tag:theconversation.com,2011:/uk/topics/langauge-20408/articlesLangauge – The Conversation2023-11-23T19:02:35Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2180232023-11-23T19:02:35Z2023-11-23T19:02:35ZWaking a sleeping language – our plan to revive the speaking of ta rē Moriori<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560891/original/file-20231121-27-amg4oh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=31%2C17%2C2960%2C2289&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Rēkohu/Chatham Island Moriori c.1910.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">W Rerwick, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>When is a language extinct and when is it merely dormant? There are certainly languages that have passed over that line, and many <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2011/apr/15/language-extinct-endangered">remain threatened</a> today. But what of those in the twilight zone – can we revive them, and what would that look like?</p>
<p>Languages that no longer have native speakers – that is, no one who learned it as a child – are often considered “dead”. And yet it’s not quite as clear cut as that.</p>
<p>Take the Moriori language from the Chatham Islands, for example. Ta rē Moriori has no native speakers, with the last having died in the early 20th century. But it also has a relatively rich historical record, and is similar in many ways to <a href="https://www.tpk.govt.nz/en/nga-putea-me-nga-ratonga/te-reo-maori">te reo Māori</a>.</p>
<p>This has <a href="https://www.auckland.ac.nz/en/news/2023/11/16/waking-up-the-moriori-language.html">inspired a project</a> at the University of Auckland, in collaboration with the <a href="https://www.moriori.co.nz/">Hokotehi Moriori Trust</a>, which looks after the interests of Moriori people in New Zealand and around the world. </p>
<p>Our work will involve transcribing, translating and trying to fully understand all the existing texts. This will give us insights into the grammatical properties of the language, with the end goal being to produce a language grammar.</p>
<p>The project is still in its infancy, but it raises the intriguing possibility that in the future we might hear small children speaking ta rē Moriori as their first language.</p>
<h2>Learning from old texts</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://teara.govt.nz/en/moriori">Moriori</a> inhabit Rēkohu, or the Chatham Islands, some 800 kilometres off the east coast of New Zealand. They’ve been there for at least 600 years, and have a unique culture and language.</p>
<p>Europeans arrived in the 1800s, followed by two Māori tribes from Aotearoa New Zealand. Disease carried by the former, and enslavement and murder practised by the latter saw a <a href="https://teara.govt.nz/en/moriori/page-4">rapid decline</a> of the Moriori population – and their language. </p>
<p>By 1862, there were only 101 Moriori alive, from a high of around 2,000 before colonisation. The last native speaker died only 40 years later. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/research-on-2-400-languages-shows-nearly-half-the-worlds-language-diversity-is-at-risk-204014">Research on 2,400 languages shows nearly half the world's language diversity is at risk</a>
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<p>Given how relatively recent this was, Moriori is an ideal testing ground for the possibility of reviving a language. Unlike many Australian Aboriginal languages which no longer have native speakers, ta rē Moriori has been preserved in various forms.</p>
<p>This includes a small dictionary written by a resident magistrate in 1889; a set of short stories compiled by the magistrate’s clerk Alexander Shand, with the help of his primary Moriori consultant Hirawanu Tapu; and an 1862 petition from the Moriori to the New Zealand governor, requesting support for Moriori land claims. </p>
<p>Moriori’s closest linguistic relative is te reo Māori, with many grammatical and lexical similarities. But there are also significant differences. For example, Moriori has 15 ways of saying “the”, a pattern not seen in any other Polynesian language. </p>
<p>So translating and analysing the existing texts should give us a fairly detailed understanding of how the language was spoken, including a sizeable lexicon and a grammar. </p>
<h2>Other languages have been revived</h2>
<p>It may seem ambitious to revive a language, but it has been done before. The <a href="https://plimoth.org/for-students/homework-help/who-are-the-wampanoag">Wampanoag</a> language from Massachusetts in the United States lost its last speaker in the 1890s, around the same time Moriori did. </p>
<p>But there was a significant archive of written literature built up prior to that, including government records and religious texts. </p>
<p>In the 1990s, Jessie Little Doe Baird, a member of the Wampanoag community, started analysing Wampanoag texts written before the 1890s, including a bible from 1663. She was then able to construct a dictionary and grammar. </p>
<p>From these, members of the community started <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/in-depth/life/women-of-the-century/2020/08/17/19th-amendment-jessie-little-doe-baird-brings-back-lost-language/5476098002/">relearning the language</a> – and teaching it. By 2014, there were 50 children taking classes, many of them now considered to be fluent native speakers. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/reviving-indigenous-languages-not-as-easy-as-it-seems-68977">Reviving Indigenous languages – not as easy as it seems</a>
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<h2>Filling in the gaps</h2>
<p>Sometimes, the term “sleeping language” is a better way to describe one that is not currently being passed from generation to generation. The revived language will inevitably be slightly different from the original one. Every speaker of a language makes “native speaker judgements” which aren’t taught, but are inherently known. </p>
<p>A simple example from English would be the relative order in which we use adjectives: size comes before colour (little brown dog), whereas the opposite sounds a bit weird (brown little dog). </p>
<p>Unless our Moriori texts have specific examples of “stacked” adjectives, we have no way of finding out the correct ordering. So this piece of knowledge would be lost. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-are-on-the-brink-of-losing-indigenous-languages-in-australia-could-schools-save-them-184736">We are on the brink of losing Indigenous languages in Australia – could schools save them?</a>
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<p>There are thousands of these little rules that our brains unconsciously absorb when learning a language as a child. And there is no way any analysis of old texts could figure them all out. </p>
<p>But new speakers would fill in the gaps. If adults were to learn the Moriori language from the texts, they could acquire a large number of words and grammatical structures, although the gaps would still exist. A child learning “new” Moriori from the adults would then fill in the gaps instinctively – most likely from other languages they hear, such as Māori or English.</p>
<p>So, ta rē Moriori cannot be said to be dead or extinct, because there is a real possibility it can be heard again. Even now, Moriori words, phrases and songs are used around the Chatham Islands by Moriori themselves. Better to call it sleeping – and hope we can wake it one day.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/218023/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>John Middleton does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The last native Moriori speaker died over a century ago. Can an ambitious new project bring the language back from the brink?John Middleton, Doctoral Candidate in Cultures, Languages and Linguistics, University of Auckland, Waipapa Taumata RauLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1458332020-09-15T19:53:51Z2020-09-15T19:53:51ZMaking te reo Māori cool: what language revitalisation could learn from the Korean Wave<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/358038/original/file-20200915-24-t8w3k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=7%2C0%2C4913%2C3223&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Editor’s note: this article marks <a href="https://www.tewikiotereomaori.co.nz/">Māori Language Week</a>/Te Wiki o te Reo Māori. You can read the full article in Māori <a href="https://theconversation.com/kia-parekareka-te-reo-maori-ko-nga-akoranga-o-te-ngaru-krea-m-te-whakarauoratanga-o-te-reo-146198">here</a>.</em></p>
<p>Earlier this year, I met an Aucklander whose teenage passion for K-pop sparked an interest in the Korean language and culture in general, and led to them learning Korean as a second language. </p>
<p>It made me wonder what lessons could be learnt for the revitalisation of the Māori language. Specifically, given the importance of teenagers in those revitalisation efforts, what can we learn from the way the so-called “<a href="http://www.korea.net/AboutKorea/Culture-and-the-Arts/Hallyu">Korean Wave</a>” is subverting the English language as the language of popular culture?</p>
<p>There is already work being done in this area. The central argument of Dr Hinurewa Poutu’s PhD research in 2015 concerned the need to create opportunities for <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XIWw2NgNe7w">Māori to be considered “cool” by adolescents</a>.</p>
<p>As she <a href="https://www.massey.ac.nz/massey/about-massey/news/article.cfm?mnarticle_uuid=5612AD4F-99B6-285E-9065-2E27AA215753">stated</a> at the time:</p>
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<p>English tends to be used socially, as there aren’t enough opportunities to hear Māori in social situations or to learn Māori expressions for gossiping with your friends, courting, playing. For most kids, te reo Māori is used in formal contexts only.</p>
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<h2>Making Māori cool</h2>
<p>Five years on, AUT’s Te Ipukarea Research Institute is leading a project looking at how the Māori language can be better supported in the lives of adolescents. Funded by <a href="http://www.maramatanga.co.nz/">Ngā Pae o te Māramatanga</a>, this research is based on the idea the Māori language of adolescence forms the building blocks of non-formal adult language.</p>
<p>In other words, it is about the informal language of friendship, humour, relationships, emotions and mental health that sets a pattern for everyday use later in life.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Maimoa is a collective of young Māori artists “coming together to make more Māori music”.</span></figcaption>
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<p>Our preliminary findings show the potential strategic importance of the adolescent age group for Māori language revitalisation. Teenagers are trendsetters – as such, they can have an impact on (and be influenced by) the perceived value of the Māori language and therefore its status. </p>
<p>However, <a href="http://www.teipukarea.maori.nz/projects/te-reo-o-te-pa-harakeke/">a previous study</a> by Te Ipukarea found there are few Māori language resources and not much Māori language content (novels, TV, music, games) aimed at this age group.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/k-pop-fans-are-creative-dedicated-and-social-we-should-take-them-seriously-119300">K-pop fans are creative, dedicated and social - we should take them seriously</a>
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<p>This is especially true when compared to the resources available to younger age groups, such as early childhood learners. </p>
<p>When it comes to what is considered “cool”, of course, the influence of entertainment, social media and pop culture on adolescents is clear. After meeting the K-pop-loving Korean language graduate, I began to imagine what it might look like if the Māori language revitalisation movement tapped into that age-group: trendsetting, fandom-building teens. </p>
<h2>Challenging English language dominance</h2>
<p>The Korean Wave is challenging the dominance of English as the <em>lingua franca</em> of pop culture. The rise in popularity of K-pop, K-dramas (<a href="https://asiatimes.com/2020/01/netflix-buys-big-into-k-dramas/">which Netflix has acquired and invested in</a>) and films such as Parasite (winner of the 2020 best picture Oscar, the first “foreign language” film to do so) with non-Korean audiences shows language is <a href="https://variety.com/2020/film/awards/south-koreas-parasite-crashes-the-subtitles-barrier-1203488979/">no longer the barrier</a> it once was. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Best film in any language: Parasite wins the 2020 Oscar.</span></figcaption>
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<p>These forms of entertainment have simply become part of the wider popular culture. Take Korean group BTS (also known as the Bangtan Boys) – currently among the <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/hughmcintyre/2020/03/06/bts-has-charted-four-no-1-albums-faster-than-any-group-since-the-beatles/#6b9752b47111">biggest pop acts in the world</a>, consistently breaking records and garnering a huge worldwide fan base. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/maori-loanwords-in-nz-english-are-less-about-meaning-more-about-identity-111260">Māori loanwords in NZ English are less about meaning, more about identity</a>
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<p>BTS can sing in English but choose to release the majority of their music and other content (a variety show, a travel show, movies, behind-the-scenes footage) in Korean. This year they released Learn Korean with BTS, underscoring the link between the Korean Wave and the <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/business-44770777">uptick in numbers</a> learning the Korean language.</p>
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<h2>Towards a new Māori wave</h2>
<p>There are obvious differences between Korean and Māori. Māori is still a recovering, minority language, while Korean has over 50 million speakers in South Korea alone. </p>
<p>However, if young people in Aotearoa are inspired by Korean pop culture to <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/joanmacdonald/2019/09/01/how-k-pop-and-k-drama-made-learning-korean-cool/#5075a1d249bf">learn the Korean language</a>, it at least provides an insight into what the Māori language revitalisation movement can learn from the Korean Wave.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/kia-ora-how-maori-borrowings-shape-new-zealand-english-82683">Kia ora: how Māori borrowings shape New Zealand English</a>
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<p>The Korean Wave is actually the result of a hugely successful <a href="https://theconversation.com/k-popnomics-how-indonesia-and-other-nations-can-learn-from-korean-pop-music-industry-107229">strategic push</a> by the Korean government to export its culture to the world and boost its “<a href="https://thediplomat.com/2019/03/bts-and-the-global-spread-of-korean-soft-power/">soft power</a>”. In other words, Korea set out to be the coolest culture in the world. </p>
<p>With that in mind, strategically resourcing the production of Māori language content for pop culture needs to be a priority in any plan to capture the adolescent age group. </p>
<p>I hope that one day Māori language music will consistently enter the charts, my Netflix list will be full of Māori language dramas, and a Māori language film will be promoted and celebrated the way Parasite has been.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/145833/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rachael Ka'ai-Mahuta works for Te Ipukarea Research Institute at the Auckland University of Technology (AUT). She receives funding from Ngā Pae o te Māramatanga. </span></em></p>The state-sponsored pop cultural renaissance of Korea shows how language isn’t an obstacle to world domination.Rachael Ka'ai-Mahuta, Senior Lecturer in Māori Language Revitalisation, Auckland University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/908772018-02-02T09:52:54Z2018-02-02T09:52:54ZPeople with depression use language differently – here’s how to spot it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531294/original/file-20230612-254009-wx78ok.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=5%2C0%2C3676%2C2451&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Kurt Cobain's song lyrics were loved by many.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Michel Linssen/Redferns</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>From the way you move and sleep, to how you interact with people around you, depression changes just about everything. It is even noticeable in the way you speak and express yourself in writing. Sometimes this “language of depression” can have a powerful effect on others. Just consider the impact of the poetry and song lyrics of Sylvia Plath and Kurt Cobain, who both killed themselves after suffering from depression.</p>
<p>Scientists have long tried to pin down the exact relationship between depression and language, and technology is helping us get closer to a full picture. Our new study, <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/2167702617747074">published in Clinical Psychological Science</a>, has now unveiled a class of words that can help accurately predict whether someone is suffering from depression. </p>
<p>Traditionally, linguistic analyses in this field have been carried out by researchers reading and taking notes. Nowadays, <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0261927X09351676">computerised text analysis methods</a> allow the processing of extremely large data banks in minutes. This can help spot linguistic features which humans may miss, calculating the percentage prevalence of words and classes of words, lexical diversity, average sentence length, grammatical patterns and many other metrics.</p>
<p>So far, <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02699930441000030">personal essays</a> and <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2010.00627.x/full">diary entries</a> by depressed people have been useful, as has the work of well-known artists such as <a href="https://cloudfront.escholarship.org/dist/prd/content/qt0dh4553j/qt0dh4553j.pdf">Cobain</a> and <a href="https://journals.lww.com/psychosomaticmedicine/Abstract/2001/07000/Word_Use_in_the_Poetry_of_Suicidal_and_Nonsuicidal.1.aspx">Plath</a>. For the spoken word, snippets of <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/record/2003-02410-015">natural language</a> of people with depression have also provided insight. Taken together, the findings from such research reveal clear and consistent differences in language between those with and without symptoms of depression. </p>
<h2>Content</h2>
<p>Language can be separated into two components: content and style. The content relates to what we express – that is, the meaning or subject matter of statements. It will surprise no one to learn that those with symptoms of depression use an excessive amount of words conveying <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0261927X09351676">negative emotions</a>, specifically negative adjectives and adverbs – such as “lonely”, “sad” or “miserable”. </p>
<p>More interesting is the use of pronouns. Those with symptoms of depression use <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02699930441000030">significantly more first person singular pronouns</a> – such as “me”, “myself” and “I” – and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6176285">significantly fewer</a> second and third person pronouns – such as “they”, “them” or “she”. This pattern of pronoun use suggests people with depression are more focused on themselves, and less connected with others. Researchers have reported that pronouns are actually <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237378690_The_Psychological_Functions_of_Function_Words">more reliable</a> in identifying depression than negative emotion words.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/204208/original/file-20180131-131727-pe4pkx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/204208/original/file-20180131-131727-pe4pkx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/204208/original/file-20180131-131727-pe4pkx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/204208/original/file-20180131-131727-pe4pkx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/204208/original/file-20180131-131727-pe4pkx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/204208/original/file-20180131-131727-pe4pkx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/204208/original/file-20180131-131727-pe4pkx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Negative words and first person pronouns can give a clue.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/depression-teen-pain-suffering-tunnel-113875279?src=UDRktqvnAsR6LGYjUv--lA-1-12">hikrcn/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>We know that <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan/article/6/5/548/1656513">rumination</a> (dwelling on personal problems) and <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/ageing-and-society/article/preventing-social-isolation-and-loneliness-among-older-people-a-systematic-review-of-health-promotion-interventions/06510CBA74BBCF3FD2821BB96525647C">social isolation</a> are common features of depression. However, we don’t know whether these findings reflect differences in attention or thinking style. Does depression cause people to focus on themselves, or do people who focus on themselves get symptoms of depression?</p>
<h2>Style</h2>
<p>The style of language relates to how we express ourselves, rather than the content we express. Our lab recently conducted a big data text analysis of 64 different online mental health forums, examining over 6,400 members. “<a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/suppl/10.1177/2167702617747074/suppl_file/Table_S2_Supplemental_Material.pdf">Absolutist words</a>” – which convey absolute magnitudes or probabilities, such as “always”, “nothing” or “completely” – were found to be better markers for mental health forums than either pronouns or negative emotion words. </p>
<p>From the outset, we predicted that those with depression will have a more black and white view of the world, and that this would manifest in their style of language. Compared to 19 different control forums (for example, <a href="https://www.mumsnet.com/">Mumsnet</a> and <a href="https://www.thestudentroom.co.uk/">StudentRoom</a>), the prevalence of absolutist words is approximately 50% greater in <a href="https://www.mentalhealthforum.net/forum/forum365.html">anxiety</a> and <a href="https://www.mentalhealthforum.net/forum/forum366.html">depression forums</a>, and approximately 80% greater for <a href="https://www.suicideforum.com/">suicidal ideation forums</a>. </p>
<p>Pronouns produced a similar distributional pattern as absolutist words across the forums, but the effect was smaller. By contrast, negative emotion words were paradoxically less prevalent in suicidal ideation forums than in anxiety and depression forums. </p>
<p>Our research also included <a href="https://www.beyondblue.org.au/get-support/online-forums/staying-well">recovery forums</a>, where members who feel they have recovered from a depressive episode write positive and encouraging posts about their recovery. Here we found that negative emotion words were used at comparable levels to control forums, while positive emotion words were elevated by approximately 70%. Nevertheless, the prevalence of absolutist words remained significantly greater than that of controls, but slightly lower than in anxiety and depression forums.</p>
<p>Crucially, those who have previously had depressive symptoms are <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2169519/">more likely to have them again</a>. Therefore, their greater tendency for absolutist thinking, even when there are currently no symptoms of depression, is a sign that it may play a role in causing depressive episodes. The same effect is seen in use of pronouns, but not for negative emotion words.</p>
<h2>Practical implications</h2>
<p>Understanding the language of depression can help us understand the way those with symptoms of depression think, but it also has practical implications. Researchers are combining automated text analysis with <a href="https://theconversation.com/deepmind-can-we-ever-trust-a-machine-to-diagnose-cancer-88707">machine learning</a> (computers that can learn from experience without being programmed) to <a href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/6784326/">classify a variety of mental health conditions</a> from natural language text samples such as blog posts. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/204209/original/file-20180131-131714-1vor5ki.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/204209/original/file-20180131-131714-1vor5ki.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/204209/original/file-20180131-131714-1vor5ki.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/204209/original/file-20180131-131714-1vor5ki.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/204209/original/file-20180131-131714-1vor5ki.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/204209/original/file-20180131-131714-1vor5ki.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/204209/original/file-20180131-131714-1vor5ki.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Language analysis can help diagnose depression.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/professional-psychologist-conducting-consultation-526087603?src=UDRktqvnAsR6LGYjUv--lA-2-58">Dmytro Zinkevych/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Such classification is <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00223891.1990.9673995">already outperforming</a> that made by trained therapists. Importantly, machine learning classification will only improve as more data is provided and more sophisticated algorithms are developed. This goes beyond looking at the broad patterns of absolutism, negativity and pronouns already discussed. Work has begun on using computers to accurately identify increasingly specific subcategories of mental health problems – such as perfectionism, self-esteem problems and social anxiety. </p>
<p>That said, it is of course possible to use a language associated with depression without actually being depressed. Ultimately, it is how you feel over time that determines whether you are suffering. But as the World Health Organisation estimates that more than 300m people worldwide <a href="http://www.who.int/mental_health/management/depression/en/">are now living with depression</a>, an increase of more than 18% since 2005, having more tools available to spot the condition is certainly important to improve health and prevent tragic suicides such as those of Plath and Cobain.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/90877/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mohammed Al-Mosaiwi receives funding from Medical Research Council. </span></em></p>New research shows that people with depression use words such as ‘always’, ‘nothing’ or ‘completely’ more often than others.Mohammed Al-Mosaiwi, PhD Candidate in Psychology, University of ReadingLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/707152016-12-22T13:01:47Z2016-12-22T13:01:47ZThe world’s words of the year pass judgement on a dark, surreal 2016<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/151388/original/image-20161222-17318-12oqe5j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/pic-268729262/stock-photo-definition-of-word-fascism-in-dictionary.html?src=TB94Y-RjmRgvTmBjOet2IA-1-53">aga7ta</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Every December, lexicographers around the world choose their “words of the year”, and this year, perhaps more than ever, the stories these tell provide a fascinating insight into how we’ve experienced the drama and trauma of the last 12 months.</p>
<p>There was much potential in 2016. It was 500 years ago that Thomas More wrote his <a href="http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/21cc/utopia/more1/moreutopia.html">Utopia</a>, and January saw the launch of a year’s celebrations under the slogan “<a href="http://utopia2016.com">A Year of Imagination and Possibility</a>” – but as 2017 looms, this slogan rings hollow. Instead of utopian dreams, we’ve had a year of “post-truth” and “paranoia”, of “refugee” crises, “xenophobia” and a close shave with “fascism”. </p>
<p>Earlier in the year, a <a href="https://www.change.org/p/i-am-an-essex-girl-reclaim-essex-girl-and-remove-it-from-the-dictionary">campaign</a> was launched to have “Essex Girl” removed from the Oxford English Dictionary (OED). Those behind the campaign were upset at the derogatory definition – a young woman “characterised as unintelligent, promiscuous, and materialistic” – so wanted it to be expunged from the official record of the language. </p>
<p>The OED turned down the request, a <a href="http://www.standard.co.uk/news/uk/essex-girls-oxford-english-dictionary-insists-it-wont-remove-term-despite-campaign-a3378331.html">spokeswoman</a> explaining that since the OED is a historical dictionary, nothing is ever removed; its purpose, she said, is to describe the language as people use it, and to stand as a catalogue of the trends and preoccupations of the time. </p>
<p>The words of the year tradition began with the German <a href="http://www.dw.com/de/die-worte-des-jahres-1971-2015/a-18911548">Wort des Jahres</a> in the 1970s. It has since spread to other languages, and become increasingly popular the world over. Those in charge of the choices are getting more innovative: in 2015, for the first time, Oxford Dictionaries chose a pictograph as their “word”: the emoji for “<a href="http://blog.oxforddictionaries.com/2015/11/word-of-the-year-2015-emoji/">Face with Tears of Joy</a>”. </p>
<p>In 2016, however, the verbal was very much back in fashion. The results speak volumes.</p>
<h2>Dark days</h2>
<p>In English, there are a range of competing words, with all the major dictionaries making their own choices. Having heralded a post-language era last year, Oxford Dictionaries decided on “<a href="https://www.oxforddictionaries.com/press/news/2016/11/17/WOTY-16">post-truth</a>” this time, defining it as the situation when “objective facts are less influential in shaping public opinion than appeals to emotion and personal belief”. In a year of evidence-light Brexit promises and Donald Trump’s <a href="http://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2016/9/26/13016146/donald-trump-liar-media">persistent lies and obfuscations</a>, this has a definite resonance. In the same dystopian vein, the Cambridge Dictionary chose “<a href="http://www.cambridgenetwork.co.uk/news/paranoid-announced-as-the-cambridge-dictionary-word-of-the-year/">paranoid</a>”, while Dictionary.com went for “<a href="http://blog.dictionary.com/xenophobia/">xenophobia</a>”. </p>
<p>Merriam-Webster valiantly tried to turn back the tide of pessimism. When “fascism” looked set to win its online poll, it <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/dec/01/stop-fascism-becoming-word-of-the-year-urges-us-dictionary">tweeted</a> its readers imploring them to get behind something – anything – else. The plea apparently worked, and in the end “<a href="http://www.vox.com/culture/2016/12/20/14008046/word-of-the-year-surreal-fascism">surreal</a>” won the day. Apt enough for a year in which events time and again almost defied belief.</p>
<p>Collins, meanwhile, chose “<a href="https://www.collinsdictionary.com/word-lovers-blog/new/top-10-collins-words-of-the-year-2016,323,HCB.html">Brexit</a>”, a term which its <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/nov/03/brexit-named-word-of-the-year-ahead-of-trumpism-and-hygge">spokesperson</a> suggested has become as flexible and influential in political discourse as “Watergate”. </p>
<p>Just as the latter spawned hundreds of portmanteau words whenever a political scandal broke, so Brexit begat <a href="http://www.wsj.com/articles/britains-eu-choice-brexit-or-bremain-1456499551">“Bremain”, “Bremorse” and “Brexperts”</a> – and will likely be adapted for other upcoming political rifts for many years to come. It nearly won out in Australia in fact, where “Ausexit” (severing ties with the British monarchy or the United Nations) was on the shortlist. Instead, the Australian National Dictionary went for <a href="http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/nation/democracy-sausage-deemed-word-of-year-by-australian-national-dictionary-centre/news-story/1ce984e054f94f61324ab7e67392b323">“democracy sausage”</a> – the tradition of eating a barbecued sausage on election day. </p>
<p>Around the world, a similar pattern of politics and apprehension emerges. In France, the <em>mot de l'année</em> was <a href="http://www.festivaldumot.fr/article/votez/">“<em>réfugiés</em>”</a> (refugees); and in Germany <a href="http://gfds.de/aktionen/wort-des-jahres/">“<em>postfaktisch</em>”</a>, meaning much the same as “post-truth”. Swiss German speakers, meanwhile, went for <a href="http://www.20min.ch/community/stories/story/-Filterblase--ist-das-Wort-des-Jahres-13588184">“<em>Filterblase</em>”</a> (filter bubble), the idea that social media is creating <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-filter-bubble-isnt-just-facebooks-fault-its-yours-69664">increasingly polarised political communities</a>. </p>
<p>Switzerland’s Deaf Association, meanwhile, chose a Sign of the Year for the first time. Its choice was <a href="http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/sign-of-the-times_trump-chosen-as--sign-of--the-year--by-swiss-deaf-organisation/42766640">“Trump”</a>, consisting of a gesture made by placing an open palm on the top of the head, mimicking the president-elect’s extravagant hairstyle.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/151387/original/image-20161222-17291-1oarhl4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/151387/original/image-20161222-17291-1oarhl4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/151387/original/image-20161222-17291-1oarhl4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/151387/original/image-20161222-17291-1oarhl4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/151387/original/image-20161222-17291-1oarhl4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=599&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/151387/original/image-20161222-17291-1oarhl4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=599&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/151387/original/image-20161222-17291-1oarhl4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=599&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">2016’s golden boy, as far as Japan’s concerned.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/pic-196597046/stock-photo-washington-may-27-2014-real-estate-mogul-donald-trump-demonstrates-that-the-hair-on-his-head-really-is-his-at-a-national-press-club-luncheon.html?src=2K8yaE8faanz2sHCZUFREQ-5-43">Albert H. Teich</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Trump’s hair also featured in Japan’s choice for this year. Rather than a word, Japan chooses a kanji (Chinese character); 2016’s choice is “金” (<a href="http://en.rocketnews24.com/2016/12/12/gold-named-2016-kanji-of-the-year/">gold</a>). This represented a number of different topical issues: Japan’s haul of medals at the Rio Olympics, fluctuating interest rates, the gold shirt worn by singer and YouTube sensation <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1W3sslyiUfg">Piko Taro</a>, and, inevitably, the colour of Trump’s hair.</p>
<p>And then there’s Austria, whose word is 51 letters long: <a href="http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/austrian-academics-choose-bundespraesidentenstichwahlwiederholungsverschiebung-word-of-year-election-a7466176.html">“<em>Bundespräsidentenstichwahlwiederholungsverschiebung</em>”</a>. It means “the repeated postponement of the runoff vote for Federal President”. Referring to the seven months of votes, legal challenges and delays over the country’s presidential election, this again references an event that flirted with extreme nationalism and exposed the convoluted nature of democracy. As a new coinage, it also illustrates language’s endless ability to creatively grapple with unfolding events.</p>
<p>Which brings us, finally, to “<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/dec/19/unpresidented-trump-word-definition">unpresidented</a>”, a neologism Donald Trump inadvertently created when trying to spell “unprecedented” in a tweet attacking the Chinese. At the moment, it’s a word in search of a meaning, but the possibilities it suggests seem to speak perfectly to the history of the present moment. And depending on what competitors 2017 throws up, it could well emerge as a future candidate.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/70715/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Philip Seargeant does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>All over the world, people are trying to boil down their experiences of 2016 into a single word. The results speak for themselves.Philip Seargeant, Senior Lecturer in Applied Linguistics, The Open UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/600232016-06-16T13:20:49Z2016-06-16T13:20:49ZTwo children in every class start school with an unexplained language disorder<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/125505/original/image-20160607-15038-4t9mja.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Who's ready? </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Monkey Business Images/www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Language is a fundamental human accomplishment. It is the foundation for <a href="https://educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk/evaluation/projects/nuffield-early-language-intervention/">literacy</a>, underpins academic and social success, and is important for developing and maintaining relationships with others.</p>
<p>So it is no surprise that children who struggle to acquire their native language are at a distinct disadvantage when they start school. <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jcpp.12573/abstract">Our research</a>, recently published in the Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, found that two five-year-old children in every Year 1 classroom of 30 had a currently unexplained language disorder. An additional 2.34% had a language disorder that occurred as part of another developmental condition, such as autism or Down syndrome. </p>
<p>Children with language disorders have <a href="https://www.youtube.com/user/RALLIcampaign">problems with speaking and listening</a>. They tend to have limited vocabularies, leave endings off words and use very simple grammar in their sentences. They have difficulties telling coherent stories and don’t understand complex instructions. This causes many problems in the classroom.</p>
<p>So for example, children with language disorders will struggle to understand questions such as “which of these items will float? Why do you think so?” Even if they understand and know the answer, they may not be able to use words to explain “the ball will float because it is filled with air and is lighter than the penny.” A child with language disorder may just point and guess, or articulate a couple of key words such as “the penny sinked”.</p>
<p>Our study involved more than 7,000 children and 190 schools in Surrey, south of London, in order to find out how many children in England start school with a language disorder – what is known as a prevalence estimate. This may sound straightforward to work out, but it isn’t. As language is multi-faceted, we measured vocabulary, grammar and narrative skills both when the children were speaking and listening. This is the combination of tests that has informed current diagnostic criteria for <a href="http://psychcentral.com/disorders/language-disorder/">language disorder</a>.</p>
<h2>What counts as a ‘language disorder’</h2>
<p>Different studies have used different cutoffs for language disorder, but the severity of the cutoff point can drastically affect the estimates of how prevalent problems are. In our study, children who scored in the bottom 7% of all pupils in the tests we gave were deemed to have a language disorder.</p>
<p>We also considered children’s non-verbal reasoning skills by asking them to solve problems that don’t involve words, for example, choosing the next step in a visual sequence from a selection of visually similar items. </p>
<p>Children with good non-verbal skills may mask problems with speaking and listening. For example, a very social child with language disorder, who is quick to learn new activities and can copy what other children are doing may not be able to follow complicated instructions such as “put your boots on after you find your coat” or may use very simple language like “him doing picture”, rather than “he is painting a picture”. </p>
<p>In recent years, many experts have argued that non-verbal skills should not feature in the diagnosis and decisions of how to treat children with language disorders. But many children with poorer non-verbal ability as well as language disorder can still find it difficult to meet <a href="https://www.education.ie/en/Circulars-and-Forms/Active-Circulars/sped02_05.pdf">eligibility requirements</a> for specialist speech-language therapy services. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/125117/original/image-20160603-11598-1unhmle.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/125117/original/image-20160603-11598-1unhmle.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=410&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/125117/original/image-20160603-11598-1unhmle.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=410&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/125117/original/image-20160603-11598-1unhmle.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=410&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/125117/original/image-20160603-11598-1unhmle.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=515&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/125117/original/image-20160603-11598-1unhmle.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=515&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/125117/original/image-20160603-11598-1unhmle.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=515&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Help those who need it.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/cat.mhtml?country_code=GB&page_number=1&position=0&safesearch=1&search_language=en&search_source=search_form&search_type=keyword_search&searchterm=children%20at%20school&sort_method=relevance2&source=search&timestamp=1464950350&tracking_id=owKjf_hSOZR7B4984-PSnA&use_local_boost=1&version=llv1&page=1&inline=353880719">www.shutterstock.com</a></span>
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<p>To measure the impact of language disorder we took advantage of the fact that all children in England are assessed on the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/488745/EYFS_handbook_2016_-_FINAL.pdf">Early Years Foundation Stage Profile</a> at the end of their first year in school. To achieve a “good level of development” children must meet or exceed 12 key curriculum targets, which cover speaking, listening, reading, writing, numeracy, physical and personal, social and emotional development. Most of these items tap into children’s ability to use language in the classroom, for example to play co-operatively, share ideas and form positive relationships with others. </p>
<p>Overall, we found that 7.58% of children starting school had an unexplained language disorder. Our estimate included children with low non-verbal abilities, and including these children increased the prevalence of disorders by almost 50% – from 4.8% to 7.58%. But we found that low non-verbal ability did not result in more severe language impairments, more pervasive behaviour problems or more serious academic difficulties.</p>
<p>Children meeting our criteria for language disorder were very unlikely to meet education targets on the early years profile – only 11% of them did so. They were also more likely than their peers to display social, emotional and behavioural difficulties.</p>
<h2>Children not getting help</h2>
<p>Despite this, fewer than half of the children who met criteria for language disorder had been referred to speech-language therapy services. </p>
<p>It’s clear from our research that a greater focus is needed on oral language development in the early years. Many teachers suggest that oral language needs to have the same status and protected teaching time that literacy and numeracy do. In the early years particularly, improving oral language <a href="https://educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk/evaluation/projects/nuffield-early-language-intervention/">should have positive impacts</a> on later literacy, behaviour and social development.</p>
<p>Of course there will still be some children who require specialist support, and our findings clearly indicate this should not depend on non-verbal ability. Instead, speech-language therapists should base decisions on eligibility for support on the child’s language and communication needs.</p>
<p>But children with lower non-verbal abilities may not respond to intervention in the same way that more able children do. It’s difficult to prove this, in part because children with lower non-verbal abilities are often excluded from trials of interventions that could help them. Nevertheless, that shouldn’t mean they get no help – only that we need to establish the most appropriate way of helping children with multiple developmental challenges.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/60023/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Courtenay Norbury receives research funding from the Wellcome Trust, who funded this research, and the British Academy. </span></em></p>And many of them are not getting the help they need.Courtenay Norbury, Professor of Developmental Language & Communication Disorders, UCLLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/478192015-10-12T07:43:17Z2015-10-12T07:43:17ZAre some kids really smarter just because they know more words?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/97941/original/image-20151009-9157-1pk9tj1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Why is there so much attention being paid to 'word gap'?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/jakmoore/2032480804/in/photolist-46AZJu-46B1AL-mYPRuq-3s72D-8sX8Y1-98g1F1-dBYVNh-5JNR4o-574B4j-46wZZe-46B2K7-46wRxR-46wNzv-46wQot-46B8gu-46wUM2-46wSKH-46wXFi-46wZui-46wSs6-46wWHk-46wVnD-46wNPg-46x28P-46wPFF-46B6Ru-46wUbT-46wWXR-46wMYv-46wZFB-46wYTg-46B12f-46B3kJ-46AYz1-46B4ZE-46B5Y9-46wYAK-46wP6p-46wWrM-46wY1a-46AUYf-46B3Vq-46B289-46wVWT-46B8BU-46wQ1Z-46wTCi-46wQHF-46wPnB-futTa">Jeff Moore</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Why do rich kids end up <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/10/education/education-gap-grows-between-rich-and-poor-studies-show.html?_r=0">doing better</a> than poor kids in school? Of late, one common explanation for this has been the “word gap,” or the idea that <a href="https://www.aft.org/sites/default/files/periodicals/TheEarlyCatastrophe.pdf">poor children</a> are exposed to significantly fewer words by age three than their wealthier peers. </p>
<p>As a former elementary school teacher and now educational psychologist, I understand the appeal of the “word gap” argument. But, focusing on the “word gap” as an explanation for the <a href="http://edr.sagepub.com/content/35/7/3.abstract">achievement gap</a> between poor students and wealthier students is both distracting and potentially harmful. Such an explanation could allow educators at all levels to both deny and widen this real gap that exists between the rich and the poor kids.</p>
<h2>What is the ‘word gap’?</h2>
<p>A <a href="https://books.google.com/books/about/Meaningful_differences_in_the_everyday_e.html?id=I2pHAAAAMAAJ">study</a> conducted over 30 years ago first came up with findings that showed there was a “word gap” between children from low-income homes and children from economically advantaged ones.</p>
<p>For this study, researchers entered the homes of 42 families over a span of four years to assess daily language exchanges between parents and their young children. The researchers found that, by age three, children with high-income families were exposed to 30 million more words than children with families on welfare. </p>
<p>The study was subsequently <a href="http://www.susanblum.com/uploads/4/7/2/1/4721639/jla_-_language_gap_forum_2015.pdf">critiqued</a> for its flawed research methodology as well as <a href="http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/abs/10.1108/JME-12-2014-0044?journalCode=jme">biased assumptions</a> about families of color and families coping with financial crisis.</p>
<p>However, in the last three years the idea of a “word gap” between advantaged and disadvantaged kids has gained extraordinary public exposure.</p>
<p>References to the word gap can now be seen almost weekly in widely circulated publications. Headlines like “<a href="http://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2014/10/american-kids-are-starving-for-words/381552/">Poor Kids and the ‘Word Gap’</a>,” “<a href="http://hechingerreport.org/make-baby-smart-word-word-chicago-project-says/">How do you make a baby smart?</a>,” “<a href="http://www.npr.org/2014/09/26/351810058/mind-the-word-gap%20">Mind the Word Gap</a>,” “<a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/answer-sheet/wp/2015/02/16/the-famous-word-gap-doesnt-hurt-only-the-young-it-affects-many-educators-too/">The famous ‘word gap’ doesn’t hurt only the young. It affects many educators, too.</a>” and “<a href="https://www.aft.org/sites/default/files/periodicals/TheEarlyCatastrophe.pdf">The Early Catastrophe: The 30 Million Word Gap by Age 3</a>” are now quite common.</p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/97943/original/image-20151009-9150-jx24fc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/97943/original/image-20151009-9150-jx24fc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/97943/original/image-20151009-9150-jx24fc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/97943/original/image-20151009-9150-jx24fc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/97943/original/image-20151009-9150-jx24fc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/97943/original/image-20151009-9150-jx24fc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/97943/original/image-20151009-9150-jx24fc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The attention being paid to ‘word gap’ is harmful.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/jakmoore/2032474178/in/photolist-46AXLf-7j78MG-HEJ3V-4TMgGK-752R5t-7pCf1C-46wS7F-46x1gx-46AZJu-46B1AL-mYPRuq-3s72D-8sX8Y1-98g1F1-dBYVNh-5JNR4o-574B4j-46wZZe-46B2K7-46wRxR-46wNzv-46wQot-46B8gu-46wUM2-46wSKH-46wXFi-46wZui-46wSs6-46wWHk-46wVnD-46wNPg-46x28P-46wPFF-46B6Ru-46wUbT-46wWXR-46wMYv-46wZFB-46wYTg-46B12f-46B3kJ-46AYz1-46B4ZE-46B5Y9-46wYAK-46wP6p-46wWrM-46wY1a-46AUYf-46B3Vq">Jeff Moore</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>From a place of relative obscurity, the study has now become the “evidence-based” foundation for <a href="http://www.providencetalks.org/">countless</a> <a href="http://dph.georgia.gov/blog/2013-12-20/talk-town-new-language-program-wins-united-way-grant">initiatives</a> <a href="http://talkingisteaching.org/">and programs</a> working to improve the academic achievement of poor children. </p>
<p>I agree that the idea is tempting to embrace, especially when it has received support from high-profile organizations like the <a href="https://www.clintonfoundation.org/our-work/too-small-fail">Clinton Foundation’s Too Small to Fail</a>, <a href="http://tmw.org/">The University of Chicago, School of Medicine’s Thirty Million Words® Initiative</a> and even <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/blog/2014/06/25/empowering-our-children-bridging-word-gap">The White House</a>. But the attention being paid to “word gap” is harmful.</p>
<h2>Why is the ‘word gap’ harmful?</h2>
<p>Students living in poverty currently comprise <a href="http://www.southerneducation.org/getattachment/4ac62e27-5260-47a5-9d02-14896ec3a531/A-New-Majority-2015-Update-Low-Income-Students-Now.aspx">more than one-half</a> of the public school population. Meanwhile, the test score gap between the most disadvantaged children (those in the bottom 10% of the income distribution) and children from wealthy families (those in the top 10%) has <a href="http://cepa.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/reardon%20whither%20opportunity%20-%20chapter%205.pdf">expanded by 30% to 40% over the last three decades</a>. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, the focus on the “word gap” takes teachers and other educators away from thinking about how to address the larger issue of inequality in education. Instead, it focuses attention on what children do not have in terms of an arbitrary <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jola.12071/pdf">word count</a>.</p>
<p>Following the “word gap” logic, teachers often view vocabulary building as the most important aspect of education. However, in reality, there is a wide scope of early learning experiences that all young children, particularly those experiencing poverty, need to develop. </p>
<p>For example, approaches such as <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/10508406.1998.9672056">project-based learning</a> provide students the opportunity to engage with complex topics and construct their own knowledge in addition to developing vocabulary.</p>
<p>Moreover, when we use the “word gap” to identify poor children as behind before they even begin school, that affects their <a href="http://www.press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/L/bo3684193.html">teachers’ view</a> of what they are capable of doing. It directs attention toward the things that poor families do not have and <a href="http://www.learninglandscapes.ca/images/documents/ll-no13/michaels.pdf">cannot offer</a> their young children.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/97945/original/image-20151009-9110-1xungvq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/97945/original/image-20151009-9110-1xungvq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/97945/original/image-20151009-9110-1xungvq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/97945/original/image-20151009-9110-1xungvq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/97945/original/image-20151009-9110-1xungvq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/97945/original/image-20151009-9110-1xungvq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/97945/original/image-20151009-9110-1xungvq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Poorer students can be made to feeling less capable because of what they do not know.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/riverarts/4712109575/in/photolist-9sV6M-beeBWF-xEEt8-xEEkg-LSYTf-8bseHW-8bse41-8brZiG-8bp9yr-8bsbcf-8bsfZ3-8bs115-8bpaqv-8bs6XQ-8bsfq7-8bp5vr-8bp4R4-8bsh7Y-8bsknJ-8brY8W-8bspRQ-8bp1az-8bp2ra-8boQLz-8bs6ku-8bs9FW-8bskXh-8brWXj-8bs4V9-8bsbUu-8boRqz-8brYEQ-8boEZp-8bp1Ra-8bs1xd-8boSQa-8bp3bi-8bsgwm-8bp6HR-8boN1x-8bp67R-8bs7CU-8bscDL-8bs4fA-8bsqvo-8boJED-9kigNw-6hDTzb-5h9kbR-51ZxKt">River Arts</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="http://www.sup.org/books/title/?id=10699">Research</a> shows that teachers of poor students and/or students of color often dwell on the experiences and language that their students are missing and default to teaching practices such as vocabulary drills and rote repetition that emphasize obedience and quiet behavior.</p>
<p>Not only do these types of learning experiences <a href="http://hepg.org/her-home/issues/harvard-educational-review-volume-84-number-2/herarticle/agency-and-expanding-capabilities-in-early-grade-c">limit students’ opportunities to develop language</a>, they also negatively affect <a href="http://knowledge.sagepub.com/view/diversityineducation/n191.xml">students’ views</a> of themselves as learners. Poor students are made to feel less capable because of what they do not know. </p>
<p>Because of the “word gap” and <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/S1532771XJLE0102_2">other widespread assumptions</a> grounded in <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2gvVi8_BesMC&dq=iq+testing+deficit+thinking">deficit thinking</a> – the idea that low-income minority students fail in school because they and their families have deficiencies – many teachers are not tapping into the <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00405849209543534">strengths and rich experiences</a> that their students bring to school. Consequently, they deny students the types of learning experiences that allow them to explore, talk and collaborate.</p>
<p>Finally, the “word gap” sends a message to poor parents and parents of color that there is <a href="http://parenting.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/09/20/are-poor-parents-poorer-at-parenting/">something wrong</a> with their parenting if it is different from the practices of affluent, white parents. </p>
<p>It unfairly takes the onus off of schools and teachers to provide sophisticated learning opportunities in which their students can excel and places the <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2012/dec/11/nicholas-kristof-education-disability">blame</a> for failure squarely on parents’ shoulders.</p>
<p>As a result, poor parents and parents of color are viewed as <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/answer-sheet/wp/2013/10/28/five-stereotypes-about-poor-families-and-education/">less capable</a> because of what they do not know, just like their children. </p>
<h2>The learning experience gap</h2>
<p>Low-income children are more likely than their higher-income peers to be in <a href="http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED365474">factory-like</a> classrooms that allow little interaction and physical movement. As a result, these children spend more time sitting, following directions and listening rather than <a href="http://hepg.org/her-home/issues/harvard-educational-review-volume-84-number-2/herarticle/agency-and-expanding-capabilities-in-early-grade-c">discussing, debating, solving problems and sharing ideas</a>. </p>
<p>Focusing on the “word gap” further perpetuates these problematic learning opportunities and deprives children of the types of learning experiences required to develop a range of sophisticated capabilities.</p>
<p>I believe that most parents, regardless of circumstance, would also agree that it is important to engage in conversation with their young children. However, early conversations and exposure to words will not determine whether a child does well in school. Furthermore, poverty is not an indication that parents are not speaking to their young children. </p>
<p>The academic disparity between young children in poverty and children from wealthier families is not a result of what their parents can offer. It is a result of the different types of learning experiences they are afforded at school. </p>
<p>In other words, it is not the “word gap” but the opportunity gap that is the problem.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/47819/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Molly McManus does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Teachers often view vocabulary building as the most important aspect of education. In reality, there are lots of other early learning experiences that children need to develop.Molly McManus, PhD Candidate in Educational Psychology, The University of Texas at AustinLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/468442015-09-16T10:07:51Z2015-09-16T10:07:51ZWhy storytelling skills matter for African-American kids<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/94876/original/image-20150915-29630-919n4h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">African-American kids have strong storytelling skills.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/unirodlibrary/8725570357/in/photolist-ei3Q5e-ei3QLx-ei3Qx2-ei3Q7K-ei3QDi-ei3QBD-ei3QVe-ei9z6w-ei9yWA-ei9yay-ei3NZr-ei9zeu-ei3QST-ei9zRu-ei9z3C-ei3PPn-ei9zJA-ei3NSP-ei3NMV-ei3QFM-ei3Qop-ei9xXf-ei3R1n-ei9ypW-ei3Qsg-ei9yEW-ei3R26-ei3PCk-ei9y69-ei9zWh-ei9zwW-ei3PXv-ei9yvu-ei3Q8D-ei3P7x-ei3QPV-ei9yim-ei9xMQ-ei3PQK-ei9zj3-ei3R6c-ei3QsH-ei3Qzr-ei3QBH-ei3QvM-ei3PWK-ei9yzY-ei9y1u-ei3NVR-ei3QmD">Rod Library</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Children begin telling stories as young as age two or three. And they continue to develop storytelling skills in their interaction with parents and others who provide guidance and feedback. </p>
<p>The <a href="http://edr.sagepub.com/content/39/4/305.short">ability to tell</a> a coherent and well-developed narrative may be important for children’s literacy development. However, <a href="http://jslhr.pubs.asha.org/article.aspx?articleid=1781411">most</a> of the <a href="http://fla.sagepub.com/content/24/2/123.short">studies</a> on <a href="https://brainmass.com/file/369304/edu-101-4-765Reading+Comprehension.pdf">children’s storytelling and reading</a> skills have been conducted with samples of middle-class white children.</p>
<p>To address this gap in the research, my colleague, <a href="http://cyfs.unl.edu/faculty-staff/affiliates/bios/iruka-iheoma.php">Iheoma Iruka</a>, and I studied data of children from different socioeconomic and racial/ethnic groups from across the United States.</p>
<p>What we found surprised us. </p>
<h2>Storytelling among African-American children</h2>
<p>For our research, we used national data from the <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/ecls/">Early Childhood Longitudinal Study</a>, a study of about 14,000 children born in the US in 2001, that examined their development, school readiness and early school experiences. We focused on 6,150 children who were identified as African American, Asian American, Latino and European American. </p>
<p>To understand the role that storytelling skills play in the link between language and early literacy, we used data from when children were two years old until they were five years old. </p>
<p>When the children were two years old, parents were asked to describe their children’s language abilities. Later, when children were four years old, their storytelling skills were measured by asking them to retell stories they had just heard a researcher tell them. At five years old, children were given an assessment of their early literacy. </p>
<p>For most racial/ethnic and socioeconomic groups of children, we found that children who had better language skills as toddlers did better on the literacy assessment when they were five years old. </p>
<p>But when we looked at how storytelling plays a role between early language and early literacy, we found that when it came to African-American children, it made a big difference. For these children, the higher their storytelling scores, the better they did on the early literacy assessment. Interestingly, it didn’t make a difference for the other groups.</p>
<h2>What this study tells us</h2>
<p><a href="http://fla.sagepub.com/content/24/2/123.short">Storytelling skills</a> may be less important for the early literacy skills of most children. But for African-American children, these skills seem to be important for early literacy in a way that may not be true of other children. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/94895/original/image-20150915-29611-7iwwta.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/94895/original/image-20150915-29611-7iwwta.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/94895/original/image-20150915-29611-7iwwta.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/94895/original/image-20150915-29611-7iwwta.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/94895/original/image-20150915-29611-7iwwta.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/94895/original/image-20150915-29611-7iwwta.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/94895/original/image-20150915-29611-7iwwta.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">African-American culture inculcates orality.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/unirodlibrary/8725568965/in/photolist-ei3PEe-ei3P4X-ei9ydN-ei3PsZ-ei9yc7-ei9ypo-ei3Q5e-ei3QLx-ei3Qx2-ei3Q7K-ei3QDi-ei3QBD-ei3QVe-ei9z6w-ei9yWA-ei9yay-ei3NZr-ei9zeu-ei3QST-ei9zRu-ei9z3C-ei3PPn-ei9zJA-ei3NSP-ei3NMV-ei3QFM-ei3Qop-ei9xXf-ei3R1n-ei9ypW-ei3Qsg-ei9yEW-ei3R26-ei3PCk-ei9y69-ei9zWh-ei9zwW-ei3PXv-ei9yvu-ei3Q8D-ei3P7x-ei3QPV-ei9yim-ei9xMQ-ei3PQK-ei9zj3-ei3R6c-ei3QsH-ei3Qzr-ei3QBH">Rod Library</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We also know from <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0885201496900131">other</a> <a href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=ZvwEDOhLbpEC&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=heath+ways+with+words&ots=mmELKAF_pU&sig=TbaWohKSol10G1X-PSROnAM833A#v=onepage&q=heath%20ways%20with%20words&f=false">research</a> that <a href="http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-1557864837.html">from early on</a>, African-American children <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10409289.2010.481552">tell stories</a> that are vivid, elaborate and rich in imagery. The <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10409289.2010.481552">quality of stories</a> produced by <a href="http://lshss.pubs.asha.org/article.aspx?articleid=1780357">African-American children</a> has been found to be <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03004430.2010.490946">on par with or exceed</a> that of stories told by their white peers. <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0898589894900094">Other studies</a> find that African-American children have a wide repertoire of storytelling styles, which they use flexibly depending on the context. </p>
<p>The strong storytelling skills of African-American children may stem from the cultural and historic influences that have fostered a <a href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=5XuRAgAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=tempii+champion+book&ots=u6FexFy8Kh&sig=nUUvxu4HI6vjdjbcxSVkJTA9OqM#v=onepage&q=tempii%20champion%20book&f=false">preference for orality</a> among African Americans. </p>
<p>All this should lead us to believe that African-American kids, with their strong storytelling skills, should do better with their reading skills. However, we know that African-American children are failing to learn basic reading skills. A nationwide test of <a href="http://www.nationsreportcard.gov/reading_math_2013/#/gains-by-group">reading achievement</a> showed that <a href="http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/naepdata/dataset.aspx">four out of five African-American</a> fourth graders failed to achieve competency in reading in 2013. </p>
<p>So, why are African-American children not performing better in reading? More research is needed, but <a href="http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdfplus/10.1162/003465304323031049">possible</a> <a href="http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdfplus/10.1162/003465304323031049">explanations</a> <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4061698/">suggest</a> that the low-quality schools many of these kids go to end up having a negative impact on their reading skills. In addition, many of these kids may have language skills that <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4061698/">differ</a> from those expected at school. </p>
<h2>Why does storytelling matter?</h2>
<p>For most other kids, studies suggest that storytelling skills may show their influence when <a>children are older</a>. </p>
<p>And that could be because storytelling uses “decontextualized” language. Decontextualized language differs from conversational or contextualized language in that decontextualized language functions independently from the immediate context or shared knowledge between listeners and the storyteller. </p>
<p>As children tell stories, they gain practice in using the same type of language that is used in written text, which can help them as they learn to read. </p>
<p>While teachers and parents have been told to read books to children to support their language and literacy development, encouraging children to tell stories as a way to support language and literacy has received less attention. </p>
<p>So, what can teachers and parents do? </p>
<p>Many schools have a “show-and-tell” time that can allow children a chance to practice storytelling skills as they share information about a valued object. As teachers and peers ask questions, they can facilitate children’s storytelling skills. </p>
<p>Parents and teachers can also model storytelling for children by sharing their own experiences, in the form of a story that has a clear beginning, middle and end, and addresses the questions of who, what, where, when and why. Using props like wordless books, puppets, dolls and photographs may also help children in developing stories. </p>
<p>While learning to tell stories can be useful for all children, this skill may be most needed for those at risk of achieving reading competency.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/46844/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nicole Gardner-Neblett does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>African-American children tell stories that are vivid, elaborate, and rich in imagery. These skills help support their early literacy skills. How can schools take advantage of this?Nicole Gardner-Neblett, Investigator, University of North Carolina at Chapel HillLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.