school board marks a “first-of-its-kind challenge to <a href="https://pen.org/press-release/pen-america-files-lawsuit-against-florida-school-district-over-unconstitutional-book-bans/">unlawful censorship</a>”. </p>
<p>On May 17, the world’s largest English-language publisher, <a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/">Penguin Random House</a>, free-speech organisation <a href="https://pen.org/">PEN America</a>, five authors (including bestselling queer YA author <a href="https://www.textpublishing.com.au/books/two-boys-kissing">David Levithan</a>) and two parents joined forces. </p>
<p>Their lawsuit claims Florida’s Escambia County School Board has “<a href="https://pen.org/press-release/pen-america-files-lawsuit-against-florida-school-district-over-unconstitutional-book-bans/">unlawfully</a>” removed or restricted books about “race, racism and LGBTQ identities”, and those by non-white and/or LGBTQ authors. </p>
<p>“The School District and the School Board have done so based on their disagreement with the ideas expressed in those books,” reads the lawsuit.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527157/original/file-20230519-23-hgzees.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527157/original/file-20230519-23-hgzees.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527157/original/file-20230519-23-hgzees.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=928&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527157/original/file-20230519-23-hgzees.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=928&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527157/original/file-20230519-23-hgzees.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=928&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527157/original/file-20230519-23-hgzees.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1166&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527157/original/file-20230519-23-hgzees.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1166&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527157/original/file-20230519-23-hgzees.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1166&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">David Levithan’s Two Boys Kissing is one of the impacted books.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It argues the book removals (and/or restricted access to books), against the recommendations of the district review committee charged with evaluating book challenges, violate the <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/our-government/the-constitution/#:%7E:text=The%20First%20Amendment%20provides%20that,for%20a%20redress%20of%20grievances.">First Amendment</a>, which protects freedom of speech. It also argues school officials violated the Equal Protection clause of the <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2021/01/11/politics/14th-amendment-explainer/index.html">14th amendment</a>.</p>
<p>Nearly 200 books have been targeted in the district in the past year, according to <a href="https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1hv6Wtu55zY3t5bmbksY2ie7Q-L3zAQdjrtaFh4duLC4/edit#gid=0">publicly available information</a>. CNN <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2023/05/17/us/florida-escambia-county-school-district-book-bans-lawsuit/index.html">reports</a> that more than half of those titles have been placed under restricted access and require parental permission during the review process, and 16 books have been either removed from all libraries or made only available for certain grades.</p>
<p>The lawsuit asks for books to be returned to school library shelves, “where they belong”.</p>
<p>PEN America CEO Suzanne Nossel says the book removals are “a deliberate attempt to suppress diverse voices”.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/guess-what-mem-foxs-childrens-book-was-banned-in-florida-over-nudity-but-bathing-is-not-a-sexual-act-205657">Guess What? Mem Fox’s children's book was banned in Florida over 'nudity' – but bathing is not a sexual act</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>A history of underrepresentation</h2>
<p>Children’s books about people of colour have historically been disproportionately underrepresented across Western countries, including the UK and Australia. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527155/original/file-20230519-27-24y32n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527155/original/file-20230519-27-24y32n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527155/original/file-20230519-27-24y32n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=596&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527155/original/file-20230519-27-24y32n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=596&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527155/original/file-20230519-27-24y32n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=596&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527155/original/file-20230519-27-24y32n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=750&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527155/original/file-20230519-27-24y32n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=750&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527155/original/file-20230519-27-24y32n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=750&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<p>A <a href="https://clpe.org.uk/research/clpe-reflecting-realities-survey-ethnic-representation-within-uk-childrens-literature-0">UK survey</a> found that only ten percent of children’s books feature Black, Asian or minority ethnic characters, and just five percent have such a protagonist. This percentage shows a clear underrepresentation of children from minority ethnic backgrounds, who account for <a href="https://explore-education-statistics.service.gov.uk/find-statistics/school-pupils-and-their-characteristics">34.5 percent</a> of UK school children. </p>
<p>Similarly, <a href="https://theconversation.com/childrens-books-must-be-diverse-or-kids-will-grow-up-believing-white-is-superior-140736">Australian research</a> from 2020 shows “First Nations groups are commonly absent from children’s books.” As stated by researchers at Edith Cowan University:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>A world of children’s books dominated by white authors, white images and white male heroes, creates a sense of white superiority. This is harmful to the worldviews and identities of all children.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>This speaks to the idea of “windows and mirrors”, a term first coined by <a href="https://scenicregional.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Mirrors-Windows-and-Sliding-Glass-Doors.pdf">Dr Rudine Sims Bishop</a> in 1990, in reference to the lack of people of colour in children’s literature. Bishop argues children need both windows (the ability to see others) and mirrors (the ability to see themselves) in their books. She writes:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>When children cannot find themselves reflected in the books they read […] they learn a powerful lesson about how they are devalued in the society of which they are a part.</p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/childrens-books-must-be-diverse-or-kids-will-grow-up-believing-white-is-superior-140736">Children's books must be diverse, or kids will grow up believing white is superior</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Censoring LGBTQ themes</h2>
<p>Books by LGBTQ authors or covering LGBTQ themes have a long history of censorship. One of the first picture books to show same-sex parents, <a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/249466/heather-has-two-mommies-by-leslea-newman/">Heather Has Two Mommies</a>, has faced many challenges since its original publication in 1989. <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2015/03/24/living/feat-heather-has-two-mommies-leslea-newman/index.html">These include</a> protests, 42 attempts to remove the book from American schools and libraries, and even book burnings. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527158/original/file-20230519-22-939te3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527158/original/file-20230519-22-939te3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527158/original/file-20230519-22-939te3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=463&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527158/original/file-20230519-22-939te3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=463&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527158/original/file-20230519-22-939te3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=463&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527158/original/file-20230519-22-939te3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=582&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527158/original/file-20230519-22-939te3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=582&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527158/original/file-20230519-22-939te3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=582&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<p>More recently, the picture book <a href="https://www.simonandschuster.com/books/And-Tango-Makes-Three/Justin-Richardson/9781481446952">And Tango Makes Three</a>, which tells the true story of two male penguins who raise a chick together at Central Park Zoo, has met similar challenges. The book featured on the American Library Association’s <a href="https://www.ala.org/advocacy/bbooks/frequentlychallengedbooks/top10/archive">Top Ten Most Challenged Book List</a> eight times from 2006 to 2017 for depicting same-sex parents, and is “one of the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/2018/sep/23/from-pornography-to-winnie-the-pooh-juno-dawson-picks-books-that-were-banned">most challenged books</a> of all time”. </p>
<p>In Australia, the 2015 picture book <a href="https://captainhoney.com.au/portfolio_page/mummy-and-mumma-get-married/">Mummy and Mumma Get Married</a> was questioned over its “<a href="https://neoskosmos.com/en/2016/05/25/features/reactions-to-australias-first-childrens-picture-book-about-same-sex-marriage/">appropriateness</a>” for school libraries. Although seen by some as controversial, the book was largely positively received. However, some Catholic schools <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/feb/17/this-is-australias-first-picture-book-about-same-sex-parenting-why-did-it-take-so-long">refused donations</a> of the book to their school libraries.</p>
<p>Queer Australian YA author Will Kostakis’s latest novel, <a href="https://www.allenandunwin.com/browse/book/Will-Kostakis-We-Could-Be-Something-9781761180170/">We Could Be Something</a>, is a “part coming-out story”. He <a href="https://twitter.com/willkostakis/status/1659334042469408769">recently shared</a> that when visiting religious schools as an author, he’s sometimes cautioned not to talk about his work if staff haven’t read (and presumably vetted) it first. He believes there’s a link to the current US culture wars.</p>
<p>“We can feel smug about the fact we don’t have politicised school books in Australia, but this move to ‘protect’ kids from queerness is bleeding into Australia,” he told me.</p>
<p>“We see it in the threats and intimidation that has seen drag storytime events be cancelled. We see it in schools, where teacher librarians who build collections that feature books that speak to current teen experiences, some of them queer, fear that one parent who might complain about content.”</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527153/original/file-20230519-21-vpo3sl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527153/original/file-20230519-21-vpo3sl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527153/original/file-20230519-21-vpo3sl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527153/original/file-20230519-21-vpo3sl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527153/original/file-20230519-21-vpo3sl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527153/original/file-20230519-21-vpo3sl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527153/original/file-20230519-21-vpo3sl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527153/original/file-20230519-21-vpo3sl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Australian queer YA author Will Kostakis says this move to ‘protect’ kids from queerness is ‘bleeding into Australia’.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A recurring theme in response to Mummy and Mumma, as well as other LGBTQ books, is the idea children needed to be “taught” about same-sex parented families at a specific, appropriate age. </p>
<p>Conversely, heteronormative relationships are not seen as something that needs teaching, or left for discussion until a child is “old enough to understand”. Rather, as the default “norm”, heteronormativity is something children are exposed to from birth <a href="https://textjournal.scholasticahq.com/article/23707-out-of-sight-the-censoring-of-family-diversity-in-picture-books">without explanation</a>. </p>
<p>This “<a href="https://www.academia.edu/42880288/Resisting_Gentle_Bias_A_Critical_Content_Analysis_of_Family_Diversity_in_Picturebooks">heterosexism</a>” can prevent children with heterosexual parents from acknowledging – or understanding – that same sex parented families are “real” families.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/5-books-for-kids-and-teens-that-positively-portray-trans-and-gender-diverse-lives-202832">5 books for kids and teens that positively portray trans and gender-diverse lives</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Left and right argue against ‘indoctrination’</h2>
<p>According to research by PEN America, there has been a significant rise in educational gag orders and book bans in America in the past two years. <a href="https://pen.org/report/americas-censored-classrooms/">Gag orders</a> refer to state legislature restrictions on topics like “race, gender, American history and LGBTQ identities” being taught in schools. </p>
<p>Such restrictions have become law in 16 states, though 306 gag order bills have (so far) been introduced across 45 states. Meanwhile, 32 states (5,049 schools) currently have some form of book banning in place in school libraries. PEN America argues such censorship “imposes ideological control over the freedom to read, learn, and think”.</p>
<p>Conversely, Florida Governor Ron DeSantis claims reports of book banning in Florida are a “<a href="https://www.flgov.com/2023/03/08/governor-ron-desantis-debunks-book-ban-hoax/#:%7E:text=%E2%80%94%20Today%2C%20Governor%20Ron%20DeSantis%20further,History%2C%20including%20topics%20like%20slavery">leftist hoax</a>”. He argues the “mainstream media, unions and leftist activists” are trying to indoctrinate students, and that books with “pornographic content and other types of violent and age-inappropriate content” have been identified in 23 school districts across Florida. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527161/original/file-20230519-23-e904y9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527161/original/file-20230519-23-e904y9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527161/original/file-20230519-23-e904y9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527161/original/file-20230519-23-e904y9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527161/original/file-20230519-23-e904y9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527161/original/file-20230519-23-e904y9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527161/original/file-20230519-23-e904y9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527161/original/file-20230519-23-e904y9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ron De Santis has complained of book bannings as a ‘leftist hoax’.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Douglas R Clifford/AP</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In response to book banning allegations, he claims “harmful materials” are being removed from Florida schools to ensure students are provided with “a quality education free from sexualization”. </p>
<p>This is echoed by Florida Commissioner of Education, Manny Diaz Jr., <a href="https://www.flgov.com/2023/03/08/governor-ron-desantis-debunks-book-ban-hoax/">who said</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Education is about the pursuit of truth, not woke indoctrination […] Under Governor DeSantis, Florida is committed to rigorous academic content and high standards so that students learn how to think and receive the tools necessary to go forth and make great decisions.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>This directly contradicts the argument made by the lawsuit against Escambia County, which states:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Ensuring that students have access to books on a wide range of topics and expressing a diversity of viewpoints supports a core function of public education, preparing students to be thoughtful and engaged citizens.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>It appears both sides are fighting against indoctrination – but fundamentally disagree on what it is.</p>
<h2>What the research tells us</h2>
<p>Representation is vital in children’s literature. Restricting diverse voices and stories is an issue with far-reaching consequences. Research shows that a child’s ability to “see themselves” in books has a wealth of educational and emotional benefits. </p>
<p>It helps <a href="https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1929&context=reading_horizons">connect them</a> to the world, validates their <a href="https://www.proquest.com/docview/1437629608?pq-origsite=gscholar&fromopenview=true">personal experiences</a>, forges positive <a href="https://fisherpub.sjf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1315&context=education_ETD_masters">social connections</a> – and even helps them do better in <a href="https://fisherpub.sjf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1315&context=education_ETD_masters">school</a>. </p>
<p>As the World of Difference Institute <a href="https://www.proquest.com/docview/1437629608?pq-origsite=gscholar&fromopenview=true">explains</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Books are mirrors in which children can see themselves. When they are represented in the literature we read, they can see themselves as valuable and worthy of notice.</p>
</blockquote><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/205945/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sarah Mokrzycki does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Differences over what counts as indoctrination lie behind a first-of-its-kind lawsuit in Florida. PEN America’s CEO deems book removals ‘a deliberate attempt to suppress diverse voices’.Sarah Mokrzycki, Lecturer, children's literature and creative writing, Victoria UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2056572023-05-16T03:32:19Z2023-05-16T03:32:19ZGuess What? Mem Fox’s children’s book was banned in Florida over ‘nudity’ – but bathing is not a sexual act<p><em>EDITOR’S NOTE: Since this article was published, officials in Duval County, Florida, have <a href="https://amp.abc.net.au/article/102355360">denied</a> the book was formally banned. The book does not appear among the 21 books listed as “not approved” on the <a href="https://dcps.duvalschools.org/Page/33197">Duval County Public Schools website</a>. However, it does feature on a list of books reported as having been removed from school libraries, on the grounds that it contravened a <a href="https://www.flsenate.gov/Laws/Statutes/2022/847.012">state law</a> banning the distribution to children of material that “depicts nudity or sexual conduct”. The list, of which The Conversation has obtained a copy, was the result of a Florida Department of Education survey of school districts, as part of the state’s mandated review of school books. The Conversation acknowledges the work of the <a href="https://www.fftrp.org/">Florida Freedom to Read Project</a> in investigating this issue.</em></p>
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<p>Australian author Mem Fox’s 1988 picture book <a href="https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/1155071.Guess_What_?">Guess What?</a>, illustrated by Vivienne Goodman, has been banned in Duval County, Florida over allegations of “pornography”. Why? Because one illustration depicts the main character, “old witch” Daisy O'Grady, taking a bath.</p>
<p>The picture book, which invites children to guess Daisy’s witchy identity through a series of clues, joins a plethora of titles – mostly with LGBTQIA+ or culturally diverse themes – that have been removed from school libraries in the state. </p>
<p>Fox is one of Australia’s most beloved authors: her first book, <a href="https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/977817.Possum_Magic">Possum Magic</a>, is one of Australia’s bestselling ever children’s books, with sales of over four million (and counting). Her agent <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/2023/may/15/mem-fox-book-guess-what-banned-in-florida-county-under-ron-desantis-bill">told the Guardian</a>, “We have nothing to say on this issue. Duval County is a county of 997,000 people in Florida. It is not important.”</p>
<p>The banning comes on the heels of new legislation, enacted in 2022, that has seen many Florida schools strip their library shelves and cover up books in classroom libraries for fear of <a href="https://www.newyorker.com/news/letter-from-the-south/why-some-florida-schools-are-removing-books-from-their-libraries">breaching the law</a> – and <a href="https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/florida-schools-directed-cover-remove-classroom-books-vetted/story?id=96884323">risking a prison sentence</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526380/original/file-20230516-23-mz8xy2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526380/original/file-20230516-23-mz8xy2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526380/original/file-20230516-23-mz8xy2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526380/original/file-20230516-23-mz8xy2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526380/original/file-20230516-23-mz8xy2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526380/original/file-20230516-23-mz8xy2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526380/original/file-20230516-23-mz8xy2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526380/original/file-20230516-23-mz8xy2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ron De Santis has presided over new Florida legislation that seen many Florida schools strip their library shelves.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Douglas R. Clifford/Tampa Bay Times/AP</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>Under <a href="http://www.leg.state.fl.us/Statutes/index.cfm?App_mode=Display_Statute&URL=0800-0899/0847/Sections/0847.012.html">Section 847.012</a> of the Florida statutes, materials prohibited in schools include: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>Any picture […] or visual representation of a person or a portion of a human body which depicts nudity or sexual conduct, sexual excitement, sexual battery, bestiality, or sadomasochistic abuse and which is harmful to minors.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Failure to comply is a third-degree felony, which can carry a prison sentence of up to five years.</p>
<p>The full criteria can be found in the department’s <a href="https://www.fldoe.org/core/fileparse.php/20562/urlt/8-6.pdf">online training slideshow</a> but, simply put, all books must be age appropriate and “free of pornography”. However, what constitutes both “appropriate” and “pornography” – and how this is decided – remains unclear. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/teacher-sacked-for-reading-bum-book-to-students-the-latest-conservative-book-ban-179301">Teacher sacked for reading bum book to students: the latest conservative book ban</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<h2>Bodies are not ‘inherently sexual’</h2>
<p>So how exactly does Guess What? fit these parameters? </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526372/original/file-20230516-25-bribzy.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526372/original/file-20230516-25-bribzy.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526372/original/file-20230516-25-bribzy.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=799&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526372/original/file-20230516-25-bribzy.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=799&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526372/original/file-20230516-25-bribzy.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=799&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526372/original/file-20230516-25-bribzy.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1004&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526372/original/file-20230516-25-bribzy.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1004&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526372/original/file-20230516-25-bribzy.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1004&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Daisy O'Grady in the bath, as depicted in Guess What?.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Scholastic Australia</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In one illustration, Daisy sits across a double bowl sink (that she is comically too big to fit in) wearing a scuba mask. The bowls are filled with water, and she sits sideways in one with her feet splashing in the other. She is nude, but not exposed. Limbs cover her breasts and genitalia. The room is busy and pleasantly chaotic: soap on the floor, a frog on a towel, fish pegged to the clothesline that hangs over the sink. </p>
<p>It’s far from a sexual image. Unless you’re into that sort of thing. In which case, we are no longer talking about the “prevailing standards in the adult community”, but rather a personal sexual preference or “kink” (a word I never thought I would write in relation to a Mem Fox picture book). </p>
<p>What the issue comes down to is a blatant conflation between nudity and sexuality. The statute’s wording is highly problematic: nudity in and of itself is not a sexual act. Bathing is not a sexual act. It’s basic hygiene. By banning books with any form of nudity in a bid to rid school libraries of “<a href="https://www.flgov.com/2023/03/08/governor-ron-desantis-debunks-book-ban-hoax/">pornographic content</a>”, the statute situates all nudity as a form of pornography. </p>
<p>The irony, of course, is that by trying to shelter children from sex – and from material that “sexualises students” – the law itself is sexualising children’s bodies. By implying that nudity in a non-sexual context is “pornographic”, the Florida government and Department of Education is teaching children that their bodies are inherently sexual. </p>
<h2>Australian attempted book bans haven’t worked</h2>
<p>In some ways, this ban could be considered as an example of differing social standards between Australia and the United States. Earlier this year, Maia Kobabe’s graphic memoir <a href="https://www.goodreads.com/is/book/show/42837514-gender-queer">Gender Queer</a> was pulled from a Queensland library after complaints by a <a href="https://www.9news.com.au/national/maia-kobabe-gender-queer-book-classified-as-m-mature-not-recommended-for-readers-under-15-years/0c95bfdd-7bab-4763-bdfc-5e503227da36">conservative activist</a>. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526384/original/file-20230516-27-qrxl1.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526384/original/file-20230516-27-qrxl1.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526384/original/file-20230516-27-qrxl1.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=860&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526384/original/file-20230516-27-qrxl1.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=860&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526384/original/file-20230516-27-qrxl1.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=860&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526384/original/file-20230516-27-qrxl1.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1081&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526384/original/file-20230516-27-qrxl1.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1081&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526384/original/file-20230516-27-qrxl1.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1081&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<p>In the US, Gender Queer was 2021’s “<a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/05/01/books/maia-kobabe-gender-queer-book-ban.html">most banned book in the country</a>” and topped the American Library Association’s “<a href="https://www.ala.org/advocacy/bbooks/frequentlychallengedbooks/top10">Most Challenged</a>” list in 2022 for “<a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/essentials/banned-books-the-10-most-commonly-challenged-books-in-the-u-s-and-where-to-buy-them/">sexually explicit</a>” content.
However, after <a href="https://www.classification.gov.au/about-us/media-and-news/media-releases/media-release-classification-publication-gender-queer-memoir">review</a> here by the Australian Classification Board, the book was given an “unrestricted classification” and consumer advice that it is “not recommended for readers under 15 years”. </p>
<p>Australian Classification Board director Fiona Jolly said of Gender Queer: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>The treatment of sex and nudity is […] not high in impact and is not exploitative, offensive, gratuitous or very detailed. Given the [book’s] literary, artistic and educational merits, the Board does not consider that the publication contains material that offends a reasonable adult to the extent that it should be restricted.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>While Australian legislation <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-08-23/dangerous-and-deeply-disgusting-books-once-banned/11421108">still allows</a> books to be banned – and it does occur – book banning is much rarer here, and more likely to be <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-08-23/dangerous-and-deeply-disgusting-books-once-banned/11421108">focused on</a> topics like euthanasia and terrorism.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/even-the-word-period-is-now-politicised-that-makes-judy-blumes-classic-ode-to-puberty-especially-relevant-202640">Even the word 'period' is now politicised. That makes Judy Blume's classic ode to puberty especially relevant</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Book banning as a presidential tactic</h2>
<p>The surge of book banning in Florida appears to be political. As <a href="https://www.newyorker.com/news/letter-from-the-south/why-some-florida-schools-are-removing-books-from-their-libraries">The New Yorker</a> has noted, the Florida law changes – and subsequent mass book removals in schools – have come in the wake of Florida governor <a href="https://theconversation.com/florida-gov-desantis-leads-the-gops-national-charge-against-public-education-that-includes-lessons-on-race-and-sexual-orientation-196369">Ron DeSantis</a>’s <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/2024-election/ron-desantis-set-jump-2024-presidential-fray-may-rcna81666">bid</a> for the US presidency. </p>
<p>DeSantis, a highly <a href="https://www.flgov.com/2023/03/08/governor-ron-desantis-debunks-book-ban-hoax/">conservative</a> politician, is campaigning against “pornographic and inappropriate materials that have been snuck into [Florida] classrooms and libraries to <a href="https://theconversation.com/worried-about-the-sexualisation-of-children-teach-sex-ed-earlier-10311">sexualize</a> our students”. This crusade has given him considerable media coverage, as well as leverage among conservative voters.</p>
<p>The banning of Guess What? is part of a wider issue that affects the entire state of Florida. In order to comply with government requirements spearheaded by DeSantis, the Florida Department of Education has put together strict, somewhat “<a href="https://www.edweek.org/teaching-learning/theres-confusion-over-book-bans-in-florida-schools-heres-why/2023/03">confusing</a>” criteria for book selection that all schools must follow. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/ss3pVTRwEqI?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">This official video by Duval County, Florida, is a guide to ensuring books are ‘age-appropriate’ and ‘free of pornography’.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Prison for violating book removal law</h2>
<p>Of course, Guess What? – and countless other banned books – do not actually fit the requirements for removal, but they are removed regardless. This is because the law is <a href="https://www.edweek.org/teaching-learning/theres-confusion-over-book-bans-in-florida-schools-heres-why/2023/03">vague</a> and the penalty for violating it – a potential prison sentence – is severe. </p>
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<p>The Department of Education in Florid has instructed schools to “<a href="https://www.newyorker.com/news/letter-from-the-south/why-some-florida-schools-are-removing-books-from-their-libraries">err on the side of caution</a>” when choosing and allowing books. </p>
<p>Understandably, the ambiguity over what is and isn’t okay has led to mass book removals across Florida schools. </p>
<p>The restrictions in Florida are part of a “<a href="https://pen.org/report/banned-usa-growing-movement-to-censor-books-in-schools/">deeply undemocratic</a>” book ban movement sweeping the US. </p>
<p>According to a <a href="https://pen.org/report/banned-usa-growing-movement-to-censor-books-in-schools/">2022 study</a> by PEN America, 32 states in the US have book bans in place in school libraries. This has culminated (so far) in 1,648 titles being removed across 5,049 schools, limiting access to books for nearly four million students.</p>
<p>Thankfully, Australia’s reading culture is very different, as the unsuccessful attempt to ban Gender Queer demonstrates.</p>
<p>But Guess What? is just one drop in an ocean of book censorship in America: one that’s seeing more and more schools, districts and states in the US removing and banning books. This is not an isolated problem, but one that is growing exponentially. </p>
<p>Which books will be next?</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/205657/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sarah Mokrzycki does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Book bans in Ron DeSantis’s Florida have censored beloved Australian author Mem Fox – for an illustrated character’s bath. But blanket nudity bans teach children bodies are ‘inherently sexual’.Sarah Mokrzycki, Lecturer, Victoria UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.