tag:theconversation.com,2011:/uk/topics/invasive-5658/articlesInvasive – The Conversation2023-09-21T22:07:48Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2131202023-09-21T22:07:48Z2023-09-21T22:07:48ZHow the Peach Blossom Jellyfish is spreading across North America<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/548221/original/file-20230914-17-v07w3f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4000%2C3000&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Peach Blossom Jellyfish (Craspedacusta sowerbii) is native to China and an invasive species in Canada.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Florian Lüskow)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/how-the-peach-blossom-jellyfish-is-spreading-across-north-america" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Invasive species <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/biodiversity/invasive-alien-species-strategy.html">are a real problem in Canada</a>, and one species in particular, the freshwater jellyfish species of the genus <em>Craspedacusta sowerbii</em> — <em>C. sowerbii</em>, or the Peach Blossom Jellyfish — are as widespread as they are also poorly understood. </p>
<p>There is anecdotal evidence that the invasive jellyfish had been present in British Columbia lakes and ponds for decades. Still, compiled data suggest that the number of sightings has increased considerably since the year 2000. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, however, we still have very limited information about the range of its presence in Canada, how it got here, how it spreads and what its essential impact on freshwater ecosystems across Canada may be. No mitigation and management strategy has yet been developed and many fundamental questions about the species ecology are unanswered.</p>
<h2>Climate change and species introductions</h2>
<p>The <em>Craspedacusta</em> species is a subtropical but adaptable organism which favours moderate- to high-water temperatures. While cold water temperatures have acted as a historical check on their growth and expansion, warming temperatures around the globe are helping to expand their territory.</p>
<p>Recent increases in sightings of <em>C. sowerbii</em> in B.C., across Canada and worldwide are therefore indicative of an expanding suitable habitat for the jellyfish as a result of global warming, alongside a <a href="https://www.int-res.com/articles/ab2021/30/b030p069.pdf">growing public awareness and increased observational efforts</a> leading to more effective recognition.</p>
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<p>Current modelling shows that the Peach Blossom Jellyfish will expand to ever higher latitudes in both hemispheres over this century and be <a href="https://doi.org/10.3354/ab00742">present in freshwater systems longer in the year from spring to late autumn</a>. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, the species has rarely been the focus of research. Currently, as far as I am aware, only biological oceanographer Evgeny Pakhomov and I are now researching the species and its significance for Canada.</p>
<p>Our research shows that this trend is not restricted to B.C., but is expected to happen in other provinces such as Alberta, Ontario and Québec too. <em>Craspedacusta sowerbii</em> irregularly occurs in the Great Lakes area on both sides of the Canada-United States border since the 1930s.</p>
<h2>Small invader, unpredictable occurrence</h2>
<p>The current state of provincial monitoring and reporting on this species is, unfortunately, lacklustre. </p>
<p>While a number of tools and data have been shown to be effective <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/rra.3947">in monitoring populations in North America and Europe</a>, no province currently includes these in annual reports and statistics. </p>
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<p>For example, the <a href="https://bcinvasives.ca/">Invasive Species Council of British Columbia’s annual report</a> does not cunduct large-scale data synthesis on the Peach Blossom Jellyfish. As a result of this lack of data, no evidence of seasonal or long-term population trends exists.</p>
<p>Compounding these difficulties is the fact that the <em>C. sowerbii</em> is known as a species complex, meaning that there are likely several species going undetected under the same name. The nuances of these species distinctions are not only of academic interest, but also hold the key to identifying how these species move across and between ecosystems.</p>
<p>Understanding all of these aspects is crucial for us to start seriously thinking about mitigation and management strategies.</p>
<h2>We cannot manage what we don’t understand</h2>
<p>While the species is harmless to humans, it is unknown how the freshwater jellyfish interact with other lake and pond inhabitants. There is evidence that these jellyfish are a potentially rich source of food for juvenile fish and they could <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/biology12060814">compete with other native species as food</a>.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, not enough up-to-date information is available about the various life stages of the jellyfish and the particular impacts of each stage. Indeed, <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/biology11081100">while polyps and other juvenile stages are present year-round</a>, their exact locations, abundance and activity levels are entirely unknown.</p>
<p>While governmental reporting infrastructure does exist in some provinces and territories, large-scale data have not yet been analyzed. Efforts are hampered by the lack of inclusion of the Peach Blossom Jellyfish in regular monitoring programs. </p>
<p>We hope to stimulate interest and motivation to better understand this problem at all levels from federal to provincial governments and local municipalities.</p>
<p>This lack of data, and effort by provinces to collect them, has serious consequences for Canada’s ecological security and limits the effectiveness of any management or adaptation plan in the years to come.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/213120/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Florian Lüskow does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The Peach Blossom Jellyfish is an invasive species in Canada, and a lack of data is hampering efforts to control populations.Florian Lüskow, Postdoctoral research fellow, Faculty of Science, University of British ColumbiaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1629192021-07-28T12:19:46Z2021-07-28T12:19:46ZThe invasive spotted lanternfly is spreading across the eastern US – here’s what you need to know about this voracious pest<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408983/original/file-20210629-22-1av607.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C8%2C1427%2C1048&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">In seven years, the lanternfly has spread from Berks County, northwest of Philadelphia, to large areas of Pennsylvania and New Jersey, and both south and north.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://news.psu.edu/photo/535597/2018/09/10/spotted-lanternfly-tree">Penn State/E. Swackhamer</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The spotted lanternfly was first detected in Pennsylvania in 2014 and has since spread to 26 counties in that state and at least six other eastern states. It’s moving into southern New England, Ohio and Indiana. This approximately 1-inch-long species from Asia has attractive polka-dotted front wings but can infest and kill trees and plants. <a href="https://ag.tennessee.edu/EPP/Pages/Dr.FrankHale.aspx">Professor Frank Hale</a> is an entomologist who is tracking this species.</em></p>
<p><strong>How did the spotted lanternfly <a href="https://pest.ceris.purdue.edu/map.php?code=IRANADA&year=2020">get to the U.S.</a>, and how quickly is it spreading?</strong></p>
<p>It is native to India, China and Vietnam and probably arrived in a cut stone shipment in 2012. The first sighting was in 2014 in Berks County, Pennsylvania, on a tree of heaven — a common invasive tree brought to North America <a href="https://www.nature.org/en-us/about-us/where-we-work/united-states/indiana/stories-in-indiana/journey-with-nature--tree-of-heaven/">from China</a> in the late 1700s. </p>
<p>By July 2021 the lanternfly <a href="https://nysipm.cornell.edu/environment/invasive-species-exotic-pests/spotted-lanternfly/spotted-lanternfly-ipm/introduction-native-range-and-current-range-us/">had spread to about half of Pennsylvania</a>, large areas of New Jersey, parts of New York state, Maryland, Delaware and Virginia. It also had been found in western Connecticut, eastern Ohio, and now <a href="https://bygl.osu.edu/index.php/node/1832">Indiana</a>. To give an idea of how fast these lanternflies spread, they were introduced <a href="https://www.researchsquare.com/article/rs-199871/v1">into South Korea in 2004</a> and spread throughout that entire country – which is approximately the size of Pennsylvania – in only three years. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411722/original/file-20210716-19-shurte.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411722/original/file-20210716-19-shurte.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=540&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411722/original/file-20210716-19-shurte.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=540&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411722/original/file-20210716-19-shurte.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=540&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411722/original/file-20210716-19-shurte.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=678&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411722/original/file-20210716-19-shurte.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=678&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411722/original/file-20210716-19-shurte.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=678&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">In only seven years, the spotted lanternfly has infested large areas of the Middle Atlantic and has begun to push into Connecticut.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://nysipm.cornell.edu/sites/nysipm.cornell.edu/files/shared/images/SLF-reported-distribution-7-1-21.pdf">New York State Integrated Pest Management Program</a></span>
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<p><strong>How do they spread so fast?</strong></p>
<p>The lanternflies lay egg masses in late summer and autumn on the trunks of trees and any smooth-surfaced item sitting outdoors. The egg masses, which resemble smears of dry mud, can also be laid on the smooth surfaces of cars, trucks and trains. Then, they can be <a href="https://extension.psu.edu/spotted-lanternfly-frequently-asked-questions">unintentionally transported</a> to any part of the country in just a few days. Once the eggs hatch, they crawl to nearby host plants to start a new infestation.</p>
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<span class="caption">An adult spotted lanternfly crawls along a branch in Pennsylvania. The red, white, and black nymph below will molt into an adult.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/usdagov/30776344918/in/album-72157697839962692/">Stephen Ausmus/USDA</a></span>
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<p><strong>How do they damage trees and plants? What do they feed on?</strong></p>
<p>They feed by piercing the bark of trees and vines to tap into the plant’s vascular system to feast on sap. For a sucking insect, lanternflies are relatively big. They remove large amounts of sap and excrete copious amounts of clear, sticky “honeydew” that can coat the tree and anything beneath. A black sooty mold grows wherever the honeydew has been deposited. While unsightly, sooty mold isn’t harmful when growing on the bark of the tree or beneath it. Lanternfly feeding seriously stresses trees and vines, which <a href="https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/nph.13955">lose carbohydrates</a> and other nutrients meant for storage in the roots and eventually for new growth. Infested trees and vines grow more slowly, exhibit dieback – begin to die from the branch tips – and can even die. </p>
<p><strong>How are scientists and officials trying to stop their spread?</strong></p>
<p><a href="https://nysipm.cornell.edu/environment/invasive-species-exotic-pests/spotted-lanternfly/spotted-lanternfly-ipm/management-predators-and-parasitoids/">Biological control</a> shows some promise for the future. Two naturally occurring fungal pathogens of spotted lanternflies have been identified in the U.S. Also, U.S. labs are testing two parasitoid insects – insects that grow by feeding on lanternflies and killing them in the process – that have been brought from China for testing and possible future release.</p>
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<p><strong>How worried should people be about this lanternfly?</strong></p>
<p>Very worried. Lanternflies easily build to high numbers. The area where host trees live is relatively wide, and lanternflies damage crops, the forest and the landscape. They damage many plants and <a href="https://www.aphis.usda.gov/aphis/resources/pests-diseases/hungry-pests/the-threat/spotted-lanternfly/spotted-lanternfly">cause a major nuisance to the general public</a>. The heavy flow of honeydew and the resulting sooty mold makes a mess of the landscape. The adults start to aggregate on plants and structures to lay their egg masses in September. Their sudden, mass appearance can be alarming to people the way periodical cicada populations shock people when they come out of the ground. But lanternflies are more shocking because the few predators that could feed on them, like wheel bugs and predatory stink bugs, do not seem to control the infestations. That is why the introduction of parasitoids from Asia are important for achieving some meaningful level of biological control.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Spotted lanternflies invade sidewalks and buildings in Philadelphia.</span></figcaption>
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<p>Lanternflies can be a serious <a href="https://extension.psu.edu/spotted-lanternfly-management-in-vineyards">pest of grapes</a>, and where found, they have reduced grape yields and damaged or killed vines. Multiple applications of insecticides are often needed to kill them, but this increases the cost of crop production. The pest threatens the major wine-producing regions in the East, such as the Finger Lakes and Long Island in New York; parts of Virginia; and Newport, Rhode Island.</p>
<p><strong>Have any other pests similarly damaged trees?</strong></p>
<p>Yes, the emerald ash borer, which arrived in the U.S. from China <a href="http://www.emeraldashborer.info/timeline.php">by accident and was discovered in 2002</a>. It has killed millions of ash trees in North America. The Asian longhorned beetle, which feeds on and kills many species of trees, has turned up in multiple locations, most recently near Charleston, South Carolina. Maple, buckeye, horse chestnut, willow and elm would be threatened if <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/albeetle/hosts.htm">this pest ever got widely established</a>.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://bugwoodcloud.org/resource/files/18559.pdf">box tree moth</a> damages boxwoods and is known to live in Canada. It has been seen in Connecticut, Michigan and South Carolina. It possibly was spread accidentally into the U.S. in shipments of boxwoods from Canada. It is not known to be established in any state, but a federal government order has <a href="https://www.aphis.usda.gov/aphis/newsroom/stakeholder-info/sa_by_date/sa-2021/sa-05/box-tree-moth">halted importing host plants</a> like boxwood, euonymus and holly from Canada.</p>
<p><strong>What should I do if I see one?</strong> </p>
<p>If it has already infested the region where you live and you find spotted lanternflies on your property, contact your local county extension office for control recommendations. </p>
<p>But if it has not been found in your county or state, report it to your state department of agriculture. If the infestation is caught early before it can become established in your area, hopefully it can be eradicated there. Eventually, it will spread to many parts of the country. We can slow the spread by identifying and eradicating new infestations wherever they arise.</p>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Frank A. Hale as a representative for the University of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture (UTIA) receives funding from USDA APHIS PPQ. In 2020, UTIA received funding to survey for spotted lanternfly and other pests and diseases of grapes at Tennessee vineyards. I was a PI on that cooperative agreement. I have been the state survey coordinator for the Cooperative Agricultural Pest Survey (CAPS) in Tennessee since 2014 as a representative of UTIA. CAPS allows our state to survey for invasive pests and diseases. </span></em></p>The spotted lanternfly, native to Asia, is spreading fast since arriving in the United States seven years ago. An entomologist explains why this is a big problem.Frank A. Hale, Professor, Horticultural Crop Entomology, University of TennesseeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1185862019-06-12T06:09:58Z2019-06-12T06:09:58ZA parasite attack on Darwin’s finches means they’re losing their lovesong<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/278820/original/file-20190611-32351-1hoo5hb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=29%2C196%2C2710%2C1683&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A Small Tree Finch from the Galápagos Islands with an enlarged nostril caused by a parasite.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Katharina J Peters</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>A parasite known to infect beaks in some iconic Darwin finches on the Galapagos Islands is changing the mating song of male birds.</p>
<p>Our research, <a href="http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/lookup/doi/10.1098/rspb.2019.0461" title="Introduced parasite changes host phenotype, mating signal and hybridisation risk: Philornis downsi effects on Darwin’s finch song">published today in Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>, reveals how the parasite deforms the beak. This has the effect of weakening the male bird’s mating call, and making it no longer clearly distinguishable from that of other closely related species.</p>
<p>A changed song can have an important effect on the male finch’s ability to find a mate. </p>
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<p>It’s another factor that could contribute to declining numbers of these already threatened birds on the Pacific archipelago, about 1,000km off the coast of South America.</p>
<h2>A family song to impress</h2>
<p>A male finch learns the mating song from his father, and produces the same song for the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/107/47/20156/tab-article-info" title="Songs of Darwin's finches diverge when a new species enters the community">rest of his life</a>.</p>
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<p>It’s a simple tune consisting of one syllable repeated 3 to 15 times, depending on what species of finch he belongs to. Larger-bodied finch species produce a slower song with few syllable repeats, and smaller-bodied finch species produce faster song with <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bird-conservation-international/article/avian-population-trends-in-scalesia-forest-on-floreana-island-20042013-acoustical-surveys-cannot-detect-hybrids-of-darwins-tree-finches-camarhynchus-spp/7FE5D763A26BC9C0398398DE336CB778">many syllable repeats</a>.</p>
<p>Whatever species of finch you belong to, hitting the high notes is important – because females prefer males who can produce such vocally challenging songs. </p>
<p>In the case of the <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10531-009-9740-1">Medium Tree Finch</a> (<em>Camarhynchus pauper</em>), a critically endangered species that only occurs on Floreana Island of the Galapagos Islands, its species-typical song has a bright resonance that rings across the forest canopy.</p>
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Medium Tree Finch.
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span><span class="download"><span>35.5 KB</span> <a target="_blank" href="https://cdn.theconversation.com/audio/1607/medium-tree-finch-with-normal-naris-size.mp3">(download)</a></span></span>
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<p>An accomplished male singer that can hit the high notes is quickly swooped up by a female looking to pair with a proficient singer. </p>
<h2>The ‘Vampire’ parasite</h2>
<p>The Vampire Fly – a <a href="https://twitter.com/CStenoien/status/1110602027275571200">suggested name</a> for the parasite <em>Philornis downsi</em> given its blood feeding habits from dusk until dawn – was <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1046/j.1474-919X.2002.00076.x" title="Philornis downsi– a recently discovered parasite on the Galápagos archipelago – a threat for Darwin's finches?">first discovered in a Darwin’s finch nest in 1997</a>.</p>
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<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The parasitic <em>Philornis</em> larvae in a finch nest.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sonia Kleindorfer</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Since then, the devastating impacts of its larval feeding habits on nestling birds have been <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/parasitology/article/lifecycle-of-philornis-downsi-diptera-muscidae-parasitizing-darwins-finches-and-its-impacts-on-nestling-survival/597D469905598A7105BBE59990009B32">coming to light</a>. The adult fly is vegetarian, but the females lay their eggs into bird nests and their <a href="https://bmczool.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40850-016-0003-9" title="Host-parasite ecology, behavior and genetics: a review of the introduced fly parasite Philornis downsi and its Darwin’s finch hosts">larvae feed on nestling bird beaks from the inside out</a>. </p>
<p>Many Darwin’s finch species now have beaks with massively enlarged nostrils because of damage the feeding fly larvae have caused <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2351989416300336?via%3Dihub" title="Naris deformation in Darwin’s finches: Experimental and historical evidence for a post-1960s arrival of the parasite Philornis downsi">during the nestling stage</a>. We discovered that a changed beak apparatus measurably affects the song of Darwin’s tree finches with consequences for pairing success. </p>
<p>A Medium Tree Finch male with extremely enlarged nostrils is unable to hit the high notes.</p>
<p><audio preload="metadata" controls="controls" data-duration="2" data-image="" data-title="Medium Tree Finch with enlarged nostrils" data-size="33017" data-source="" data-source-url="" data-license="Author provided" data-license-url="">
<source src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/audio/1608/medium-tree-finch-with-parasite-induced-naris-enlargement.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
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<div class="audio-player-caption">
Medium Tree Finch with enlarged nostrils.
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span><span class="download"><span>32.2 KB</span> <a target="_blank" href="https://cdn.theconversation.com/audio/1608/medium-tree-finch-with-parasite-induced-naris-enlargement.mp3">(download)</a></span></span>
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<p>We found the same pattern in Small Tree Finches (<em>C. parvulus</em>) with enlarged nostrils. </p>
<p>Male finches that produce song with a narrower frequency bandwidth, because their song has a lower maximum frequency, have poor quality song. These males are less likely to be chosen by females, a pattern we documented in both the Medium Tree Finch and the Small Tree Finch.</p>
<p>Also, the song of Medium Tree Finches with enlarged nostrils sounds like the song of the Small Tree Finch.</p>
<p><audio preload="metadata" controls="controls" data-duration="1" data-image="" data-title="Small Tree Finches" data-size="29674" data-source="" data-source-url="" data-license="Author provided" data-license-url="">
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Small Tree Finches.
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span><span class="download"><span>29 KB</span> <a target="_blank" href="https://cdn.theconversation.com/audio/1609/audio3-smalltreefinch.mp3">(download)</a></span></span>
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<h2>When species merge</h2>
<p>But confusion among the species and their mating songs may not necessarily be a bad thing for the future survival of individual finches – though it could herald the collapse of species lineages.</p>
<p>Previously, we discovered evidence of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24561597" title="Species collapse via hybridization in Darwin's tree finches">hybridisation in Darwin finches</a>. This is where two separate species of finch breed which could potentially produce a new species, phase out one of the species, or cause the collapse of the two existing species into one.</p>
<p>We observed hybridisation driven by <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/jeb.13167" title="Females drive asymmetrical introgression from rare to common species in Darwin's tree finches">female Medium Tree Finches</a> pairing with male Small Tree Finches. </p>
<p>When a female Medium Tree Finch inspects male Small Tree Finches in the forest, she pairs with one who produces high quality song, even if that male is from another species.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/279048/original/file-20190612-32361-ve8cs4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/279048/original/file-20190612-32361-ve8cs4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/279048/original/file-20190612-32361-ve8cs4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/279048/original/file-20190612-32361-ve8cs4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/279048/original/file-20190612-32361-ve8cs4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/279048/original/file-20190612-32361-ve8cs4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/279048/original/file-20190612-32361-ve8cs4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/279048/original/file-20190612-32361-ve8cs4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A Tree Finch with a normal beak and nostril size, so no infection from the parasite.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Katharina J Peters</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This female choice seems to be paying dividends, because hybrid pairs with greater genetic diversity also sustained <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.181616" title="Genetic admixture predicts parasite intensity: evidence for increased hybrid performance in Darwin's tree finches">fewer of the parasitic larvae in the nest</a>. And that could lead to fewer birds with infected beaks.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/galapagos-species-are-threatened-by-the-very-tourists-who-flock-to-see-them-86392">Galapagos species are threatened by the very tourists who flock to see them</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>There are concerted efforts underway to develop control and eradication methods for <em>P. downsi</em> on the Galapagos Islands, building on a collaborative relationship between the Charles Darwin Foundation and the Galapagos National Parks. The <a href="https://www.darwinfoundation.org/en/research/projects/philornis-downsi"><em>Philornis downsi</em> Action Group</a> is an international consortium of concerned scientists working to develop biological control methods.</p>
<p>Our new research is an important step towards understanding how this invasive fly may be changing the evolutionary pathway of Darwin’s finches by literally changing the beak of the finch.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/118586/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>For this project the authors received funding from the Australian Research Council, the Max Planck Institute for Ornithology, the Mohamed bin Zayed Species Conservation Fund, the Ecological Society of Australia, Earthwatch Institute, Club300 Bird Protection, Rufford Small Grants Foundation, the Winifred Violet Scott Trust, the American Bird Conservancy, the Conservation International, the Australian Federation for University Women, and the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds/Birdfair. TAME airlines provided reduced airfares.
Katharina J. Peters is affiliated with Flinders University, Adelaide, Australia, and Massey University, Albany, New Zealand. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sonia Kleindorfer does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>An infestation as a chick leads to enlarged nostrils in the beak of Darwin finches, and that affects their mating call.Katharina J. Peters, Postdoctoral fellow, Flinders UniversitySonia Kleindorfer, Professor of Animal Behaviour, Flinders UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/627232016-07-26T20:52:52Z2016-07-26T20:52:52ZHow South Africa’s second most invasive tree can be managed better<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/131617/original/image-20160722-26817-1895wzj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The mesquite tree was introduced into South Africa to aid farmers and local communities. It is now invasive in most parts of the country.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Many plants have been moved around the world for many reasons – for example for ornamental purposes, forestry and agriculture. A small proportion have become invasive, spreading beyond the areas in which they were initially planted. In some cases this has negatively affected humans and the environment.</p>
<p>One such tree genus, <a href="http://www.arc.agric.za/arc-ppri/Pages/Mesquite-Prosopis.aspx"><em>Prosopis</em></a>, or mesquite, originally from the Americas, has been introduced to more than 100 countries. It was introduced into the arid parts of South Africa to aid farmers and local communities with fodder production, provide shade for livestock and produce firewood. </p>
<p>It has now invaded large parts of the country and has become the second most widespread invasive tree after <a href="https://www.dwa.gov.za/wfw/docs/books/brochure07.pdf">Australian acacias</a>. It has had a negative impact on biodiversity, livestock production, land value, human health, infrastructure and water supply. These are all crucial factors for the economy and for local people’s livelihoods.</p>
<p>The negative effects of these invasions have led to the initiation of programmes to manage them across the world. In South Africa the <a href="https://www.environment.gov.za/projectsprogrammes/wfw">Working for Water</a> programme drives management on state and private land along with input from private landowners. Without active management these invasive plants would become more widespread and their impact on people and the environment would be more pronounced. </p>
<h2>Reducing the impact</h2>
<p>Management initiatives, such as Working for Water, aim to reduce the impact and spread of invasive plants. In South Africa the initiative also aims to create <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877343515000962">jobs and drive rural development</a>. </p>
<p>We recently conducted <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959378016300334">a study</a> to assess the barriers that impede the effective management of widespread <em>Prosopis</em> invasion. More than 100 barriers were identified in the study, which tried to identify the problems that hinder current management operations. The results could be used to come up with solutions about how to overcome these problems. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/ep6tH6xZTX0?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Prosopis invasions in South Africa: a blessing or curse?</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The key barriers identified were: </p>
<ul>
<li><p>Using versus removing the tree and control options. Some parties wanted to continue using <em>Prosopis</em> for fodder and fuelwood and did not want them removed. Others pointed to the serious negative impact they have. There was also controversy about labour-intensive management, which is time consuming and makes progress slow. Mechanical and biological control approaches are obviously faster but employ fewer people. </p></li>
<li><p>The ecology of the species. It is hard to control because it grows very fast and spreads rapidly. It is also capable of regrowing from cut stumps if herbicide is not applied correctly.</p></li>
<li><p>Poor planning and prioritisation. Often no systematic control strategy is followed.</p></li>
<li><p>Coordination and cooperation, which is linked to poor planning, inefficient management, corruption and lack of collaboration between different government departments and farmers.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>There were differences in how the importance of some barriers were perceived. Most farmers – 80% – placed high importance on a lack of planning and poor management as important barriers. Few managers – 20% – regarded these as important. This reflects different views about the context in which management projects operate.</p>
<h2>Adaptation responses</h2>
<p>Many of the barriers can be overcome and ways to do this were identified in some instances. But not all were conducive to simple solutions. </p>
<p>Key adaption responses include the adoption of more effective clearing methods. These include:</p>
<ol>
<li><p>Mechanised options and biological control. These are more time and cost effective but can still allow for job creation.</p></li>
<li><p>Raising awareness and building partnerships to ensure that different actors work together to control the problem.</p></li>
<li><p>Ensuring landowner follow-up control. This will ensure state investment is not wasted and long-term control is guaranteed. It is also legally binding but not enforced. </p></li>
<li><p>Improved monitoring to get an understanding if control is working and of its benefits. This can also help to reduce inefficient management.</p></li>
<li><p>Incorporating systematic strategic planning at various levels to ensure the limited funds available are spent wisely and in a way that has the most benefit. </p></li>
</ol>
<p>All of this will improve the effectiveness of control programmes with the funding available.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/62723/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ross Shackleton receives funding from NRF and WfW</span></em></p>The invasive mesquite tree has a negative impact on everything from biodiversity to human health. Management programmes are crucial.Ross Shackleton, Post Doc student Conservation and invasion Biology, Stellenbosch UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/472112015-09-11T04:16:55Z2015-09-11T04:16:55ZPlantations provide cover for lost trees but they are also under threat from pests<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/94418/original/image-20150910-27297-1uzf35g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Eucalyptus trees in plantations are particularly vulnerable to pests.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">MJ Wingfield</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>There are an estimated three trillion trees in the <a href="http://www.nature.com/news/global-count-reaches-3-trillion-trees-1.18287">world</a>. This is 46% less than before the development of agriculture and the expansion of human civilisation over the past 12,000 years. The world loses about 15 billion trees a <a href="https://theconversation.com/three-trillion-trees-live-on-earth-but-there-would-be-twice-as-many-without-humans-46914">year</a>.</p>
<p>Over the past 25 years there has been a net loss of forest cover of 129 million hectares, an area almost equal to the size of South Africa, according to a <a href="http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4793e.pdf">report</a> on the state of forest resources released at the XIVth <a href="http://www.fao.org/about/meetings/world-forestry-congress/en/">World Forestry Conference</a> in Durban, South Africa. Fortunately the report finds that this trend has slowed over the past five years. </p>
<p>The net loss of forests would have been greater but for the <a href="http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4793e.pdf">110 million hectare</a> increase in planted forests over the past 25 years. </p>
<p>To make matters worse, threats to the health of remaining forests are <a href="http://news.sciencemag.org/plants-animals/2015/08/special-issue-forest-health-changing-world">rising</a>. These threats, including climate change, are mostly man-made. One of the most serious yet often overlooked threats comes from the spread of pests. These invasive organisms have already driven some species to near extinction. Many other species are also endangered. </p>
<h2>Planted forests have positives and negatives</h2>
<p>There are many aspects to dealing with the loss and threats to forests. These include community engagement and education, slowing climate change, ensuring sustainable harvesting, restoring natural forests and more. </p>
<p>Part of the solution lies in the sustainable and optimal use of planted forests. </p>
<p>Not all of the plantations have been positive under all circumstances. They have had a negative impact, for example, when they have been established in sensitive water catchments, areas of native biodiversity, or when planted tree species became invasive. </p>
<p>Fortunately there are also many examples where plantations are managed sustainably, as is recognised by <a href="http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/deforestation/forest_sector_transformation/forest_certification/">global certification schemes</a>. </p>
<p>In these cases, plantations provide many of the ecosystem services that natural forests offer, including supporting biodiversity. They are highly productive, providing income through jobs and ownership in areas often not suited to any other economic activity. Over and above, they relieve pressure on natural forests. </p>
<h2>Vulnerable to invasive pests and diseases</h2>
<p>But planted forests are particularly vulnerable to <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.2989/SOUTH.FOR.2008.70.2.9.537">pests</a>, including insects and micro-organisms. These forests are often of nonnative species such as <em>Eucalyptus</em>, <em>Pinus</em>, <em>Acacia</em>, <em>Populus</em> or others that are selected because they have no natural pests. They are then planted over large areas with relatively uniform or reduced genetic diversity. When pests catch up, the results can be devastating, with varieties or even species lost. </p>
<p>Of concern is the increasing rate at which invasive pests are emerging globally. Once pests emerge in one area, they often rapidly spread to other parts of the world where the same trees are used. </p>
<p>For example, the rate of insect pests emergence in <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations has increased almost five fold since the 1980s, according to as-yet unpublished study by <a href="http://www.fabinet.up.ac.za/bhurley">Brett Hurley</a> at the University of Pretoria. </p>
<p>The rate of these arrivals are overwhelming traditional approaches to their management, threatening the stability of the industries and communities that depend on these trees. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/94419/original/image-20150910-27313-1r2qmd7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/94419/original/image-20150910-27313-1r2qmd7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/94419/original/image-20150910-27313-1r2qmd7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/94419/original/image-20150910-27313-1r2qmd7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/94419/original/image-20150910-27313-1r2qmd7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/94419/original/image-20150910-27313-1r2qmd7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/94419/original/image-20150910-27313-1r2qmd7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/94419/original/image-20150910-27313-1r2qmd7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A plantation of Pinus trees, including some dead and dying trees infested by an invasive wasp.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Bernard Slippers</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>At the same time, native pests continue to adapt to plantation trees. This is most notable in native trees that are used in plantations. It also occurs on nonnative trees. </p>
<p>There are <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.aac6674">studies</a> that call for broad and urgent action to save planted forests which are an important resource in dealing with the problem of disappearing native trees.</p>
<h2>What can be done?</h2>
<p>The threats to planted forests have global origins and cannot be dealt with through isolated local responses. Too many powerful often freely available prevention and management tools remain unused or are applied only locally. </p>
<p>A recent <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.aac6674">review</a> highlights six aspects that would be needed for an adequate global response to pest threats to planted forests:</p>
<ol>
<li><p>A central body to co-ordinate global engagement and responses to emerging pests;</p></li>
<li><p>A central database of global forest pests to aid in communication and knowledge sharing;</p></li>
<li><p>Shared surveillance tools and information;</p></li>
<li><p>Co-ordinated knowledge and capacity development for strategies that can be used globally;</p></li>
<li><p>More structured systems to facilitate the deployment of biotechnological; resources, including biological control; and</p></li>
<li><p>Protection of genetic resources for key forest plantation genera.</p></li>
</ol>
<p>A similar <a href="http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMp1502918">call</a> has recently been made by Bill Gates, the American philanthropist, to deal with the threat of emerging human diseases. For both plantation tree and human health, however, it is not chiefly a lack of knowledge or resources that holds back progress, but complex political and social structures. </p>
<p>Platforms such as the World Forestry Conference and organisations such as the International Union for Forestry Research Organisations (<a href="http://www.iufro.org/">IUFRO</a>) and the <a href="http://www.fao.org/home/en/">FAO</a> of the UN become critical for the sustainability of planted forests, natural forests, and ultimately our planet.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/47211/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bernard Slippers receives funding from/ is affiliated with the Tree Protection Co-operative Programme
(TPCP); the National Research Foundation (NRF); and the Departments of Trade and Industry (DTI), Water Affairs and Forestry (DAFF), and Science and Technology (DST) of South Africa. Bernard also recognizes the contributions to ideas expressed in this article by Mike Wingfield, Eckehard Brockerhoff and Brenda Wingfield, with whom he recently co-authored a paper on this topic. </span></em></p>Invasive pests threaten the world’s much-needed planted forests, as trees are declining.Bernard Slippers, Professor of Genetics, University of PretoriaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/142752013-05-23T04:38:05Z2013-05-23T04:38:05ZAustralian endangered species: Desert gobies<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/23801/original/9ybrnpkt-1368586196.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Male gobies are like peacocks. This is the Edgbaston Goby.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Adam Kereszy</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Gobies are one of the largest and most widespread fish families in the world, but even so, the presence of endemic species in the <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/water/locations/gab/">Great Artesian Basin</a> spring complexes of central Australia is a little surprising. Some of these habitats are more like damp swamps than watery oases, and many are no bigger than a kitchen table. </p>
<p>As a consequence, the gobies that inhabit them are small – no bigger than five or six centimetres – and have the ability to extract oxygen from the air when the springs dry back. </p>
<p>There are five species overall, but all are very similar and their speciation is a result of isolation in separated habitats. What this means is that the Edgbaston Goby, (<em>Chlamydogobius squamigenus</em>) has been ecologically marooned in the springs at Edgbaston in central western Queensland, while the Elizabeth Springs Goby, (<em>Chlamydogobius micropterus</em>) has similarly been stuck at Elizabeth Springs 400-plus kilometres to the south-west. Other relatives are distributed through South Australia and the Northern Territory. </p>
<p>Although they have different names and live in different localities, the various central Australian gobies have much in common. The males are vividly coloured, with a noticeable blue, black and white splash on their dorsal fins. </p>
<p>The males also guard the clutches of eggs, circulating water over them with their fins and tails until they hatch. And, like all gobies, they spend the majority of the time resting on the fused fins on their underside.</p>
<h2>Status</h2>
<p>Both goby species found in springs in Queensland are listed as critically endangered by the IUCN and endangered under Queensland legislation. Under the federal EPBC Act the <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/publicspecies.pl?taxon_id=64698">Elizabeth Springs Goby</a> is listed as endangered and the <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/publicspecies.pl?taxon_id=66675">Edgbaston Goby</a> is listed as vulnerable.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/24264/original/6mmdz8fn-1369205516.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/24264/original/6mmdz8fn-1369205516.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/24264/original/6mmdz8fn-1369205516.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/24264/original/6mmdz8fn-1369205516.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/24264/original/6mmdz8fn-1369205516.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/24264/original/6mmdz8fn-1369205516.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=491&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/24264/original/6mmdz8fn-1369205516.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=491&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/24264/original/6mmdz8fn-1369205516.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=491&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Elizabeth Springs, like all Great Artesian Basin springs, are threatened by extraction and feral animals.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Adam Kereszy</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Threats</h2>
<p>All gobies (and also all the other endemic plants and animals from Great Artesian Basin springs) are threatened by aquifer drawdown (from extractive water use) and the disruption and destruction from feral and domestic animals. </p>
<p>The Edgbaston Goby is also under threat from the introduced live-bearing fish Gambusia or Mosquitofish which is also present in the springs at Edgbaston.</p>
<h2>Strategy</h2>
<p>The spring complex at Edgbaston was purchased by the conservation not-for-profit <a href="http://www.bushheritage.org.au/edgbaston">Bush Heritage Australia</a>, and the spring complex at Elizabeth Springs is a <a href="http://www.nprsr.qld.gov.au/parks/elizabeth-springs/">national park</a>. This affords Queensland’s endangered spring gobies a measure of protection as these organisations do their best to keep stock and feral animals away from the fragile spring habitats. </p>
<p>At Edgbaston, Bush Heritage Australia has also been developing techniques to control Gambusia, which is also helping the critically endangered <a href="https://theconversation.com/australian-endangered-species-red-finned-blue-eye-12556">Red-finned Blue-eye</a>.</p>
<h2>Conclusion</h2>
<p>Both Elizabeth Springs Goby and Edgbaston Goby rightfully deserve listing as endangered species due to their limited ranges and specific habitat requirements. </p>
<p>At present, the Edgbaston Goby is under more direct threat than Elizabeth Springs Goby. This is thanks to Gambusia that are found in massive numbers in some of the springs where they have invaded. Observations over the last five years suggest that as Gambusia populations increase, goby populations decrease – a similar situation to the competition and exclusion of Red-finned Blue-eye.</p>
<p><em>The Conversation is running a series on Australian endangered species. See it <a href="https://theconversation.com/topics/australian-endangered-species">here</a></em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/14275/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Adam Kerezsy works for the not-for-profit conservation organisation Bush Heritage Australia.</span></em></p>Gobies are one of the largest and most widespread fish families in the world, but even so, the presence of endemic species in the Great Artesian Basin spring complexes of central Australia is a little…Adam Kerezsy, Adjunct Research Fellow, Griffith UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.