tag:theconversation.com,2011:/uk/topics/foxes-3404/articlesFoxes – The Conversation2024-02-29T19:06:40Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2233522024-02-29T19:06:40Z2024-02-29T19:06:40ZBaiting foxes can make feral cats even more ‘brazen’, study of 1.5 million forest photos shows<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575214/original/file-20240213-18-92wlnn.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=6%2C659%2C2035%2C830&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Matthew Rees</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Foxes and cats kill about <a href="https://theconversation.com/1-7-million-foxes-300-million-native-animals-killed-every-year-now-we-know-the-damage-foxes-wreak-177832">2.6 billion mammals, birds and reptiles</a> across Australia, every year. To save native species from extinction, we need to protect them from these introduced predators. But land managers tend to focus on foxes, which are easier to control. Unfortunately this may have unintended consequences. </p>
<p>We wanted to find out how feral cats respond to fox control. In one of the biggest studies on this issue to date, we worked with land managers to set up 3,667 survey cameras in a series of controlled experiments. We studied the effects on cat behaviour and population density. </p>
<p>Our research shows feral cats are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.14402">more abundant</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/oik.09849">more brazen</a> after <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-023-03200-6">foxes are suppressed</a>. </p>
<p>In some regions, cats need to be managed alongside foxes to protect native wildlife.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">This camera trap captured a wide variety of animals, not just cats and foxes, in the Otway Ranges, 2019 (Matthew Rees)</span></figcaption>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/1-7-million-foxes-300-million-native-animals-killed-every-year-now-we-know-the-damage-foxes-wreak-177832">1.7 million foxes, 300 million native animals killed every year: now we know the damage foxes wreak</a>
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<h2>Could feral cats benefit from fox control?</h2>
<p>Foxes and cats were brought to Australia by European colonisers more than 170 years ago. They now coexist across much of the mainland. </p>
<p>While foxes are bigger than cats, they <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/ddi.13497">compete for many of the same prey species</a>.</p>
<p>But most wildlife conservation programs in southern Australia only control foxes. That’s largely because controlling foxes is relatively straightforward. Foxes are scavengers and readily take poison baits. Feral cats, on the other hand, prefer live prey. So they’re much more difficult to control using baits. </p>
<p>Consequently, foxes have become the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1071/WR05102">most widely controlled</a> invasive predator in Australia, while feral cat control has been relatively localised. </p>
<p>Some native species have thrived following fox control or eradication, but others have continued to decline. For example, one study found numbers of common brushtail possums, Western quolls and Tammar wallabies increased following fox control in southwest Western Australia. However, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/jmammal/gyw237">seven other species crashed</a>: dunnarts, woylies, southern brown bandicoots, western ringtail possums, bush rats, brush-tailed phascogales and western brush wallabies.</p>
<p>People suspected controlling foxes could inadvertently free feral cats from competition and aggression, particularly if there were no dingoes around. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575489/original/file-20240213-26-kdcf3g.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An image of a red fox from a camera trap in the study." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575489/original/file-20240213-26-kdcf3g.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575489/original/file-20240213-26-kdcf3g.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575489/original/file-20240213-26-kdcf3g.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575489/original/file-20240213-26-kdcf3g.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575489/original/file-20240213-26-kdcf3g.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575489/original/file-20240213-26-kdcf3g.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575489/original/file-20240213-26-kdcf3g.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Foxes devastate native wildlife, but may also suppress feral cats.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Matthew Rees</span></span>
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<h2>Experimenting with fox control</h2>
<p>To investigate how cats respond to fox control programs, we worked with land managers to run two large experiments in southwest Victoria. Foxes are the top predator in these forests and woodlands, because dingoes have already been removed.</p>
<p>We studied cat behaviour and population density before and after fox control in the Otway Ranges. In a separate study, we compared conservation reserves with and without fox control in the Glenelg region.</p>
<p>We put out 3,667 survey cameras over seven years. The cameras photograph animals as they walk by, allowing us to analyse where and when invasive predators and native mammals are active. </p>
<p>From these photographs, we were also able to identify individual feral cats based on their unique coat markings.</p>
<p>When multiple photographs of one cat were taken by several different cameras, we could track their movement. Combining information on the tracks of all the cats in an area allowed us to estimate cat population density. </p>
<p>It was a painstaking process. We went through almost 1.5 million images manually to check for animals, eliminate false triggers and identify individual cats. </p>
<p>Future research is exploring using <a href="https://pursuit.unimelb.edu.au/articles/when-one-feral-cat-just-isn-t-another-feral-cat">artificial intelligence to streamline the process</a>, but the computer still needs to be taught what to look for. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575496/original/file-20240214-24-k52l5u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A grid of six different still images from camera traps showing a variety of different feral cats" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575496/original/file-20240214-24-k52l5u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575496/original/file-20240214-24-k52l5u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575496/original/file-20240214-24-k52l5u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575496/original/file-20240214-24-k52l5u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575496/original/file-20240214-24-k52l5u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=636&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575496/original/file-20240214-24-k52l5u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=636&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575496/original/file-20240214-24-k52l5u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=636&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">We identified 160 different feral cats across two fox control programs in south-west Victoria.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Matthew Rees</span></span>
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<h2>What we found</h2>
<p>We found <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-023-03200-6">sustained, intensive baiting for foxes</a> worked. Areas with more poison baits had fewer foxes. Replacing baits regularly was also worthwhile. </p>
<p>Feral cat density was generally <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.14402">higher in areas with fox control</a>. The strength of this effect varied with the extent and duration of fox management. We found up to 3.7 times as many cats in fox-baited landscapes.</p>
<p>Productive landscapes also supported more cats. There was about <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320719312674">one feral cat per square kilometre in wet forests</a>, compared with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.14402">less than half as many in dry forests</a>. </p>
<p>Feral cat behaviour also varied with fox control and forest type, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.14402">including how visible cats were, how far they moved</a>, and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/oik.09849">what times of day they were active</a>. </p>
<p>Feral cats appeared more adventurous where fox populations were suppressed. In dry forests, for example, foxes were largely nocturnal, as were most native mammals. Feral cats became more active at night when there were fewer foxes, potentially giving them access to different prey species.</p>
<p>We found some threatened species, such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-023-03200-6">long-nosed potoroos, were doing much better</a> in areas with long-term fox control, although others, such as southern brown bandicoots, showed no improvement. </p>
<p>We don’t know how fox control affected smaller native rodents and marsupials, which are likely to be <a href="https://theconversation.com/1-7-million-foxes-300-million-native-animals-killed-every-year-now-we-know-the-damage-foxes-wreak-177832">most at risk from increased cat predation</a>. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575862/original/file-20240215-28-zi11ud.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Camera trap image of one of the feral cats" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575862/original/file-20240215-28-zi11ud.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575862/original/file-20240215-28-zi11ud.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575862/original/file-20240215-28-zi11ud.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575862/original/file-20240215-28-zi11ud.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575862/original/file-20240215-28-zi11ud.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575862/original/file-20240215-28-zi11ud.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575862/original/file-20240215-28-zi11ud.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Areas where foxes were controlled had more feral cats. They also tended to be behave differently.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Matthew Rees</span></span>
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<h2>A conservation balancing act</h2>
<p>Broad-scale fox control is an important tool in the ongoing battle to protect Australia’s wildlife. Fox baiting is relatively simple and effective. But we have to balance the known benefits of fox control against potential unintended consequences. </p>
<p>Our study reinforces the need to carefully consider what could happen if you only control one pest animal, and to monitor carefully rather than assume that fox control will benefit all native species. We are not saying people should stop fox baiting, because there are clear benefits to species such as long-nosed potoroos. But we need to keep an eye on the cats and might need to also manage their impacts on native prey. </p>
<p>As feral cats are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2014.09.010">notoriously difficult to control lethally</a>, indirect management may also be helpful. For example, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0133915">promoting dense understorey vegetation for native prey to hide in</a> or removing other sources of food that boost cat numbers such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-019-02131-5">pest rabbits</a>. </p>
<p>Integrated pest management is challenging and expensive but likely needed, especially where feral cats or other pests are thriving alongside foxes.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/10-year-feral-cat-plan-brings-us-a-step-closer-to-properly-protecting-endangered-wildlife-212976">10-year feral cat plan brings us a step closer to properly protecting endangered wildlife</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223352/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Matthew Rees receives funding from the Australian Government, Parks Victoria, Victorian Government Department of Energy, Environment and Climate Action, University of Melbourne, Holsworth Wildlife Research Endowment, Conservation Ecology Centre and the Grains Research and Development Corporation. He is affiliated with the Queensland Conservation Council. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bronwyn Hradsky receives funding from the Australian Research Council, the Victorian Government Department of Energy, Enviroment and Climate Action, Parks Victoria and Zoos Victoria. She is a member of the Australian Wildlife Management Society and volunteers with Mange Management </span></em></p>We analysed photos of predators and prey from 3,667 camera traps in southwest Victoria. We found feral cats were more abundant and behaved differently in areas where foxes were baited.Matthew Rees, Postdoctoral Research Fellow, CSIROBronwyn Hradsky, Research Fellow in Ecology, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2233572024-02-26T03:17:26Z2024-02-26T03:17:26ZOur native animals are easy prey after a fire. Could artificial refuges save them?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577816/original/file-20240226-24-d5noma.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=80%2C187%2C1816%2C1348&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A tawny-crowned honeyeater in an artificial refuge</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australia is home to some of the most spectacular and enigmatic wildlife on Earth. Much of it, however, is being eaten by two incredibly damaging invasive predators: the feral cat and the red fox. </p>
<p>Each year in Australia, cats and foxes kill an estimated 697 million reptiles, 510 million birds, and 1.4 billion mammals, totalling a staggering <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/ddi.13497">2.6 billion</a> animals. Since the predators were introduced more than 150 years ago, they have contributed to the extinction of more than 25 species – and are pushing <a href="https://researchers.cdu.edu.au/en/publications/degrees-of-population-level-susceptibility-of-australian-terrestr">many more to the brink</a>.</p>
<p>Research suggests cats and foxes can be <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s42408-023-00183-6">more active in areas</a> recently burnt by fire. This is a real concern, especially as climate change increases the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-020-00065-8">frequency and severity of fire</a> in south-eastern Australia.</p>
<p>We urgently need new ways to protect wildlife after fires. Our <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2024.110501">study</a> trialled one such tool: building artificial refuges across burnt landscapes. The results are promising, but researchers need to find out more.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Video showing a buttonquail using an artificial refuge built by the researchers.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Triple threat: cats, foxes and fire</h2>
<p>Many native animals are <a href="https://theconversation.com/surprisingly-few-animals-die-in-wildfires-and-that-means-we-can-help-more-in-the-aftermath-174392">well-adapted to fire</a>. But the changing frequency and intensity of fire is posing a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12905">considerable threat</a> to much of Australia’s wildlife.</p>
<p>Fire removes vegetation such as grass, leaf litter and shrubs. This leaves fewer places for native animals to shelter and hide, making it <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/srep22559">easier</a> for cats and foxes to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12853">catch them</a>. </p>
<p>We conducted <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2024.110501">our experiment</a> in three Australian ecosystems: the forests of the Otway Ranges (Victoria), the sand dunes of the Simpson Desert (Queensland) and the woodlands of Kangaroo Island (South Australia). Each had recently been burnt by fire. </p>
<p>We built 76 refuges across these study areas. They were 90cm wide and up to 50m long – and backbreaking to install! They were made from wire mesh, mostly covered by shade cloth. Spacing in the mesh of 50mm allowed small animals to enter and exit from any point, while completely excluding cats, foxes and other larger animals. The shade cloth obstructed the vision of predators.</p>
<p>We then placed <a href="https://nesplandscapes.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/5.2.4_a_guide_to_use_of_remote_cameras_for_wildlife_surveys_final_web.pdf">remote-sensing camera traps</a> both inside and away from each refuge, and monitored them for periods ranging from four months to four years.</p>
<p>The placement of the cameras meant we could compare the effect of the refuges with what occurred outside them.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-season-in-hell-bushfires-push-at-least-20-threatened-species-closer-to-extinction-129533">A season in hell: bushfires push at least 20 threatened species closer to extinction</a>
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<h2>What we found</h2>
<p>Across the three study areas, the artificial refuges were used by 56 species or species groups. This included the critically endangered Kangaroo Island dunnart, the threatened white-footed dunnart and the threatened southern emu-wren. </p>
<p>For around half the species, we detected more individuals inside the refuges than outside. As we predicted, the activity of small birds and reptiles, in particular, was much higher inside the refuges. </p>
<p>But surprisingly, reptile activity was also generally higher inside the refuges, particularly among skinks. We had not predicted that, because the shade cloth likely made conditions inside the refuges cooler than outside, and reptiles require warmth to regulate their body temperature.</p>
<p>Over time, the number of animals detected inside the refuges generally increased. This was also a surprise. We expected detections inside the refuges to decline through time as the vegetation recovered and the risk of being seen by predators fell.</p>
<p>But there were also a few complicating factors. For example, in the Otway Ranges and Simpson Desert, similar numbers of the mammals were detected inside and away from the refuges. This suggests the species didn’t consider the refuges as particularly safe places, which means the structures may not reduce the risk of these animals becoming prey.</p>
<p>So what’s the upshot of all this? Our findings suggest that establishing artificial refuges after fire may help some small vertebrates, especially small birds and skinks, avoid predators across a range of ecosystems. However, more research is required before this strategy is adopted as a widespread management tool.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/this-critically-endangered-marsupial-survived-a-bushfire-then-along-came-the-feral-cats-185133">This critically endangered marsupial survived a bushfire – then along came the feral cats</a>
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<h2>Important next steps</h2>
<p>Almost all evidence for an increase in cat and fox activity after fire comes from <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s42408-023-00183-6">Australia</a>, particularly the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/srep22559">tropical north</a>. But cats are an invasive species in more than <a href="https://www.gbif.org/species/2435035">120 countries and islands</a>.</p>
<p>That means there’s real potential for post-fire damage to wildlife to worsen globally, especially as <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43017-020-0085-3">fire risk increases</a> with climate change. </p>
<p>Our results suggest artificial refuges may be a way to help animals survive after fire. But there are still important questions to answer, such as:</p>
<ul>
<li>can artificial refuges improve the overall abundance and survival of individuals and species?</li>
<li>if so, how many refuges would be required to achieve this?</li>
<li>in the presence of natural refuges – such as rocks, logs, burrows, and unburnt patches – are artificial refuges needed?</li>
<li>does their effectiveness vary between low-severity planned burns and high-severity bushfires?</li>
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<p>These questions must be answered. Conservation budgets are tight. After fires, funds must be directed towards actions that we know will work. That evidence is not yet there for artificial refuges.</p>
<p>Our team is busy trying to find out more. We urge other ecologists and conservationists to do so as well. We also encourage collaboration with designers and technologists to improve on our refuge design. For example, can such large refuges be made <a href="https://www.australianwildlife.org/biodegradable-flat-pack-homes-to-help-wildlife-survive-after-bushfires/">biodegradable and easier to deploy</a>?</p>
<p>Solving these problems is important. It’s almost impossible to rid the entire Australian continent of cats and foxes. So land managers need all the help they can get to stop these predators from decimating Australia’s incredible wildlife. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">The impact of roaming pet cats on Australian wildlife.</span></figcaption>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Darcy Watchorn receives funding from the Hermon Slade Foundation, Parks Victoria, the Conservation and Wildlife Research Trust, the Ecological Society of Australia, the Victorian Environmental Assessment Council, and the Geelong Naturalists Field Club. He is a member of the Ecological Society of Australia and the Society for Conservation Biology Oceania.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chris Dickman receives funding from the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Don Driscoll receives funding from the ARC, Melbourne Water and Parks Victoria. He is affiliated with the Ecological Society of Australia and the Society for Conservation Biology.</span></em></p>We need every tool at our disposal to stop feral cats and foxes from decimating Australia’s incredible wildlife after fires. Artificial refuges show promise.Darcy Watchorn, PhD Candidate, Deakin UniversityChris Dickman, Professor Emeritus in Terrestrial Ecology, University of SydneyDon Driscoll, Professor in Terrestrial Ecology, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2069272023-06-05T20:03:56Z2023-06-05T20:03:56Z‘Too small and carefree’: endangered animals released into the wild may lack the match-fitness to evade predators<p>Breeding threatened mammals in fenced, predator-free areas is a common conservation strategy in Australia. The method is designed to protect vulnerable species and breed animals for release into the wild.</p>
<p>But our <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2023.110000">research</a> – involving a cute, digging mammal known as a woylie – suggests the strategy may put animals at a distinct disadvantage once they’re fending for themselves. </p>
<p>We found animals bred in fenced conservation areas, known as “havens”, lost traits they need to detect and escape predators. It’s likely this made them less able to survive in the wild.</p>
<p>This unintended downside could jeopardise the survival of endangered species such as woylies. It shows we must increase investment in managing wild populations of threatened species, and help animals in havens get accustomed to predators.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529719/original/file-20230602-27-rcshyr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529719/original/file-20230602-27-rcshyr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529719/original/file-20230602-27-rcshyr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529719/original/file-20230602-27-rcshyr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529719/original/file-20230602-27-rcshyr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529719/original/file-20230602-27-rcshyr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529719/original/file-20230602-27-rcshyr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529719/original/file-20230602-27-rcshyr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A researcher measures a woylie foot. Woylies protected from predators lost traits they need to escape predators.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Aiden Holmes</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Saving our disappearing mammals</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/biodiversity/threatened/species/20-mammals-by-2020/woylie">Woylies</a> (also known as brush-tailed bettongs) are small marsupials that jump around like kangaroos. They improve soil health through their prolific digging; a single woylie can turn over about <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-1963(03)00061-2">five tonnes of soil</a> each year. </p>
<p>These animals were once abundant across much of Australia’s southern and semi-arid areas. They are now endangered, due to habitat loss and being killed by introduced predators such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2019.06.013">cats</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/1-7-million-foxes-300-million-native-animals-killed-every-year-now-we-know-the-damage-foxes-wreak-177832">foxes</a>.</p>
<p>Since Europeans arrived in Australia, <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-31359188">one in ten</a> native mammals have become extinct. Many more once-abundant species have fallen to critically low numbers. </p>
<p>Given the vulnerability of many mammals to introduced predators, conservation havens have been established around Australia – both inside fences on the mainland, and on offshore islands.</p>
<p>Nationally, more than 120 havens now <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/wr/wr17172">exist</a>. They protect about 200 threatened mammal populations from introduced predators. </p>
<p>In many ways, havens have been a <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-future-is-fenced-for-australian-animals-97311">huge success</a>. Populations of woylies and many other mammals have greatly increased inside havens and at least 13 extinctions have been <a href="https://www.nespthreatenedspecies.edu.au/news-and-media/media-releases/thirteen-mammal-extinctions-prevented-by-havens-study">avoided.</a> </p>
<p>However, havens cover <a href="https://www.nespthreatenedspecies.edu.au/news-and-media/media-releases/major-declines-in-threatened-mammal-populations-over-last-20-years-but-news-not-all-bad">only around 0.1%</a> of the country. For conservation to be effective, animals must be returned to areas where the species once lived, where they can perform their important roles in nature.</p>
<p>But do animals bred in havens have what it takes to survive outside the fence? Our research examined this question. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-future-is-fenced-for-australian-animals-97311">The future is fenced for Australian animals</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529722/original/file-20230602-27-gdfviz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A cute furry face with a pointed nose" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529722/original/file-20230602-27-gdfviz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529722/original/file-20230602-27-gdfviz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529722/original/file-20230602-27-gdfviz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529722/original/file-20230602-27-gdfviz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529722/original/file-20230602-27-gdfviz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529722/original/file-20230602-27-gdfviz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529722/original/file-20230602-27-gdfviz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Woylies help improve soil health through prolific digging.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Aiden Holmes</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Life outside the fence</h2>
<p>We examined ten-years of monitoring data collected from woylie populations inside and outside of a haven in Western Australia, and compared the two groups. </p>
<p>Inside the haven, where there were no predators, competition for food was the biggest pressure. Bold, carefree woylies ate before more cautious individuals which likely discouraged cautious behaviour.</p>
<p>What’s more, in just four generations, woylies born inside havens became successively smaller than previous generations and their feet became shorter. </p>
<p>Why? We suspect it’s because food supply was limited and the animals didn’t need to escape from predators – which meant there was less benefit in being big. At this stage, we don’t know if the changes were the result of natural selection (in other words, survival of the fittest) or what’s known as “<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/phenotypic-plasticity">phenotypic plasticity</a>” – changes in an organism in response to their environment. </p>
<p>The data showed protected woylies also became less reactive and fearful. It meant humans (and potential predators) could get relatively close to the animals before they fled. </p>
<p>Woylies in havens also had a dampened response to other natural anti-predator responses, such as <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/science/2021-03-12/quokka-babies-daddy-long-legs-australian-animal-myths/13188740">ejecting young</a> from their pouch to distract predators while they escape. (This may sound brutal, but it’s a survival strategy also used by other marsupials such as quokkas and potoroos.)</p>
<p>The loss of anti-predator traits has also been observed in populations of other species in havens, including the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/eap.2780">boodie</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1071/WR18060">brushtail possum</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-021-02166-y">eastern bettong</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-mystery-of-the-top-ends-vanishing-wildlife-and-the-unexpected-culprits-143268">The mystery of the Top End's vanishing wildlife, and the unexpected culprits</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529713/original/file-20230602-29-f1rer4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A tall fence with a sign that says 'electric fence'." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529713/original/file-20230602-29-f1rer4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529713/original/file-20230602-29-f1rer4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529713/original/file-20230602-29-f1rer4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529713/original/file-20230602-29-f1rer4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529713/original/file-20230602-29-f1rer4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529713/original/file-20230602-29-f1rer4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529713/original/file-20230602-29-f1rer4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Endangered animals are often bred in fenced conservation areas known as ‘havens’.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Natasha Harrison</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What does this all mean?</h2>
<p>The study revealed important insights into how quickly animal populations can lose anti-predator defences. This presents a problem for programs that reintroduce species to their former areas.</p>
<p>Havens have stopped rapid population declines and extinctions, and enabled some species – including woylies – to multiply quickly. But our study shows they’re not a silver bullet over the long term.</p>
<p>Other strategies outside havens are needed. Importantly, we must ensure native animals have good quality habitat. This should include sufficient food, and safe places to sleep and hide from predators. </p>
<p>Our study also highlights the value in regular monitoring of threatened species, to allow a robust comparison of anti-predator traits through time.</p>
<p>The findings suggest animals in havens may need to be exposed to low levels of predators to reinstate survival traits. Our future research will investigate this strategy. We will assess how quickly woylies can regain their anti-predator traits and what predator levels woylie populations can withstand.</p>
<p>We hope our findings will help conservation managers develop better ways to protect Australia’s threatened mammal species over the long term – so we can not only prevent extinctions, but restore species to their former roles in nature. </p>
<iframe width="100%" height="1066" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/YdWeW1BM3vA" title="The lead author releasing a woylie into the wild" frameborder="0" allow="accelerometer; autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture; web-share" allowfullscreen=""></iframe><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/206927/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Natasha Harrison receives funding from the Hermon Slade Foundation, the Holsworth Wildlife Research Endowment, the Wettenhall Environment Trust, the Royal Society of Western Australia, WWF Australia, the University of Western Australia, and the University of Melbourne . She is a PhD candidate at the University of Western Australia, and is a member of the Royal Society of Western Australia, the Ecological Society of Australia, and the Australian Mammal Society. We acknowledge the important contributions of Ben Phillips, Marika Maxwell, Colin Ward, and Julia Wayne to this project.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Adrian Wayne received project funds from the South West Catchments Council and the Saving our Species Biodiversity Conservation Initiative to assist the WA Department of Biodiversity, Conservation and Attractions (DBCA) to establish and monitor the woylie population in the Perup Sanctuary. The department funded the data collection from ongoing routine monitoring of the wild woylie populations involved in this study. Adrian is an employee of the DBCA, and a member of the Ecological Society of Australia and the Australian Mammal Society.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jaana Dielenberg works for the Biodiversity Council. She is a member of the Ecological Society of Australia. She was previously employed by the National Environmental Science Program Threatened Species Recovery Hub.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nicola Mitchell has received funding from The Australian Research Council, the Commonwealth National Environmental Science Program through the Threatened Species Recovery Hub, the Western Australian Government, the Ian Potter Foundation, the Hermon Slade Foundation, The Australia and Pacific Research Foundation, the World Wildlife Fund Australia and collaborates with The Australian Wildlife Conservancy. Mitchell is a lead councillor of the Biodiversity Council.</span></em></p>Woylies bred in wildlife havens were smaller and less flighty than their counterparts in the wild. This could jeopardise the success of repopulation programs.Natasha Harrison, PhD Candidate, The University of Western AustraliaAdrian Wayne, Adjunct Senior Research Fellow, The University of Western AustraliaJaana Dielenberg, University Fellow, Charles Darwin UniversityNicola Mitchell, Associate Professor in Conservation Physiology, The University of Western AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2008792023-03-02T16:55:41Z2023-03-02T16:55:41ZAnimal architecture: why we need to design buildings for wildlife as well as people<p>How did early humans first learn to build? It’s quite possible that it was by <a href="https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Ten_Books_on_Architecture/iu9-WP-5GYAC?hl=en&gbpv=1&printsec=frontcover">observing animals</a> that had already mastered the art. Indeed, when you look at the animal world many birds, insects and mammals are excellent architects and builders.</p>
<p>Beavers are quite literally landscape engineers – they’re being <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2022/oct/11/beavers-britain-climate-crisis-england-protecting-rivers">reintroduced</a> in the UK to help fight against the increased incidence and severity of flooding caused by climate change. </p>
<p>Social insects like <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-Blqi5qcGlE">bees</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/wasps-why-i-love-them-and-why-you-should-too-155982">wasps</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/in-defence-of-ants-186220">ants</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/lets-mimic-termite-nests-to-keep-human-buildings-cool-115534">termites</a> construct what many have described as the animal equivalents of human cities. </p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/spider-legs-build-webs-without-the-brains-help-providing-a-model-for-future-robot-limbs-153561">Spiders</a> and silkworms have long been regarded as expert builders in the <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-we-cant-spin-a-silken-yarn-as-strong-as-a-spider-can-71003">weaving of their silk webs</a>. While other creatures like <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uIR_vSRASxM">foxes</a>, <a href="https://www.livescience.com/52297-moles.html">moles</a> and <a href="https://badgerwatcher.com/2010/02/21/how-to-recognise-a-badger-sett/">badgers</a> build by excavating the ground. </p>
<p>Then there are the animals that carry their homes on their backs – the shells of <a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-what-is-snail-slime-and-why-is-it-shiny-192424">snails</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-did-the-turtle-get-its-shell-fossil-discovery-gives-us-a-clue-43800">turtles</a>, for example, are both extensions of and protection for their vulnerable soft bodies.</p>
<h2>Beyond human</h2>
<p>We might <a href="https://theconversation.com/meerkats-how-we-used-radar-to-reveal-the-underground-maze-they-call-home-90878">admire and even imitate</a> animal architecture, but when it comes to human-designed buildings, we are usually extremely selective about what kinds of creatures we allow in. </p>
<p>In general, animals are only ever designed for when they are of use to humans – whether as livestock, domestic pets, spectacles to consume in zoos and aquariums, or objects of scientific manipulation in laboratories. </p>
<p>If animals can’t be put to use, they’re usually ignored. And if those animals take it upon themselves to <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-the-red-fox-adapted-to-life-in-our-towns-and-cities-77439">inhabit buildings</a>, they’re invariably regarded as <a href="https://theconversation.com/super-rats-or-sickly-rodents-our-war-against-urban-rats-could-be-leading-to-swift-evolutionary-changes-125902">pests</a> and dealt with accordingly.</p>
<p>In my new book, <a href="https://reaktionbooks.co.uk/work/animal-architecture">Animal Architecture: Beasts, Buildings and Us</a>, I look at why we should build for animals as well as people. Indeed, wildlife is all around us and is already living in or around most of our homes, anyway. </p>
<p>Examples in the book include spiders spinning their webs in the dark corners of rooms. Swallows finding ideal purchase on brick walls for their saliva and mud-based nest cups. Rats making their homes in the subterranean spaces of the city. And cats and dogs appropriating our furniture and fittings as their own places of rest. </p>
<p>There’s hardly any part of the human-built environment that can’t be inhabited or changed by insects, animals and birds. It’s easy enough to understand how this works in relation to animals that are classed as pets. It’s generally taken for granted that pet owners know how to care for their animals. But it’s much harder to care for animals that are mostly regarded as unwelcome intruders into buildings. </p>
<h2>Animal estates</h2>
<p>A powerful example of the potential breadth of such interspecies awareness is artist Fritz Haeg’s <a href="https://www.fritzhaeg.com/garden/initiatives/animalestates/main2.html">Animal Estates</a> project, which ran from 2008 until 2013. In nine different cities, Haeg organised events to encourage participation in creating structures that would be attractive to a variety of native species, including bats, birds and insects. </p>
<p>As well as building structures for animals to inhabit, the project also hosted events designed to stimulate interest and knowledge about native animals (and, in many cases, to encourage urban dwellers to make structures themselves). This holistic approach to ecological design aimed to foster more care for animals in cities – animals that would probably otherwise go unnoticed. </p>
<p>Other wildlife-inspired architectural projects include the non-profit organisation <a href="http://www.expandedenvironment.org/aboutanimalarchitecture/">The Expanded Environment</a>, which provides helpful online resources on how to care for a much wider range of animals in relation to architecture – most notably in their collaborative design proposals and annual competitions for novel types of animal design. </p>
<p>The material on their website expands ideas about what might be considered appropriate animals for designers to work with as “clients”. Insects appear alongside dogs and cats, birds with lizards and bats with oysters.</p>
<h2>Housing the non-human</h2>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512897/original/file-20230301-24-4ic5cs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Tower that houses bats" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512897/original/file-20230301-24-4ic5cs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512897/original/file-20230301-24-4ic5cs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=878&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512897/original/file-20230301-24-4ic5cs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=878&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512897/original/file-20230301-24-4ic5cs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=878&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512897/original/file-20230301-24-4ic5cs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1103&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512897/original/file-20230301-24-4ic5cs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1103&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512897/original/file-20230301-24-4ic5cs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1103&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A contemporary reconstruction of Charles A. Campbell’s Municipal Bat House (1914), near Comfort, Texas, 2009.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons, Larry D. Moore/cc-by-sa 4.0 International</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Ultimately thinking beyond just people is important because all lifeforms create their own environments – and what humans generally call “the environment” is in reality the sum of these creations. Why then does the idea that humans live outside of the environment persist so strongly? </p>
<p>Perhaps, as any therapist will likely tell you, losing a fantasy is always much harder than losing a reality. Yet, as is all too obvious, the persistence of the fantasy of <a href="https://psyche.co/ideas/human-exceptionalism-imposes-horrible-costs-on-other-animals">human exceptionalism</a> is now endangering all life on the planet. </p>
<p>It is humans, and humans alone, who dominate every corner of the environment, while at the same time asserting they are actually removed from that environment. If my book has one core aim, it is to encourage readers to think beyond humans in the way we imagine, design and live in our buildings and cities.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/200879/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paul Dobraszczyk does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Our lives are intertwined with animals, insects and birds – we should consider them more when we design our cities.Paul Dobraszczyk, Lecturer in Architecture, UCLLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2005482023-02-27T19:15:54Z2023-02-27T19:15:54ZThreatened species recover in fenced safe havens. But their safety is only temporary<p>If you want to see some of Australia’s most charismatic threatened mammals such as bilbies, <a href="https://www.australianwildlife.org/wildlife/burrowing-bettong/">boodies</a> and stick-nest rats, chances are you’ll have to go to a zoo – or a safe haven. </p>
<p>What’s a safe haven? An area safe from feral predators, such as islands too far offshore for foxes to swim to, or mainland sites ringed with cat- and fox-proof fences. </p>
<p>Recent research <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320723000460">has suggested</a> we can now take 29 species off the threatened list, thanks in large part to safe havens. But unfortunately, it’s not that simple, as we’ve found in establishing several havens. Safe havens are not the same as the wild. When we try to reintroduce animals outside the fences, they disappear down the maws of cats and foxes. </p>
<p>Yes, they fend off extinctions. But safe havens require ongoing management, which is expensive, challenging and rarely guaranteed long term. We should not rely on them to take species off the threatened list. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512337/original/file-20230227-2083-jd57ld.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="burrowing bettong" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512337/original/file-20230227-2083-jd57ld.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512337/original/file-20230227-2083-jd57ld.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512337/original/file-20230227-2083-jd57ld.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512337/original/file-20230227-2083-jd57ld.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512337/original/file-20230227-2083-jd57ld.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512337/original/file-20230227-2083-jd57ld.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512337/original/file-20230227-2083-jd57ld.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Burrowing bettongs often thrive behind fences but cannot survive the ferals beyond.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Hugh McGregor/Arid Recovery</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What are safe havens for?</h2>
<p>In 1995, Australia had just a handful of havens. By 2017, we had 17 mainland havens and 101 island refuges, housing 38 different threatened mammals. The reason is they work, at least over the short term. Most of our threatened mammals are small and unwary, easy prey for two introduced predators which hunt by stealth. </p>
<p>When you take off the pressure from cats and foxes, reintroduced animals bounce back. Inside safe havens, populations soar by an <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36349543">average of 680%</a> over a 17-year period. Outside, their populations declined by an average of 63%. No wonder governments are funding them. </p>
<p>Fenced safe havens are usually small, to make it possible to remove all feral predators and keep watch for any making it over the fence. The threatened mammals inside the fence are isolated, meaning they have a higher chance of inbreeding and are more vulnerable to random disasters. Sometimes, havens even provide extra food and water. </p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-australia-needs-to-kill-cats-116654">Why Australia needs to kill cats</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>There are worrying signs these islands ringed by fence or sea are not entirely sustainable. Many species within safe havens breed frantically, sending their populations skyward to unsustainable levels before a severe population crash. Ideally, they would be controlled by native predators, but the havens are too small to allow this. We’ve seen this play out with <a href="https://www.australianwildlife.org/wildlife/burrowing-bettong/">burrowing bettongs</a> at one of our safe havens, Arid Recovery, in South Australia. </p>
<p>Some species struggle even inside fenced havens. The stick-nest rat has failed to establish in at least four havens.</p>
<h2>Are safe haven animals ‘wild’? Not quite</h2>
<p>Let’s say you have a growing population of bilbies in our zoo network. Does this mean the species is now safe? Hardly. Safe in zoos doesn’t mean species are safe in the wild. </p>
<p>Safe havens are similar. Yes, the animals are free-roaming. They forage, breed and hide from predators such as snakes and eagles. But safe havens are created and sustained by people. When havens lose funding and fall into disrepair, the predators eventually break in and kill everything they can. Fenced off Shark Bay bandicoots in Western Australia were <a href="https://bioone.org/journals/wildlife-research/volume-43/issue-1/WR15070/Predation-by-feral-cats-key-to-the-failure-of-a/10.1071/WR15070.short">eventually killed</a> by cats. </p>
<p>When the government works out if a species is threatened or not, it counts the animals in safe havens as contributing to the wild population. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-found-29-threatened-species-are-back-from-the-brink-in-australia-heres-how-200057">We found 29 threatened species are back from the brink in Australia. Here's how</a>
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<p>If we use this measuring stick, mammals like the bilby, boodie, stick-nest rat, golden bandicoot and Shark Bay bandicoot can indeed be taken off the threatened species list. </p>
<p>But this seems hasty. Threatened species are defined as those where a “relatively large risk of extinction in the wild, sometime in the future, is deemed to exist for a species”, according to our key biodiversity law, the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act. </p>
<p>If we remove a species from the threatened species list, we could place it at even higher risk of extinction. </p>
<p>When a species is threatened, it gets special consideration. Mining companies and developers have to ensure plans for land in its range won’t cause significant harm to the species. Companies may have to provide offsets to any damage. At the very least they are required to survey and monitor the species. </p>
<p>Consider the iconic bilby, whose range has shrunk by more than 80% in the last 150 years. It’s now found in the wild only in a small part of Queensland and in remote parts of Northern Territory and Western Australia. </p>
<p>Reports <a href="https://cdn.environment.sa.gov.au/environment/docs/pa-rec-greaterbilby.pdf">suggest</a> it’s still declining in the wild, due to foxes and cats, more intense grazing and dangerous fire regimes. But because bilbies have been successfully reintroduced to islands and fenced safe havens, they no longer meet the criteria for being threatened. </p>
<p>Let’s say we remove them from the list. They would lose any special consideration when projects affecting their habitat are proposed, and conservation funding would dry up. Bilbies could quietly go extinct in the wild while reintroduced fenced populations thrive, at least in the short term. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512416/original/file-20230227-691-pcmjcj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="fenced haven" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512416/original/file-20230227-691-pcmjcj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512416/original/file-20230227-691-pcmjcj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=222&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512416/original/file-20230227-691-pcmjcj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=222&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512416/original/file-20230227-691-pcmjcj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=222&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512416/original/file-20230227-691-pcmjcj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=279&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512416/original/file-20230227-691-pcmjcj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=279&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512416/original/file-20230227-691-pcmjcj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=279&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Feral proof fences, like this one at Arid Recovery, have to be specifically built to keep out cunning foxes and cats.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Katherine Moseby</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Does this mean safe havens are a bad idea?</h2>
<p>No. We’ve co-founded four fenced safe havens to protect populations of nine threatened species. They are necessary. They ward off extinction and let us research the species. But they are only the first step to recovery. </p>
<p>It’s much harder to reverse the decline of threatened species in the wild. But it’s not impossible. Gene drive technology is maturing, potentially making it possible to force feral predators to breed themselves out of existence by having only male offspring. Almost 70% of Australians <a href="https://ecos.csiro.au/feral-cats-gene-drive/">favour this approach</a>, if viable. We also have biological controls, new control tools and improved management of fire to draw on. ˇ</p>
<p>Havens are exactly that – a desperate measure to stop extinction. We should keep species on the threatened list even if they have management-dependent haven populations. This will protect wild populations and drive innovation and interest in how we can best control feral predators and other threats. </p>
<p>We cannot simply put our threatened mammals behind fences and consider the job done. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/so-you-want-to-cat-proof-a-bettong-how-living-with-predators-could-help-native-species-survive-170450">So you want to cat-proof a bettong: how living with predators could help native species survive</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/200548/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Katherine Moseby receives funding from the Federal Government Safehaven program and other government grants to establish safehavens . She co-founded Arid Recovery, Wild Deserts and Secret Rocks Safehavens. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>John Read receives funding from the Federal Government Safehaven program and other government grants to establish safehavens . He co-founded Arid Recovery, Wild Deserts, Warru Pintji and Secret Rocks Safehavens. He is the director of Ecological Horizons environmental consultancy and the Thylation conservation innovation companies. </span></em></p>Dozens of threatened Australian species are back from the brink. But many are reliant on fenced-off safe havens and could not survive the feral predators of the wild. True safety is harderKatherine Moseby, Associate Professor, UNSW SydneyJohn Read, Associate Lecturer, Ecology and Environmental Sciences, University of AdelaideLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1998792023-02-20T02:25:42Z2023-02-20T02:25:42ZFrom the dingo to the Tasmanian devil - why we should be rewilding carnivores<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510763/original/file-20230217-2564-3bvtm9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=31%2C15%2C5083%2C3150&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/pack-dingoes-on-fraser-island-1403646581">Dominic Jeanmaire/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>No matter where you live, <a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-what-is-the-apex-predator-of-the-world-187616">apex predators</a> and large carnivores inspire awe as well as instil fear.</p>
<p>Large predators have been heavily persecuted and removed from areas where they once lived because of <a href="https://theconversation.com/killing-sharks-wolves-and-other-top-predators-wont-solve-conflicts-96626">conflict</a> with livestock graziers.</p>
<p>Beyond their large teeth, sharp claws and iconic status, <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1205106">research</a> is finding they are crucially important in ecosystems. So there is considerable interest in <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.172235">returning large carnivores</a> to areas where they once lived, as part of a shift towards <a href="https://theconversation.com/rewilding-four-tips-to-let-nature-thrive-157441">rewilding</a>. </p>
<p>Bringing back carnivores is <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/rewilding/2D3CFD33718F14F641AEF83FA1DB21AE">not without risk</a>, but it’s a potentially powerful conservation tool. </p>
<p>Rewilding dingoes and Tasmanian devils in Australia could benefit many of our troubled ecosystems, by keeping herbivore numbers down, keeping feral cats and foxes fearful, and triggering a rebound in vegetation and small animal populations.</p>
<h2>Predators vs prey</h2>
<p>Predators can affect their prey’s behaviour. When prey species know a predator is around and perceive risk to their survival, they change how they behave.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169534719300199?via%3Dihub">landscape of fear</a> predators create can make it harder for prey species to survive. </p>
<p>That’s often good for ecosystems. The effect of dingoes in reducing, say, kangaroo and wallaby populations and changing their behaviour, can actually help bring back plants and smaller animals through a “<a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/">trophic cascade</a>”. For example, wolves chasing, eating and scaring deer can lead to an increase in the growth of plants, which can benefit other species.</p>
<p>Predators also affect <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2009.01347.x">other predators</a>. If humans poison, shoot, trap and exclude top predators like dingoes, smaller predators can increase in number and get bolder, in a phenomenon called <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/23028">mesopredator release</a>. In California, when coyotes disappeared due to habitat destruction, populations of smaller predators such as cats grew and songbird numbers fell.</p>
<h2>How is it done?</h2>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/we-can-rewild-swathes-of-australia-by-focusing-on-what-makes-it-unique-111749">Rewilding</a> can occur passively, by changing laws to stop the exclusion or killing of large carnivores and making areas more favourable for carnivores to live. When this happens, species often move back by themselves. Encouragingly, this is happening in <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1257553">many parts of the world</a>, including a recent sighting of a wolf in Brandenburg, Germany.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1371116490020302851"}"></div></p>
<p>In other cases, rewilding may need a more active approach, such as physically moving animals to an area. The return of wolves to Yellowstone National Park and the <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ysa5OBhXz-Q">ecological transformation</a> that followed is a famous example of this, although in recent times the details of this story have been <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/ele.13915">questioned</a>.</p>
<p>When does rewilding work best? <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320723000095?via%3Dihub">Recent research</a> shows wild-born animals fare better than captive-born animals, though the results are far from conclusive. Wild-born animals may have an edge due to their skills in hunting and defending territories <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320707004417?via%3Dihub">critically important</a> for survival.</p>
<h2>Rewilding in Australia means bringing back dingoes</h2>
<p>Once carnivores are killed or fenced off from an area, the ecosystem changes. Will we restore nature by bringing them back? Potentially – but it’s not guaranteed.
Australia’s controversial canine, <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/nature/amoty/dingo-charismatic-controversial-canid/">the dingo</a>, is a perfect example. Aside from humans, dingoes are Australia’s only living land predator over 15 kilograms. </p>
<p>Dingoes have a vital role in <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1469-185X.2011.00203.x">Australian ecosystems</a>, such as keeping populations of <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/wr/WR99030">kangaroos and emus</a> under control. They can also take down feral goats. Their natural control of herbivores means plants can bounce back, as well as making room for smaller animals. Their effect on plant life may even affect the height and shape of <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-02-09/dingo-fence-map-ecology-farming-predator-sheep-extinction/101711608">sand dunes</a>. </p>
<p>In some parts of Australia, kangaroo populations <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/toc/14428903/2021/22/S1">have exploded</a>. Land clearing for pasture favours kangaroos, as do the dams and water troughs for livestock, the killing off of dingoes and the ending of First Nations Peoples’ cultural practices and hunting.</p>
<p>At times, these population booms have led to sudden crashes, with widespread starvation in droughts. Harvesting kangaroos is one response, but this is often controversial and unpopular. Bringing <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/rec.12186">dingoes back</a> would help reduce kangaroo numbers in a way more palatable to many people.</p>
<p>When present, dingoes also keep a lid on our worst introduced predators, feral cats and <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/am/AM21036">foxes</a>, either by eating them or forcing them to alter <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2012.02207.x">their behaviour</a>. If cats and foxes have to be more careful, it may benefit their smaller prey.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A portrait of a dingo looking into the distance" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510778/original/file-20230217-26-gpl5tj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510778/original/file-20230217-26-gpl5tj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510778/original/file-20230217-26-gpl5tj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510778/original/file-20230217-26-gpl5tj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510778/original/file-20230217-26-gpl5tj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510778/original/file-20230217-26-gpl5tj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510778/original/file-20230217-26-gpl5tj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dingoes are a controversial carnivore in Australia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/dingo-on-beach-great-sandy-national-791883502">Pawel Papis/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>We could rewild dingoes very easily by removing large barriers like the <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-02-09/dingo-fence-map-ecology-farming-predator-sheep-extinction/101711608">dingo fence</a>. This, of course, would trigger pushback from livestock graziers worried about attacks on their stock.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-dingo-fence-from-space-satellite-images-show-how-these-top-predators-alter-the-desert-155642">The dingo fence from space: satellite images show how these top predators alter the desert</a>
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<p>It doesn’t have to be this way though. We’ve learned a lot about ways to <a href="https://theconversation.com/guardian-dogs-fencing-and-fladry-protect-livestock-from-carnivores-103290">reduce conflict</a> between farmers and predators. It’s now entirely possible for livestock producers and top predators to coexist. Western Australian farmers are already using guardian animals such as <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-08-16/maremmas-protecting-pastoral-sheep-outback-wa/101320626">Maremma dogs</a> to protect livestock.</p>
<h2>So should we do it?</h2>
<p>Australia has been slow to support and attempt large carnivore rewilding. But we can learn valuable lessons from the relocation of Tasmanian devils to an offshore haven, Maria Island. </p>
<p>Devils were introduced to safeguard the species against the severe population decline from devil facial tumour disease. These predators were not native to Maria Island, but they’ve flourished. One unexpected side effect was the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/jun/21/tasmanian-devils-wipe-out-thousands-of-penguins-maria-island-australia">devastating impact</a> on the island’s little penguin population.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A close up of a Tasmanian devil" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510779/original/file-20230217-18-cgja4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510779/original/file-20230217-18-cgja4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510779/original/file-20230217-18-cgja4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510779/original/file-20230217-18-cgja4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510779/original/file-20230217-18-cgja4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510779/original/file-20230217-18-cgja4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510779/original/file-20230217-18-cgja4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An insurance population of Tasmanian devils has been established on Maria Island.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/XMnQnYND9JU">David Clode/unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Rewilding comes with risks. But it also comes with major benefits, which may help our <a href="https://theconversation.com/existential-threat-to-our-survival-see-the-19-australian-ecosystems-already-collapsing-154077">collapsing ecosystems</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/gut-wrenching-and-infuriating-why-australia-is-the-world-leader-in-mammal-extinctions-and-what-to-do-about-it-192173">threatened species</a>. </p>
<p>Time is short. Conservation must take calculated and informed risks to achieve better outcomes. <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.aav5570">Rewilding</a> attempts are valuable, even when things don’t go entirely as planned. </p>
<p>What else could we do? Discussions over the carefully planned <a href="https://theconversation.com/should-we-move-tasmanian-devils-back-to-the-mainland-16388">reintroduction of Tasmanian devils</a> to mainland Australia continue. If the devils come back to the mainland for the first time in thousands of years, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320715300379">they might</a> help to manage herbivore and feral cat populations.</p>
<p>Rewilding is not about recreating the <a href="https://theconversation.com/indigenous-knowledge-and-the-persistence-of-the-wilderness-myth-165164">mythical idea</a> of wilderness. Humans have <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-018-0576-5">shaped ecosystems</a> for millennia. </p>
<p>If rewilding and ecological restoration is to succeed, <a href="https://theconversation.com/academia-can-help-humans-and-large-carnivores-coexist-115467">communities and their values</a>, including First Nations groups, must be involved.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/199879/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Euan G. Ritchie is a Councillor within the Biodiversity Council, and a member of the Ecological Society of Australia and the Australian Mammal Society.</span></em></p>Rewilding is risky but we can learn from past attempts to use it as an effective tool for conservationEuan Ritchie, Professor in Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, School of Life & Environmental Sciences, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2000572023-02-16T19:18:07Z2023-02-16T19:18:07ZWe found 29 threatened species are back from the brink in Australia. Here’s how<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510501/original/file-20230216-20-1fialx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=167%2C23%2C3647%2C2585&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australia’s natural world is in <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/science-research/soe">deep trouble</a>. Many of our species are getting rarer. Some <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/cobi.12852">are now</a> perilously close to extinction, while entire ecosystems <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/gcb.15539">face collapse</a>. </p>
<p>Sudden biodiversity loss in events such as the <a href="https://theconversation.com/200-experts-dissected-the-black-summer-bushfires-in-unprecedented-detail-here-are-6-lessons-to-heed-198989">Black Summer wildfires</a> happen against a backdrop of decline due to land clearing, introduced species and other pervasive threats. For example, Australia’s threatened bird species <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/csp2.322">declined</a> in abundance by an average of 44% from 2000 to 2016.</p>
<p>It is easy to lose heart – to be <a href="https://theconversation.com/i-felt-immense-grief-one-year-on-from-the-bushfires-scientists-need-mental-health-support-148251">numbed by despair</a> for an ever-diminishing natural world, or to dismiss our environmental laws and management as useless and broken. </p>
<p>But we have <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320723000460">29 reasons</a> not to give up hope. Our new research has found 15 threatened mammal, eight bird, four frog, one reptile and one fish species have recovered enough that they no longer meet the criteria for listing as threatened. Our assessments were based on scrutiny of the latest data on population size and distributions – a review process that the government doesn’t routinely do.</p>
<p>These recoveries stem largely from years of <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/book/7705">collaborative conservation</a> between government agencies, conservation organisations, First Nations groups and individuals.</p>
<h2>How have these these species been brought back?</h2>
<p>For almost all of the recovering mammals, the key threat pushing them towards extinction has been predation by <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.1417301112">feral cats and foxes</a>. Introduced predators are the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.1417301112">primary</a> reason for Australia’s unenviable record for the world’s most mammal extinctions, with 33 species <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2021/mar/03/australia-confirms-extinction-of-13-more-species-including-first-reptile-since-colonisation">gone forever</a>.</p>
<p>Because it’s impossible to eradicate the millions of cats and foxes across Australia, recovery of these threatened mammals has largely relied on a <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/wr/WR17172">network of havens</a> – islands and mainland exclosures that fence out predators. Once cats and foxes are excluded or eradicated, threatened mammals can bounce back.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-future-is-fenced-for-australian-animals-97311">The future is fenced for Australian animals</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Take the burrowing bettong. If you’re like most Australians, you’ve never seen one of these. Think of it like a quokka that can burrow. They used to be almost everywhere. Some early colonists complained of falling through burrow after burrow. But by the 1950s, they were eradicated from the entire mainland, eaten by cats and foxes.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A burrowing bettong behind the leaves of a sedge" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510492/original/file-20230216-22-qw965b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510492/original/file-20230216-22-qw965b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510492/original/file-20230216-22-qw965b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510492/original/file-20230216-22-qw965b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510492/original/file-20230216-22-qw965b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510492/original/file-20230216-22-qw965b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510492/original/file-20230216-22-qw965b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Burrowing bettong populations have been impacted heavily by introduced predators.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/25363236@N07/31776186254/">Daniela Parra/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>By luck, they survived on four islands off Western Australia, out of reach of introduced predators. Over the past two decades, conservationists have transferred some of these bettongs to more islands and to five large fenced havens on the mainland. Safe at last, their populations have been increasing.</p>
<p>Even so, their population and range is a minute fraction of what they were before colonisation. That means the vital ecological functions they provided by turning over vast volumes of soil are still missing from much of the continent. </p>
<p>Islands have played a major role in both losses and recoveries. Losses because islands have endemic species particularly vulnerable to introduced species, and recoveries because threats can be more readily eradicated from islands. </p>
<p>For example, the threatened <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/book/7905/">blue petrel</a> has recovered strongly after cats, rabbits and rodents were eradicated from the sub-Antarctic Australian territory, Macquarie Island.</p>
<p>Other recoveries, such as that of the southern cassowary, are due to strategic establishment of conservation reserves, and constraints on land clearing in localised areas. Laws matter too – the humpback whale has recovered due to national and international laws banning its hunting.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An aerial view of two humpback whales swimming in the ocean" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510495/original/file-20230216-22-ezpsu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510495/original/file-20230216-22-ezpsu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510495/original/file-20230216-22-ezpsu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510495/original/file-20230216-22-ezpsu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510495/original/file-20230216-22-ezpsu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510495/original/file-20230216-22-ezpsu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510495/original/file-20230216-22-ezpsu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Humpback whale populations have been recovering due to changes in international laws.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://throughourlens.com.au/">Edgars Pudans/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/1-7-million-foxes-300-million-native-animals-killed-every-year-now-we-know-the-damage-foxes-wreak-177832">1.7 million foxes, 300 million native animals killed every year: now we know the damage foxes wreak</a>
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</p>
<hr>
<h2>Are there common characteristics in these recoveries?</h2>
<p>We found recoveries were mostly for mammals and birds, with few improvements for other groups.</p>
<p>No invertebrates have recovered enough yet to be taken off the list – possibly because these often-overlooked creatures get little conservation funding.</p>
<p>Similarly, threatened fish have mostly not recovered. That’s because we have limited ability to stop the impact of introduced fish, as well as the ongoing exploitation of our waters.</p>
<p>There has also been little success for the many species mostly affected by timber harvesting, broad-scale land clearing, fire and climate change.</p>
<p>Some recoveries are enigmatic. Take the iconic <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/book/7905/">Gouldian finch</a>, now more common than it was 20 years ago. In some areas, <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0137997">better management</a> of fire and livestock has helped, but that’s not a full explanation. It may simply have learned or evolved to better fit into the human-modified natural world.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A gouldian finch perched on a branch" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510496/original/file-20230216-20-834pd7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510496/original/file-20230216-20-834pd7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510496/original/file-20230216-20-834pd7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510496/original/file-20230216-20-834pd7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510496/original/file-20230216-20-834pd7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=538&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510496/original/file-20230216-20-834pd7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=538&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510496/original/file-20230216-20-834pd7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=538&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Populations of the gouldian finch have increased over the last 20 years.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/racer29/13655111604/">R.A. Killmer/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Assessing trends for Australia’s threatened species is difficult, because many are not or inadequately <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320718318731">monitored </a>. In many cases, we don’t know whether conservation efforts are working, or whether the species are sliding ever more rapidly into extinction. </p>
<p>The status of many species <a href="https://www.environment.gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/publicthreatenedlist.pl">listed as threatened</a> under Australia’s Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act has been little scrutinised since their initial listing - unlike in the United States, where law requires periodic review of the status of its threatened species.</p>
<p>Our threatened invertebrates are especially poorly tracked – the legacy of the <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/oryx/article/trends-and-biases-in-the-listing-and-recovery-planning-for-threatened-species-an-australian-case-study/DC0D198D842AE8963787297094B8C263">longstanding bias</a> in conservation management and public sentiment towards more iconic species at the expense of the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1617138122001303">little known</a> and less charismatic. Many invertebrates that are in danger of extinction are not even listed as threatened.</p>
<p>Almost all the 29 species we consider to have recovered have not yet been officially taken off the list of threatened species. Recognising these recoveries is important – these cases merit celebration, and we should try to apply the lessons learned to other threatened species.</p>
<p>Of course, these improvements in status doesn’t mean they’re safe forever. If conservation efforts stop, most of these species would slip rapidly back into danger.</p>
<p>The recovery we document has been a hard journey, marked by vision, committed management, and continuous significant funding. Recovery requires a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320722002841">long-term</a> commitment – markedly different to the short-term and sporadic conservation funding typically allocated by most governments.</p>
<p>Yes, the natural world is falling apart around us. But we do not have to passively accept such collapse. We can stop at least some of these losses. We can make a difference.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/so-you-want-to-cat-proof-a-bettong-how-living-with-predators-could-help-native-species-survive-170450">So you want to cat-proof a bettong: how living with predators could help native species survive</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/200057/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>John Woinarski has previously undertaken research funded by the Australian Government's National Environmental Science Program Threatened Species Recovery Hub. He is a Director of the Australian Wildlife Conservancy; and a Professor at Charles Darwin University.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Libby Rumpff received funding from the NESP Threatened Species Hub. She was on the Commonwealth Government's Wildlife and Threatened Species Bushfire Recovery Expert Panel. She is employed by University of Melbourne, and the Australian Government. All views are her own.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark Lintermans received funding from the National Environment Science Program's Threatened Species Recovery hub, the NSW Department of Planning, Industry and Environment, and South East Local Land Services. He is affiliated with the Australian Society for Fish Biology where he previously Chaired and is now a member of the Threatened Species Committee.
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sarah Legge received funding from the NESP Threatened Species Hub. She was on the Commonwealth Government's Wildlife and Threatened Species Bushfire Recovery Expert Panel, and is on the Commonwealth Government's Threatened Species Committee.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stephen Garnett receives funding from the Australian Research Council for work on taxonomic list governance</span></em></p>Dozens of species have been coaxed back from oblivion, with fenced havens, conserved habitat, islands and feral predator control vital.John Woinarski, Professor of Conservation Biology, Charles Darwin UniversityLibby Rumpff, Senior Research Fellow, The University of MelbourneMark Lintermans, Associate professor, University of CanberraSarah Legge, Professor, Australian National UniversityStephen Garnett, Professor of Conservation and Sustainable Livelihoods, Charles Darwin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1928952022-12-05T13:25:26Z2022-12-05T13:25:26ZWeasels, not pandas, should be the poster animal for biodiversity loss<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498335/original/file-20221130-20-3djrpi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=6%2C3%2C2037%2C1348&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A short-tailed weasel in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/2baqDL7">Jacob W. Frank, NPS/Flickr</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>At the <a href="https://www.unep.org/events/conference/un-biodiversity-conference-cop-15">United Nations biodiversity conference</a> that opens in Montreal on Dec. 7, 2022, nations aim to create a new global framework for transforming humanity’s relationship with nature. The <a href="https://www.cbd.int/conferences/2021-2022">conference logo</a> features a human reaching to embrace a panda – but from an ecological perspective, a weasel or badger would be a more appropriate choice.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498319/original/file-20221130-8088-3h45m9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Graphic of a girl reaching to embrace a panda" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498319/original/file-20221130-8088-3h45m9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498319/original/file-20221130-8088-3h45m9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=925&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498319/original/file-20221130-8088-3h45m9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=925&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498319/original/file-20221130-8088-3h45m9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=925&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498319/original/file-20221130-8088-3h45m9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1162&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498319/original/file-20221130-8088-3h45m9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1162&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498319/original/file-20221130-8088-3h45m9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1162&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Logo for the COP 15 conference in Montreal, which was delayed from its original 2020 date due to COVID-19.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.cop15news.com/en/index.htm">Convention on Biological Diversity</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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<p>Large mammals with widespread appeal, also known as <a href="https://animals.howstuffworks.com/endangered-species/charismatic-megafauna.htm">charismatic megafauna</a>, often represent the highest achievement in biodiversity protection. As the logic goes, saving the tiger, polar bear, wolf or lion means saving an entire ecosystem, since these species often have large ranges and may sit at the top of food chains.</p>
<p>But research shows that, relatively speaking, many large charismatic species aren’t doing that badly in North America. Wolves are <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/03/11/science/california-wolves-misinformation.html">repopulating California</a>, where their last wild ancestor was killed in 1924. Cougars could become <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2015.09.026">reestablished across the Midwest</a> over the next several decades. Black bears have regained much of their range in the <a href="https://www.bearbiology.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Scheick_and_McCown_2014_Ursus.pdf">eastern U.S</a>, to the point where many states have a <a href="https://www.outdoorlife.com/story/hunting/record-black-bear-hunting-harvest/">bear hunting season</a>. Similar stories are playing out across Europe, where even large carnivores like the lynx and wolverine are <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1257553">recovering</a>. </p>
<p>For small carnivores like weasels, skunks and foxes, it’s a different story. These species and their relatives have equal or greater impacts on the ecosystems they inhabit than larger species like wolves. They even provide benefits for humans by preying on rodents that eat crops and infest our houses. Yet small carnivores are of increasing conservation concern because their populations are declining dramatically in many places.</p>
<h2>Many threats but no single cause</h2>
<p>While small carnivores don’t typically get as much public attention as larger species, conservation biologists have been trying to arrest their decline for decades. </p>
<p>For example, the black-footed ferret, a member of the same family as weasels and minks, has been <a href="https://www.fws.gov/species/black-footed-ferret-mustela-nigripes">on the U.S. endangered species list</a> since the list was created in 1973. As recently as the early 1900s there were thousands of black-footed ferrets across western prairies. Today scientists estimate there are <a href="https://blackfootedferret.org/">fewer than 400 left in the wild</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498333/original/file-20221130-22-dzg6n4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two ferrets with black feet and eye masks, one peeking out of a pipe" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498333/original/file-20221130-22-dzg6n4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498333/original/file-20221130-22-dzg6n4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=410&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498333/original/file-20221130-22-dzg6n4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=410&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498333/original/file-20221130-22-dzg6n4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=410&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498333/original/file-20221130-22-dzg6n4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=515&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498333/original/file-20221130-22-dzg6n4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=515&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498333/original/file-20221130-22-dzg6n4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=515&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is breeding black-footed ferrets in captivity in northern Colorado. Restoring the endangered ferret is considered a key step in reviving prairie ecosystems.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/oct-29-there-are-48-outdoor-pre-conditioning-pens-that-news-photo/186801918">Kathryn Scott Osler/The Denver Post via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Recent evidence suggests that even the most common and widespread small carnivores are in decline. A 2005 study estimated that eastern spotted skunks, which are rarely seen today but historically occurred across much of the U.S. east of the Rocky Mountains, had <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S1367943005001964">declined in number by 90% over the preceding 50 years</a>. </p>
<p>I led an effort in 2021 to determine the status of the most widespread of small carnivores in North America – <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0254387">weasels</a>. We found range-wide decreases dating back to the 1960s that paralleled the decline of spotted skunks. </p>
<p>Scientists have a very poor understanding of what has caused losses of weasels and most other small carnivores. We suspect that many stresses may be involved, including changing farming practices, diseases and new carnivores like house cats, domestic dogs, raccoons and striped skunks that follow human development and outcompete or eat native small carnivores. </p>
<p>What we do know is that North America is not unique. Small carnivores are declining globally at an alarming rate. A 2021 review suggests that over the past couple of decades <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2021.109005">over half of all small carnivores have declined in number</a>, and a quarter are at risk of extinction. Proportionally, these are the same levels of decline and endangerment as the better-publicized threats to large carnivores. </p>
<h2>Short-legged ecosystem indicators</h2>
<p>We also know that compared with larger species, small carnivores have shorter lives and use smaller areas. This allows them to respond quickly to even minor fluctuations in temperature, habitat change and food availability. In my <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=CjwvzoIAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=sra">research over the past 23 years</a>, I have learned that these attributes make small carnivores sensitive indicators of even minor shifts in how well their ecosystems work. </p>
<p>A prime example comes from the Channel Islands off the coast of California, home to the diminutive <a href="https://www.nps.gov/chis/learn/nature/island-fox.htm">island fox</a>, a species found nowhere else on earth. In the late 1990s land and wildlife managers noticed a decline in island foxes, which coincided with the decline of bald eagles and arrival of golden eagles on the islands. Golden eagles preyed on the foxes, as well as on non-native wild pigs. At one point the fox population was reduced to fewer than 100 individuals. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/2AVRSGkartg?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Saving California’s island foxes required reconstructing an ecosystem that human actions had drastically altered.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Restoring island foxes was a complex initiative that involved reintroducing bald eagles – which prey on fish, not mammals – to the islands to chase off golden eagles; eradicating introduced pigs, which served as food for the golden eagles and altered the vegetation where the foxes sheltered; restoring shrubs and grasses; and breeding foxes in captivity, then releasing them. This effort is one of the most prominent examples of biologists intervening to <a href="https://www.nps.gov/chis/learn/nature/island-fox.htm">reverse a species’ slide toward extinction</a>. </p>
<p>More broadly, the island fox story shows that small carnivores can provide unique insight into the structure of ecosystems, because they are at the centers of <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/food-web-concept-and-applications-84077181/">food webs</a>. Look at the diet of a fox or weasel and you have a great snapshot of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/fee.2407">how many species are present in that ecosystem</a>. </p>
<p>Losing small carnivores can change ecosystems. Many small carnivores typically prey on small seed-eating rodents like mice and gophers. This reduces rodent impacts on plants and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2017.12.006">farm crops</a>. It also helps to reduce the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2017.12.006">spread of tick-borne diseases</a>, since small rodents can serve as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-020-3902-0">hosts for infected ticks</a>.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/Cld5PUMrvno/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<p>For these reasons, I and other ecologists argue that it makes sense to use small carnivores as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/mam.12300">barometers of ecosystem health</a>. This would mean replacing polar bears with weasels as global warming poster animals, and keying in on <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/btp.12635">ocelots</a> rather than jaguars to understand how rainforest destruction is affecting wildlife. </p>
<p>While lions and polar bears are important, I believe ferrets, weasels and foxes deserve the same kind of protection and are a more precise tool for measuring how ecosystems are responding to a rapidly changing world.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/192895/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Jachowski does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Polar bears and wolves may get the glory, but small predators like weasels, foxes and their cousins play outsized ecological roles. And many of these species are declining fast.David Jachowski, Associate Professor of Wildlife Ecology, Clemson UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1921732022-10-18T19:04:16Z2022-10-18T19:04:16Z‘Gut-wrenching and infuriating’: why Australia is the world leader in mammal extinctions, and what to do about it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490280/original/file-20221018-21168-2wtt2m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=7%2C10%2C1733%2C1221&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A museum specimen of the extinct northern pig-footed bandicoot</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Vassil/Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle via Wikimedia</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>In fewer than 250 years, the ravages of colonisation have eroded the evolutionary splendour forged in this continent’s relative isolation. Australia has suffered a horrific demise of arguably the world’s most remarkable mammal assemblage, around <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/sites/default/files/env/pages/2ee3f4a1-f130-465b-9c7a-79373680a067/files/nlsaw-2nd-complete.pdf">87% of which is found nowhere else</a>. </p>
<p>Being an Australian native mammal is perilous. <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/publicthreatenedlist.pl?wanted=fauna">Thirty-eight</a> native mammal species have been driven to extinction since colonisation and <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/book/7010/">possibly</a> seven <a href="https://australianmammals.org.au/publications/amtc-species-list">subspecies</a>. These include:</p>
<ul>
<li>Yirratji (northern pig-footed bandicoot)</li>
<li>Parroo (white-footed rabbit-rat)</li>
<li>Kuluwarri (central hare-wallaby)</li>
<li>Yallara (lesser bilby)</li>
<li>Tjooyalpi (lesser stick-nest rat) </li>
<li>Tjawalpa (crescent nailtail wallaby)</li>
<li>Yoontoo (short-tailed hopping-mouse)</li>
<li>Walilya (desert bandicoot) </li>
<li>toolache wallaby </li>
<li>thylacine </li>
</ul>
<p>This makes us the world leader of mammal species extinctions in recent centuries. But this is far from just an historical tragedy. </p>
<p>A further 52 mammal species are classified as either <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/publicthreatenedlist.pl?wanted=fauna">critically endangered or endangered</a>, such as the <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/nature/amoty/southern-bent-winged-bat-amoty-22/">southern bent-wing bat</a>, which was recently crowned the <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/nature/amoty/">2022 Australian Mammal of the Year</a>. Fifty-eight mammal species are classed as vulnerable.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-sad-reality-is-many-dont-survive-how-floods-affect-wildlife-and-how-you-can-help-them-178310">'The sad reality is many don't survive': how floods affect wildlife, and how you can help them</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Many <a href="https://theconversation.com/mourn-our-lost-mammals-while-helping-the-survivors-battle-back-36126">once-abundant species</a>, some spread over large expanses of Australia, have greatly diminished and the distributions of their populations have become disjointed. Such mammals include the Mala (rufous hare-wallaby), Yaminon (northern hairy-nosed wombat), Woylie (brush-tailed bettong) and the Numbat.</p>
<p>This means their populations are more susceptible to being wiped out by chance events and changes – such as <a href="https://theconversation.com/six-million-hectares-of-threatened-species-habitat-up-in-smoke-129438">fires</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-sad-reality-is-many-dont-survive-how-floods-affect-wildlife-and-how-you-can-help-them-178310">floods</a>, disease, <a href="https://www.couriermail.com.au/ipad/feral-cats-wreak-havoc-in-raid-on-enclosed-refuge-for-endangered-bilbies/news-story/25e73bc2a4af49fadf19729585e1afcb">invasive predators</a> – and <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-017-01182-3">genetic issues</a>. The ongoing existence of many species <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/wr/wr17172">depends greatly upon predator-free</a> fenced sanctuaries and offshore islands.</p>
<p>Without substantial and rapid change, Australia’s list of extinct mammal species is <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/pc/PC18006">almost certain to grow</a>. So what exactly has gone so horribly wrong? What can and should be done to prevent further casualties and turn things around?</p>
<h2>Up to two mammal species gone per decade</h2>
<p>Australia’s <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/au/academic/subjects/life-sciences/zoology/australias-mammal-extinctions-50000-year-history?format=PB&isbn=9780521686600">post-colonisation</a> mammal extinctions may have begun <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S000632071930895X">as early as the 1840s</a>, when it’s believed the Noompa and Payi (large-eared and Darling Downs hopping mice, respectively) and the Liverpool Plains striped bandicoot went extinct.</p>
<p>Many extinct species were ground dwellers, and within the so-called “<a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1442-9993.2008.01878.x">critical weight range</a>” of between 35 grams and 5.5 kilograms. This means they’re especially vulnerable to <a href="https://theconversation.com/1-7-million-foxes-300-million-native-animals-killed-every-year-now-we-know-the-damage-foxes-wreak-177832">predation by cats and foxes</a>.</p>
<p>Small macropods (such as bettongs, potoroos and hare wallabies) and rodents have suffered <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/publicthreatenedlist.pl?wanted=fauna#mammals_extinct">most extinctions</a> – 13 species each, nearly 70% of all Australia’s mammal extinctions. </p>
<p>Eight bilby and bandicoot species and three bats species are also extinct, making up 21% and 8% of extinctions, respectively.</p>
<p>The most recent fatalities are thought to be the <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/book/7791/">Christmas Island pipistrelle</a> and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/jun/01/extinction-obituary-bramble-cay-melomys-climate-change-aoe">Bramble Cay melomys</a>, the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S000632071930895X">last known record</a> for both species was 2009. The Bramble Cay melomys is perhaps the first mammal species driven to extinction <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/jun/01/extinction-obituary-bramble-cay-melomys-climate-change-aoe">by climate change</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408578/original/file-20210628-13-rw4gnl.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Brown rodent" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408578/original/file-20210628-13-rw4gnl.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408578/original/file-20210628-13-rw4gnl.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=312&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408578/original/file-20210628-13-rw4gnl.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=312&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408578/original/file-20210628-13-rw4gnl.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=312&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408578/original/file-20210628-13-rw4gnl.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408578/original/file-20210628-13-rw4gnl.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408578/original/file-20210628-13-rw4gnl.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Bramble Cay melomys was declared extinct in 2019.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ian Bell, EHP, State of Queensland</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Overall, research estimates that since 1788, about <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1417301112#sec-1">one to two</a> land-based mammal species have been driven to extinction each decade. </p>
<h2>When mammals re-emerge</h2>
<p>It’s hard to be certain about the timing of extinction events and, <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.13421">in some cases</a>, even if they’re <em>actually</em> extinct. </p>
<p>For example, Ngilkat (Gilbert’s potoroo), the mountain pygmy possum, Antina (the central rock rat), and Leadbeater’s possum were once thought extinct, but were eventually rediscovered. Such species are often called <a href="https://theconversation.com/meet-the-lazarus-creatures-six-species-we-thought-were-extinct-but-arent-50274">Lazarus species</a>. </p>
<p>Our confidence in determining whether a species is extinct largely depends on how extensively and for how long we’ve searched for evidence of their persistence or absence.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/meet-the-lazarus-creatures-six-species-we-thought-were-extinct-but-arent-50274">Meet the Lazarus creatures – six species we thought were extinct, but aren't</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/bigfoot-the-kraken-and-night-parrots-searching-for-the-mythical-or-mysterious-75695">Modern approaches to wildlife survey</a> such as camera traps, audio recorders, conservation dogs and environmental DNA, make the task of searching much easier than it once was. </p>
<p>But sadly, <a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-has-hundreds-of-mammal-species-we-want-to-find-them-all-before-theyre-gone-185495">ongoing examination and analysis of museum specimens</a> also means that we’re still discovering species not known to Western science and that tragically are already extinct. </p>
<h2>What’s driving their demise?</h2>
<p>Following colonisation, Australia’s landscapes have suffered extensive, severe, sustained and often <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.13427">compounding blows</a>. These include: </p>
<ul>
<li>widespread <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/pc/pc18024">habitat modification and destruction</a> </li>
<li>the introduction of <a href="https://theconversation.com/1-7-million-foxes-300-million-native-animals-killed-every-year-now-we-know-the-damage-foxes-wreak-177832">invasive predators</a>, such as feral cats, red foxes and <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-mystery-of-the-top-ends-vanishing-wildlife-and-the-unexpected-culprits-143268">herbivores</a> (European rabbits, feral horses, goats, deer, water buffalo, donkeys)</li>
<li>toxic “prey” (<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-ultimate-invader-high-tech-tool-promises-scientists-an-edge-over-the-cane-toad-scourge-186542">cane toads</a>) </li>
<li>intense <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/csp2.52">livestock grazing</a></li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/world-first-research-confirms-australias-forests-became-catastrophic-fire-risk-after-british-invasion-176563">changed fire patterns</a> associated with the forced displacement of First Nations peoples and cultural practices </li>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/killer-climate-tens-of-thousands-of-flying-foxes-dead-in-a-day-23227">climate change</a> </li>
<li><a href="https://endangeredlist.org/animal/toolache-wallaby/">hunting</a> </li>
<li><a href="https://wildlifehealthaustralia.com.au/FactSheets.aspx">disease</a>.<br></li>
</ul>
<p>And importantly, the ongoing persecution of Australia’s largest land-based predator: <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/nature/amoty/dingo-charismatic-controversial-canid/">the dingo</a>. In some circumstances, dingoes may help reduce the activity and abundance of large herbivores and invasive predators. But in others, <a href="https://theconversation.com/dingo-dinners-whats-on-the-menu-for-australias-top-predator-103846">they may threaten native species</a> with small and restricted distributions. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/1-7-million-foxes-300-million-native-animals-killed-every-year-now-we-know-the-damage-foxes-wreak-177832">1.7 million foxes, 300 million native animals killed every year: now we know the damage foxes wreak</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Through widespread land clearing, urbanisation, livestock grazing and fire, some habitats have been obliterated and others dramatically altered and reduced, often resulting in less diverse and more open vegetation. Such simplified habitats can be <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320715002086">fertile hunting grounds</a> for red foxes and feral cats to find and kill native mammals. </p>
<p>To make matters worse, <a href="https://theconversation.com/dont-underestimate-rabbits-these-powerful-pests-threaten-more-native-wildlife-than-cats-or-foxes-168288">European rabbits</a> compete with native mammals for food and space. Their grazing reduces vegetation and cover, <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/PC/PC18024">endangering many native plant species in the process</a>. And they are prey to cats and foxes, <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cobi.12684">sustaining their populations</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490277/original/file-20221018-21181-ekiijp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Rabbit" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490277/original/file-20221018-21181-ekiijp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490277/original/file-20221018-21181-ekiijp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=385&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490277/original/file-20221018-21181-ekiijp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=385&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490277/original/file-20221018-21181-ekiijp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=385&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490277/original/file-20221018-21181-ekiijp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=484&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490277/original/file-20221018-21181-ekiijp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=484&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490277/original/file-20221018-21181-ekiijp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=484&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Feral rabbits reduce the ground cover of vegetation.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While cats and foxes, fire, and habitat modification and destruction are often cited as key threats to native mammals, it’s important to recognise how these threats and others may interact. They must be managed together accordingly. </p>
<p>For instance, reducing both overgrazing and preventing frequent, large and intense fires may help maintain vegetation cover and complexity. In turn, this will <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0109097">make it harder</a> for invasive predators to hunt native prey. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/dont-underestimate-rabbits-these-powerful-pests-threaten-more-native-wildlife-than-cats-or-foxes-168288">Don't underestimate rabbits: these powerful pests threaten more native wildlife than cats or foxes</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What must change?</h2>
<p>Above all else, we genuinely need to care about what’s transpiring, and to act swiftly and substantially to prevent further damage. </p>
<p>As a mammalogist of some 30 years, the continuing demise of Australia’s mammals is gut-wrenching and infuriating. We have the expertise and solutions at hand, but the frequent warnings and calls for change continue to be met with mediocre responses. At other times, a seemingly apathetic shrug of shoulders. </p>
<p>So many species are now gone, <a href="https://theconversation.com/should-we-bring-back-the-thylacine-we-asked-5-experts-188894">probably forever</a>, but so many more are hurtling down the extinction highway because of sheer and utter neglect. </p>
<p>Encouragingly, when we care for and invest in species, we <em>can</em> turn things around. Increasing numbers of <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/environment/conservation/numbat-stripes-reveal-endangered-population-is-twice-as-big-as-we-thought-20220506-p5aj40.html#:%7E:text=There%20were%20thought%20to%20be,is%20actually%20twice%20as%20large.">Numbats</a>, <a href="https://www.australianwildlife.org/new-hope-for-critically-endangered-northern-hairy-nosed-wombat/">Yaminon</a> and <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/environment/conservation/bandicoots-back-from-the-brink-as-status-downgraded-to-endangered-20210914-p58rgd.html">eastern-barred bandicoots</a> provide three celebrated examples. </p>
<p>Improving the prognosis for mammals is eminently achievable but conditional on political will. Broadly speaking, we must:</p>
<ul>
<li>minimise or remove their key threats </li>
<li>align policies (such as energy sources, resource use, and biodiversity conservation)</li>
<li>strengthen and enforce environmental laws </li>
<li>listen to, learn from and work with First Nations peoples as part of healing Country </li>
<li>invest what’s actually required – <a href="https://theconversation.com/labors-plan-to-save-threatened-species-is-an-improvement-but-its-still-well-short-of-what-we-need-191845">billions, not breadcrumbs</a>.</li>
</ul>
<p>The recently announced Threatened Species Action plan sets an ambitious objective of preventing new extinctions. Of the 110 species considered a “priority” to save, <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/biodiversity/threatened/publications/priority-species">21 are mammals</a>. The plan, however, is not fit for purpose and is <a href="https://theconversation.com/labors-plan-to-save-threatened-species-is-an-improvement-but-its-still-well-short-of-what-we-need-191845">highly unlikely</a> to succeed.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/labors-plan-to-save-threatened-species-is-an-improvement-but-its-still-well-short-of-what-we-need-191845">Labor's plan to save threatened species is an improvement – but it's still well short of what we need</a>
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</p>
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<p>Political commitments appear wafer thin when the same politicians continue to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2022/jul/26/wa-ring-road-approved-by-federal-government-threatens-ancient-trees-and-endangered-wildlife">approve the destruction</a> of the homes critically endangered species depend upon. What’s more, greenhouse gas emissions reduction targets are far below what climate scientists say are essential and extremely urgent. </p>
<p>There’s simply no time for platitudes and further dithering. Australia’s remaining mammals deserve far better, they deserve secure futures.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/192173/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Euan G. Ritchie is the Chair of the Media and Communications Working Group of the Ecological Society of Australia, Deputy Convenor (Communication and Outreach) for the Deakin Science and Society Network, and a member of the Australian Mammal Society.</span></em></p>38 mammals have been driven to extinction since colonisation, and many more are close to joining them. We have the solutions at hand, but warnings continue to be met with mediocre responses.Euan Ritchie, Professor in Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, Centre for Integrative Ecology, School of Life & Environmental Sciences, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1860632022-07-26T20:05:46Z2022-07-26T20:05:46ZSaving burned or injured animals draws our sympathy. But some don’t survive after release. Here’s why<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/473110/original/file-20220708-16-zb2oe3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=36%2C20%2C1496%2C1000&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Associate Professor Catherine Herbert</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Every year, Australia’s wildlife volunteers devote time, effort and their own money to rescue, rehabilitate and release <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.%20pone.0257209">tens of thousands</a> of native animals. Their efforts get a lot of media attention, particularly after huge disasters like the megafires of the 2019 Black Summer. </p>
<p>Readers will remember vivid images of <a href="https://theconversation.com/scientists-find-burnt-starving-koalas-weeks-after-the-bushfires-133519">koalas being rescued</a> along with efforts to <a href="https://theconversation.com/looks-like-an-anzac-biscuit-tastes-like-a-protein-bar-bogong-bikkies-help-mountain-pygmy-possums-after-fire-131045">provide food</a> to survivors in <a href="https://theconversation.com/surprisingly-few-animals-die-in-wildfires-and-that-means-we-can-help-more-in-the-aftermath-174392">burnt habitats</a>. </p>
<p>But <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0265514">little is known</a> about what happens to these creatures after they’re released back into the wild. Our <a href="https://doi.org/10.1071/WR22056">new research</a> on hand-reared brushtail possums has found release back into the wild can be fraught with danger. </p>
<p>In our study, almost half were killed. The main culprit: foxes. But there are things we can do.</p>
<h2>Rescue, rehabilitation and release</h2>
<p>Brushtail possums are the <a href="https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/topics/animals-and-plants/native-animals/rehabilitating-native-animals/wildlife-rehabilitation-reporting/wildlife-rehabilitation-data">fifth most rescued</a> native species in New South Wales. When a mother possum is attacked by a predator, hit by a car or burnt in a bushfire, human volunteers will often artificially raise any orphaned offspring. </p>
<p>Rearing babies as well as rescue and rehabilitation are important. But the wild holds threats such as <a href="https://theconversation.com/this-critically-endangered-marsupial-survived-a-bushfire-then-along-came-the-feral-cats-185133">hungry predators</a>. Not only that, but the reason an animal had to be rescued in the first place could still be present. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1214446534579949568"}"></div></p>
<p>To find out the fate of rescued animals, we used radio-tracking collars to follow 20 hand-reared possums up to 40 days after release. Of these, only eight (40%) survived until the end of the study, while nine (45%) were killed by foxes or had to be returned to rehabilitation, and three possums had unknown fates, as they lost radio signal. </p>
<p>Foxes were responsible for all possum deaths, and most happened within three days of release. Unfortunately, hand-reared animals often haven’t learned the behaviours to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2012.01.023">detect and avoid predators</a>. </p>
<p>You might think survival would be a game of chance. In fact, we found possums with more exploratory personalities and those which were less tame were more likely to survive. These qualities may have helped possums find food and refuge more effectively on their own in the wild.</p>
<p>That means the odds are stacked against orphaned, hand-reared possums. Because they’ve been raised by human carers, their personalities can be very different to those of wild possums. In short, captivity can alter the development of behaviours which might be important for survival in the wild. The longer animals spend with humans and the more tame they become, the less they seek refuge, recognise predators and find food effectively. </p>
<p>By contrast, it didn’t matter much whether the possums were released without further support, or whether carers left food supplies to get them started. It also didn’t matter much whether they were released in urban or rural areas. </p>
<p>The possums which had highest survival rates were those which retained their wildness and had not become tame. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A brushtail possum standing on a rock at night time in the bush." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/473111/original/file-20220708-26-pc118f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/473111/original/file-20220708-26-pc118f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/473111/original/file-20220708-26-pc118f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/473111/original/file-20220708-26-pc118f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/473111/original/file-20220708-26-pc118f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/473111/original/file-20220708-26-pc118f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/473111/original/file-20220708-26-pc118f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">We found possums that were more exploratory and less human-habituated were more likely to survive after release.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Professor Clare McArthur</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What can we learn?</h2>
<p>So what should Australia’s wildlife carers do? It’s not as simple as advising wildlife rehabilitation organisations to minimise how long animals spend in captivity. Animals have to remain in rehabilitation until their illness or injury is treated, they’re physically ready for release and a suitable release site has been found. </p>
<p>We believe we need to test and develop new ways of reducing tameness and encouraging exploratory behaviour during rehabilitation.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/3-billion-animals-were-in-the-bushfires-path-heres-what-the-royal-commission-said-and-shouldve-said-about-them-149429">3 billion animals were in the bushfires' path. Here's what the royal commission said (and should've said) about them</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Wildlife rehabilitators could use databases like <a href="https://www.feralscan.org.au/">Feral Scan</a> to gauge how often introduced predators have been seen at particular release sites. Rehabilitators could also talk to local land managers to take advantage of fox control efforts, and aim to release possums when fox numbers have been suppressed. We also need to continue developing effective methods to train possums to avoid predators, such as borrowing from <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/am/AM20048">successful antipredator training</a> used for other marsupials. </p>
<h2>Where to from here?</h2>
<p>In our recent <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/%20journal.pone.0265514">review</a>, we analysed 112 studies on wildlife survival rates during rehabilitation or after release. We found factors affecting survival were often specific to species or contexts, such as the region of the world or the reason the animal needed rehabilitation. </p>
<p>Globally, we found human-related factors like collisions with cars and introduced predators were major causes of injury and death for rescued and released wildlife. Tackling threats in the environment must remain a priority to reduce the need for wildlife rescue in the first place.</p>
<p>We hope studies such as ours can improve guidelines for wildlife rescue, rehabilitation and release. To improve survival rates, scientists, government agencies and wildlife volunteers must develop evidence-based and species-specific protocols to give every rehabilitated animal the best chance at living a life in the wild. </p>
<p>As urbanisation fragments habitat and with natural disasters set to be more frequent and more severe due to climate change, we will need these protocols to enable quick, efficient rescue programs for wildlife.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/simply-returning-rescued-wildlife-back-to-the-wild-may-not-be-in-their-best-interest-118521">Simply returning rescued wildlife back to the wild may not be in their best interest</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<p><em>The possum research was conducted by Callum Gillies as part of his Honours research at the University of Sydney.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/186063/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Holly Cope receives funding from the NSW Department of Planning and Environment, Morris Animal Foundation, and The University of Sydney Mabs Melville Bequest. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Catherine Herbert currently receives funding from the Morris Animal Foundation; NSW Department of Planning and Environment; ACT Road Safety Fund; ACT Government Environment, Planning and Sustainable Development Directorate; and RSPCA. The study cited in this article was funded by The University of Sydney NSW Industry and Community Seed Fund (#CT19595, awarded to CAH, CM and VM, in collaboration with the NSW Wildlife Information, Rescue and Education Service Inc.).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Clare McArthur receives funding from the Australian Research Council, Morris Animal Foundation, National Institute for Forest Products Innovation, New Zealand Endeavour Fund.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Valentina Mella currently receives funding from the NSW Department of Planning and Environment, and The University of Sydney Mabs Melville Bequest. The study cited in the article was funded by The University of Sydney NSW Industry and Community Seed Fund (#CT19595, awarded to CAH, CM and VM, in collaboration with the NSW Wildlife Information, Rescue and Education Service Inc.).</span></em></p>Almost half of the rehabilitated possums in our study were killed by foxes shortly after release. Keeping wildlife wild during rescue is hard – but necessary.Holly Cope, Postdoctoral Research Associate, University of SydneyCatherine Herbert, Associate professor, University of SydneyClare McArthur, Professor of Behavioural Ecology, University of SydneyValentina Mella, Postdoctoral research associate, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1778322022-03-15T18:59:07Z2022-03-15T18:59:07Z1.7 million foxes, 300 million native animals killed every year: now we know the damage foxes wreak<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451787/original/file-20220314-20-1yh6ghy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4896%2C3880&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.lerako.net/">Nicolas Rakotopare (lerako.net)</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Foxes kill about 300 million native mammals, birds and reptiles each year, and can be found across 80% of mainland Australia, our devastating <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/ddi.13497">new research</a> published today reveals.</p>
<p>This research, the first to quantify the national impact of foxes on Australian wildlife, also compares the results to <a href="https://www.nespthreatenedspecies.edu.au/media/2j1j51na/112-the-impact-of-cats-in-australia-findings-factsheetweb.pdf">similar studies on cats</a>. And we found foxes and cats collectively kill 2.6 billion mammals, birds and reptiles every year. </p>
<p>This enormous death toll is one of the key reasons Australia’s biodiversity is suffering major declines. Cats and foxes, for example, have played a big role in most of Australia’s 34 mammal extinctions, including the desert rat-kangaroo which rapidly declined once foxes reached their region. </p>
<p>Australia must drastically scale up the management of both predators, to give native wildlife a fighting chance and to help prevent future extinctions.</p>
<h2>Australia is home to 1.7 million foxes</h2>
<p>European colonisers brought foxes (and cats) to Australia. From 1845, <a href="https://meridian.allenpress.com/australian-zoologist/article/35/3/463/135337/The-importation-release-establishment-spread-and">foxes were released</a> into the wild in Victoria for the “sport” of hunting them on horseback with a pack of hounds.</p>
<p>Fox populations soon exploded, thanks to the deliberate introduction of <a href="https://theconversation.com/dont-underestimate-rabbits-these-powerful-pests-threaten-more-native-wildlife-than-cats-or-foxes-168288">rabbits and hares</a> in the 1800s. Rabbits and hares are not only a food source for foxes, they also eat the vegetation that native animals need for food, habitat, and to hide from predators. They continue to boost fox numbers today. </p>
<p>Our study estimates there are now 1.7 million foxes in Australia, spread across 80% of the mainland and on 50 Australian islands. They’re largely absent from tropical northern Australia and Tasmania. </p>
<p>By comparison, cats occur over more than 99.9% of the country, including on far more islands.</p>
<p>Fox densities are highest in temperate mainland regions, including forests and farms, and near urban areas where food and shelter are abundant. The Victorian government estimates there are as many as <a href="https://agriculture.vic.gov.au/biosecurity/pest-animals/priority-pest-animals/red-fox">16 foxes</a> per square kilometre in Melbourne. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451791/original/file-20220314-12-xmjcyq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="lizard on a log" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451791/original/file-20220314-12-xmjcyq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451791/original/file-20220314-12-xmjcyq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451791/original/file-20220314-12-xmjcyq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451791/original/file-20220314-12-xmjcyq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451791/original/file-20220314-12-xmjcyq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451791/original/file-20220314-12-xmjcyq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451791/original/file-20220314-12-xmjcyq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cats and foxes eat almost 2 million reptiles across Australia every day, such as the central netted dragon.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nicolas Rakotopare (Lerako.net)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What are foxes eating?</h2>
<p>The 300 million native animals that foxes kill every year consists of:</p>
<ul>
<li><p><strong>reptiles:</strong> foxes kill 88 million reptiles each year, and all are native. They’ve been recorded killing <a href="https://doi.org/10.1071/WR20194">108 different species</a> – or 11% of all Australian reptile species – including the tjakura (great desert skink) and loggerhead turtle</p></li>
<li><p><strong>birds:</strong> foxes kill 111 million birds each year, and 93% of these are native. They’ve been recorded killing <a href="http://doi.org/10.1017/S0959270921000460">128 species</a> – or 18% of all Australian bird species – including the mallee-fowl and little penguin</p></li>
<li><p><strong>mammals:</strong> foxes kill 368 million mammals each year, and 29% of these are native. They’ve been recorded killing <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2021.109284">114 species</a>, or 40% of all land mammal species and half of all threatened mammal species. This includes the mankarr (greater bilby), quenda (southern brown bandicoot) and warru (black-footed rock-wallaby).</p></li>
</ul>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451798/original/file-20220314-23-1rzs9n5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Estimated number of reptiles, birds and mammals eaten by foxes and cats every year" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451798/original/file-20220314-23-1rzs9n5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451798/original/file-20220314-23-1rzs9n5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451798/original/file-20220314-23-1rzs9n5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451798/original/file-20220314-23-1rzs9n5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451798/original/file-20220314-23-1rzs9n5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451798/original/file-20220314-23-1rzs9n5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451798/original/file-20220314-23-1rzs9n5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Foxes and feral cats together kill 2.6 billion animals every year.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Stobo-Wilson et al, Diversity and Distributions, 2022.</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Foxes also kill another 259 million non-native invasive animals every year, predominately house mice and rabbits. They also kill livestock, such as lambs, piglets and chickens. </p>
<p>While rabbits and house mice form a major part of fox diets, there’s no evidence foxes (or cats) limit their numbers. Changes in rabbit and mice populations are largely driven by climate fluctuations. </p>
<p>Our findings are underpinned by modelling data assembled from almost 100 field studies. This included 49,458 fox poo and stomach samples, and fox density estimates at 437 locations.</p>
<p>Foxes are also known to eat bird and reptile eggs, and threaten the breeding success of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1071/WR20194">many turtle species</a>. However, we didn’t tally their impact on turtle eggs (or on fish, frogs or insects) because of insufficient data - they’re highly digestible and often hard to identify in fox poo. </p>
<p>Carrion (dead animals) account for an average of 10% of fox diets, but we excluded carrion in the estimated numbers of animals killed. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451792/original/file-20220314-15-ydlhcd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="a small blue and grey bird" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451792/original/file-20220314-15-ydlhcd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451792/original/file-20220314-15-ydlhcd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451792/original/file-20220314-15-ydlhcd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451792/original/file-20220314-15-ydlhcd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451792/original/file-20220314-15-ydlhcd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451792/original/file-20220314-15-ydlhcd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451792/original/file-20220314-15-ydlhcd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Fairy wrens and other birds that nest and feed near the ground are vulnerable to foxes and cats.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nicolas Rakotopare (Lerako.net)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Foxes and cats: a deadly combination</h2>
<p>Although they eat many of the same species, foxes take larger prey than cats and have a bigger toll on kangaroos, wallabies and potoroos.</p>
<p>Cats eat smaller prey, so eat a lot more of them. Nationally, feral cats kill about five times more <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-hidden-toll-australias-cats-kill-almost-650-million-reptiles-a-year-98854">reptiles</a>, two and a half times more <a href="https://theconversation.com/for-whom-the-bell-tolls-cats-kill-more-than-a-million-australian-birds-every-day-85084">birds</a> and twice as many <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2019.06.013">mammals</a> than foxes. </p>
<p>In total, feral cats kill 1.5 billion animals every year (not including invertebrates and frogs). Pet cats kill another 500 million animals.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/one-cat-one-year-110-native-animals-lock-up-your-pet-its-a-killing-machine-138412">One cat, one year, 110 native animals: lock up your pet, it's a killing machine</a>
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<p>The impacts of both predators are concentrated in some regions more than others. And although cats kill more animals overall nationally, in some areas foxes take a greater toll. </p>
<p>This includes the Warren and Jarrah Forest in Western Australia, the Eyre and Yorke Penninsula in South Australia, across Victoria and in NSW’s Blue Mountains.</p>
<p>This is why foxes take a larger toll on forest animals such as possums and gliders, and kill over 1,000 animals per square kilometre each year in these areas. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451793/original/file-20220314-21-5wu6f5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An orange cat" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451793/original/file-20220314-21-5wu6f5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451793/original/file-20220314-21-5wu6f5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451793/original/file-20220314-21-5wu6f5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451793/original/file-20220314-21-5wu6f5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451793/original/file-20220314-21-5wu6f5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451793/original/file-20220314-21-5wu6f5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451793/original/file-20220314-21-5wu6f5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cats are widespread across Australia, while foxes are widespread everywhere except Tasmania and tropical northern Australia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Northern Territory Government</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>To understand and manage these threats, it’s essential to take the cumulative impacts of both introduced predators into account. Many species fall prey to both cats and foxes.</p>
<p>Each day across Australia their combined death toll includes 1.9 million reptiles, 1.4 million birds and 3.9 million mammals.</p>
<h2>So what needs to change?</h2>
<p>The only way to stem these losses, and prevent the extinction of many vulnerable species, is to step up targeted and integrated cat and fox management.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451799/original/file-20220314-25-1mqbye4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Close up of a wallaby face" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451799/original/file-20220314-25-1mqbye4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451799/original/file-20220314-25-1mqbye4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451799/original/file-20220314-25-1mqbye4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451799/original/file-20220314-25-1mqbye4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451799/original/file-20220314-25-1mqbye4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451799/original/file-20220314-25-1mqbye4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451799/original/file-20220314-25-1mqbye4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Foxes and cats kill 4 million mammals every day across Australia. The bridled nailtail wallaby was once common throughout eastern Australia, but foxes and cats (and habitat loss) pushed it close to extinction.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nicolas Rakotopare (Lerako.net)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Cat and fox eradication programs have had success in fenced areas and on islands. For example, cat eradication on Dirk Hartog Island is enabling many native animals to be reintroduced. </p>
<p>And long-term broad-scale management programs have enabled the recovery of threatened species in wider landscapes, such as the <a href="https://www.nespthreatenedspecies.edu.au/media/o0pnnarg/6-4-hope_yellow-foooted-rock-wallaby-case-study-factsheet_v4.pdf">Bounceback Program</a> helping yellow-footed rock wallabies and other wildlife in SA’s Flinders Ranges.</p>
<p>Our new research highlights the urgent need to increase investment for cat and fox management across Australia. Management will need to be large-scale and strategically coordinated as both species breed like rabbits, so to speak, and travel great distances. </p>
<p>This means patchy, or small-scale lethal programs can allow their numbers to quickly rebound.</p>
<p>We also need to protect and recover habitat for native animals. <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-mystery-of-the-top-ends-vanishing-wildlife-and-the-unexpected-culprits-143268">Evidence shows</a> good habitat supports healthier native animal populations and gives them more places to hide from predators. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-mystery-of-the-top-ends-vanishing-wildlife-and-the-unexpected-culprits-143268">The mystery of the Top End's vanishing wildlife, and the unexpected culprits</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/177832/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>23 scientists contributed to the research described in this article. The research received funding from the Australian Government's National Environmental Science Program through the Threatened Species Recovery Hub (which ended in Dec 2021). Jaana Dielenberg previously received funding from the Threatened Species Recovery Hub but does not currently work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brett Murphy receives funding from the Australian Research Council. He received funding from the Australian Government's National Environmental Science Program through the Threatened Species Recovery Hub (which ended in Dec 2021). He is a member of the Australian Government's Threatened Species Scientific Committee.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>John Woinarski is a director of Australian Wildlife Conservancy. The research received funding from the Australian Government's National Environmental Science Program through the Threatened Species Recovery Hub (which ended in Dec 2021).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>The research received funding from the Australian Government's National Environmental Science Program through the Threatened Species Recovery Hub (which ended in Dec 2021).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alyson Stobo-Wilson and Trish Fleming do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>In some regions, foxes kill at least 1,000 animals per square kilometre every year.Jaana Dielenberg, University Fellow, Charles Darwin UniversityAlyson Stobo-Wilson, Postdoctoral Research Associate, Charles Darwin UniversityBrett Murphy, Associate Professor / ARC Future Fellow, Charles Darwin UniversityJohn Woinarski, Professor (conservation biology), Charles Darwin UniversitySarah Legge, Professor, Australian National UniversityTrish Fleming, Professor, Murdoch UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1704502022-01-02T18:44:38Z2022-01-02T18:44:38ZSo you want to cat-proof a bettong: how living with predators could help native species survive<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/433847/original/file-20211125-19-2os6l6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C4%2C3091%2C2053&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jannico Kelk</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>When we release a group of endangered animals into the wild, we always hope they will survive. They usually don’t. We find bilby carcasses under bushes, bettongs ripped apart by feral cats, and tufts of rock wallaby fur in fox scats. </p>
<p>Over the last 25 years I’ve seen the devastation caused by introduced foxes and cats firsthand during attempts to conserve our threatened mammals. At one of my research sites, <a href="https://aridrecovery.org.au/">Arid Recovery</a>, we have tried again and again to protect bilbies, bettongs and wallabies outside fences. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, our native animals have not co-evolved with these canny predators and simply don’t have the <a href="https://researchers.mq.edu.au/en/publications/predicting-predator-recognition-in-a-changing-world">anti-predator</a> behaviours or physical traits needed to avoid them. </p>
<p>So what to do? After years of discouraging results, we’re trying something new. We want to help our native marsupials evolve to become warier and better at surviving. Not in fenced-off sanctuaries – but in the wild, alongside these extraordinarily clever predators. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434106/original/file-20211126-19-16jz71i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A feral cat hunting at night in central Australia" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434106/original/file-20211126-19-16jz71i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434106/original/file-20211126-19-16jz71i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434106/original/file-20211126-19-16jz71i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434106/original/file-20211126-19-16jz71i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434106/original/file-20211126-19-16jz71i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=520&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434106/original/file-20211126-19-16jz71i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=520&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434106/original/file-20211126-19-16jz71i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=520&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Too lethal: A feral cat hunting at night in central Australia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why are our native mammals such easy prey?</h2>
<p>If our native marsupials had more time to adapt, we wouldn’t have to do this. But rabbits, foxes and cats operate like an unholy trinity. European settlement brought high rabbit numbers. These animals competed with native marsupials for food and became food for cats and foxes – inflating their numbers in turn. The damage was exacerbated by widespread land clearing and overgrazing.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/from-the-frontline-saving-australias-threatened-mammals-28337">From the frontline: saving Australia's threatened mammals</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Our mammal extinctions to date include burrowing or smaller marsupials, including wallabies, bandicoots and rodents mostly within the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18173487/">critical weight range</a> of 35 grams to 5.5 kilograms. Those smaller or larger are safer. Those in the middle? Cat and fox food. </p>
<p>The problem we are faced with in conservation is doubly difficult, because to protect the most vulnerable species – Shark Bay bandicoots, burrowing bettongs, greater stick-nest rats – we have to breed them in islands of safety. They live behind high fences while the predators roam outside. </p>
<p>When you breed animals in captivity, they become even more naive about predators. So what’s the solution? Do we simply keep stocks of these rare marsupials on life support?</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434101/original/file-20211126-19-oc5n4l.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Researchers release a burrowing bettong in the Arid Recovery sanctuary in South Australia" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434101/original/file-20211126-19-oc5n4l.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434101/original/file-20211126-19-oc5n4l.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434101/original/file-20211126-19-oc5n4l.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434101/original/file-20211126-19-oc5n4l.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434101/original/file-20211126-19-oc5n4l.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434101/original/file-20211126-19-oc5n4l.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434101/original/file-20211126-19-oc5n4l.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Researchers release a burrowing bettong in the Arid Recovery sanctuary in South Australia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We spend millions of dollars a year controlling cats and foxes by trapping, shooting and baiting them. Much less effort has gone into improving the responses of prey animals. </p>
<p>If our native mammals are to claw back any part of their previous range, they will eventually need to co-exist with cats and foxes in more places in the wild. And to do that, they need our help.</p>
<h2>Can we really speed up adaptation?</h2>
<p>To date, most efforts to improve naive prey animals’ responses to predators pair an unpleasant experience with a predator cue. Rubber bands, water pistols, loud noises or physically chasing animals are paired with cues like taxidermied foxes, models, cat odour or vocalisations. Unfortunately, results are generally poor or short lived.</p>
<p>In response to these challenges, we have been testing a more interventionist approach – <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/eva.12332">in situ predator exposure</a>. This is where we expose threatened mammals to low densities of real predators over long time periods to accelerate natural selection and direct learning through real predator encounters. </p>
<p>For the six years we have been running this experiment in South Australia, the approach has yielded some promising results. </p>
<p>We placed bilbies and burrowing bettongs into a fenced paddock and added low numbers of feral cats. Then we waited. Over the next six years, we compared their physical and behavioural traits over time with a control population not exposed to predators. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Greater bilby at night" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434102/original/file-20211126-13-jsk4ae.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434102/original/file-20211126-13-jsk4ae.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434102/original/file-20211126-13-jsk4ae.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434102/original/file-20211126-13-jsk4ae.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434102/original/file-20211126-13-jsk4ae.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434102/original/file-20211126-13-jsk4ae.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434102/original/file-20211126-13-jsk4ae.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Greater bilby photographed at the Arid Recovery centre.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Alexandra Ross</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-australia-needs-to-kill-cats-116654">Why Australia needs to kill cats</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>We found cat-exposed bilbies became warier and sought areas of thicker cover within only a couple of years. Not only that, they had <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.13406">higher survival rates</a> than control bilbies when both were reintroduced to an area where cats were present. </p>
<p>Within 18 months, predator-exposed bettongs became <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.12947">significantly harder</a> to approach at night. Remarkably, their hind feet became longer relative to control populations over several years and they had significantly faster reaction times during <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2021.02.013">escapes from predators</a>, though not yet fast enough to show a significant difference in survival between control and cat-exposed populations.</p>
<p>In short, exposing naive prey to predators changed behaviour and in some cases survival after just a few generations. This is positive news. </p>
<p>You might be wondering why this doesn’t just happen naturally in wild populations. In some cases it does. Many native mammals now recognise and <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323357227_Discrimination_of_introduced_predators_by_ontogenetically_naive_prey_scales_with_duration_of_shared_evolutionary_history">respond to dingoes</a>, which have only been in Australia for a few thousand years. The problem is that cat and fox densities are likely too high to enable prey to adapt before local extinction occurs. </p>
<p>Anti-predator behaviour can be <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2018.0222">lost within only a few</a> generations, studies have shown. It’s heartening to know it can also be regained quickly. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/433861/original/file-20211125-17-g9opht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="burrowing bettong" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/433861/original/file-20211125-17-g9opht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/433861/original/file-20211125-17-g9opht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433861/original/file-20211125-17-g9opht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433861/original/file-20211125-17-g9opht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433861/original/file-20211125-17-g9opht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433861/original/file-20211125-17-g9opht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433861/original/file-20211125-17-g9opht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Burrowing bettongs were once extremely common across Australia’s interior.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Photo by Andrew Freeman</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Will these changes endure?</h2>
<p>What we need to know is if these changes are due to plasticity or selection. If it’s plasticity, it means the changes and learning experienced by individual bilbies and bettongs may not be passed on to the next generation. </p>
<p>If selection is at work, it means ongoing predator exposure could result in changes to the genetic makeup of the species, with further improvements and adaptations over time. </p>
<p>So which is it? Our initial results suggest selection may be occurring in some traits such as hind foot length. Similar efforts to teach northern quolls to <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29896894/">avoid cane toads</a> have found learned behaviour can be inherited. </p>
<p>This kind of assisted evolution is also being trialled in <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/112/8/2307">corals</a> to give them the adaptations necessary to survive our warming oceans. </p>
<p>To achieve the dream of successful coexistence between introduced predators and our native mammals, we will need a range of approaches. These include better predator control methods to reduce numbers, improved habitat quality for our mammals, and enhanced prey responses. </p>
<p>We urgently need a better understanding of <a href="https://digital.library.adelaide.edu.au/dspace/handle/2440/119578">predator thresholds</a> – the level of predation at which native species can maintain stable or increasing populations while applying enough selective pressure to evolve new behaviours and traits. Under these conditions we could expect some (but not all) native species to eventually adapt to introduced predators. </p>
<p>After spending the last three decades watching our native animals continually decline, we are now at the point where we need to carefully explore new options with an open mind.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/170450/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Katherine Moseby receives funding from Arid Recovery and The Australian Research Council. </span></em></p>What if we could help threatened marsupials evolve to survive foxes and feral cats?Katherine Moseby, Associate Professor, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1682882021-10-21T01:00:57Z2021-10-21T01:00:57ZDon’t underestimate rabbits: these powerful pests threaten more native wildlife than cats or foxes<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/427443/original/file-20211020-20-1igkl3u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=34%2C40%2C3847%2C2543&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>In inland Australia, rabbits have taken a severe toll on native wildlife since they were <a href="https://www.nma.gov.au/defining-moments/resources/rabbits-introduced">introduced in 1859</a>. They may be small, but today rabbits are a key threat to <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/pc/pc18024">322 species</a> of Australia’s at-risk plants and animals — more than twice the number of species threatened by cats or foxes. </p>
<p>For example, research shows even just one rabbit in two hectares of land can solely destroy <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1442-9993.1988.tb01414.x">every regenerating sheoak seedling</a>. Rabbits are also responsible for the historic declines of the iconic <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/am/AM15046">southern hairy-nosed wombat</a> and red kangaroo.</p>
<p><a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/rec.13552">Our latest research</a> looked at the conservation benefits following the introduction of three separate <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-how-biocontrol-fights-invasive-species-31298">biocontrols</a> used to manage rabbits in Australia over the 20th Century — all three were stunningly successful and resulted in enormous benefits to conservation. </p>
<p>But today, rabbits are commonly <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/rj/rj16047">ignored or underestimated</a>, and aren’t given appropriate attention in conservation compared to introduced predators like cats and foxes. This needs to change.</p>
<h2>Why rabbits are such a serious problem</h2>
<p>Simply put, rabbits are a major problem for Australian ecosystems because they destroy huge numbers of critical regenerating seedlings over more than half the continent. </p>
<p>Rabbits can <a href="https://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=AV20120153810">prevent</a> the long-term <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-540-72446-9_9">regeneration</a> of trees and shrubs by continually eating young seedlings. This keeps ecosystems from ever reaching their natural, pre-rabbit forms. This has immense flow-on effects for the availability of food for plant-eating animals, for insect abundance, <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1749-4877.2008.00078.x">shelter</a> and <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/ddi.13065">predation</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/427455/original/file-20211020-26249-1im7uvu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/427455/original/file-20211020-26249-1im7uvu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/427455/original/file-20211020-26249-1im7uvu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427455/original/file-20211020-26249-1im7uvu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427455/original/file-20211020-26249-1im7uvu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427455/original/file-20211020-26249-1im7uvu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=520&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427455/original/file-20211020-26249-1im7uvu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=520&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427455/original/file-20211020-26249-1im7uvu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=520&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Grazing competition from rabbits has been attributed to the decline of southern hairy-nosed wombats.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">David Taggart</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In some ecosystems, rabbits have prevented the regeneration of plant communities for <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3543436?origin=crossref">130 years</a>, resulting in shrub populations of only old, scattered individuals. These prolonged impacts may undermine <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/aec.12880">the long-term success</a> of conservation programs to reintroduce mammals to the wild.</p>
<p>Things are particularly dire in arid Australia where, in drought years, rabbits can eat a high proportion of the vegetation that grows, leaving little food for native animals. Arid vegetation is slow growing and doesn’t regenerate often as rainfall is infrequent. This means rabbits can have a severe toll on wildlife by swiftly eating young trees and shrubs soon after they emerge from the ground. </p>
<p>Rabbits eat a high proportion of regenerating vegetation even when their population is at <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/bt/bt15208">nearly undetectable levels</a>. For example, it took the complete eradication of rabbits from the semi-arid TGB Osborn reserve in South Australia, before <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/BT/BT04144">most tree and shrub</a> species could regenerate. </p>
<p>Rabbits also <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/PC/PC090158">spread weeds</a>, cause soil erosion and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2351989420309252?via%3Dihub">reduce the ability of soil</a> to absorb moisture and support vegetation growth.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/427414/original/file-20211020-15-1cg2367.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/427414/original/file-20211020-15-1cg2367.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/427414/original/file-20211020-15-1cg2367.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=385&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427414/original/file-20211020-15-1cg2367.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=385&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427414/original/file-20211020-15-1cg2367.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=385&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427414/original/file-20211020-15-1cg2367.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=484&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427414/original/file-20211020-15-1cg2367.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=484&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427414/original/file-20211020-15-1cg2367.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=484&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Rabbits spread weeds and eat seedlings.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>If you control prey, you control predators</h2>
<p>When restoring ecosystems, particularly in arid Australia, it’s common for land managers to heavily focus on managing predators such as cats and foxes, while ignoring rabbits. While predator management is important, neglecting rabbit control may mean Australia’s unique fauna is still destined to decline.</p>
<p><a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00378734">Cats</a> and <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00319021">foxes</a> eat a lot of rabbits in arid Australia and can limit their populations when rabbit numbers are low. A common argument <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/jbi.12469">against rabbit control</a> is that cats and foxes will turn to eating native species in the absence of rabbits. But this argument is unfounded. </p>
<p>Cats and foxes may turn from rabbits to native species in the immediate short-term. But, research has also shown fewer rabbits ultimately lead to declines in <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10530-019-02131-5">cat</a> <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/wr/wr00101">and</a> <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/wr/WR99065">fox</a> numbers, as the cats and foxes are starved of their major food source. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/427441/original/file-20211020-21-3tskzo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/427441/original/file-20211020-21-3tskzo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/427441/original/file-20211020-21-3tskzo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427441/original/file-20211020-21-3tskzo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427441/original/file-20211020-21-3tskzo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427441/original/file-20211020-21-3tskzo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427441/original/file-20211020-21-3tskzo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427441/original/file-20211020-21-3tskzo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Culling rabbits starves feral predators of their major food source.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Regrowth could be seen from space</h2>
<p>An effective way to deal with rabbits is to release biocontrol agents - natural enemies of rabbits, such as viruses or parasites. Our research reviewed the effects of rolling out three different biocontrols last century:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>myxomatosis (an infectious rabbit disease), released in 1950 </p></li>
<li><p>European rabbit fleas (as a vector of myxomatosis), released in 1968 </p></li>
<li><p>rabbit haemorrhagic disease, released in 1995. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>Each lead to unprecedented reductions in the number of rabbits across Australia. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/427643/original/file-20211020-16-2wsx08.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/427643/original/file-20211020-16-2wsx08.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/427643/original/file-20211020-16-2wsx08.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427643/original/file-20211020-16-2wsx08.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427643/original/file-20211020-16-2wsx08.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427643/original/file-20211020-16-2wsx08.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427643/original/file-20211020-16-2wsx08.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427643/original/file-20211020-16-2wsx08.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Rabbits eventually built up a tolerance to biocontrols.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Despite the minor interest in conservation at the time, the spread of myxomatosis led to <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1442-9993.1988.tb01414.x">widespread regeneration in sheoaks</a> for over five years, before rabbit numbers built back up. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2352249617300319">Red kangaroo populations</a> increased so much that landholders were suddenly “<a href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/48116423?searchTerm=Pests%20follow%20the%20rain%20in%20N-E%20drought#">involved in a shooting war with hordes of kangaroos invading their properties</a>”, according to a newspaper report at the time. </p>
<p>Following the introduction of the European rabbit flea, <a href="https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1338918">native grasses</a> became prolific along the Mount Lofty Ranges, South Australia. Similarly, southern hairy-nosed wombats and <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/am/am19037">swamp wallabies</a> expanded their ranges.</p>
<p>By the time rabbit haemorrhagic disease was introduced in 1995, interest in conservation and the environment had grown and conservation benefits were better recorded.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/book/6508/">Native vegetation</a> <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/bt/bt15208">regenerated</a> over enormous spans of land, including native pine, needle bush, umbrella wattle, witchetty bush and twin-leaved emu bush. This regeneration was so significant across large parts of the Simpson and Strzelecki Deserts, it could be <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0034425717302171">seen from space</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/427404/original/file-20211020-20-1bfrfzu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/427404/original/file-20211020-20-1bfrfzu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/427404/original/file-20211020-20-1bfrfzu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427404/original/file-20211020-20-1bfrfzu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427404/original/file-20211020-20-1bfrfzu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427404/original/file-20211020-20-1bfrfzu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427404/original/file-20211020-20-1bfrfzu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427404/original/file-20211020-20-1bfrfzu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">When rabbits were controlled, the number of red kangaroos doubled.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-540-72446-9_19">Red kangaroos</a> became two to three times more abundant, and <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cobi.12684">multiple species of desert rodent and a small marsupial carnivore</a> (dusky hopping mouse, spinifex hopping mouse, plains rat, crest-tailed mulgara) all expanded their ranges.</p>
<p>But each time, after 10 to 20 years, the biocontrols stop working so well, as rabbits eventually built up a tolerance to the diseases. </p>
<h2>So what should we do today?</h2>
<p>Today, there are an estimated <a href="https://www.nma.gov.au/defining-moments/resources/rabbits-introduced">150-200 million rabbits</a> in Australia, we need to be on the front foot to manage this crisis. This means researchers should continually develop new biocontrols — which are clearly astonishingly successful.</p>
<p>But this isn’t the only solution. The use of biocontrols must be integrated with conventional rabbit management techniques, <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/WR/WR09103">including destroying</a> warrens (burrow networks) and harbours (above-ground rabbit shelters), baiting, fumigation, shooting or trapping.</p>
<p>Land managers have a major part to play in restoring Australia’s arid ecosystems, too. Land managers are required by law to control invasive pests such as rabbits, and this must occur humanely using approved and recognised methods. </p>
<p>They, and researchers, must take rabbit management seriously and give it equal, if not more, attention than feral cats and foxes. It all starts with a greater awareness of the problem, so we stop underestimating these small, but powerful, pests. </p>
<p><em>The authors would like to acknowledge the significant contribution of Dr Graeme Finlayson from Bush Heritage Australia, who is the lead author of the published study.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/168288/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Pat Taggart works for the Department of Primary Industries NSW. He receives funding from the Federal Department of Agriculture, Water and Environment, and the Centre for Invasive Species Solutions. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brian Cooke is an adjunct Associate Professor at the University of Canberra. He previously worked for the South Australian Government and CSIRO on biological control of rabbits. He is affiliated with Rabbit Free Australia. </span></em></p>Rabbits destroy huge numbers of critical regenerating seedlings over more than half the continent. This has devastating flow-on effects for the rest of the ecosystem. So how do we control them?Pat Taggart, Adjunct Fellow, UNSW SydneyBrian Cooke, Adjunct Associate Professor, University of CanberraLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1593372021-05-05T04:36:49Z2021-05-05T04:36:49ZFox scents are so potent they can force a building evacuation. Understanding them may save our wildlife<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/398807/original/file-20210505-15-75mhfq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=6%2C27%2C4597%2C3037&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Foxes, like other animals, <a href="http://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2006.1931">use scent</a> to communicate and survive. They <a href="http://doi.org/10.1007/s10164-012-0348-7">urinate</a> to leave their mark, depositing a complex mix of chemicals to send messages to other foxes. <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0248961">Research</a> by myself and colleagues has uncovered new information about these scents that could help control fox numbers.</p>
<p>Urine scent marking behaviour has long been known in foxes, but there has not been a recent study of the chemical composition of fox urine. </p>
<p>We found foxes produce a set of chemicals unknown in other animals. Some of these chemicals are also found in flowers or skunk sprays. One is so potent, a tiny leak was enough to force the evacuation of a building we were working in.</p>
<p>The results suggest a highly evolved language of chemical communication underlying foxes’ social structure and behaviour. Our research could help improve these methods and protect vulnerable native wildlife from one of Australia’s <a href="http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2907.2010.00159.x">worst feral pests</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="fox with dead animal" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/398810/original/file-20210505-19-1v9btdr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/398810/original/file-20210505-19-1v9btdr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/398810/original/file-20210505-19-1v9btdr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/398810/original/file-20210505-19-1v9btdr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/398810/original/file-20210505-19-1v9btdr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/398810/original/file-20210505-19-1v9btdr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/398810/original/file-20210505-19-1v9btdr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Foxes are one of Australia’s worst feral pests.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The fox problem</h2>
<p>The European red fox was introduced into Australia in the 1870s for recreational hunting, and within 20 years had <a href="https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/topics/animals-and-plants/pest-animals-and-weeds/pest-animals/foxes">expanded</a> to pest proportions. The animals are now found in all states and territories <a href="https://theconversation.com/tasmanias-fox-hunt-was-worth-it-even-if-there-were-no-foxes-34045">except Tasmania</a>.</p>
<p>Foxes hunt and kill native wildlife and have <a href="https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/topics/animals-and-plants/pest-animals-and-weeds/pest-animals/foxes">helped drive</a> several species of small mammals and birds to extinction. They also kill livestock, spread weeds and can threaten the health of humans and pets by transmitting disease.</p>
<p>Current fox control methods mainly depend on lethal baits, which can also kill <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1365-2907.2007.00108.x">other animals</a>, and trapping and shooting which alone <a href="https://theconversation.com/political-dreaming-shooters-solving-pest-problems-8258">cannot reduce</a> the large fox populations now present.</p>
<p>Knowledge of the chemistry of fox society could help develop new, better methods of population control.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/when-introduced-species-are-cute-and-loveable-culling-them-is-a-tricky-proposition-130471">When introduced species are cute and loveable, culling them is a tricky proposition</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="fox killing turtle on beach" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/398811/original/file-20210505-19-1gv1ucx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/398811/original/file-20210505-19-1gv1ucx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/398811/original/file-20210505-19-1gv1ucx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/398811/original/file-20210505-19-1gv1ucx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/398811/original/file-20210505-19-1gv1ucx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/398811/original/file-20210505-19-1gv1ucx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/398811/original/file-20210505-19-1gv1ucx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Foxes are a big killer of native wildlife.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Making sense of smell</h2>
<p>Mammals, including humans and foxes, smell airborne substances when molecules enter the nose and bind to receptors in the lining of the nasal cavity. The receptors send a signal to the brain’s olfactory cortex, leading to the sensation of smell. </p>
<p>Foxes have an acute sense of smell. They rely on scents to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2020.104771">communicate with each other</a>, find food, avoid predators and locate breeding partners. This ability is beneficial for animals active at night when visibility is low, and enables them to <a href="http://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12334">avoid dangerous encounters</a>. </p>
<p>Messages can also be deposited as scent marks to be “read” after the marker has departed. This is useful for claiming and defending territory.</p>
<p>Foxes have two glands from which they emit scents. These comprise:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>a patch on the tail known as the “<a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00987739">violet gland</a>” because of its floral odour</p></li>
<li><p>a pair of sacs either side of the anus.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Fox scents are also present in the animal’s urine.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/invasive-predators-are-eating-the-worlds-animals-to-extinction-and-the-worst-is-close-to-home-64741">Invasive predators are eating the world's animals to extinction – and the worst is close to home</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Sitting fox" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/398812/original/file-20210505-19-17e7g3f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/398812/original/file-20210505-19-17e7g3f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/398812/original/file-20210505-19-17e7g3f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/398812/original/file-20210505-19-17e7g3f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/398812/original/file-20210505-19-17e7g3f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/398812/original/file-20210505-19-17e7g3f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/398812/original/file-20210505-19-17e7g3f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Foxes have an acute sense of smell.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>On the scent</h2>
<p>My colleagues and I have <a href="http://doi.org/10.1093/chemse/bjz009">investigated fox scents in the violet gland</a>. More recently, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248961">we also investigated</a> the scent chemicals in fox urine, assisted by hunting groups in Victoria.</p>
<p>We analysed the urine of 15 free-ranging wild foxes living in farmlands and bush in Victoria. Foxes there are routinely culled as feral pests, and the urine was collected by bladder puncture soon after death. </p>
<p>Among our key findings were a group of 16 sulfur-containing chemicals which, taken together, are unique to foxes. Some are also found in skunk defensive sprays. </p>
<p>Fox scents are mostly very potent, and have been described as unpleasant and “musty”. They are also persistent – if you get fox scent on your skin it’s very hard to wash off.</p>
<p>One incident demonstrates the smelliness of these chemicals. We’d purchased two drops of a compound to compare against our own samples. Unfortunately, the container leaked and the resulting bad odour, while not dangerous, led to our university building being evacuated.</p>
<p>In contrast, another group of chemicals in fox scents are normally found in flowers. These were present in fox urine but more abundant in the <a href="http://doi.org/10.1093/chemse/bjz009">tail gland</a>. They are derivatives of carotenoids, the red and yellow pigments in <a href="http://doi.org/10.1016/j.envexpbot.2015.04.009">fruits and flowers</a>.</p>
<p>Foxes eat a <a href="http://doi.org/10.1071/WR16066%5D(http://doi.org/10.1071/WR16066)">lot of plants</a>. The presence of plant-derived scents may signal good nutrition, and research suggests dietary carotenoids are particularly important for the <a href="http://doi.org/10.1071/FP11192">general health</a> of mammals.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/killing-cats-rats-and-foxes-is-no-silver-bullet-for-saving-wildlife-42754">Killing cats, rats and foxes is no silver bullet for saving wildlife</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="breeding fox pair" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/398813/original/file-20210505-21-1c293bp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/398813/original/file-20210505-21-1c293bp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/398813/original/file-20210505-21-1c293bp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/398813/original/file-20210505-21-1c293bp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/398813/original/file-20210505-21-1c293bp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=509&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/398813/original/file-20210505-21-1c293bp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=509&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/398813/original/file-20210505-21-1c293bp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=509&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Foxes use scent markers to help find a mate.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Chemical communicators</h2>
<p>The chemistry of fox scents is rich and unique. This suggests foxes have evolved a complex language of chemical communication. </p>
<p>Just as modern drug therapies are based on knowledge of the human body’s internal <a href="http://doi.org/10.1111/bph.14524">chemical signalling</a>, an understanding of chemical communication between foxes could lead to novel methods of fox management. </p>
<p>For example, scents signifying a dominant fox could be used to deter subordinate foxes. Conversely, scents that attract foxes could be used to overcome bait shyness. </p>
<p>This could be combined with the non-lethal baiting agent cabergoline, which <a href="http://doi.org/10.1071/RD01076">inhibits the fertility</a> of vixens. And mating could be disrupted if mate choice is found to be determined by chemical signals.</p>
<p>Such new methods may lead to longer-term and more effective control of fox numbers, bringing huge benefits to agriculture and biodiversity in Australia.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>The author would like to acknowledge advice on this article from Dr Duncan Sutherland of Phillip Island Nature Parks, Victoria, and the generous assistance of Victorian fox hunting groups which helped collect urine samples.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/159337/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stuart McLean has received funding from the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p>Research into fox scents suggests a complex form of ‘chemical communication’ underlies the animal’s behaviour. The findings could help improve pest control methods and protect native wildlife.Stuart McLean, Professor Emeritus, University of TasmaniaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1314382020-07-02T12:26:07Z2020-07-02T12:26:07ZDo dogs really see in just black and white?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/343579/original/file-20200623-188900-3set3z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=286%2C557%2C4464%2C3080&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Don't worry that your dog's world is visually drab.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/high-angle-view-of-dog-walking-on-colorful-striped-royalty-free-image/677142241">Kevin Short/EyeEm via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/curious-kids-us-74795">Curious Kids</a> is a series for children of all ages. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">curiouskidsus@theconversation.com</a>.</em></p>
<hr>
<blockquote>
<p><strong>Do dogs really see in just black and white? – Oscar V., age 9, Somerville, Massachusetts</strong></p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>Dogs definitely see the world differently than people do, but it’s a myth that their view is <a href="https://www.hillspet.com/dog-care/resources/dog-myths">just black, white and grim shades of gray</a>. </p>
<p>While most people see a full spectrum of colors from red to violet, dogs lack some of the light receptors in their eyes that allow human beings to see certain colors, particularly in the red and green range. But canines can still see yellow and blue.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/344613/original/file-20200629-155299-i6prbp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/344613/original/file-20200629-155299-i6prbp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/344613/original/file-20200629-155299-i6prbp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=353&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/344613/original/file-20200629-155299-i6prbp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=353&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/344613/original/file-20200629-155299-i6prbp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=353&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/344613/original/file-20200629-155299-i6prbp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=444&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/344613/original/file-20200629-155299-i6prbp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=444&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/344613/original/file-20200629-155299-i6prbp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=444&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Different wavelengths of light register as different colors in an animal’s visual system. Top is the human view; bottom is a dog’s eye view.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://dog-vision.andraspeter.com/tool.php">Top: iStock/Getty Images Plus via Getty Images. Bottom: As processed by András Péter's Dog Vision Image Processing Tool</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>What you see as red or orange, to a dog may just be another shade of tan. To my dog, Sparky, a bright orange ball lying in the green grass may look like a tan ball in another shade of tan grass. But his bright blue ball will look similar to both of us. <a href="https://dog-vision.andraspeter.com/tool.php">An online image processing tool</a> lets you see for yourself what a particular picture looks like to your pet.</p>
<p>Animals can’t use spoken language to describe what they see, but researchers easily trained dogs to touch a lit-up color disc with their nose to get a treat. Then they trained the dogs to touch a disc that was a different color than some others. When the well-trained dogs couldn’t figure out which disc to press, the scientists knew that they couldn’t see the differences in color. These experiments showed that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/s0952523800004430">dogs could see only yellow and blue</a>.</p>
<p>In the back of our eyeballs, human beings’ retinas contain three types of special cone-shaped cells that are responsible for all the colors we can see. When scientists used a technique called electroretinography to measure the way dogs’ eyes react to light, they found that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0952523800003291">canines have fewer kinds of these cone cells</a>. Compared to people’s three kinds, dogs only have two types of cone receptors.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/344635/original/file-20200629-155334-1ktj47u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/344635/original/file-20200629-155334-1ktj47u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/344635/original/file-20200629-155334-1ktj47u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/344635/original/file-20200629-155334-1ktj47u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/344635/original/file-20200629-155334-1ktj47u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/344635/original/file-20200629-155334-1ktj47u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/344635/original/file-20200629-155334-1ktj47u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/344635/original/file-20200629-155334-1ktj47u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Light travels to the back of the eyeball, where it registers with rod and cone cells that send visual signals on to the brain.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/illustration/eye-anatomy-rod-cells-and-cone-cells-royalty-free-illustration/1091261988">iStock/Getty Images Plus via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Not only can dogs see fewer colors than we do, they probably don’t see as clearly as we do either. Tests show that both the structure and function of the dog eye leads them to <a href="https://ucdavis.pure.elsevier.com/en/publications/vision-in-dogs">see things at a distance as more blurry</a>. While we think of perfect vision in humans as being 20/20, typical vision in dogs is probably closer to 20/75. This means that what a person with normal vision could see from 75 feet away, a dog would need to be just 20 feet away to see as clearly. Since dogs don’t read the newspaper, their visual acuity probably doesn’t interfere with their way of life.</p>
<p>There’s likely a lot of difference in visual ability between breeds. Over the years, breeders have selected sight-hunting dogs like greyhounds to have better vision than dogs like bulldogs.</p>
<p>But that’s not the end of the story. While people have a tough time seeing clearly in dim light, scientists believe dogs can probably see as well at dusk or dawn as they can in the bright middle of the day. This is because compared to humans’, dog retinas have a <a href="https://ucdavis.pure.elsevier.com/en/publications/vision-in-dogs">higher percentage and type of another kind of visual receptor</a>. Called rod cells because of their shape, they function better in low light than cone cells do.</p>
<p>Dogs also have a reflective tissue layer at the back of their eyes that <a href="https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-017-1404-7">helps them see in less light</a>. This mirror-like tapetum lucidum collects and concentrates the available light to help them see when it’s dark. The tapetum lucidum is what gives dogs and other mammals that glowing eye reflection when caught in your headlights at night or when you try to take a flash photo.</p>
<p>Dogs share their type of vision with many other animals, <a href="https://www.hillspet.com/cat-care/behavior-appearance/cat-vision">including cats</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0952523800003291">and foxes</a>. Scientists think it’s important for these hunters to be able to detect the motion of their nocturnal prey, and that’s why their vision <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2016/aug/03/did-t-rex-make-your-dog-colour-blind">evolved in this way</a>. As many mammals developed the ability to forage and hunt in twilight or dark conditions, they <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.devcel.2016.05.023">gave up the ability to see the variety of colors</a> that most birds, reptiles and primates have. People didn’t evolve to be active all night, so we kept the color vision and better visual acuity. </p>
<p>Before you feel sorry that dogs aren’t able to see all the colors of the rainbow, keep in mind that some of their other senses are much more developed than yours. They can <a href="https://www.akc.org/expert-advice/lifestyle/sounds-only-dogs-can-hear/">hear higher-pitched sounds from farther away</a>, and their <a href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/article/dogs-sense-of-smell/">noses are much more powerful</a>.</p>
<p>Even though Sparky might not be able to easily see that orange toy in the grass, he can certainly smell it and find it easily when he wants to. </p>
<hr>
<p><em>Hello, curious kids! Do you have a question you’d like an expert to answer? Ask an adult to send your question to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">CuriousKidsUS@theconversation.com</a>. Please tell us your name, age and the city where you live.</em></p>
<p><em>And since curiosity has no age limit – adults, let us know what you’re wondering, too. We won’t be able to answer every question, but we will do our best.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/131438/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nancy Dreschel does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Your faithful friend’s view of the world is different than yours, but maybe not in the way you imagine.Nancy Dreschel, Associate Teaching Professor of Small Animal Science, Penn StateLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1304712020-02-10T19:11:34Z2020-02-10T19:11:34ZWhen introduced species are cute and loveable, culling them is a tricky proposition<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/314345/original/file-20200210-27533-kwgg4k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=672%2C226%2C3252%2C1956&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Almost <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320719300357?dgcid=author">one in five Australians</a> think introduced horses and foxes are native to Australia, and others don’t want “cute” or “charismatic” animals culled, even when they damage the environment. So what are the implications of these attitudes as we help nature recover from bushfires?</p>
<p>Public opposition to culling programs is often at odds with scientists and conservationists. </p>
<p>These tensions came to the fore last month when scientists <a href="https://theconversation.com/fire-almost-wiped-out-rare-species-in-the-australian-alps-feral-horses-are-finishing-the-job-130584">renewed calls</a> for a horse-culling program to protect native species in Kosciusko National Park – a move strongly opposed by some members of the public. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1225598738451685376"}"></div></p>
<p>To manage the environment effectively, including after bushfires, we need to understand the diversity of opinion on what constitutes a native animal, and recognise how these <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320716302774">attitudes can change</a>.</p>
<h2>Governments are responding</h2>
<p>In Australia, native species are usually defined as those present before European settlement in 1788. Lethal pest control usually targets species introduced after this time, such as horses, foxes, deer, rabbits, pigs, and cats.</p>
<p>But fire makes native fauna more vulnerable to introduced predators. Fire removes ground layer vegetation that small wildlife would use as protective cover. When this cover is gone, these animals are <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2017-06-02/cats-foxes-able-to-easily-target-native-animals-after-fires/8579838">easier targets</a> for predators like cats and foxes.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/fire-almost-wiped-out-rare-species-in-the-australian-alps-feral-horses-are-finishing-the-job-130584">Fire almost wiped out rare species in the Australian Alps. Feral horses are finishing the job</a>
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<p>State governments have started to respond to this impending crisis. In January, the New South Wales government announced its <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-4ZbBQfdCvI&fbclid=IwAR2HT_mWa7g3l5cLyuwk4-0e7RAJPlDbXIS7mcQAtwHOz9V6pjY--7QSg78&app=desktop">largest ever program</a> to control feral predators, in an effort to protect native fauna after the fires. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/-/media/OEH/Corporate-Site/Documents/Parks-reserves-and-protected-areas/Fire/wildlife-and-conservation-bushfire-recovery-immediate-response-january-2020-200027.pdf">plan</a> includes 1500-2000 hours of aerial and ground shooting of deer, pigs, and goats and distributing up to a million poison baits targeting foxes, cats, and dingoes over 12 months.</p>
<p>Similarly, the Victorian government announced a <a href="https://www.wildlife.vic.gov.au/home/biodiversity-bushfire-response-and-recovery">A$17.5 million program</a> to protect biodiversity the fires affected, including A$7 million for intensified management of threats like introduced animals.</p>
<p>But will the public be on board? Widespread media coverage of the recent fires and their impacts on wildlife, including the loss of <a href="https://sydney.edu.au/news-opinion/news/2020/01/08/australian-bushfires-more-than-one-billion-animals-impacted.html">more than a billion animals</a>, might garner support for protecting native wildlife from pests. </p>
<p>On the other hand, efforts to manage animals such as cats and horses might be hampered by a lack of public support for culling charismatic animals that many people value or view as belonging in Australia now.</p>
<h2>Different folks, different strokes</h2>
<p>The distinctions many Australians draw – native animals are “good” and introduced species are “bad” – shape how people view conservation efforts. A <a href="https://authors.elsevier.com/a/1aS2H1R%7EeEeS5">survey</a> we conducted in 2017 found people more likely to disapprove of lethal methods for managing species they perceived to be native.</p>
<p>In the same survey, we found nearly one in five Australians considered horses and foxes to be native to Australia.</p>
<p>This suggests either that a) people lack knowledge of Australia’s natural history or b) people disagree with conservationists’ definition of animal “nativeness”.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/314346/original/file-20200210-27569-7j0e6g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/314346/original/file-20200210-27569-7j0e6g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/314346/original/file-20200210-27569-7j0e6g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/314346/original/file-20200210-27569-7j0e6g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/314346/original/file-20200210-27569-7j0e6g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/314346/original/file-20200210-27569-7j0e6g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/314346/original/file-20200210-27569-7j0e6g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Calls to manage horses to prevent environmental degradation in Australian national parks are hugely controversial, with many people arguing the horses belong now.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Many introduced species, such as horses and foxes, have existed in Australia for more than a century and have established populations across much of the country. It’s unlikely they’ll ever be eradicated. </p>
<p>Some people, including <a href="https://theconversation.com/lets-give-feral-cats-their-citizenship-45165">scientists</a>, say we should just accept introduced species as part of Australia’s fauna. They argue current management justifies killing based on <a href="https://theconversation.com/non-native-species-should-count-in-conservation-even-in-australia-127926">moral, not scientific judgements</a> and introduced animals may <a href="https://theconversation.com/from-feral-camels-to-cocaine-hippos-large-animals-are-rewilding-the-world-83301">increase biodiversity</a>.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/feral-cat-cull-why-the-2-million-target-is-on-scientifically-shaky-ground-111824">Feral cat cull: why the 2 million target is on scientifically shaky ground</a>
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<p>But the issue remains extremely divisive. A central tenet of traditional conservation is that humans have a <a href="http://doi.org/10.2307/1310054">duty to protect</a> native species and ecosystems from the threat introduced species pose. It’s difficult to do this without culling introduced animals.</p>
<p>Animal welfare concerns may also drive opposition to culling, taking the view that all animals, even non-natives, have intrinsic value and the right to live.</p>
<p>What’s more, non-native culling programs can be controversial when the animal is considered “cute” or “charismatic”, or of cultural value. For example, a <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-08-02/protest-outside-nsw-parliament-against-kosciusko-brumbies-cull/7681444">plan to cull feral horses</a> in the Kosciusko National Park in 2018 was met with public outrage, prompting the NSW government to <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-05-20/culling-kosciousko-brumbies-banned-under-plan-national-icon/9780558">overturn the decision</a>. </p>
<p>Yet protecting introduced species in national parks goes against the very reason they were created – to conserve <em>native</em> ecosystems and species.</p>
<h2>Some animals are more equal than others</h2>
<p>When analysing public attitudes towards various species, we must also consider how attitudes shift over time. </p>
<p>In Australia, non-native animals such as <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2014.10.013">domestic camels</a> and donkeys were considered useful for transport and highly valued. But we ultimately turned them loose and relabelled them as pests when we started using cars. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/311887/original/file-20200125-81416-12q5bqv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/311887/original/file-20200125-81416-12q5bqv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=168&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311887/original/file-20200125-81416-12q5bqv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=168&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311887/original/file-20200125-81416-12q5bqv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=168&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311887/original/file-20200125-81416-12q5bqv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=211&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311887/original/file-20200125-81416-12q5bqv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=211&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311887/original/file-20200125-81416-12q5bqv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=211&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">We asked the Australian public whether they viewed dingoes, horses, and foxes as native or non-native in Australia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">van Eeden et al. (2020)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Interestingly, we’ve already accepted some introduced species as native. Humans brought dingoes to Australia <a href="https://www.anu.edu.au/news/all-news/research-reveals-when-dingoes-first-arrived-in-australia">at least 3,500 years ago</a>. They’re described as native under Australian biodiversity legislation, and 85% of our 2017 survey participants considered dingoes to be native.</p>
<p>Perhaps its only a matter of time until more recently arrived species like horses and foxes are counted as native. Some scientists argue this shift should be based on how ecosystems and species adapt to these new arrivals. For example, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0031804">some small Australian mammals</a> show fear of dingoes or dogs, but they haven’t yet learnt to fear cats.</p>
<h2>Native species can be pests too</h2>
<p>Native species, such as kangaroos and possums, <a href="https://www.canberratimes.com.au/story/6110070/protests-loom-as-acts-largest-kangaroo-cull-begins/">may also be culled</a> if they’re perceived to be overabundant or damaging economic interests like agriculture.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/from-feral-camels-to-cocaine-hippos-large-animals-are-rewilding-the-world-83301">From feral camels to 'cocaine hippos', large animals are rewilding the world</a>
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</p>
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<p>While the plight of bushfire-affected koalas on Kangaroo Island attracted considerable <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-01-21/bushfire-relief-campaign-koalas-of-nyc-expands-to-london/11887110">media interest</a>, and the immediate welfare of any animal affected by fires is always a concern, koalas were actually introduced there. </p>
<p>They’ve been <a href="https://www.naturalresources.sa.gov.au/kangarooisland/plants-and-animals/native-animals/koala-management">managed</a> as a pest on Kangaroo Island for more than 20 years, and it’s <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-01-21/repopulation-of-pest-koalas-on-kangaroo-island-a-no-go/11885552">unlikely</a> the rescued koalas will be returned to the island. In this case, public concern transcends the distinction between native and introduced.</p>
<h2>Public perception is important</h2>
<p>We might never all agree on how best to manage native and non-native species. But effective environmental management, including after bushfires, requires understanding the diversity of opinion. </p>
<p>Doing so can help to develop management plans the public supports and allow effective communication about management that is controversial. </p>
<p>In fact, the NSW Office of Environment and Heritage <em>did</em> undertake an extensive <a href="https://engage.environment.nsw.gov.au/protectsnowies">public consultation process</a> in developing their horse management plan for Kosciuszko National Park, but it wasn’t used after the “<a href="https://theconversation.com/passing-the-brumby-bill-is-a-backward-step-for-environmental-protection-in-australia-97920">brumby bill</a>” gave horses protection in 2018.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/passing-the-brumby-bill-is-a-backward-step-for-environmental-protection-in-australia-97920">Passing the brumby bill is a backward step for environmental protection in Australia</a>
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<p>With human lives and many animal lives lost, response to the bushfires is already highly emotive. Failure to consider public attitudes towards managing animals will lead to backlash, wasted money and time, and continuing decline of the native species whose conservation is the goal of these actions.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/130471/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lily van Eeden received funding for this research from a Holsworth Wildlife Research Endowment and the RSPCA Alan White Scholarship. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chris Dickman receives funding from the National Environmental Science Program and the Australian Research Council, but this support does not relate directly to the subject of this article. He is affiliated with WWF-Australia as a Board member.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jeremy T. Bruskotter receives funding from the Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, the Ohio Department of Natural Resources, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the Association for Fish and Wildlife Agencies, and the National Science Foundation (through the Mountain Social Ecological Observatory Network). He is affiliated with the Terrestrial Wildlife Ecology Laboratory (at Ohio State), and is or has been a member of The Wildlife Society, the American Fisheries Society, the Society for Conservation Biology, and The International Association for Society & Natural Resources. He has served as an unpaid advisor or consultant for the Ohio Department of Natural Resources (Division of Wildlife), Project Coyote, Defenders of Wildlife, and the Humane Society of the United States’ Large Carnivore Advisory Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mathew Crowther receives funding from the Australian Research Council, Australia-Pacific Science Foundation, City of Sydney Council and NSW Government (NSW Koala Strategy).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Thomas Newsome receives funding from the Australian Government, Hermon-Slade Foundation, Australia Pacific Science Foundation, National Geographic, and Australian Academy of Science.</span></em></p>Introduced species are often targeted for culling in conservation, but killing charismatic animals like foxes can be controversial.Lily van Eeden, PhD Candidate in Human-Wildlife Conflict, University of SydneyChris Dickman, Professor in Terrestrial Ecology, University of SydneyJeremy T. Bruskotter, Professor, School of Environment and Natural Resources, The Ohio State UniversityMathew Crowther, Associate professor, University of SydneyThomas Newsome, Lecturer, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1292972020-01-08T12:18:52Z2020-01-08T12:18:52ZCoyotes are poised to enter South America for the first time<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/308433/original/file-20200103-11919-1min1cs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A photo of a coyote in eastern Panama.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The Research Brief is a short take on interesting academic work.</em></p>
<p><strong>THE BIG IDEA:</strong> Coyotes are poised to expand their range to a new continent. The North American canine native has <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jmammal/article/100/6/1819/5637222?guestAccessKey=ecba036e-bfe7-49d3-ace5-e34e823e70b2">now reached the Darién Gap</a> – a dense wilderness on the border of Colombia and Panama, at the very doorstep of South America. If the coyote succeeds, it would be a new chapter in an amazing evolutionary story that’s played out over the past half century.</p>
<p><strong>WHY IT MATTERS:</strong> The historical range of the coyote was originally from western Canada to Mexico. But over the past few decades, it has mixed with wolves and dogs, and its adaptability has allowed the species to expand both east and south, making them commonplace everywhere from New York City to Panama City. My colleagues and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=Rd3MdDkAAAAJ&hl=en">I</a> study how humans affect the distribution of wildlife on the planet. Usually this is in a negative way – some endangered species are declining because humans are destroying their habitat or hunting them to near extinction. However, some species are quite good at dealing with the changes people bring to the landscape, and coyotes are an example.</p>
<p><img src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/static_files/files/826/coyote_rainbow_2.gif?1578067866"></p>
<p></p><figure><figcaption>Coyotes are expanding their range. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5974007/">Source: Zoookeys (2018)</a>. </figcaption></figure><p></p>
<p><strong>WHAT STILL ISN’T KNOWN:</strong> If coyotes will actually reach South America, or if jaguars in the Darién will keep them out. Few coyote biologists, including myself, are betting against the coyote. We also don’t know if coyotes, presuming they make it to South America, will have a negative impact on wildlife there. These native species already live with other canine predators in South America, including foxes, so the coyote might not be so bad for native species. People with free-ranging chickens, however, may think that is a different matter!</p>
<p><strong>HOW I DO MY WORK:</strong> We set up camera traps, then go back to see what images they captured, and enter everything in a database called <a href="https://emammal.si.edu/">eMammal</a>. It’s great to visit a place, see it with your own eyes and speculate about what might be there. Then, a few weeks later, pick up the camera and see all these animals for yourself. Checking the camera memory card is like Christmas every time. </p>
<p><strong>ONE OTHER THING HAPPENING IN THE FIELD:</strong> Ricardo Moreno of <a href="https://yaguarapanama.org/">Yaguara</a> works to save the jaguar in Panama. He is monitoring the Darién to see how the jaguars are doing and working with locals to prevent poaching. He is also running cameras to see if the coyotes move into the Darién. </p>
<p><strong>WHAT’S NEXT FOR YOU:</strong> We have just completed <a href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/snapshotusa?lang=en">#SnapshotUSA</a>, a survey of wildlife across all 50 states, including lots of coyotes! We are in the process of going through the 6 million photos now to identify all the species. We are also working with <a href="https://www.wildlifeinsights.org/about">Wildlife Insights</a>, a data collection site for pictures of wildlife around the world, and Google to develop artificial intelligence to help process all these pictures we get. Maybe this will help us keep an eye on how the coyotes do in Panama.</p>
<p>[ <em>Like what you’ve read? Want more?</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=likethis">Sign up for The Conversation’s daily newsletter</a>. ]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/129297/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Roland Kays receives funding from the National Science Foundation.</span></em></p>Coyotes, whose range is expanding, are now at the doorstep of South America.Roland Kays, Research Associate Professor of Wildlife and Scientist at NC Museum of Natural Sciences, North Carolina State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1206432019-07-21T11:02:24Z2019-07-21T11:02:24ZRabies: How it spreads and how to protect yourself<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/284847/original/file-20190718-116552-8kplc4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=41%2C48%2C4304%2C2938&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Raccoons, foxes, skunks and bats are all hosts of specific rabies virus variants. Humans can be infected by them all. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>A <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/rabies-death-bc-vancouver-island-bat-1.5213460">21-year-old Canadian man recently died of rabies</a> — a disease that <a href="https://www.who.int/rabies/epidemiology/en/">kills an estimated 59,000 people a year internationally</a> but hasn’t infected a person in Canada since 2007.</p>
<p>Nick Major, from Parksville, B.C., suffered a small puncture wound after a bat flew into his hand during daylight on the west coast of Vancouver Island. He developed the symptoms of rabies six weeks later.</p>
<p>Should we be concerned about rabies? Yes. It’s an almost invariably fatal infection <a href="http://www.bccdc.ca/health-info/diseases-conditions/rabies">caused by a virus that is widely present in wildlife in Canada</a> and globally.</p>
<p>Should we be more concerned about rabies now than we would have been before Major’s death? No. While tragic — both because of the fatal outcome and the fact that it could have been prevented — the situation does not indicate any change in the risk of rabies in Canada.</p>
<h2>Raccoons, foxes, skunks and bats</h2>
<p>Rabies is a viral infection caused by the rabies virus, which circulates in different “reservoir species.” </p>
<p>Raccoons, foxes, skunks and bats are all hosts of specific rabies virus variants. However, while those rabies virus variants are best at circulating in their host species, they can spillover to other species. </p>
<p>There is no human rabies virus variant, but humans can be infected by any rabies virus.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1151832528359165953"}"></div></p>
<p>Internationally, it is estimated that rabies kills approximately 59,000 people every year, almost all in developing countries in Africa and Asia, and almost all from <a href="https://www.who.int/rabies/epidemiology/en/">dogs in areas where canine rabies virus variant is present</a>. </p>
<p>Canine rabies virus was eradicated in Canada many years ago (although dogs can still get rabies from other species), leaving wildlife as the sources of infection. The distribution of rabies virus in different wildlife species varies across the country, ranging from the notable <a href="https://www.thespec.com/news-story/8928476-hamilton-s-ongoing-rabies-outbreak-traced-to-diseased-raccoon-from-u-s-/">return of raccoon rabies in Hamilton, Ontario</a> to national dissemination of <a href="https://www.inspection.gc.ca/animals/terrestrial-animals/diseases/reportable/rabies/rabies-in-canada/eng/1356156989919/1356157139999">bat variant rabies</a>. </p>
<p>Virtually every Canadian is at some, albeit exceptionally low, risk of rabies exposure given the distribution of this virus in wildlife.</p>
<h2>With treatment, rabies is preventable</h2>
<p>Rabies virus is transmitted from an infected animal to a person through saliva, almost always via a bite. </p>
<p>Rabies deaths in Canada indicate a breakdown in education, communication and health care, since sources of exposure are well understood and rabies is virtually completely preventable. </p>
<p>If people know how rabies is transmitted, report bites to public health personnel and get <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/rabies/medical_care/index.html">rabies post-exposure treatment when indicated</a>, the risk of rabies is essentially zero. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/284846/original/file-20190718-116596-1h0k67z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/284846/original/file-20190718-116596-1h0k67z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=413&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284846/original/file-20190718-116596-1h0k67z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=413&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284846/original/file-20190718-116596-1h0k67z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=413&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284846/original/file-20190718-116596-1h0k67z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=519&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284846/original/file-20190718-116596-1h0k67z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=519&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284846/original/file-20190718-116596-1h0k67z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=519&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The eastern pipistrelle bat is frequently linked with human rabies cases.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(THE CANADIAN PRESS/AP/Merlin D. Tuttle, Bat Conservation International)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As with many infectious diseases, the science and medicine are easy. We know how to completely prevent rabies. However, as the recent B.C. case highlights, breakdowns can happen. It’s the human element that causes risk. </p>
<p>In the tragic B.C. rabies case, there was nothing new or surprising, just a lack of understanding of the risk of rabies. In part, this is probably because the successful control of rabies in Canada means there is less public interest and awareness. </p>
<p>The risk of rabies to Canadians is as much from complacency and lack of education as it is from wildlife.</p>
<h2>What to do if you are bitten by a wild animal</h2>
<p>The recent rabies case highlights some important facts. Rabies is present in Canada and probably always will be. While we can control rabies in some animal populations, eradicating it from bats is next to impossible. As a result, we have to learn to live with an ever-present risk of exposure. </p>
<p>If you are bitten by a wild animal, this is what you should do:</p>
<ol>
<li><p>Wash the wound with soap and running water.</p></li>
<li><p>Identify the animal, if possible, so that it can be quarantined or tested.</p></li>
<li><p>Seek medical care.</p></li>
<li><p>Ensure your local public health unit has been contacted or contact them yourself. They will coordinate observation of the biting animal (when possible) and organize post-exposure treatment, if it is needed.</p></li>
</ol>
<p>If anything good can come out of this unfortunate incident, it will be increased awareness of the risk of rabies and how to reduce that risk. Basic awareness is sometimes all that is needed to save a life.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/120643/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>J Scott Weese receives funding from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, National Sciences and Engineering Research Council, Ontario Veterinary College Pet Trust, Equine Guelph and the American Kennel Club Canine Health Foundation.</span></em></p>Rabies is almost always fatal once the symptoms appear. It is also completely preventable, so long as you know how to protect yourself.J Scott Weese, Professor, Ontario Veterinary College, University of GuelphLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1104542019-01-30T13:30:09Z2019-01-30T13:30:09ZNo wonder fox hunting is still prevalent – the ban is designed to fail British wildlife<p>Despite overwhelming public opposition and a longstanding ban, fox hunting shows <a href="https://www.league.org.uk/news/eight-reports-of-kills-by-fox-hunts-since-boxing-day">no signs of abating</a> in the UK. The 2018 hunt season alone saw <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/hunts-illegal-hundreds-autumn-season-figures-animal-rights-hunting-ban-england-wales-a8286336.html">550 reports of illegal hunting</a>, though these figures only represent known incidents. </p>
<p>In 2014 it was found that <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/earth/countryside/11313805/250000-people-turn-out-to-support-Boxing-Day-hunts.html">250,000 fox hunters attended Boxing Day hunts</a> across the UK. In 2019, so far, at least <a href="https://www.league.org.uk/news/greene-king-urged-to-ban-fox-hunt-meets">21 foxes have been killed by the hunt and 151 incidents</a> of illegal hunting have been reported since the season began on November 1.</p>
<p>The Hunting Act, which prohibited hunting foxes and wild mammals with dogs, was approved by the UK’s parliament in 2003 with <a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1846577.stm">362 MPs in favour and 156 against</a>. The following year it became law. In 2017, the British people were surveyed on whether they continue to support the ban on fox hunting and the result was resounding – the highest margin ever recorded on the matter - <a href="https://www.ipsos.com/ipsos-mori/en-uk/attitudes-hunting-2017">85% thought fox hunting should remain prohibited</a>.</p>
<p>So if the ban is entering its 15th year, why is fox hunting still happening?</p>
<h2>A legal let-down</h2>
<p>This question is answered in the Hunting Act itself, particularly the manner in which it “outlaws” fox hunting. <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2004/37/section/1">Article 1</a> states that a “person commits an offence if he hunts a wild mammal with a dog”. But the provision continues: “Unless his hunting is exempt.”</p>
<p>Herein lies the deceit of the Hunting Act, for it lists a total of nine reasons <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2004/37/schedule/1">a hunt may flout the general ban</a>. One of the more commonly invoked exemptions maintains that it is legal to hunt foxes if they pose a danger to livestock, game, crops or fisheries. As such, fox hunting advocates would have us believe that Roald Dahl’s tale of Fantastic Mr Fox and his endeavours to outwit farmers is all too common a curse in rural communities. </p>
<p>This remains nothing more than a smokescreen to defy the ban. Research has shown that foxes naturally control rabbit populations that if left unchecked, would <a href="https://www.gwct.org.uk/research/long-term-monitoring/national-gamebag-census/mammal-bags-comprehensive-overviews/interpretation-of-ngc-trends-rabbit/">cause significant economic harm to farmers</a>. The UK government’s Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) also advises against controlling foxes, and instead favours strengthening protection around livestock to <a href="https://www.discoverwildlife.com/people/do-we-really-need-to-control-foxes-in-the-uk/">guard against natural predation</a>.</p>
<p>Another commonly used exemption exploits a loophole around flushing foxes out to help birds of prey hunt. This has seen fox hunters disguising their true intentions by <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/p06w6r99">taking birds of prey along with them</a> without ever letting them loose. </p>
<p>There is also the dubious practise of <a href="http://www.countryside-alliance.org/countryside-alliance-guide-trail-hunting/">“manufactured” trail hunting</a> in which hounds are supposed to follow an artificial scent trail with no animal chased or killed. In reality, hunt organisers use actual fox scent and lay routes deliberately close to where foxes are known to live, meaning they quickly become the subject of a hunt. Trail hunting is again an attempt to <a href="https://www.league.org.uk/trail-hunting">hide the true intentions of those that wish to continue fox hunting</a>.</p>
<p>Monitoring and gathering accurate information on all this to help prosecute offenders is a dangerous task, with members of the public often exposed to <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/long_reads/fox-hunting-uk-britain-mobs-driving-communities-apart-a7948516.html">insults, intimidation and threats</a> from hunters.</p>
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</figure>
<p>The inadequate Hunting Act and the nefarious practises of hunt organisers mean fox hunting endures in England and Wales. Scotland too, offers no refuge for foxes and the <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/asp/2002/6/contents">Protection of Wild Mammals Act 2002</a> provides similar loopholes that allow hunting to continue.</p>
<p>Setting aside the cruelty of fox hunting, evidence from the Breeding Bird Survey suggests red fox numbers have <a href="https://www.bto.org/volunteer-surveys/bbs/latest-results/mammal-monitoring">declined by 41% since 1995</a>. Introducing a complete hunting ban is more essential than ever to protect the UK’s foxes.</p>
<h2>A fox-centric approach</h2>
<p>The Hunting Act has humans as its focus by specifying how people can bend the law’s provisions to their circumstances. Despite its prevalence in much of environmental law, this human-centric idea is entirely the wrong approach. Any future legislative efforts need to place foxes, and other mammals, at the centre of legislation.</p>
<p>Foxes must be protected for their own right, and a blanket ban on hunting, absent any exemptions, is the only way to safeguard populations. <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/labour-fox-hunting-illegal-prison-sentences-boxing-day-hunt-sue-hayman-hounds-a8698871.html">Severe penalties must also be included</a>, to ensure that those already willing to flout the law will rethink their actions.</p>
<p>The likelihood of such a move materialising during this parliament is slim, however. Prime Minister Theresa May offered a free vote to repeal the Hunting Act during the 2017 election but <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2018/jan/07/theresa-may-drops-manifesto-promise-to-allow-foxhunting-vote">withdrew the pledge after her disastrous election result</a>.</p>
<p>It’s essential that campaigns for stronger anti-hunting laws highlight how widespread resistance to diluting the ban is. The failures of the existing ban endanger foxes and betray the wishes of a majority of the public. Any update to the Hunting Act must crack down on those who think they are above the law.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/110454/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ash Murphy does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Fox hunting has been banned in the UK since 2004 – so why is it still happening?Ash Murphy, PhD Researcher, Keele UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/970782018-07-23T06:39:05Z2018-07-23T06:39:05ZA numbers game: killing rabbits to conserve native mammals<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/226825/original/file-20180709-122262-6ap5ri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Controlling rabbit populations has a key role in conserving Australia's native plants and animals </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/">William Booth</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Invasive species have a <a href="https://theconversation.com/invasive-predators-are-eating-the-worlds-animals-to-extinction-and-the-worst-is-close-to-home-64741">devastating effect</a> on biodiversity. In Australia, introduced red foxes and feral cats have been implicated in the <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/112/15/4531">majority of the extinctions</a> of the native mammal fauna, which has been <a href="https://theconversation.com/mourn-our-lost-mammals-while-helping-the-survivors-battle-back-36126">decimated since European arrival</a>.</p>
<p>But there’s a herbivore that also causes <a href="https://www.pestsmart.org.au/managing-vertebrate-pests-rabbits/">eco-catastrophe</a>. Rabbits both compete with native animals for food and shelter and act as easy prey for abundant populations of cats and foxes. By over-grazing vegetation and reducing habitat complexity, they make hunting easier for introduced predators. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/invasive-predators-are-eating-the-worlds-animals-to-extinction-and-the-worst-is-close-to-home-64741">Invasive predators are eating the world's animals to extinction – and the worst is close to home</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/food-web-concept-and-applications-84077181">Food webs</a> are complex. Because of this, once an invasive species is embedded in a food web, simply eradicating them without considering the potential knock-on effects to other species they interact with, could cause unintended and undesirable consequences. We modelled different rates of rabbit population reduction to assess what level of control might be best for aiding the conservation of native mammals and not causing negative outcomes.</p>
<h2>Rabbit numbers boom and crash</h2>
<p>Rabbits, famously, reproduce rapidly and can cope with a relatively high predation rate. This can cause “<a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1365-2656.2000.00383.x">hyper-predation</a>”, where rabbit-inflated cat and fox populations indirectly increase the predation pressure on native mammals. This is especially so when rabbit populations intermittently crash due to, for example, extreme environmental events (like severe and prolonged droughts) or disease. This causes predators to switch their diet and eat more native mammals.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/227067/original/file-20180711-27018-h6eo56.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/227067/original/file-20180711-27018-h6eo56.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/227067/original/file-20180711-27018-h6eo56.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/227067/original/file-20180711-27018-h6eo56.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/227067/original/file-20180711-27018-h6eo56.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/227067/original/file-20180711-27018-h6eo56.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/227067/original/file-20180711-27018-h6eo56.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Threatened species such as the greater bilby are likely to benefit from rabbit control.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jasmine Vink</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This logically suggests that reducing rabbit numbers might thus help reduce cat and fox populations, by removing their abundant prey. Collectively this should benefit native plants and animals, including many threatened mammal species. However, <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2011.01673.x">ecosystem</a> and <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/conl.12251">pest management is a complex game</a>. </p>
<p>When controlling rabbits we need to look beyond one or two species. We should consider the potential consequences for the entire ecological community, which ultimately depend on how changes in one species percolate through the network of ecological interactions between them. </p>
<p>Our new research, recently published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1365-2664.13188">Journal of Applied Ecology</a>, set out to examine these questions in more detail. We consider other key players in Australia’s arid regions, such as <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1600-0706.2012.20976.x">kangaroos</a> and <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1469-185X.2011.00203.x">dingoes</a>, when looking at the effects of rabbit control on small native mammals. Our aim was to provide a better understanding of how changes in rabbit populations might affect other species via the food web. </p>
<p>We developed a multi-species ecological network model to describe and quantify how changing rabbit abundance can affect species on different feeding levels. In addition to rabbits, small native mammals, and mesopredators (cats and foxes), our model also considers apex predators (dingo) and large herbivores (kangaroo) as part of the Australian arid food web. This model allowed us to examine changes in predator-prey interactions (including potential prey switching and hyper-predation) and how these could affect the survival of native prey through time.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/226812/original/file-20180709-122280-q2y2qv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/226812/original/file-20180709-122280-q2y2qv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/226812/original/file-20180709-122280-q2y2qv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/226812/original/file-20180709-122280-q2y2qv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/226812/original/file-20180709-122280-q2y2qv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/226812/original/file-20180709-122280-q2y2qv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/226812/original/file-20180709-122280-q2y2qv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Our model of an Australian arid ecosystem food web.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We found that removing rabbits at rates between 30-40% appeared to benefit small mammals. This is approximately the rate at which rabbits are currently managed in Australia using <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2656.12871">biocontrol agents</a> (introduced diseases). </p>
<p>Rabbit control in Australia typically involves a “press and pulse” approach. Rabbit populations are suppressed via biocontrol (press) and periods of warren destruction and poisoning (pulse). Finding that reducing rabbit populations by around 40% seems most beneficial to small mammals is important, as it informs how and when we combine these strategies. </p>
<p>The 40% rate <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1442-9993.2011.02354.x">corresponds well</a> with the disease-induced (press) mortality rate in rabbit populations due to rabbit haemorrhagic disease and myxomatosis. These are the primary biocontrol agents used in arid Australia to control rabbit populations. </p>
<p>Our study supports rabbit-reduction strategies that involve sustained “press” control, that kill a moderate portion of a rabbit population, with less frequent removal at higher proportions of the population. </p>
<p>To effectively manage invasive species, it’s important to focus on entire communities. Targeting single species might not be enough – every animal exists within a complex web of interactions. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/mourn-our-lost-mammals-while-helping-the-survivors-battle-back-36126">Mourn our lost mammals, while helping the survivors battle back</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>There has been much focus by the current government on <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/mam.12080">controlling feral cats</a>, as a way to conserve many of Australia’s unique and threatened mammal species. </p>
<p>However, more focus could be devoted to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320715002086?via%3Dihub">protecting habitat cover and complexity</a>, by reducing the <a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-is-a-global-top-ten-deforester-and-queensland-is-leading-the-way-87259">land clearing</a> and over-grazing that makes hunting easier. We can also manage rabbits sensibly to reduce competition for resources, and indirectly control cats and foxes.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/97078/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Euan Ritchie receives funding from the Australian Research Council, The Australia and Pacific Science Foundation, The Hermon Slade Foundation, Australian Geographic, and Parks Victoria. Euan Ritchie is a Director (Media Working Group) of the Ecological Society of Australia, and a member of the Australian Mammal Society.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Damien Fordham receives funding from the Australian Research Council </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Miguel Lurgi receives funding from the French ANR through LabEx TULIP, the French Midi-Pyrénées region, and the European Research Council under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme.</span></em></p>Managing rabbit populations isn’t as simple as declaring ‘open season’.Euan Ritchie, Associate Professor in Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, Centre for Integrative Ecology, School of Life & Environmental Sciences, Deakin UniversityDamien Fordham, University of AdelaideMiguel Lurgi, Postdoctoral research fellow, Centre national de la recherche scientifique (CNRS)Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/879292017-12-03T22:26:16Z2017-12-03T22:26:16ZIf your pet has this tapeworm, it could kill you<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/196743/original/file-20171128-28892-90kjir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A coyote cools off in the shade of a leafy suburb. Wildlife interactions with pets and humans can transfer disease, including the tapeworm Echinococcus multilocularis.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Winston Wong/flickr)</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Dogs are sending us an early warning signal about the spread of a potentially deadly tapeworm in North America. </p>
<p>The tapeworm, <em>Echinococcus multilocularis</em>, is normally found in rodents and other wild animals, including coyotes and foxes, but can spill over into cats and dogs — and even humans. </p>
<p>In July, as <a href="https://www.cliniciansbrief.com/article/echinococcus-spp-tapeworms-dogs-cats">I was warning veterinarians</a> about the risk of <em>E. multilocularis</em> in dogs — and cautioned that human cases couldn’t be far behind — news broke that <a href="http://edmonton.ctvnews.ca/u-of-a-experts-confirm-presence-of-formidable-parasite-in-alberta-1.3510771">four people in Alberta had been infected</a> by the parasite. </p>
<p>Not since 1928 had a domestically acquired human case of the tapeworm been <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1562016/">reported in Canada</a> and there has been only <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article-abstract/363738">one human case reported in the contiguous United States</a>. </p>
<p>The disease is rare in humans, even in areas of Asia and Europe where it is well established. The number of cases in people is linked to its presence in animal hosts. In Switzerland, for example, human cases <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2792858/">almost doubled between 1960 and 2004</a> — preceded by a rise in the number of infected foxes, the main hosts for the parasite in Europe.</p>
<p>With infection rates in coyotes, foxes and wolves in North America <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0065308X1630104X">around 25 per cent</a>, we can only expect to see more human cases here in the future.</p>
<h2>Patient zero</h2>
<p>Usually, dogs, and sometimes cats, carry the tiny tapeworms in their intestines, where they cause no problems for the pet. </p>
<p>In humans, the tapeworm behaves differently. It can invade the liver and spread throughout the abdomen and the rest of the body like a tumour. </p>
<p>Without early detection and aggressive treatment (surgical removal of the mass and antiparasitic drugs), the infection has a <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/echinococcosis/disease.html">50 per cent to 75 per cent mortality rate</a>, potentially higher in people with compromised immune systems.</p>
<p>We spotted the first North American case of the liver form of <em>E. multilocularis</em> in a dog in <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3358155/">British Columbia in 2009</a>. It has since caused severe disease in at least seven <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0065308X1630104X">dogs in Western Canada</a> and four dogs in <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Andrew_Peregrine/publication/285757517_Alveolar_echinococcosis_in_dogs_An_emerging_issue/links/5664ce0a08ae192bbf90aafb.pdf">Ontario</a>, a new region for the parasite.</p>
<p>Initially, it seemed like the first dog had a particularly nasty tumour <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3398525/">invading its liver, spleen and stomach</a>. But a microscopic examination of the “tumour” revealed something startling — hundreds of miniature tapeworms in their larval form.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/197220/original/file-20171130-30896-15uwsl3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/197220/original/file-20171130-30896-15uwsl3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197220/original/file-20171130-30896-15uwsl3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197220/original/file-20171130-30896-15uwsl3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197220/original/file-20171130-30896-15uwsl3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197220/original/file-20171130-30896-15uwsl3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197220/original/file-20171130-30896-15uwsl3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Adult tapeworms of dogs and foxes, Echinococcus multilocularis, next to a paperclip.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Brent Wagner)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This discovery led us to completely re-examine what we thought we knew about this parasite: It wasn’t supposed to cause disease in dogs, it wasn’t supposed to be in B.C. and it wasn’t supposed to be established in forested regions in North America. </p>
<p>Then came another surprise. Our DNA expert asked: “Has this dog ever been to Europe?” </p>
<h2>European invader?</h2>
<p>By looking at the parasite’s DNA, she had discovered that it was closely related to tapeworms well-established in Switzerland, Germany, Austria and France. It was not — as we had expected — related to strains long established in Canada’s Prairie regions. </p>
<p>The dog, however, had spent all of its life in B.C. That, coupled with the genetic clue, told us that the parasite had likely hitched a ride from Europe to Canada in an infected dog, as there are no rules for screening or deworming imported dogs.</p>
<p>This led us to check if coyotes and foxes in the region might be hosts for the European-type strain. Sure enough, it was present in about <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/parasitology/article/establishment-of-a-european-type-strain-of-echinococcus-multilocularis-in-canadian-wildlife/438131B08170D7465386C31BD1EF4750">one third of all coyotes examined</a>. This meant that the dog likely came into contact with an infected canid — and that the parasite was now on the loose in Canada.</p>
<p>We continued to look for <em>E. multilocularis</em> in wildlife across western and Arctic Canada, and found that European-type strains <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2213224414000078">are well-established in native wildlife</a>. </p>
<h2>Deadly in dogs</h2>
<p>The parasite eggs are <a href="https://www.medbox.org/preview/5255e18b-af40-4e41-9202-30a20e695ecc/doc.pdf">extremely tough, immune to most common disinfectants</a> and survive months to years in the environment.</p>
<p>Dogs become infected with the liver form of the parasite, which can be deadly, when they consume the parasite’s eggs in coyote, fox and wolf scat. Dogs get the intestinal form (harmless to the dog, but dangerous to us) when they consume infected rodents. </p>
<p>This means that dogs can be exposed in any place where you might find coyotes and foxes, typically rural areas, but increasingly urban and suburban green spaces. The parasite was even detected in coyote feces collected from <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3471618/">Calgary dog parks</a>. The most heavily infected coyote that we’ve ever examined was collected from the University of Saskatchewan campus in the <a href="http://www.jwildlifedis.org/doi/pdf/10.7589/2014-08-214">heart of Saskatoon</a> — thousands of tapeworms filled its intestine.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/197033/original/file-20171129-12035-7dsqf6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/197033/original/file-20171129-12035-7dsqf6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=279&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197033/original/file-20171129-12035-7dsqf6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=279&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197033/original/file-20171129-12035-7dsqf6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=279&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197033/original/file-20171129-12035-7dsqf6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=350&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197033/original/file-20171129-12035-7dsqf6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=350&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/197033/original/file-20171129-12035-7dsqf6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=350&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dogs can pick up the parasite anywhere they might come into contact with the scat of coyotes, wolves or foxes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/brent_nashville/95240809">(Brent Moore/flickr)</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In Europe, the disease is uncommon in dogs, but when it does happen, it’s awful. </p>
<p>About <a href="http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/26537856">half of the dogs in a Swiss study</a> were euthanized because of their poor prognosis or the owners couldn’t face the cost of the surgery followed by lifelong, daily medication.</p>
<h2>Don’t shoot the messenger</h2>
<p>Dog owners — and gardeners and foragers — should be concerned. Both dogs and people can be exposed to the tapeworm eggs in dog, fox, coyote or wolf scat. People can be exposed through consumption of contaminated produce such as <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00436-015-4630-9">berries, herbs, greens, wild mushrooms</a> or <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11784422">surface water</a>. </p>
<p>Indeed, global experts list <em>E. multilocularis</em> as one of the top three <a href="http://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/237323/icode/">food-transmitted parasites worldwide</a>. Rinsing produce and filtering surface water (i.e. while camping) can offer protection. </p>
<p>People are generally thought to become infected from eggs in the environment, food or water, and not from hugging their dog. But it’s always a good idea to wash your hands with soap and water after poop-scooping — and bear in mind that hand sanitizers are ineffective against most parasites.</p>
<p>The good news is that pet owners can reduce the risk to themselves and their pet by keeping pets away from the feces of wild canids and infected rodents. They can keep cats indoors and dogs on-leash, prevent rodent infestations in and around their homes, and deworm high-risk pets with veterinarian-prescribed medication on a monthly basis. </p>
<p>Pet owners should be aware that monthly heartworm or tick medications do not usually include an anti-tapeworm drug. Even drugs advertised for “tapeworms” may not be effective against <em>Echinococcus</em>, as they are most likely labelled for more common tapeworms such as <em>Taenia</em> or <em>Dipylidium</em>, which are much less serious for public health.</p>
<p>Some have suggested killing wildlife to deal with the parasite. But this is neither ethical <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1471492203003234">nor effective</a>, and could even lead to a larger proportion of heavily infected young wild canids. </p>
<p>Even if we cleared a region of all foxes and coyotes, infected rodents would remain and would still harbour the parasite. As well, foxes and coyotes may help keep rodent populations under control, limiting the parasite’s spread to dogs.</p>
<p>And we’re far more likely to contract the parasite from infected dogs, who sleep on our beds and poop in our yards, than a coyote hunting rabbits on an urban golf course.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/87929/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr Emily J Jenkins consults with a number of veterinary diagnostic and pharmaceutical companies. She receives funding from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. </span></em></p>A parasite found in coyotes, wolves and foxes is now spreading to dogs and their owners as its range expands across Canada.Emily J Jenkins, Associate Professor, Veterinary Parasitology and Public Health, University of SaskatchewanLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/774392017-05-30T12:56:06Z2017-05-30T12:56:06ZHow the red fox adapted to life in our towns and cities<p>Flexible foxes can be found in almost any sort of terrain. Indeed, one species, the red fox or <em>Vulpes vulpes</em>, is the most widely distributed land carnivore of all, ranging from the Arctic to North Africa. And where its rivals stick to the countryside, these foxes have made themselves at home in modern towns and cities. Why is this?</p>
<p>For a start, red foxes are unfussy omnivores. They will eat mice, birds, invertebrates and berries – or your leftover pizza. Our cities are full of potential food for them. </p>
<p>Foxes also benefit from a cat-like agility to navigate around the urban landscape. Their “parkour” abilities mean they can access and exploit more parts of the city than other less agile urban carnivores such as badgers.</p>
<p>No wonder then that foxes have been reported in Britain’s cities since around about the 1930s – and <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0099059">my research</a> has shown they’re now found in more or less every town and city in the UK.</p>
<p>Back in 1995 it was estimated that England had <a href="http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/pdf/pub03_areviewofbritishmammalsall.pdf">around 33,000 urban foxes</a> but numbers today will be be higher as they’ve since moved into yet more cities. This is in contrast to the UK’s overall fox population, mostly rural, which has <a href="https://www.bto.org/volunteer-surveys/bbs/latest-results/mammal-monitoring">declined by 34%</a> over the past two decades – and will fall even further <a href="http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/theresa-may-fox-hunting-bring-back-ban-repeal-conservative-tories-general-election-rural-vote-a7726506.html">if Theresa May gets her way</a> and repeals the ban on fox hunting.</p>
<p>Many people enjoy the presence of urban foxes and the sense of having genuine wildlife in their gardens. Others however complain about the smell, their poo, or the screaming sounds foxes make when the vixen is calling for a mate during the breeding season.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/zk1mAd77Hr4?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
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<p>It is not uncommon for next door neighbours to have radically different views. Often, the main conflict isn’t between humans and fox – it’s between two humans. </p>
<p>Foxes are known to prey on rats and pigeons and so may help to control pest populations. However they can also spread certain <a href="http://www.thefoxwebsite.net/disease/diseaseother">diseases</a> which can infect humans, so care needs to be taken over contact with fox poo in the garden by people and pets.</p>
<p>Reports of <a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/8726282.stm">bites to humans</a> are rare, considering the number of people and foxes living cheek by jowl. They usually arise from the <a href="http://www.standard.co.uk/news/london/fox-attacks-man-woman-and-cat-at-their-home-in-south-london-8699892.html">animal being cornered</a> rather than an unprovoked attack, so people shouldn’t try luring them into their houses with food.</p>
<p>Some cities are more fox-friendly than others. As the animals prefer suburban areas to industrial or inner-city areas without gardens, it’s perhaps no surprise that the UK’s highest fox density was recorded in <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/cities/gallery/2017/jan/05/green-space-uk-largest-cities-mapped">relatively leafy Bristol</a> back in the 1990s. (However shortly after this 95% of the city’s foxes were killed by <a href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/17352877.pdf">an outbreak of sarcoptic mange</a>, a contagious skin disease).</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/171468/original/file-20170530-16306-1dqmyje.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/171468/original/file-20170530-16306-1dqmyje.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/171468/original/file-20170530-16306-1dqmyje.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/171468/original/file-20170530-16306-1dqmyje.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/171468/original/file-20170530-16306-1dqmyje.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/171468/original/file-20170530-16306-1dqmyje.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/171468/original/file-20170530-16306-1dqmyje.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/171468/original/file-20170530-16306-1dqmyje.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Fun times in fox-friendly Bristol.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/samuir/8430822100/">shrinkin'violet / flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>More recently <a href="https://www.brighton.ac.uk/research-and-enterprise/research/life-health-and-physical-sciences/research-groups/ecosystems-and-environmental-mngmt/urban-mammals.aspx">colleagues and I</a> estimated the suburbs in Brighton average around 12 foxes per km², which contrasts with the human population density of 3,445/km². We are still working on the data, but it looks fox numbers have increased in recently-colonised cities, while things have remained more stable in cities with well-established populations.</p>
<h2>Could the ‘urban fox’ evolve into its own species?</h2>
<p>Foxes still move back and forth between town and country. There is sufficient mixing of the population that would prevent the evolution of a distinct genetically separate “urban fox”. </p>
<p>However, foxes in urban areas may be changing their behaviour to adapt to city life. Previous studies found urban foxes <a href="http://www.wildlifeonline.me.uk/red_fox_diets.html">still mostly eat “natural” food</a> such as rodents, birds and invertebrates. Human-provided food is only a supplementary part of their diet. However, as more and more people provide food for wildlife in their gardens it is likely that the diet and behaviour of urban foxes may shift towards food provided by humans. </p>
<p>Colleagues and I are now looking at how this extra food will affect fox behaviour and movements. Fox behaviour is directly influenced by how humans act towards them. If people encourage close contact then this will drive tolerance to our presence and if people feed the foxes they will develop an association between humans and food. As populations are typically limited by resources, providing food could be supporting unnaturally high fox densities.</p>
<p>However, foxes also self regulate and it is clear that diseases such as mange have some influence on numbers. This also means that culling foxes has little long-term impact on populations.</p>
<p>Certain personality traits or behaviours may also be advantageous when living with humans and exploiting the urban environment. Individuals that are bolder and can solve problems of how to access food quicker are more likely to be more successful in obtaining food, and thus to reproduce. Over time, these traits may be selected for within urban populations, producing smarter and more courageous foxes. On the flip side, those foxes that cannot tolerate humans are unlikely to thrive in cities and will not pass on their traits to the next generation.</p>
<p>Whatever the future holds for urban foxes, cities provide plentiful food and refuges for them – so they’re here to stay. Love them or hate them, these animals have successfully adapted to the habitats we have built around them, and they are one of a few animals that can tolerate and adapt to our changing behaviour.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/77439/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dawn Scott has previously received funding from the Animal Plant and Health Agency. She is affiliated with the British Ecological Society. </span></em></p>These agile and unfussy animals are well-placed to exploit all the food we leave lying around.Dawn Scott, Principal Lecturer in Ecology, University of BrightonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/775122017-05-15T12:12:30Z2017-05-15T12:12:30ZFox-hunting row: playing politics with animal welfare<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/169313/original/file-20170515-7019-1a5xw9g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption"></span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>If Theresa May’s announcement of a UK general election on June 8 was a surprise to many, her pledge to allow a free vote on repealing the Hunting Act was hardly unexpected. </p>
<p>During a factory visit in Leeds recently, <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/election-2017-39861011">May declared</a>: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>As it happens, personally, I’ve always been in favour of fox hunting and we maintain our commitment – we had a commitment previously – as a Conservative Party to allow a free vote and that would allow parliament to take a decision on this. </p>
</blockquote>
<p><a href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2004/37/contents">The Hunting Act</a> came into force in 2004 to “prevent or reduce unnecessary suffering to wild mammals”. In theory, the law prevents foxes, hare (endangered in parts of the UK due to habitat loss), deer and mink from being pursued, injured or killed with hounds. </p>
<p>But in reality, enforcement of the law is a significant challenge – with the <a href="https://www.league.org.uk/News/boxing-day-hunts-16">League Against Cruel Sports</a> estimating an average of 16,000 illegal hunting incidents each year.</p>
<p>Between 2005 and 2017 there were <a href="http://www.countryside-alliance.org/calls-grow-hunting-act-scrapped-figures-reveal-no-successful-prosecutions-two-years/">423 prosecutions</a> under the act, <a href="http://www.huntingact.org/prosecutions/summary/">24 of which involved registered hunts</a>. </p>
<h2>The Hunting Act explained</h2>
<p>Horses and hounds in pursuit of the “wiley” fox across the British countryside captures the public imagination, effortlessly dividing opinion on rural-urban relations, class, cruelty, tradition, national identity and the rural idyll. </p>
<p>But while the fox gets all the press, other parts of the Hunting Act – which covers stag hunting, mink hunting, beagling, and hare coursing – are rarely mentioned. </p>
<p>Over the past 20 years, party leaders such as <a href="http://www.fwi.co.uk/farm-life/fox-hunting-ban-deliberately-sabotaged-says-blair.htm">Tony Blair</a>, <a href="http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/fox-hunting-david-camerons-desire-to-reverse-ban-doomed-in-face-of-tory-opposition-a6786171.html">David Cameron</a> and <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/uk-scotland-33521292/sturgeon-cameron-out-of-touch">Nicola Sturgeon</a> have played politics with animals to polarise opinion and mobilise targeted support. And this time round is no different. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/169314/original/file-20170515-6990-1ykozqi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/169314/original/file-20170515-6990-1ykozqi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169314/original/file-20170515-6990-1ykozqi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169314/original/file-20170515-6990-1ykozqi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169314/original/file-20170515-6990-1ykozqi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169314/original/file-20170515-6990-1ykozqi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169314/original/file-20170515-6990-1ykozqi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The face of the Hunting Act.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Pexels.</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Those that oppose the act, notably the pro-hunting Countryside Alliance, point to <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1477176/What-the-Act-allows-and-what-is-illegal.html">inconsistencies in the law</a>: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>The act makes it an offence to hunt a mouse with a dog but not a rat, you can legally hunt a rabbit but not a hare. </p>
<p>You can flush a fox to guns with two dogs legally, but if you use three it’s an offence. </p>
<p>You can flush a fox to a bird of prey with as many dogs as you like. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Pro-hunting opponents also challenge the role of this law in improving animal welfare. Countryside Alliance chief executive Tim Bonner maintains: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>There has been no improvement in welfare – just as many foxes are being killed as were before the ban. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>According to the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/265552/4763.pdf">Burns Inquiry</a> in 2000 – which looked into hunting with dogs in England and Wales when foxhunting was legal – registered hunts took an estimated 21,000 to 25,000 foxes annually. This accounted for roughly 5% of total fox deaths.</p>
<p>Today foxes and other wildlife continue to be legally “controlled” by farmers – <a href="http://www.discoverwildlife.com/british-wildlife/do-we-really-need-control-foxes-uk">mainly by shooting</a>. So the argument goes that a return to hunting would not increase deaths, and it is only “fair” that a small percentage of these perceived pests are hunted – in keeping with the British “tradition”. </p>
<h2>‘Pest control’</h2>
<p>But if that many foxes continue to be killed through legal practices of shooting, trapping and snaring, what role does hunting really have in wildlife management? </p>
<p>Historically, <a href="http://www.reaktionbooks.co.uk/display.asp?K=9781861897671">otter hunting</a> – which became illegal in 1978 when the endangered otter became a protected species in England – was exactly that. Otter hunters would hunt this “fish-killer” to protect fish stocks. By the 20th century, hunting otter had become a respected sport and regional organisations were created to do it. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/169319/original/file-20170515-7001-t1tv27.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/169319/original/file-20170515-7001-t1tv27.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169319/original/file-20170515-7001-t1tv27.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169319/original/file-20170515-7001-t1tv27.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169319/original/file-20170515-7001-t1tv27.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169319/original/file-20170515-7001-t1tv27.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169319/original/file-20170515-7001-t1tv27.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The cruelty of the otter hunt.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dave Webb/UK Wild Otter Trust</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Otter hunts were said to help develop a sense of community. The hunters had specialist understanding of the animal and its environment, and the otter acted as a guide for summer excursions into wild and watery rural landscapes. </p>
<p>Otter hunters valued the otter for the sport it provided them. And had it not been for otter hunting, the likelihood is the species would have been exterminated by those with a vested interest in fish.</p>
<p>But back then, animal welfare was certainly not a consideration. In fact, those who campaigned against otter hunting regarded it as one of the <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/rural-history/article/an-incredibly-vile-sport-campaigns-against-otter-hunting-in-britain-190039/4BCE85C41D8B90D859EF42AF7733F82E">most cruel forms of hunting</a> with hounds. </p>
<p>This was largely due to the duration of the pursuit – which <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/aug/26/country-diary-1912-otter-hunting">could often be up to seven hours</a> – and the active role of the followers, along with the otters prolonged suffering in the teeth of hounds.</p>
<h2>Country sports</h2>
<p>Otter hunting became enjoyed as a leisurely pastime – the experience of hunting surpassed the original intent of killing. And where otter hunting was considered “fun” by <a href="http://eprints.keele.ac.uk/2367/1/Watkins%20otter%20hunting%20cw.pdf">otter hunters</a>, hunting with hounds in the 21st century has the same appeal for participants. </p>
<p>Back in 2015, the prime minister, David Cameron, promised a free vote to repeal the Hunting Act. He declared: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>There is definitely a rural way of life which a born-and-bred Londoner might struggle to understand. I have always been a strong supporter of country sports. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Cameron then insisted: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>The Hunting Act has done nothing for animal welfare … people should have freedom to hunt.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>But Sturgeon, leader of the Scottish National Party, and the 56 SNP MPs <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2015/jul/14/foxhunting-vote-shelved-by-tories-in-face-of-snp-opposition">united against Cameron</a>, and in a humiliating political climb down, Cameron was forced to cancel the free vote. </p>
<h2>Animal cruelty</h2>
<p>The Hunting Act was the outcome of a political promise made by Blair. The attempted repeal was the outcome of a political promise made by Cameron, one which is being replicated by May. </p>
<p>The “freedom to hunt” is central to those calling for a repeal. These same pro-hunting supporters <a href="https://twitter.com/Dr_Dan_1/status/861969091061592065">dismiss the animal cruelty angle</a> – describing it as “complex” and <a href="https://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld200001/ldhansrd/vo010312/text/10312-06.htm">claim that there</a> is “[in]sufficient verifiable evidence” to reach conclusions on such matters.</p>
<p>But the notion that cruelty is complex has little substance. To the observer, cruelty is subjective and relative. For the animals experiencing unnecessary distress or pain, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2000/jun/11/hunting.ruralaffairs">suffering is absolute</a>. </p>
<p>So while it is clear that the Hunting Act would benefit from revisions – to tighten up the legislation – repealing the law altogether will indeed have direct implications on the welfare of animals currently under its protection. </p>
<p>It is time that politicians looked beyond political promises and personal legacies, to stop playing politics with animals, and start taking animal welfare seriously.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/77512/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr Daniel Allen is the Media and Policy Advisor for the UK Wild Otter Trust (charity 1167746) and member of the All-Party Parliamentary Group for Animal Welfare.</span></em></p>Why politicians need to stop playing politics with animals, and start taking their welfare seriously.Daniel Allen, Teaching Fellow in Human Geography, Keele UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/647412016-09-19T19:59:30Z2016-09-19T19:59:30ZInvasive predators are eating the world’s animals to extinction – and the worst is close to home<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/138154/original/image-20160918-17023-qljsys.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C473%2C5168%2C2964&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Feral cats are a major driver of global biodiversity loss, contributing to 26% of bird, mammal and reptile extinctions.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">T Doherty</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Invasive species are a threat to wildlife across the globe – and invasive, predatory mammals are particularly damaging.</p>
<p>Our research, recently published in <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2016/09/13/1602480113.abstract">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>, shows that these predators – cats, rats and foxes, but also house mice, possums and many others – have contributed to around 60% of bird, mammal and reptile extinctions. The worst offenders are feral cats, contributing to over 60 extinctions. </p>
<p>So how can we stop these mammals eating away at our threatened wildlife?</p>
<h2>Counting the cost</h2>
<p>Our study revealed that invasive predators are implicated in 87 bird, 45 mammal and 10 reptile extinctions — 58% of these groups’ contemporary extinctions worldwide.</p>
<p>Invasive predators also threaten 596 species classed as vulnerable, endangered or critically endangered on the <a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/">International Union for the Conservation of Nature</a> Red List. Combined, the affected species include 400 birds, 189 mammals and 149 reptiles.</p>
<p>Twenty-three of the critically endangered species are classed as “possibly extinct”, so the number of extinctions above is likely to be an underestimate.</p>
<p>Until now, these shocking statistics have been unknown, and the heavy toll of invasive predators on native biodiversity grossly underappreciated. Species extinctions attributed to invasive predators include the Hawaiian rail (<em>Zapornia sandwichensis</em>) and Australia’s lesser bilby (<em>Macrotis leucura</em>).</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/138143/original/image-20160918-17029-nszqey.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/138143/original/image-20160918-17029-nszqey.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/138143/original/image-20160918-17029-nszqey.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/138143/original/image-20160918-17029-nszqey.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/138143/original/image-20160918-17029-nszqey.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/138143/original/image-20160918-17029-nszqey.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/138143/original/image-20160918-17029-nszqey.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/138143/original/image-20160918-17029-nszqey.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Australia’s lesser bilby, now extinct.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Who are the worst offenders?</h2>
<p>We found that three canids (including the red fox and feral dogs), seven members of the weasel family or mustelids (such as stoats), five rodents, two primates, two mongooses, two marsupials and nine species from other families negatively impact threatened species. Some of these species, such as hedgehogs and brushtail possums, don’t immediately spring to mind as predators, yet they are known to prey on many threatened species.</p>
<p>Feral cats threaten the most species overall (430), including 63 that have become extinct. This equates to one-quarter of all bird, mammal and reptile extinctions – making the feral cat arguably the most damaging invasive species for animal biodiversity worldwide.</p>
<p>Five species of introduced rodent collectively threaten 420 species, including 75 extinctions. While we didn’t separate out the impacts of individual rodent species, previous work shows that black rats (<em>Rattus rattus</em>) threaten the greatest number of species, followed by brown rats (<em>R. norvegicus</em>) and Pacific rats (<em>R. exulans</em>). </p>
<p>The humble house mouse (<em>Mus musculus</em>) is another interesting case. Despite their small size, house mice have been recorded <a href="http://rsbl.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/3/3/241.short">eating live chicks</a> of albatrosses, petrels and shearwaters.</p>
<p>Other predators that threaten large numbers of species are the domestic dog (<em>Canis familiaris</em>), pig (<em>Sus scrofa</em>), small Indian mongoose (<em>Herpestes auropunctatus</em>), red fox (<em>Vulpes vulpes</em>) and stoat (<em>Mustela erminea</em>). </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/138162/original/image-20160919-17029-y68vqw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/138162/original/image-20160919-17029-y68vqw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/138162/original/image-20160919-17029-y68vqw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/138162/original/image-20160919-17029-y68vqw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/138162/original/image-20160919-17029-y68vqw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/138162/original/image-20160919-17029-y68vqw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=532&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/138162/original/image-20160919-17029-y68vqw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=532&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/138162/original/image-20160919-17029-y68vqw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=532&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Invasive mammalian predators (clockwise from top left): feral dog, house mouse, stoat, feral pig, feral cat, brushtail possum, black rat, small Indian mongoose and red fox (centre).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Clockwise from top-left: Andrey flickr CC BY 2.0 https://flic.kr/p/4M2E7y; Richard Adams flickr CC BY 2.0 https://flic.kr/p/7U19v9; Mark Kilner flickr CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 https://flic.kr/p/4D6LPe; CSIRO CC BY 3.0 http://www.scienceimage.csiro.au/image/1515; T. Doherty; Toby Hudson CC BY-SA 3.0 https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:BrushtailPossum.jpg; CSIRO CC BY 3.0 http://www.scienceimage.csiro.au/image/10564; J.M.Garg CC BY-SA 3.0 https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Herpestes_edwardsii_at_Hyderaba.jpg; Harley Kingston CC BY 2.0 https://flic.kr/p/ceWFr7 (centre).</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Island species most at risk</h2>
<p>Species found only on islands (insular endemics) account for 81% of the threatened species at risk from predators. </p>
<p>The isolation of many islands and a lack of natural predators mean that insular species are often naive about new predators and lack appropriate defensive responses. This makes them highly vulnerable to being eaten and in turn suffering rapid population decline or, worse, extinction. The high extinction rates of ground-dwelling birds in Hawaii and New Zealand — both of which lack native mammalian predators — are well-known examples.</p>
<p>Accordingly, the regions where the predators threatened the greatest number of species were all dominated by islands – Central America and the Caribbean, islands of the Pacific, the Madagascar region, New Zealand and Hawaii.</p>
<p>Conversely, the continental regions of North and South America, Europe, Africa and Asia contain comparatively few species threatened by invasive predators. While Australia is a continent, it is also an island, where large numbers of native birds and mammals are threatened by cats and foxes.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/138139/original/image-20160918-17008-dea5dx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/138139/original/image-20160918-17008-dea5dx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/138139/original/image-20160918-17008-dea5dx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/138139/original/image-20160918-17008-dea5dx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/138139/original/image-20160918-17008-dea5dx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/138139/original/image-20160918-17008-dea5dx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/138139/original/image-20160918-17008-dea5dx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/138139/original/image-20160918-17008-dea5dx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Along with feral cats, red foxes have devastated native mammals in Australia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Tom Rayner</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Managing menacing mammals</h2>
<p>Understanding and mitigating the impact of invasive mammal predators is essential for reducing the rate of <a href="https://theconversation.com/extinction-just-how-bad-is-it-and-why-should-we-care-13751">global biodiversity loss</a>.</p>
<p>Because most of the threatened species studied here live on islands, managing invasive predators on islands should be a global conservation priority. Invasive predators occur on hundreds of islands and predator control and eradication are costly exercises. Thus, it is important to <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cobi.12347/abstract">prioritise island eradications</a> based on feasibility, cost, likelihood of success and potential benefits.</p>
<p>On continents or large islands where eradications are difficult, <a href="https://theconversation.com/killing-cats-rats-and-foxes-is-no-silver-bullet-for-saving-wildlife-42754">other approaches are needed</a>. This includes predator-proof fencing, top-predator restoration and conservation, lethal control, and maintenance of habitat structure.</p>
<p>Despite the shocking statistics we have revealed, there remain many unknowns. For example, only around <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320716300878">40% of reptile species</a> have been assessed for the Red List, compared to 99% for birds and mammals. Very little is known about the impact of invasive predators on invertebrate species. </p>
<p>We expect that the number of species affected by invasive predators will climb as more knowledge becomes available.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>This article was co-authored by Al Glen from <a href="https://www.landcareresearch.co.nz/home">Landcare Research, New Zealand</a>. Landcare Research is a government-funded research organisation that conducts research into a range of conservation issues, including pest management. It did not provide funding for this research.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/64741/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tim Doherty has received funding from Earthwatch Institute Australia, Gunduwa Regional Conservation Association, Holsworth Wildlife Research Endowment, Edith Cowan University and Deakin University. Tim is affiliated with the Society for Conservation Biology (Oceania).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chris Dickman receives funding from the Australian Research Council, the Long Term Ecological Research Network and the Threatened Species Recovery Hub of the National Environmental Science Programme. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dale Nimmo receives funding from the Hermon Slade Foundation, the Department of Land, Water and Planning, the Department of Parks and Wildlife, Parks Victoria, and The Australian Academy of Science. He is affiliated with the Ecological Society of Australia. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Euan Ritchie receives funding from Pozible, the Australia and Pacific Science and Hermon Slade Foundations, and the Australian Research Council. Euan Ritchie is affiliated with the Ecological Society of Australia and the Australian Mammal Society.</span></em></p>Cats, rats, foxes and other mammal predators have been implicated in 60% of the world’s animals extinctions.Tim Doherty, Research Fellow, Deakin UniversityChris Dickman, Professor in Terrestrial Ecology, University of SydneyDale Nimmo, Lecturer in Ecology, Charles Sturt UniversityEuan Ritchie, Senior Lecturer in Ecology, Centre for Integrative Ecology, School of Life & Environmental Sciences, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/425002015-07-17T04:33:16Z2015-07-17T04:33:16ZWhat animals can teach us about stress<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/88669/original/image-20150716-5099-uduzqd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Guppies who are under constant threat of predation do worse than those who live without predators</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Reuters</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Humans, being essentially self-centred, want to know what makes them different from their wild relatives, as well as what similarities exist. But it’s not just a matter of curiosity. Other species can teach us a lot about the big issues that challenge us in modern society.</p>
<p>Stress is seen as a pervasive modern-day <a href="http://alphabioticinfo.com/UnderstandingStress.aspx">killer</a>. It has an impact on everything from our intestinal processes to our cherished cognitive performance. But stress is not a modern thing. All animals stress about predators, hunger, and lack of sex. So, what can we learn from them?</p>
<p>If there were a sweet spot – the optimal stress level – at which most stressed animals show peak cognitive performance we could possibly use the information to modulate our own stress and mental feats. And it would be brilliant if we could develop a deep understanding of how wild animals perform under varying levels of risk, given that they have evolved to deal with these over millions of years. </p>
<p>Studying the link between stress and cognitive performance, however, is hampered by many challenges. Although our methods of measuring stress have improved dramatically in recent years, outside the lab it’s still very difficult to contrast chronic stress from, say, a long drought, versus acute stress, such as the presence of a predator. Or linking our measures of stress to wild animals’ learning and memory skills. </p>
<p>We’re only just scratching at the surface of this problem. </p>
<h2>Not stressing the animals</h2>
<p>The study of stress itself is coming into its <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022395614003586">own</a>. Traditionally, researchers actually increased their study subjects’ stress levels by the collection of blood used to measure circulating stress hormone (cortisol) levels. More recently, though, we have been given a barrage of less invasive tools with which to measure animals’ anxiety. </p>
<p>Perhaps the most widely used technique is to extract hormonal data from fecal samples. There is no need to catch or handle the animal. By happy coincidence <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2506605">stressed animals</a> produce even more poo than their calm counterparts. Fecal hormones have certainly confirmed many of our suspicions. Animals become more stressed when they are <a href="http://sciencenordic.com/iguana-faeces-reveal-stress">handled</a> and in captive conditions like zoos. They also find losing a friend very <a href="http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/02/0221_060221_baboon_grief.html">stressful</a>.</p>
<p>There have also been some surprise findings. It may seem obvious that being a subordinate animal is stressful, but research on baboons shows that <a href="http://www.wired.com/2011/07/baboon-stress/">alpha males</a> may actually be the ones heading for a stomach ulcer.</p>
<p>Another way of indirectly assessing anxiety is by measuring changes in how much food wild animals leave behind in experimental feeding patches. The idea is that a relaxed animal will eat more of the food than an anxious individual, leaving behind more food. This is called the giving up <a href="http://fwf.ag.utk.edu/mgray/wfs512/SeminarSP11/Hagy.pdf">density</a>. Experiments such as these allow us to clearly see how wild animals perceive variation in risk in their natural landscapes. </p>
<p>We know from Giving Up Density experiments that <a href="http://vividhvichaar.blogspot.com/2013/10/goading-goats-tourists-trigger-tension.html">Nubian ibex</a> perceive increased tourism as risky, while samango monkeys use human observers as <a href="http://www.iflscience.com/plants-and-animals/monkeys-use-researchers-human-shields">potential shields</a> against predators, eating much more food when their human “guards” are nearby. These same monkeys also feel much more threatened near the ground, compared to positions higher up under the tree canopies.</p>
<p>An even more exciting recent development is the measure of stress through thermal imagery. Researchers are knee-deep in the development of reliable techniques using thermal cameras to detect rapid changes in body surface <a href="http://www.gla.ac.uk/researchinstitutes/bahcm/staff/ruedinager/ruedinager/publications/headline_386284_en.html">temperatures</a>. </p>
<p>A spike in stress levels causes blood to shunt away from an animal’s body surface (may this be what gives us the chills when we panic?). Suddenly, and quite literally, the animal appears to be <a href="https://naturallyspeakingpodcast.wordpress.com/2015/06/24/stress-is-cool-the-movie/">cooler</a>. Armed with this knowledge, we may be able to monitor fluctuation in stress levels in real time.</p>
<p>With all of these tools at our disposal, you may imagine that we know everything there is to know about wild animals’ performance under pressure. Unfortunately we don’t.</p>
<h2>There is still a lot to learn</h2>
<p>Our knowledge of cognitive performance and stress is heavily skewed towards lab rats. A great deal has been learnt from them.</p>
<p>For example, experiments have shown some positive effects of stress on lab rats. Brief, acute stress can actually lead to an increase in neurons in rats’ <a href="http://psychcentral.com/news/2013/04/18/lab-research-finds-some-stress-is-healthy/53855.html">brains</a>. And rats who were stressed out as <a href="http://news.psu.edu/story/285020/2013/08/23/research/scientists-mimic-natural-conditions-lab-more-accurately-test-stress">teenagers</a> become more impulsive as adults, which can make them more effective foragers, especially under high risk conditions.</p>
<p>In some ways, these findings sound like great news. We can perhaps all relate to the idea that we perform rather well when the stressful situation is short-lived, but flunk out when the pressure is either non-existent or overwhelming. But what we can say about these very rodent-focused studies is that it’s time to move beyond rodents and beyond the lab. </p>
<h2>Moving past rodents</h2>
<p>Data are slowly trickling in. </p>
<p>Studies on wild animals appear to confirm the idea that long-term, chronic stressors can truly decrease your mental acuity. For example, a recent study on wild-caught <a href="http://www.pubfacts.com/detail/25245304/How-ecology-shapes-prey-fish-cognition">guppies</a> showed that those used to stress make a lot more mistakes in cognitive challenges compared to the relatively relaxed fish. </p>
<p>Left-handed <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0166432815002028">marmosets</a>, which are the target of more social attacks and are therefore perhaps more chronically stressed, also show negative cognitive biases compared to their right-handed group members. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/88670/original/image-20150716-5104-1oxu2rm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/88670/original/image-20150716-5104-1oxu2rm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/88670/original/image-20150716-5104-1oxu2rm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/88670/original/image-20150716-5104-1oxu2rm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/88670/original/image-20150716-5104-1oxu2rm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=529&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/88670/original/image-20150716-5104-1oxu2rm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=529&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/88670/original/image-20150716-5104-1oxu2rm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=529&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Marmosets don’t function well cognitively in stressful situations.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Reuters</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In my own lab we are trying to assess various ways in which varying risk can affect learning abilities. We are using Giving Up Density experiments to determine how well wild bat-eared foxes may perform in low-risk and high-risk situations.</p>
<p>The key to unlocking how animals deal with stress requires that we step off our pedestal and acknowledge that other animals may outdo us in some cognitive tasks. If we do this we may learn how to truly cope in our own rapidly changing landscape.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/42500/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Aliza le Roux receives funding from the National Research Foundation (South Africa). She is affiliated with the University of the Free State's Qwaqwa campus, and member of the South African Young Academy of Science.</span></em></p>Humans can learn a thing or two from animals on how to deal with stress.Aliza le Roux, Associate Professor, University of the Free StateLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.