tag:theconversation.com,2011:/uk/topics/lent-24582/articlesLent – The Conversation2024-03-26T17:02:09Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2265722024-03-26T17:02:09Z2024-03-26T17:02:09ZExtinguishing lights and a great big bang: the ancient sights and sounds of the pre-Easter tenebrae service<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584208/original/file-20240325-18-saxwku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The crucifixion of Christ inside Chester Cathedral.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/chester-cheshire-england-uk-26-march-2433472355">PhotoFires|Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Easter is a time of mixed emotions. According to <a href="https://www.churchofengland.org/media/press-releases/church-attendance-rises-second-year-running">Church of England figures</a>, up to a million people will go to church on Easter Sunday to celebrate the joy and hope of the resurrection of Christ. But in the three days before that, churchgoers in many traditions come face to face with the darkest moments of the Christian story: <a href="https://fitzmuseum.cam.ac.uk/explore-our-collection/highlights/context/subjects/judas">the betrayal</a> Jesus faced at the hands of Judas Iscariot, his death on the cross and his burial.</p>
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<img alt="A priest extinguishes a candle." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584205/original/file-20240325-9980-x5ion5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584205/original/file-20240325-9980-x5ion5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=553&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584205/original/file-20240325-9980-x5ion5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=553&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584205/original/file-20240325-9980-x5ion5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=553&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584205/original/file-20240325-9980-x5ion5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=695&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584205/original/file-20240325-9980-x5ion5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=695&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584205/original/file-20240325-9980-x5ion5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=695&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">A symbolic darkening.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/paullew/25389408003/in/photolist-EFzmrR-qYG4Vv-rsNXi9-rD326R-qYJtLH-rCVpZw-rCVwuq-rBaqre-rD2YZB-rCU4QJ-rVq5Li-rBaCTZ-rVnevu-rVnbds-rVn54J-rCVt5u-rCU9Bh-qYutdC-qYGikB-rVpYFH-rVpZK6-9XFueb-rVuA3a-6dSFu4-rCUe3m-qYuwAu-rVuvSM-EFzmxT-SxBjRf-rCuHh7-7qWKHW-e6w8nR-7QK7Y4-e6FJya-rVsi1e-TNcwt5-5rUMHg-9AJeZS-TNcwqu-7Q8vmN-7QNq9G-4zM5yA-buGoW5-ngK9DK-ngK8v2-2gC1u1M-rUWund-rUZgjH-qYgu1p-nivvzB">Lawrence OP|Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
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<p>Among the lesser known rituals of this pre-Easter period is an ancient exploration of darkness itself, known as <em>tenebrae</em>. Originally, this service took place late at night or early in the morning on the last three days of Holy Week, leading up to Holy Saturday (the day before Easter Sunday).</p>
<p>For at least 1,200 years, the defining feature of tenebrae services has been the gradual <a href="https://alcuinclub.org.uk/product/175/">extinguishing of lights</a>. Enclosed in an increasingly darkened church, worshippers are reminded of the three days Jesus spent in the tomb following his death. </p>
<p>My research <a href="https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/humanities/departments/music/research/research-projects/music-in-the-shadows.aspx">shows</a> that in the past it was actually quite common for worshippers to attend church in the middle of the night. Before electric light, sunset forced most daily activities to cease. Long winter nights afforded plenty of time both to sleep and to pray. </p>
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<img alt="A black and white nitrate negative image of a church service in 1941." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584196/original/file-20240325-20-uwswqc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584196/original/file-20240325-20-uwswqc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584196/original/file-20240325-20-uwswqc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584196/original/file-20240325-20-uwswqc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584196/original/file-20240325-20-uwswqc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584196/original/file-20240325-20-uwswqc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584196/original/file-20240325-20-uwswqc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">A tenebrae service on Spy Wednesday at the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem in 1941.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.loc.gov/resource/matpc.21011/">Matson photograph collection|LOC</a></span>
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<h2>Darker than dark</h2>
<p>Since medieval times, the tenebrae ritual has had the feel of a funeral. It features <a href="https://archive.org/details/liberusualismiss00cath/page/302/mode/2up?view=theater">dirge-like chanting</a>, <a href="https://www.liturgies.net/Lent/Tenebrae.htm">doleful texts</a> and a pointed avoidance of ornament. </p>
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<img alt="A large standing candelabra." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584194/original/file-20240325-28-8pnz7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584194/original/file-20240325-28-8pnz7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=947&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584194/original/file-20240325-28-8pnz7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=947&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584194/original/file-20240325-28-8pnz7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=947&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584194/original/file-20240325-28-8pnz7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1190&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584194/original/file-20240325-28-8pnz7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1190&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584194/original/file-20240325-28-8pnz7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1190&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Antoni Gaudi’s tenebrae hearse.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:(Barcelona)_Tenebrae_Candelabra_-_Antoni_Gaud%C3%AD_-_Museums_of_the_Sagrada_Fam%C3%ADlia.jpg">Didier Descouens|Wikimedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
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<p>The Latin verb <em>tenebrare</em> means “to darken” and this is probably the origin of the ritual’s name. A symbolic number of candles or lamps – historically this varied between five and 72, but is now most often 15 – is lit at the beginning of the service, and then, for each successive chant, reading or verse, one light is extinguished. </p>
<p>These are often placed on what is known as a “hearse” – a triangular or pyramidal frame that would also be placed above a coffin or tomb. (Only in the 17th century would this word be borrowed to describe a funeral vehicle.) By the end of the service, a single light remains, barely enough to see by. </p>
<p>The effect is hugely dramatic. There have been different interpretations of the ritual through the ages.</p>
<p>In his ninth-century commentary <a href="https://documentacatholicaomnia.eu/04z/z_0776-0852__Symphosius_Amalarius__Liber_De_Ordine_Antiphonarii__MLT.pdf.html">On the Ordering of the Antiphoner</a>, the Frankish bishop Amalar of Metz understood the extinguishing of candles to represent the “the extinction of joy” brought about by Jesus’s crucifixion. Others saw a representation of the biblical figures and saints who had died bearing witness to this story, or a depiction of the waning light of Jesus the metaphorical sun.</p>
<p>Art objects have also provided layers of meaning. Standing some 25 feet tall, the giant <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/75710752@N04/8758144549">16th-century tenebrae candelabra</a> of Seville Cathedral is comprised of a metal hearse topped with 15 candles and as many carved figures.</p>
<p>As each candle is extinguished, a person seems to disappear, as if the faith of Christians is draining away. Similar objects are found in many Catholic churches, including the one designed by Antoni Gaudi for the Sagrada Familia in Barcelona. </p>
<p>Some medieval churches used a hand-shaped snuffer made of wax to put out the candles. Signifying the hand of Judas, this underlined the theme of betrayal.</p>
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<p>At the end of tenebrae, the final light is customarily hidden. In the eery, disorienting darkness that ensues, there is a long tradition of a loud sudden noise being made. This bang or clatter is known as the <em>strepitus</em>. People <a href="https://forum.musicasacra.com/forum/discussion/282/tenebrae-best-ways-to-make-the-strepitus/">might</a> slam a door, bang a book, stamp their feet or use percussive instruments. </p>
<p>The strepitus is thought to represent the confusion or shock the disciples experienced after Jesus died, or the earthquake that followed the crucifixion. Like many aspects of ancient ritual, though, the strepitus was probably functional in origin.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/when-easter">By definition</a>, the days around Easter always enjoy the light of the moon. But finding your way out of an unlit church can be a struggle. It seems the original purpose of the sound, then, was to signal to the sacristan (the warden in charge of the church building and its contents) to reveal the hidden candle again, so that everyone could safely return home.</p>
<p>Inevitably, sometimes things got out of hand. In his Latin <a href="https://www.brepols.net/products/IS-9782503044033-1">commentary on the liturgy</a>, the 13th-century French bishop <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7312/thib14180">Guillaume Durand of Mende</a> described a form of tenebrae service that ended with shouting, wailing and a “commotion of the people” as congregants enacted both the disciples’ grief and the ironic cheers of Jesus’s enemies. One 19th-century author <a href="https://archive.org/details/ancientenglishho00feas/page/90/mode/2up">reported</a> a volley of musket-fire being used for the strepitus in Seville.</p>
<p>Today, the sounds of tenebrae are much more respectable. Performances by the eponymous, Grammy-nominated choir, Tenebrae, make a feature of candlelight and ancient church spaces. </p>
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<p>The ritual has also inspired countless famous classical works. The 16th-century English royal composer Thomas Tallis crafted a <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=de_OPTtfZdw">sensuous vocal setting</a> of tenebrae readings from the Old Testament’s Book of Lamentations. </p>
<p>In 1585, his younger Spanish contemporary Tomás Luis de Victoria published almost three hours’ worth of <a href="https://open.spotify.com/embed/album/4up2bNlUkQvQhPFAwsWhM1?utm_source=generator">tenebrae polyphony</a>. A more operatic style appears in François Couperin’s exquisitely anguished <a href="https://www.hyperion-records.co.uk/dw.asp?dc=W7081_120622">Leçons de ténèbres</a>, composed around 1710.</p>
<p>More recent examples include Stravinsky’s angular and unrelenting <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_RpOOgOeab0">Threni</a>, a concert work from 1958, and Poulenc’s lesser-known <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MZCnnK7bvfc">Seven Tenebrae Responsories</a>, commissioned by Leonard Bernstein in 1961. </p>
<p>Among the many cherished settings of one medieval Tenebrae text, O vos omnes (a Latin adaptation of Lamentations 1:12-18), is a version by Spanish and Puerto Rican composer Pablo Casals. Written in 1932, it is still widely performed today. </p>
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<p>Casals was a <a href="https://www.paucasals.org/en/pablo-casals-and-the-united-nations/">peace activist</a> as well as a cellist. His simple, heartfelt strains transform <a href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Lamentations+1.18&version=NIV">the words of the prophet Jeremiah</a> into an impassioned plea for our troubled times: “Listen, all you peoples; look on my suffering.” </p>
<p>On Easter Sunday, many Christians will return from church having received a vital injection of hope for the world. But the tenebrae tradition, which some will also experience this week, has a useful role too. It helps us to come to terms with darkness in human history, and to find beauty even when it seems that hope itself is being extinguished.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/226572/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Henry Parkes receives funding from the Arts and Humanities Research Council. </span></em></p>The ancient tenebrae tradition brings churchgoers face to face with the darkest moments of the Christian story.Henry Parkes, Associate Professor, Department of Music, University of NottinghamLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2256002024-03-14T17:19:14Z2024-03-14T17:19:14ZRamadan and Lent fasts could have cardiovascular benefits<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581669/original/file-20240313-24-wbolth.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C15%2C5176%2C3430&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/fasting-bread-water-strengthen-spirit-591668285">Jesus Cervantes/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Food abstinence is <a href="https://www.marieclaire.co.uk/life/health-fitness/intermittent-fasting">all the rage</a> when it comes to health and wellbeing, it seems. Wherever you look, from the UK’s prime minister, <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-68129595">Rishi Sunak</a>, to Hollywood celebrities like Thor star <a href="https://www.menshealth.com/fitness/a41925303/chris-hemsworth-fasting-limitless-exclusive-clip/">Chris Hemsworth</a>, someone’s extolling the virtues of fasting for mind and body. </p>
<p>According to reports, Sunak considers fasting for the first 36 hours of each week as “an important discipline”, while Hemsworth attempted to “unlock his body’s anti-ageing powers” through an extreme four-day fast for his <a href="https://youtu.be/0G-3o2tw9zI?feature=shared">2023 TV series, Limitless</a>. </p>
<p>Intermittent fasting has also become a popular form of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0303720715300800">weight management</a>. Some plans, such as the <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/1476-511X-9-94">Daniel Fast</a> popularised by film star <a href="https://time.com/5503754/what-is-the-daniel-fast/">Chris Pratt</a>, claim to follow the diets of religious figures to offer spiritual as well as physical rewards.</p>
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<p>But, despite the widespread coverage of intermittent fasting over the past few years, religious fasts have not shared the same level of attention. Does following a religious fast have the same or even greater health benefits then fasting purely for health and wellbeing? </p>
<h2>Health benefits of fasting for Ramadan and Lent</h2>
<p>In 2024 and 2025, Ramadan and the Christian <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/article-the-rare-convergence-of-ramadan-passover-and-easter-recalls-a-shared/">period of Lent overlap</a>. Ramadan is a period of fasting for Muslims, while Lent is a period of abstinence for many Christians, particularly those of Orthodox denominations.</p>
<p>However, the nature of religious fasts varies. During Ramadan, fasting is a form of time-restricted eating – followers should avoid all food and drink between dawn and dusk. Whereas, Orthodox Christian fasting practices tend to focus on excluding <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC156653/#:%7E:text=Orthodox%20Christian%20holy%20books%20recommend,and%20Friday%20throughout%20the%20year.">all animal products and sources of fat</a> from the diet, rather than a full fast. </p>
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<p>With colleagues, I explored the potential health effects of different religious and faith-based fasts. By conducting a systematic review of published data from Muslim and Orthodox Christian communities only, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0939475324000735">our recent analysis</a> showed that both fasting approaches are associated with a reduction in cardiovascular risk – although for different reasons. </p>
<p>Fasting during Ramadan was associated with a significant reduction in blood pressure and body weight, whereas fasting among Orthodox Christians for Lent showed a significant association with a reduction in cholesterol.</p>
<p>Lower blood pressure among those fasting for Ramadan could be an effect of not eating or drinking during the day, thereby <a href="https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/ajpregu.00283.2021">lowering insulin</a> levels which can act on the sympathetic nervous system as well as reducing blood volume. </p>
<p>Orthodox Christians following a plant-based fast may <a href="https://www.heartuk.org.uk/ultimate-cholesterol-lowering-plan/uclp-introduction">reduce fat intake and increase fibre</a> in comparison to their usual diet, which may explain the association of their Lent fast with lower cholesterol.</p>
<p>Perhaps unsurprisingly given that fasts tend to limit energy intake, fasting for both Ramadan and Lent were also associated with weight loss. </p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-fast-safely-during-ramadan-what-the-science-shows-224547">How to fast safely during Ramadan – what the science shows</a>
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<p>However, some of these benefits may be cancelled out by overconsumption of less healthy food and drink when the fast is broken. To maintain the benefits of fasting, followers should avoid eating foods high in fat, sugar and salt. </p>
<h2>Aligning healthcare and religious practices</h2>
<p>Our review suggests that health professionals could support people to use aspects of their faith, including fasting practices, to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0939475324000735">support healthier lifestyles</a>. This could include working with faith leaders such as Imams and mosque communities prior to Ramadan, to explore healthy Iftar meals to break the fast.</p>
<p>It might even be possible to use aspects of faith to promote self-care as part of religious practice, to improve physical health alongside spiritual growth and identity. For example, religious leaders could encourage healthy community meals outside of fasting periods to promote health and social connectivity.</p>
<p>Research has suggested that <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1550830705001424?casa_token=9eZG0-RtGd4AAAAA:yf0OACZa2lvKPwDVudeHxjkGCe33Six9gLElr7qcgpsNEEIcQLH_znU3zmO39rN_VF6DlXU6">people of faith</a> enjoy more positive health outcomes for a range of interventions, including weight management. This may be at least partially due to faith-linked health interventions being more <a href="https://scholarworks.sjsu.edu/mcnair/vol13/iss1/11/">culturally appropriate and aligned</a> with patients’ beliefs and ideas. For example, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2352250X20302116">research suggests</a> an association between religiosity and self-control, which can positively impact eating patterns.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/ramadan-four-tips-to-help-you-eat-right-and-stay-healthy-158731">Ramadan: four tips to help you eat right and stay healthy</a>
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<p>Aligning health programmes to the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1550830705001424?casa_token=9eZG0-RtGd4AAAAA:yf0OACZa2lvKPwDVudeHxjkGCe33Six9gLElr7qcgpsNEEIcQLH_znU3zmO39rN_VF6DlXU6">faith identities</a> and practices of patients could <a href="https://www.researchprotocols.org/2015/2/e64">increase engagement and adherence</a>. For example, in the US, research has linked religious service attendance with <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29790080/#:%7E:text=Frequent%20church%20attendance%20was%20significantly,Americans%20attempting%20to%20lose%20weight.">greater weight loss</a>. </p>
<p>So, Ramadan and Lent, when millions follow their religious obligations to fast, may be a good time for health professionals to work with faith groups to develop culturally inclusive approaches. This could help address the challenge of changing <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2019-65951-001">health behaviour</a>, as people are more likely to adhere to positive habits if these align with their personal values, including their faith.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225600/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Duane Mellor is a member of the British Dietetic Association.</span></em></p>Plenty has been said about the health benefits of fasting, but what about as a religious practice?Duane Mellor, Lead for Evidence-Based Medicine and Nutrition, Aston Medical School, Aston UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2220072024-02-13T16:08:50Z2024-02-13T16:08:50Z‘Tarry awhile’: how the Black spiritual tradition of waiting expectantly could enrich your approach to Lent<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575326/original/file-20240213-22-sxr5ms.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=233%2C26%2C4796%2C3925&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/woman-in-brown-coat-raising-her-hands-Y_2P5icyKus">Brian Lundquist|Unsplash</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Every year, hundreds of millions of Catholic and Protestant Christians around the world celebrate <a href="https://theconversation.com/lent-is-here-remind-me-what-its-all-about-5-essential-reads-200269">the season of Lent</a>. For the 40 days between Ash Wednesday and Easter Sunday, observers devote themselves to fasting, prayer and acts of generous giving. </p>
<p>Lots of people, who might not be observant, also take this time to give something up. In 2023, Country Living <a href="https://www.countryliving.com/life/g26473567/give-up-for-lent/">ran a list</a> of 32 ideas for what you might want to curtail, from “commenting on social media”, “road rage” and “ignoring your health” to “speeding”, “snacking” and “single-use plastic”. </p>
<p>For Lent 2024, Archbishop of Canterbury Justin Welby has chosen a new book by British theologian Selina Stone, as his annual recommendation. Entitled Tarry Awhile: Wisdom from Black Spirituality for People of Faith, this selection speaks to the growing salience of Black spirituality globally, especially in regards to Christianity. </p>
<p>By 2050, <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2015/04/02/religious-projections-2010-2050/">40%</a> of the world’s Christians will live in sub-Saharan Africa. Black spirituality will increasingly influence global Christianity as the 21st century continues. The Archbishop’s Lenten book choice cordially redirects religious literary attention to the influence of Black spirituality in Anglican thought. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="People in a church service" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575339/original/file-20240213-26-pe4bf0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575339/original/file-20240213-26-pe4bf0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575339/original/file-20240213-26-pe4bf0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575339/original/file-20240213-26-pe4bf0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575339/original/file-20240213-26-pe4bf0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575339/original/file-20240213-26-pe4bf0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575339/original/file-20240213-26-pe4bf0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">‘Black spirituality will increasingly influence global Christian praxis as the 21st century continues.’</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/man-in-white-and-red-striped-polo-shirt-_cdI8MkfkVI">Gracious Adebayo|Unsplash</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<p>The most intriguing aspect of this selection, though, is what, for many, will be an infrequently used word in the title. “To tarry” is to <a href="https://www.oed.com/dictionary/tarry_v?tl=true">linger in anticipation</a> – be that of a person or an occurrence. In a Christian context, it is about waiting on God, expectantly. </p>
<p>“Tarrying gives us an opportunity to rest,” Welby writes in his foreword, “to see the realities of the world more clearly and to imagine more boldly what the world could be”. </p>
<p>Stone, in her introduction, says the practice recognises “the interdependence of the individual and the community for encounter with God”. She exhorts her readers – whether tarrying, as a tradition, feels like home to them or is entirely new – to be open, as they wait for the justice and peace so sorely missing from the world. </p>
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<h2>Tarrying in the Christian tradition</h2>
<p>The Bible uses the word “tarry” at least 30 times. In particular, as Stone highlights, it is the word (in the King James version) the Gospel of Matthew uses, when Jesus is in the garden of Gethsemane with his disciples. Overwhelmed with sorrow to the point of death, he asks his disciples to, “tarry here and watch with me”.</p>
<p>In biblical literature, tarrying refers to an individual or community patiently, longingly waiting in one setting or state for something. This might be a person or an event or an act of spiritual or political liberation. </p>
<p>The concept of tarrying surfaces in the historical development of <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23957241">academic Christian theology</a>. It remains popular among Black Christians, but it is not exclusive to this religious group. In fact, it is not exclusive to religious communities in particular either. It is a term used by philosophers, psychoanalysts and religious leaders alike. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Three men sit in prayer in a church." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575334/original/file-20240213-18-dk237e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575334/original/file-20240213-18-dk237e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575334/original/file-20240213-18-dk237e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575334/original/file-20240213-18-dk237e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575334/original/file-20240213-18-dk237e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575334/original/file-20240213-18-dk237e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575334/original/file-20240213-18-dk237e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Tarrying means devoting time to stillness and prayer.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/man-in-brown-dress-shirt-and-black-pants-sitting-on-black-leather-armchair-JcnSq7IYTKY">Luis Morera|Unsplash</a></span>
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<p>In Black Christian spirituality, the concept of tarrying exists as a familiar, mature spiritual ritual that practically manifests in a variety of ways. After a church service or an event concludes, worshippers might gather near the altar or remain in their seats, ignoring the socialising around them to devote extra time to prayer. A Christian might sit alone in an empty chapel lost in prayer, conveying their needs and anxieties to God, emboldened by the biblical view that God responds favourably to those who spend time with him. </p>
<p>Like meditating, tarrying prioritises mindfulness over negligence or indifference. It encourages you to live in a way that gives significance to each given moment. </p>
<p>Within the Pentecostal tradition, specifically, tarrying is seen as a spiritual discipline. It serves to clear the way for <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233642398_Tarrying_on_the_Lord_Affections_Virtues_and_Theological_Ethics_in_Pentecostal_Perspective">God’s presence to manifest</a> in even the most mundane, profane aspects of everyday life. Those who tarry prioritise doing so when the anxieties of everyday life compete for one’s mental, emotional, and physical attention – but fail. </p>
<p>Religiously, tarrying means replacing the attention seeking anxieties of everyday life with a focus on the spiritual, the social and the relational. Tarrying functions as an expression of love, devotion and desire. In a world where one’s attention can be diverted more quickly and easily than ever, tarrying is a choice to shun one thing for another. </p>
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<p>Culturally, tarrying calls for rejecting the rat-race mentality characteristic of capitalist societies. In many ways, it is antithetical to the modernist assumptions that drive the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1468-2265.2009.00500.x">glorification of secular reason</a> and the worship of production. </p>
<p>In this way, tarrying unambiguously relates to Lent. The Lenten emphasis on fasting, prayer and ideologically driven generosity and charitable giving aligns with tarrying’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-an-african-church-choir-made-a-difference-to-care-home-life-in-greater-manchester-190556">emphasis on communal life</a>. </p>
<p>Christians observing Lent give in the expectation that their giving will positively contribute to the life of another. In a world where people are often encouraged to forsake relationship for productivity, perhaps all of us would do well to partake in a little more tarrying in our everyday lives.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222007/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr Christopher Wadibia receives funding from a postdoctoral research fellowship specialising in race, theology, and religious studies based at Pembroke College, University of Oxford. </span></em></p>Lenten traditions emphasise fasting, prayer and charitable giving. This aligns with tarrying as central to communal spiritual life.Christopher Wadibia, Junior Research Fellow in Theology, University of OxfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2007152023-03-22T19:42:15Z2023-03-22T19:42:15ZWhy Lent is the perfect time to spiritually prepare for revolution<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516832/original/file-20230321-24-tyfpuj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=298%2C51%2C1307%2C971&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Francisco V. Coching's Rendition of Gabriela Silang Charging on a Mount, 1986 (Ayala Museum).</span> </figcaption></figure><p>It was around this time of year back in 1763 that Filipino rebels <a href="https://www.loc.gov/collections/spanish-american-war-in-motion-pictures/articles-and-essays/the-motion-picture-camera-goes-to-war/the-philippine-revolution/">rode into Sinait</a> on horseback, shouting “in God’s mercy, the time has come to leave our slavery!” </p>
<p>The residents of this coastal village in Ilocos were among the tens of thousands of peasants across the big northern island of Luzon who joined the <a href="https://www.loc.gov/collections/spanish-american-war-in-motion-pictures/articles-and-essays/the-motion-picture-camera-goes-to-war/the-philippine-revolution/">armed revolt</a> against Spanish colonial rule that year. The insurgency attracted men and women from diverse ethno-linguistic groups. They were Ilocanos, Pangasinanes, Cagayanes and Tagalogs. Theirs was the biggest rebellion to erupt in the Philippines in the 18th century. It was simultaneously a very radical and profoundly Catholic social movement. </p>
<p>The rebellion coincided with the Christian season of Lent: the 40 days of sombre prayer and self-discipline leading up to Holy Week and Easter, when Christians remember the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. Did this sacred time of year make ordinary Filipinos more willing to challenge the empire? </p>
<p>The British invasion of Manila at the end of 1762 triggered the revolt. The walled city had been the seat of the Spanish government in the islands since 1571, until British forces attacked and drove the Spanish governor into exile in the countryside. </p>
<p>This humiliating defeat of the Spanish struck many Filipinos as a rare opportunity to demand a better colonial bargain, or even to try and permanently overthrow the Spanish empire which had intruded into their lives. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516583/original/file-20230321-690-um4qs4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516583/original/file-20230321-690-um4qs4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516583/original/file-20230321-690-um4qs4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=248&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516583/original/file-20230321-690-um4qs4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=248&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516583/original/file-20230321-690-um4qs4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=248&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516583/original/file-20230321-690-um4qs4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=312&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516583/original/file-20230321-690-um4qs4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=312&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516583/original/file-20230321-690-um4qs4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=312&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Map: The Attack of Manilla, October 1762.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Library of Congress</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>Mobs of protesters raided government and convent armouries and marched on government buildings, brandishing weapons and demanding urgent change. They wanted to abolish the tribute, the annual head tax that Indigenous Filipinos (whom the Spaniards called <em>indios</em>) and Chinese migrants were forced to pay to the Crown. They also wanted to get rid of the <em>polo</em>, the system of forced labour that funnelled native men into stints of gruelling work for the state, building forts and cutting down trees to build galleons. </p>
<p>Colonial officials refused to negotiate, and the rebels decided to go to war to secure their demands. Battles broke out between rebel militias and those that remained loyal to Spain. </p>
<p>The British invasion of the year before had destabilised the colonial government and prompted the armed rebellion. But it was Lent that inspired many peasants to join the rebel uprising.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/lent-is-here-remind-me-what-its-all-about-5-essential-reads-200269">Lent is here – remind me what it's all about? 5 essential reads</a>
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</em>
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<h2>A Catholic revolution</h2>
<p>The rebellion’s leaders included the husband-and-wife team Diego and Gabriella Silang. The couple are are well known in the Philippines today, where they are celebrated as heroes. </p>
<p>Diego Silang urged his followers to observe Lent. He encouraged fighting men to pray the Rosary, and prohibited them from getting drunk, having sex, or gambling on playing cards or cockfights during this sacred season. Silang was evidently trying to curry God’s favour through these collective sacrifices and devotions, hoping to secure a heavenly intervention that would protect his army and deliver them victory. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516824/original/file-20230321-20-tyfpuj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516824/original/file-20230321-20-tyfpuj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516824/original/file-20230321-20-tyfpuj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1056&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516824/original/file-20230321-20-tyfpuj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1056&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516824/original/file-20230321-20-tyfpuj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1056&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516824/original/file-20230321-20-tyfpuj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1327&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516824/original/file-20230321-20-tyfpuj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1327&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516824/original/file-20230321-20-tyfpuj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1327&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Bust of Diego Silang at the Rizal Park, Manila.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>Like many Indigenous people in the islands, Silang would have also viewed asceticism in the Lenten season as a method of transferring power to people and to protective amulets known as <em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agimat#:%7E:text=Agimat%2C%20also%20known%20as%20anting,%20and%20galing%20(Prowess).">anting anting</a></em>, which they believed could potentially shield bodies from enemy cannon shot and arrows. Lots of different objects could be <em>anting anting</em>, including crucifixes and other religious medals or pieces of metal engraved with Catholic images, as well as pieces of paper inscribed with prayers. In this sense, Lent was the perfect time to spiritually prepare for revolution. </p>
<p>Convictions in such potent objects blended Filipino conceptions of power as a real force that could be physically accumulated in physical things, and European Catholic traditions of miraculous objects, including those that purport to cure sickness or protect soldiers in battle.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516584/original/file-20230321-16-8ffptm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516584/original/file-20230321-16-8ffptm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516584/original/file-20230321-16-8ffptm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516584/original/file-20230321-16-8ffptm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516584/original/file-20230321-16-8ffptm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516584/original/file-20230321-16-8ffptm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516584/original/file-20230321-16-8ffptm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516584/original/file-20230321-16-8ffptm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An example of some anting-anting pendants.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
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<h2>Christ the general</h2>
<p>The Catholic character of the Silang rebellion manifests in other ways. Diego Silang declared that the life-sized wooden statue of Jesus Christ whose sanctuary was in Sinait was the general of the rebel army. </p>
<p>This was a famous miraculous statue. It sweated scented oils and cried salty tears, and locals believed it had ended devastating epidemics. These feats were inexplicable by the laws of nature and were therefore attributed to a divine agency. Silang’s followers fashioned a sceptre and small golden helmet for this image of Christ – symbols of military and political power in the islands – to acknowledge and honour its role in their war. </p>
<p>This statue of Jesus became a defining element of Silanista culture. Soldiers in the rebel Catholic army marched into battle under flags bearing its image. They also wore tiny carved copies of the statue tied to rope necklaces into battle. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1572080197469605890"}"></div></p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/42634482">Silang rebellion</a> was ultimately defeated by force. Militant missionaries opposed the rebellion. Priests went on strike, denying Catholic sacraments to communities that supported the revolt. They also helped the Spanish government rally a huge loyalist army that beat the enemy in battle. </p>
<p>Loyalists also believed God was on their side. At the decisive battle of Vigan in Ilocos, the spires of churches appeared as the sails of tall ships carrying an army that was coming to defeat the rebels, terrifying them into submission. This was another miracle. </p>
<p>The Spanish empire would endure in the Philippines until 1898, when the United States invaded and supplanted Spain as the ruling colonial power. </p>
<p>Lent could inspire Catholic anti-colonial uprisings in the early modern Philippines, yet this special religious season also energised movements to destroy them.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/200715/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kristie Patricia Flannery receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p>Did this sacred time of year make ordinary Filipinos in the 1700s more willing to challenge the Spanish empire?Kristie Patricia Flannery, Research Fellow, Institute for Humanities and Social Sciences, Australian Catholic UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2002692023-02-22T12:53:32Z2023-02-22T12:53:32ZLent is here – remind me what it’s all about? 5 essential reads<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511050/original/file-20230220-27-p8vr96.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=4%2C4%2C1017%2C674&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A Catholic Ash Wednesday service at St. Thomas Cathedral Basilica in Chennai, India, in 2022. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/catholic-christian-devotees-attend-a-holy-mass-during-an-news-photo/1238867563?phrase=ash%20wednesday&adppopup=true">Arun Sankar/AFP via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Foreheads smudged with the sign of the cross are the most visible sign of Ash Wednesday, which begins the season of Lent in many Christian denominations. The 40-day period leads up to Holy Week, some of the most sacred days in the church calendar – including Easter, which commemorates Christians’ central belief that Jesus was crucified and buried before rising from the dead.</p>
<p>But if Easter is associated with celebration and triumphal joy, Lent is more a season of soul-searching and spiritual discipline. Here are some of The Conversation’s many articles exploring the history and significance of Ash Wednesday and Lent. </p>
<h2>1. Ash Wednesday</h2>
<p>Let’s start with the basics: What is Ash Wednesday? Why do worshippers spend the day wearing ashes?</p>
<p>Christians who participate in Ash Wednesday services, where clergy often daub their foreheads with the sign of the cross, are participating in a thousand-year-old tradition, explained <a href="https://udayton.edu/directory/artssciences/religiousstudies/johnston_william.php">William Johnston</a>, a professor of religious studies at the University of Dayton. In part, the practice exists to call churchgoers to repentance as they begin the spiritual journey of Lent.</p>
<p>Two phrases used in services over the centuries underscore that call to penance: “Remember, man, that you are dust and to dust you shall return,” taken from the biblical Book of Genesis; and “Repent, and believe in the Gospel,” words of Jesus’ in the Gospel of Mark.</p>
<p>“Each phrase in its own way serves the purpose of calling the faithful to live their Christian lives more deeply,” <a href="https://theconversation.com/4-things-to-know-about-ash-wednesday-112120">Johnston wrote</a>. The first urges believers to “focus on what is essential,” while the second is “a direct call to follow” Jesus’ teachings.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/4-things-to-know-about-ash-wednesday-112120">4 things to know about Ash Wednesday</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>2. Why ashes, though?</h2>
<p>For a deeper dive on the practice, <a href="https://www.rit.edu/directory/mslgsh-michael-laver">Michael Laver</a> of Rochester Institute of Technology looked back at ashes’ spiritual symbolism throughout history. They figure in many biblical stories, where they represent penitence and remorse.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two hands hold a seashell filled with ashes." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206065/original/file-20180212-58348-1s8sz4i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206065/original/file-20180212-58348-1s8sz4i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206065/original/file-20180212-58348-1s8sz4i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206065/original/file-20180212-58348-1s8sz4i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206065/original/file-20180212-58348-1s8sz4i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=532&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206065/original/file-20180212-58348-1s8sz4i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=532&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206065/original/file-20180212-58348-1s8sz4i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=532&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pastors at St. John’s Lutheran Church in Sacramento provide ‘Ashes to Go’ for those who want to participate in Ash Wednesday worship but cannot attend a church service.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">AP Photo/Rich Pedroncelli</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Christian churches have used ashes to demonstrate repentance for centuries, but that isn’t to say the practice is unchanging. Laver, an Episcopal priest and historian of Christianity, traced how the Protestant Reformation initially put ashes out of favor in non-Catholic churches. They reembraced the practice in the 1800s, at a time “when many Protestant churches entered into intentional dialogue with each other and with the Catholic Church, a phenomenon that is called the ‘ecumenical movement,’” <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-do-christians-wear-ashes-on-ash-wednesday-91556">he wrote</a>.</p>
<p>In recent years, many churches have been innovating yet again, offering “ashes to go” to passersby in public. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-do-christians-wear-ashes-on-ash-wednesday-91556">Why do Christians wear ashes on Ash Wednesday?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>3. The long journey of Lent</h2>
<p>After Ash Wednesday begins the 40-day period of Lent, a word whose roots refer to the “lengthening” of days in springtime. Spiritually, however, its purpose is preparation: a time of fasting and prayer before the joy of Easter.</p>
<p>Fasting was common by the fourth century as a way to avoid self-indulgence during a time of repentance – even marriage was prohibited during Lent, as College of the Holy Cross <a href="https://www.holycross.edu/academics/programs/religious-studies/faculty/joanne-pierce">professor Joanne Pierce</a> explained.</p>
<p>Some Christians follow traditional fasts today, but others give up something pleasurable for the entire 40 days, from chocolate to TV. But Lent is not just about giving up, <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-are-the-origins-of-lent-155622">according to Pierce</a>. Its spiritual renewal is about giving, too, such as “making amends with estranged family and friends,” or doing community service.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-are-the-origins-of-lent-155622">What are the origins of Lent?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>4. Your body sans sugar</h2>
<p>Giving up chocolate must be one of the most common Lenten vows – but what happens if you take it a step further and nix sweets entirely?</p>
<p>Penn State neuroscientist <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=V-PvnBIAAAAJ&hl=en">Jordan Gaines Lewis</a> walked us through <a href="https://theconversation.com/heres-what-happens-to-your-brain-when-you-give-up-sugar-for-lent-37745">the science of your brain on sugar</a>. The delight it brings most people is a “natural reward,” an incentive to keep eating carbohydrates. But “modern diets have taken on a life of their own,” she wrote: even a decade ago, the average American was estimated to consume 22 teaspoons of added sugar per day. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Small brightly colored mice made out of sugar." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/72376/original/image-20150218-20810-qzhm2b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/72376/original/image-20150218-20810-qzhm2b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/72376/original/image-20150218-20810-qzhm2b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/72376/original/image-20150218-20810-qzhm2b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/72376/original/image-20150218-20810-qzhm2b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/72376/original/image-20150218-20810-qzhm2b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/72376/original/image-20150218-20810-qzhm2b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sugar rodents.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sugar by Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>“The notion of sugar addiction is still a rather taboo topic,” Lewis noted. Yet experiments with animals suggest that sugar may hook us in a similar way that drugs do.</p>
<p>“Repeated access to sugar over time leads to prolonged dopamine signaling, greater excitation of the brain’s reward pathways and a need for even more sugar to activate all of the midbrain dopamine receptors like before,” she wrote. “The brain becomes tolerant to sugar – and more is needed to attain the same ‘sugar high.’”</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/heres-what-happens-to-your-brain-when-you-give-up-sugar-for-lent-37745">Here's what happens to your brain when you give up sugar for Lent</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>5. Looking for God online</h2>
<p>Another increasingly popular “fast” is especially 21st century: going offline.</p>
<p>Taking a pause from the internet, especially social media, is sometimes promoted as a way to help focus on faith and “real world” connections. That can work, but some of these theories’ assumptions about technology are misguided, argued <a href="https://liberalarts.tamu.edu/communication/profile/heidi-a-campbell/">Heidi Campbell</a>, a Texas A&M communications expert who studies religion. </p>
<p>Digital fasting often buys into the idea of “technological determinism,” which often portrays technology as something dehumanizing and all-powerful. But this overlooks users’ ability to make choices about which goals of theirs technology can and can’t fulfill – including spiritual goals. Today, apps even offer to help people study religious texts, find faith-based products, or connect with others who share their beliefs.</p>
<p>“Technology can, in fact, be good for religion,” <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-use-digital-devices-this-lent-for-holy-reflection-74024">Campbell wrote</a>. “The question is, how do we engage with technology thoughtfully and actively?”</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-use-digital-devices-this-lent-for-holy-reflection-74024">How to use digital devices this Lent for holy reflection</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Christians live out Lent in many different ways. Yet “Lent in the 21st century remains essentially the same as in centuries past,” <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-are-the-origins-of-lent-155622">as Pierce wrote</a>: “a time of quiet reflection and spiritual discipline.”</p>
<p><em>Editor’s note: This story is a roundup of articles from The Conversation’s archives.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/200269/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
A roundup of The Conversation’s articles about this holy Christian season and its history.Molly Jackson, Religion and Ethics EditorLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2003112023-02-20T20:33:41Z2023-02-20T20:33:41ZPancakes and football: a brief history of Shrove Tuesday in the UK<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511215/original/file-20230220-28-a01g4m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=17%2C2%2C1979%2C994&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">"Medieval football" is still played annually on Shrove Tuesday in some parts of the UK.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.alamy.com/illustration-of-a-game-of-football-being-played-in-the-streets-of-london-during-the-14th-century-football-of-this-time-played-without-rules-in-narrow-medieval-streets-was-both-fantastically-popular-and-equally-violent-in-1314-a-group-of-london-merchants-petitioned-king-edward-ii-to-ask-him-to-ban-the-playing-of-football-due-to-the-impact-it-was-having-on-their-business-the-king-was-happy-to-ban-the-game-feeling-that-many-evils-might-arise-from-the-playing-of-football-colourised-version-of-10219013-date-1905-image472815923.html?imageid=570E79E3-0A57-46B9-97F3-AB70EFD906E4&p=1912084&pn=1&searchId=87694fee2da257e1fbe19c02e78f2dd4&searchtype=0">Shutterstock/Alamy</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://www.historytoday.com/archive/history-matters/politics-pancakes">Pancake Day</a>, or Shrove Tuesday is once again upon us. Celebrated in many countries around the world, for Christians, Shrove Tuesday marks the last day, or the feast day before Lent - the 40 days leading up to Easter. </p>
<p>This is traditionally a time of abstinence associated with clearing your cupboards of things like <a href="https://theconversation.com/egg-shortage-a-nutritionist-on-the-best-egg-alternatives-195248">eggs</a>, sugar and fats. Pancakes are eaten on this day to use up these foods before the fasting season of Lent begins.</p>
<p>But Shrove Tuesday isn’t just about pancakes. Indeed, historically in the UK, it formed part of a more elaborate pre-Lent festival called <a href="https://ludicrushistories.wordpress.com/research/">Shrovetide</a>, which was all about feasting and sports. </p>
<p>Shrovetide games ranged from cruel animal blood sports like <a href="https://ludicrushistories.wordpress.com/2021/02/18/kings-of-the-school-britains-carnival-monarchs-and-social-inversion/">cock-fighting</a> to tug-o-wars and <a href="https://www.scarboroughsmaritimeheritage.org.uk/article.php?article=699">skipping</a>. Yet no Shrovetide sport was more widespread and longstanding than football.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-science-behind-making-a-perfect-pancake-54371">The science behind making a perfect pancake</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511225/original/file-20230220-946-v8u3e1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511225/original/file-20230220-946-v8u3e1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511225/original/file-20230220-946-v8u3e1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511225/original/file-20230220-946-v8u3e1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511225/original/file-20230220-946-v8u3e1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511225/original/file-20230220-946-v8u3e1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511225/original/file-20230220-946-v8u3e1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511225/original/file-20230220-946-v8u3e1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Village Ba’ Game by Alexander Carse, 1818: a village football match in Jedburgh, Scotland.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Village_Ba%27_Game_by_Alexander_Carse.jpg">Painting of a large group of men playing football in front of a large rural building.</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>According to players from <a href="https://calendarcustoms.com/articles/duns-ba/">Duns</a>, a town in the Scottish Borders, in 1686, <a href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.35112103825529&view=1up&seq=184&q1=football">it was</a> “an ancient custom throughout all this kingdom to play at football upon Fastens Eve (Shrove Tuesday)”. </p>
<p>Shrovetide ball games are documented from the 12th century onwards, in scores of communities throughout Britain and northern France – several of which in <a href="https://www.visitpeakdistrict.com/blog/everything-you-need-to-know-about-ashbourne-royal-shrovetide-football">England</a> and <a href="https://www.heraldscotland.com/news/16042850.pictures-battle-crowned-jedburgh-handba-champions/">Scotland</a> still play it today. Shop windows are <a href="https://www.derbytelegraph.co.uk/news/local-news/rules-ashbourne-royal-shrovetide-players-8151777">boarded up and businesses are closed</a> for the day as whole towns take to the streets to join in the annual Shrovetide football game.</p>
<h2>Shrove football</h2>
<p>As ancestors to our modern games, folk football matches varied considerably in the manner of play. But generally, players contested a ball with hand and foot, usually towards a goal. </p>
<p>Shrovetide games were often the big matches of the day, featuring sometimes hundreds of participants. Whether town versus country, or married against bachelors, teams battled to move the ball through streets and countryside, towards goals like mills, streams or even the church.</p>
<p>Due to its destructive potential, <a href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.3138/9781442654044-013/html?lang=en">football often fell foul</a> of authority and was banned outright. Medieval royal prohibitions called it “vain, unthrifty and idle”, while <a href="https://theconversation.com/bites-brawls-and-severed-heads-footballs-history-of-violence-28429">Puritans deemed it</a> “a bloody and murdering practise”. But others in power obviously saw its appeal, to judge from its festive sponsorship in many cities and towns. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/JRQahGlunXU?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>In Chester, for example, every Shrove Tuesday in the early 16th century, the Merchant Drapers’ Company received a football from the Shoemakers’ Company, a wooden ball from the Saddlers’ Company and a small silk ball from each man from the city married within the last year. Under the mayor’s supervision, the Drapers tossed up the balls (which doubled as prizes) for the craftsmen and crowd to play from the common field to the city’s Common Hall.</p>
<p>Chester’s Shrovetide sponsorship was mirrored throughout the British Isles. Craftsmen and guilds played key roles as participants and providers of the ball(s). On Shrove Tuesday 1373, for example, skinners (who skin animals) and tailors played in the streets of London. Butchers did the same in Jedburgh, Scotland. </p>
<p>While in the late 18th century in the market town of Alnwick in Northumberland, England, the Skinners’ and Shoemakers’ companies paraded the ball to the match between married and bachelor men. Indeed, leather workers like shoemakers were especially important, crafting Shrovetide footballs in 15th-century London, 16th-century Glasgow and 17th-century Carlisle.</p>
<h2>An ancient custom</h2>
<p>Newlyweds also fronted the ball in many communities. In Dublin, recently married men had to present a ball to city magistrates every Shrove Tuesday during the 15th and 16th centuries. Newlywed members of trade guilds in Perth in central Scotland, and Corfe Castle in Dorset also paid a Shrovetide “football due”, while a similar custom seems to have existed in medieval London. </p>
<p>These were part of a broader folk tradition, where newly married couples owed a “bride ball” or “ball money” to their community. Since weddings were customary during Shrovetide (and prohibited in Lent), it was an ideal time to collect this money. Local governments would gather the “wedding ball” dues, hire drummers and pipers to pump up the crowds, or pay for the footballs directly. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511208/original/file-20230220-28-678g79.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Illustration of crowd playing football in a tonw" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511208/original/file-20230220-28-678g79.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511208/original/file-20230220-28-678g79.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511208/original/file-20230220-28-678g79.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511208/original/file-20230220-28-678g79.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511208/original/file-20230220-28-678g79.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=508&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511208/original/file-20230220-28-678g79.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=508&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511208/original/file-20230220-28-678g79.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=508&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Illustration of Shrove Tuesday football in Kingston Upon Thames (1865).</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shrovetide_Football_Kingston_upon_Thames_1865.png"> Penny Illustrated Weekly News (London), p. 636, 1865-03-18</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Failure to pay your football dues could result in imprisonment, heavy fines or the forced closing of a craftsman’s shop. These harsh consequences reflect the worth of Shrove Tuesday football to these communities. To them, it was not a “vain and idle” game, but an “ancient and laudable custom” of “goodly feats and exercise” where participation was often obligatory. </p>
<p>Officials thus sponsored games that were technically illegal because Shrovetide football equated with the “common wealth of the city”. Participation and patronage of the game <a href="https://research-information.bris.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/203974643/Taylor_Aucoin_Doctoral_Thesis_When_the_Pancake_Bell_Rings_Final_Copy.pdf">reinforced the status and privilege</a> that came with civic membership. </p>
<p>Gradually, authorities in most major cities did withdraw their support from Shrovetide football. Some cities like St Andrews in Scotland simply banned it because of the “many ills” and “disorder”. </p>
<p>Others “reformed” the games into less dangerous entertainments, like foot and horse races in 1540s Chester, or a fire-engine display in 1725 in Carlisle. By the middle of the 18th century, officially sanctioned Shrovetide ball games were mostly confined to smaller market towns and villages, which is where some live on to this day.</p>
<p>So as you reach for the batter this Shrove Tuesday, remember the history of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/from-violent-peasants-to-multi-million-pound-megastars-the-history-of-football-27348">riotous game</a> we call football and its lesser-known origins as a prelude to pancakes.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/200311/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Taylor Aucoin currently receives funding from the British Academy for the Promotion of Historical, Philosophical and Philological Studies. His PhD research was partially funded by grants from the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, Royal Historical Society, Society for Renaissance Studies, Richard III Society, Sidney Perry Foundation, the Humanitarian Trust, the Bristol Graduate Research Centre, Bristol Alumni Foundation, Sir John Plumb Trust, Sir Richard Stapley Trust, Folklore Society, Society for Theatre Research, and the Medieval Academy of America.
</span></em></p>Pancake Day isn’t just about pancakes.Taylor Aucoin, British Academy Postdoctoral Research Fellow in History, The University of EdinburghLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1556222021-02-22T13:26:54Z2021-02-22T13:26:54ZWhat are the origins of Lent?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/385319/original/file-20210219-19-18p9o9g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5100%2C3305&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Lent is a period of fasting and reflection for many Chistians.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/rosary-glass-of-water-and-holy-bible-during-lent-a-solemn-news-photo/1265207199?adppopup=true">Pascal Deloche/Godong/Universal Images Group via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In late winter, many Christian denominations observe a 40-day period of fasting and prayer called Lent. This is in preparation for the spring celebration of Easter, a religious holiday commemorating the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead. </p>
<p>The word “Lent” has Germanic roots <a href="https://aleteia.org/2018/02/05/the-surprisingly-secular-meaning-of-the-word-lent/">referring to the “lengthening” of days, or springtime</a>. But facts about the early origin of the religious observance are not as well known. </p>
<p>As a scholar who <a href="https://oxfordre.com/religion/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-84?mediaType=Article">studies Christian liturgy</a>, I know that by the fourth century, a regular practice of 40-day fasting became common in Christian churches.</p>
<h2>Early Christianity</h2>
<p>The practice of fasting from food for spiritual reasons is found in the three largest <a href="https://www.bl.uk/sacred-texts/articles/the-abrahamic-religions">Abrahamic faiths</a>: Judaism, Christianity and Islam. In all three, refraining from eating is intimately connected with an additional focus on prayer, and the practice of assisting the poor by giving alms or donating food.</p>
<p>In the Gospels, Jesus spends <a href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke+4&version=NRSV">40 days in the wilderness</a> to fast and pray. This event was one of the factors that inspired the final length of Lent. </p>
<p>Early Christian practices in the Roman Empire varied from area to area. A common practice was weekly fasting on Wednesday and Friday until mid-afternoon. In addition, candidates for baptism, as well as the clergy, would fast before the rite, which often took place at Easter. </p>
<p>During the fourth century, various Christian communities <a href="https://www.baylor.edu/content/services/document.php/193181.pdf">observed a longer fast</a> of 40 days before the beginning of the three holiest days of the liturgical year: Holy Thursday, Good Friday and Easter. </p>
<h2>Spiritual renewal</h2>
<p>As Christianity spread through Western Europe from the fifth through 12th centuries, the observance of Lent did as well. A few Lenten days were “black,” or total, fast days. But daily fasting came gradually to be moderated during most of Lent. By the end of the Middle Ages a meal was often permitted at noon. </p>
<p>Also, bishops and theologians specializing in church law <a href="https://sspx.org/en/news-events/news/think-lent-tough-take-look-medieval-lenten-practices">specified restrictions</a> on the kinds of acceptable food: no meat or meat products, dairy or eggs could be consumed at all during Lent, even on Sundays. </p>
<p>The idea was to avoid self-indulgence at this time of repentance for one’s sins. Marriage, a joyous ritual, was also <a href="https://www.medievaltimes.com/teachers-students/materials/medieval-era/marriage.html#:%7E:text=There%20were%20several%20reasons%20for%20prohibiting%20a%20marriage.&text=A%20couple%20could%20also%20not,entering%20for%20a%20nuptial%20mass">prohibited during the Lenten season</a>.</p>
<p>Today, Catholics and some other Christians still abstain from eating meat on the Fridays of Lent, and eat only one meal, with two smaller snacks permitted, on two days of complete fasting. In addition, they also engage in the practice of “giving up something” during Lent. Often this is a favorite food or drink, or another pleasurable activity, like smoking or watching television. </p>
<p>Other activities are also suggested, in keeping with the idea of Lent as a time for <a href="https://cruxnow.com/commentary/2021/02/during-lent-start-fresh-with-the-churchs-penitential-practices/">spiritual renewal as well as self-discipline</a>. These include making amends with estranged family and friends, reading of the Bible or other spiritual writers, and community service.</p>
<p>Though some practices may have changed, Lent in the 21st century remains essentially the same as in centuries past: a time of quiet reflection and spiritual discipline. </p>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joanne M. Pierce does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The 40-day Lenten season, when many Christians observe fasting, began in mid-February. A scholar explains how the practice may have emerged around the fifth century.Joanne M. Pierce, Professor of Religious Studies, College of the Holy CrossLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1106912019-02-28T11:41:16Z2019-02-28T11:41:16ZWhat drives the appeal of ‘Passion of the Christ’ and other films on the life of Jesus<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/261100/original/file-20190226-150712-1kfq6or.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A still from Mel Gibson's Passion of the Christ.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Courtesy 20th Century Fox.</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Church isn’t the only place people go to learn about Jesus.</p>
<p>At the beginning of Lent, 15 years ago, devout evangelical Christians did not go to church to have ashes marked on their foreheads. Rather, they thronged to theaters to <a href="https://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2004/march/100.100.html">watch</a> a decidedly Catholic film to begin the Lenten season.</p>
<p>That film was Mel Gibson’s “The Passion of the Christ,” which would go on to gross over US$600 million globally. It brought to screen a vivid portrayal of the last few hours of the life of Jesus and even today many can readily recall the brutality of those depictions. The film also stirred up a number of <a href="https://www.firstthings.com/article/2004/06/the-passions-passionate-despisers">cultural clashes</a> and raised questions about Christian anti-Semitism and what seemed to be a <a href="https://www.chron.com/g00/entertainment/movies/article/Will-a-recut-Passion-still-stir-debate-1568750.php?i10c.ua=1&i10c.encReferrer=aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cuZ29vZ2xlLmNvbS8%3d&i10c.dv=22">glorification</a> of violence. </p>
<p>This wasn’t the only film to bring Jesus to cinema in such a powerful way. There have, in fact, been hundreds of films about Jesus produced around the world for over 100 years. </p>
<p>These films have prompted devotion and missionary outreach, just as they have challenged viewers’ assumptions of who the figure of Jesus really was.</p>
<h2>From still images to moving images</h2>
<p>For the last two decades, I have researched the <a href="https://cup.columbia.edu/book/religion-and-film/9780231176750">portrayal of religious figures on screen</a>. I have also looked at the ways in which <a href="http://theconversation.com/when-do-moviegoers-become-pilgrims-81016">audiences</a> make their own spiritual meanings through the images of film. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520286955/the-forge-of-vision">Images of Jesus</a>, or the Virgin Mary, have long been part of the <a href="https://books.google.com/books/about/Image_as_Insight.html?id=lrpLAwAAQBAJ">Christian tradition</a>. From amulets to icons, paintings to sculptures, Christianity incorporates a rich visual history, so perhaps it is not surprising that cinema has become a vital medium to display the life of Jesus. </p>
<p>Inventors of cinematic technologies, such as <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0151913/">Thomas Edison</a> and the <a href="http://www.acinemahistory.com/2016/04/la-passion-1898-passion.html">Lumière brothers</a>, were among the first to bring Jesus’s life to the big screen at the end of the 19th century. Hollywood continued to cash in on Christian audiences all through the 20th century. </p>
<p>In 1912, Sidney Olcott’s <a href="http://www.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2b6aaafe24">“From the Manger to the Cross”</a> became the first feature length film to offer a full account of the life of Christ. </p>
<p>Fifteen years later, crowds flocked to see Cecil B. DeMille’s <a href="https://catalog.afi.com/Catalog/moviedetails/10078">“The King of Kings”</a>, demonstrating the power of a big budget and a well-known director. Writing about DeMille’s film some years later, film historian Charles Musser <a href="https://www.criterion.com/current/posts/900-the-king-of-kings">commented</a> how the film evoked “Christ’s charisma” through “a mesmerizing repertoire of special effects, lighting and editing.” </p>
<p>In Hollywood’s portrayal, Jesus was a white, European man. In Nicholas Ray’s 1961 film, <a href="https://catalog.afi.com/Film/20301-KING-OF-KINGS?sid=b96a394a-6a48-4f41-b7a4-6d05b5042fc3&sr=3.1776974&cp=1&pos=0">“King of Kings”</a> Jeffrey Hunter made a deep impression on his audience in the role of Jesus with his piercing blue eyes. Four years later, George Stevens’s <a href="https://catalog.afi.com/Catalog/moviedetails/22336">“The Greatest Story Ever Told”</a>, cast the white Swedish actor Max von Sydow in the lead role.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/261086/original/file-20190226-150715-11xig4h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/261086/original/file-20190226-150715-11xig4h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=620&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/261086/original/file-20190226-150715-11xig4h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=620&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/261086/original/file-20190226-150715-11xig4h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=620&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/261086/original/file-20190226-150715-11xig4h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=779&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/261086/original/file-20190226-150715-11xig4h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=779&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/261086/original/file-20190226-150715-11xig4h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=779&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Jesus, portrayed by Swedish actor Max von Sydow, moves through a mass of people in this scene filmed on May 1, 1963, at Pyramid Lake, Nevada, for</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Watchf-AP-A-ENT-NV-USA-APHS235600-Von-Sydow-Gre-/7512ad76f6cf4dbc9fa68cce3071aa97/155/0">AP Photo</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In all these films, evidence of Jesus’s <a href="https://digitalcommons.unomaha.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1853&context=jrf">Jewish identity</a> was toned down. Social or political messages found in the gospels – such as the political charge of a “kingdom of God” – were smoothed over. Jesus was portrayed as a spiritual savior figure while avoiding many of the socio-political controversies.</p>
<p>This was, as Biblical studies scholar Adele Reinhartz <a href="http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195146967.001.0001/acprof-9780195146967">put it</a>, not Jesus of Nazareth, but the creation of a “Jesus of Hollywood.” </p>
<h2>Global moral instruction</h2>
<p>Many of these films were useful for Christian <a href="https://brill.com/view/journals/exch/33/4/article-p310_2.xml">missionary work</a>.</p>
<p>An <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=k-KOCMRN1yYC&pg=PA116&lpg=PA116&dq=%22destined+to+be+more+far-reaching+than+the+Bible+in+telling+the+story+of+the+Saviour%22&source=bl&ots=qfNYKdafRF&sig=ACfU3U1thBDr3oVzabJSRUbpLHjMhCtMZA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiZ">advertisement for Olcott’s film</a>, for example, stated how it was “destined to be more far-reaching than the Bible in telling the story of the Savior.” Indeed, as media scholars <a href="https://www.vwu.edu/academics/majors/communication/meet-the-faculty.php?person=tlindvall">Terry Lindvall</a> and <a href="https://www.regent.edu/faculty/m-a-andrew-c-quicke/">Andrew Quicke</a> have <a href="https://nyupress.org/books/9780814753248/">noted</a>, many Christian leaders throughout the 20th century utilized the power of film for moral instruction and conversion.</p>
<p>A 1979 film, known as <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/cros.12121">“The Jesus Film”</a>, went on to become the most <a href="https://religionnews.com/2017/12/20/jesus-film-project-premieres-1500th-translation-of-jesus/">watched</a> film in history. The film was a relatively straightforward depiction of the life of Jesus, taken mainly from the gospel of Luke.</p>
<p>The film was translated into 1,500 languages and shown in cities and remote villages around the world. </p>
<h2>The global Jesus</h2>
<p>But, as <a href="https://www.firstthings.com/article/2006/12/believing-in-the-global-south">majority Christian population shifted</a> from Europe and North America to Sub-Saharan Africa, South America, and South Asia, so did portrayals of Jesus: they came to reflect local cultures and ethnicities. </p>
<p>In the 2006 South African film <a href="https://www.sheffieldphoenix.com/showbook.asp?bkid=232">“Son of Man”</a>, for example, Jesus, his mother and disciples are all black, and the setting is a contemporary, though fictionalized, South Africa. The film employed traditional art forms of dance and music that retold the Jesus story in ways that would appeal to a South African audience.</p>
<p>It was the same with a Telugu film, <a href="https://brill.com/view/journals/exch/36/1/article-p41_3.xml">“Karunamayudu” (Ocean of Mercy)</a>, released in 1978. The style resembles a long tradition of Hindu devotional and mythological films and Jesus could easily be seen as part of the pantheon of Hindu deities.</p>
<p>For the past four decades in southern India and beyond, villagers have gathered in front of makeshift outdoor theaters to watch this film. With over 100 million viewers, it has become a <a href="https://brill.com/view/journals/exch/41/2/article-p120_3.xml">tool for Christian evangelism</a>. </p>
<p>Other films have responded to and reflected local conditions in Latin America. The Cuban film “<a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1212065?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents">The Last Supper</a>,” from 1976, offered a vision of a Jesus that is on the side of the enslaved and oppressed, mirroring Latin American movements in <a href="https://library.brown.edu/create/modernlatinamerica/chapters/chapter-15-culture-and-society/essays-on-culture-and-society/liberation-theology-in-latin-america/">Liberation Theology</a>. Growing out of the Cold War, and led by radical Latin American priests, Liberation Theology worked in local communities to promote socio-economic justice. </p>
<p>Meanwhile, the appeal of some of these films can also be gauged from how they continue to be watched year after year. The 1986 Mexican film, “La vida de nuestro señor Jesucristo,” for example, is broadcast on the Spanish-language television station Univision during Easter week every year.</p>
<h2>The power of film</h2>
<p>Throughout history, Jesus has taken on the appearance and behavior of one cultural group after another, some claiming him as their own, others rejecting certain versions of him. </p>
<p>As the scholar of religion <a href="https://dornsife.usc.edu/cf/faculty-and-staff/faculty.cfm?pid=1003260">Richard Wightman Fox</a> puts it in his <a href="https://www.harpercollins.com/9780060628741/jesus-in-america/">book “Jesus in America: Personal Savior, Cultural Hero, National Obsession:”</a> “His incarnation guaranteed that each later culture would grasp him anew for each would have a different view of what it means to be human.” </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/261302/original/file-20190227-150724-tqp0oq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/261302/original/file-20190227-150724-tqp0oq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/261302/original/file-20190227-150724-tqp0oq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/261302/original/file-20190227-150724-tqp0oq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/261302/original/file-20190227-150724-tqp0oq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/261302/original/file-20190227-150724-tqp0oq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/261302/original/file-20190227-150724-tqp0oq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Films about Jesus can move around the world quickly. Posters promoting ‘The Passion of the Christ’ in Bucharest, Romania.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Associated-Press-International-News-Romania-ROM-/b486e0efd6e0da11af9f0014c2589dfb/1/0">AP Photo/Vadim Ghirda</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Cinema allows people in new places and times to grasp Jesus “anew,” and create what I have <a href="https://books.google.com/books/about/Representing_Religion_in_World_Cinema.html?id=tQGc8oHH5fkC">called</a> a “georeligious aesthetic.” Films, especially those about Jesus, in their movement across the globe, can alter the religious practices and beliefs of people they come into contact with. </p>
<p>While the church and the Bible provide particular versions of Jesus, films provide even more – new images that can prompt controversy, but also devotion.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/110691/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>S. Brent Rodriguez-Plate does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>When it was released 15 years ago, Mel Gibson’s ‘Passion of the Christ,’ was a box-office success. The theme of Jesus has been a successful one that many filmmakers around the globe have cashed in on.S. Brent Rodriguez-Plate, Associate Professor of Religious Studies and Cinema and Media Studies, by special appointment, Hamilton CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/915562018-02-13T17:48:55Z2018-02-13T17:48:55ZWhy do Christians wear ashes on Ash Wednesday?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/317180/original/file-20200225-24676-1d78u7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C199%2C5336%2C3227&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Worshipers pray during an Ash Wednesday Mass at the Cathedral Basilica of Saints Peter and Paul in Philadelphia, on March 6, 2019.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Ash-Wednesday/7f407db477a14a328948ac532ae74907/14/0">AP Photo/Matt Rourke</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>This Ash Wednesday many Christians will arrive at work with a black cross smudged on their foreheads; countless more will slip into a church or a chapel during their lunch break or after work to receive the sign that tells the arrival of the traditional start of the Christian season of Lent.</p>
<p>As both a priest in the Episcopal Church as well as a <a href="http://www.cambriapress.com/cambriapress.cfm?template=4&bid=433">historian of Christianity</a>, I’ve come to appreciate many of the liturgies and practices that characterize the modern church and have their roots in ancient traditions. The practice of donning ashes is one of them.</p>
<h2>Ashes in Bible stories</h2>
<p>In the Bible we are told that when the prophet Jonah pronounced God’s wrath on the city of Nineveh for its <a href="http://bible.oremus.org/">“wickedness,”</a> likely because of the worship of idols or “false” gods, the king, in an act of sincere penitence, put on sackcloth and sat in ashes.</p>
<p>God was moved by this genuine act of repentance and spared the city from destruction. This story was meant to demonstrate that God is merciful and heeds true remorse. </p>
<p>This spiritual dimension of ashes is emphasized all through the Bible. In the Gospel of Matthew, Jesus <a href="http://bible.oremus.org">deplores the lack of concern</a> for the poor and marginalized on the part of the establishment of the day, as he passes through some towns. </p>
<p>He called out the hypocrisy of religious leaders who taught righteousness on the one hand, but lived lives of luxury and wealth at the expense of the poor on the other. At one point Jesus <a href="http://bible.oremus.org/">condemned</a> the religious leaders as “whitewashed tombs, which on the outside look beautiful, but inside they are full of the bones of the dead and of all kinds of filth.” </p>
<p>When pronouncing these judgments, Jesus makes reference to sackcloth and ashes as a form of penitence.</p>
<h2>How the practice evolved</h2>
<p>As early as the <a href="https://www.peterlang.com/view/product/28306">ninth century</a> the church started to use ashes as a public demonstration of repentance for sins.</p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206066/original/file-20180212-58318-17ozko3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206066/original/file-20180212-58318-17ozko3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=831&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206066/original/file-20180212-58318-17ozko3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=831&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206066/original/file-20180212-58318-17ozko3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=831&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206066/original/file-20180212-58318-17ozko3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1044&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206066/original/file-20180212-58318-17ozko3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1044&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206066/original/file-20180212-58318-17ozko3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1044&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pope Urban II.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pope_Urban_II.jpg">Artaud de Montor (1772–1849).</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It was only in 1091, however, that their use was ritualized. Pope Urban II <a href="http://falcon.arts.cornell.edu/prh3/259/texts/clermont.html">decreed</a> the use of ashes to mark the beginning of a 40-day season of Lent, a time when Christians imitate Christ’s <a href="https://www.episcopalchurch.org/library/glossary/lent">40-day period of fasting</a>. This period is said to have prepared Christ for his three-year ministry that would culminate in his arrest, crucifixion and resurrection.</p>
<p>With the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century, the use of ashes generally fell out of favor in non-Catholic denominations. However, it returned in the 19th century when <a href="http://www.umc.org/what-we-believe/when-did-united-methodists-start-the-imposition-of-ashes-on-ash-wednesday">many Protestant churches</a> entered into intentional dialogue with each other and with the Catholic Church, a phenomenon that is called the “ecumenical movement.”</p>
<p>Today most “mainline” denominations, including Catholics, Baptists, Episcopalians, Methodists, Presbyterians and others allow for the “imposition” (as called in Catholic and Episcopalian prayer books) of ashes during an Ash Wednesday service. In some churches, the ashes are obtained by <a href="http://www.palms.org/palmsjournal/2011/vol55n3p117-121.pdf">burning the palms</a> blessed in the previous year’s Palm Sunday service – a time for Christians to remember Christ’s triumphal entry into Jerusalem days before he was crucified. The resultant ash, depending on local practice, might then be mixed with oil to make them adhere more easily to the forehead.</p>
<h2>Modern-day practice</h2>
<p>In recent years several churches have put a new spin on the traditional Ash Wednesday service by providing what has been called <a href="http://www.newsobserver.com/living/religion/article135769578.html">“ashes to go.”</a> In this new take on an ancient practice, a pastor stands in a very public, often busy, place and offers the ashes to any passersby who wishes to receive them, whether or not the person is Christian.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206065/original/file-20180212-58348-1s8sz4i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206065/original/file-20180212-58348-1s8sz4i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206065/original/file-20180212-58348-1s8sz4i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206065/original/file-20180212-58348-1s8sz4i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206065/original/file-20180212-58348-1s8sz4i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=532&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206065/original/file-20180212-58348-1s8sz4i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=532&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206065/original/file-20180212-58348-1s8sz4i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=532&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The pastors at St. John’s church in California provide ‘Ashes to Go’ for those who want to participate in the start of the Christian observance of Lent but are unable to attend a full church service.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">AP Photo/Rich Pedroncelli</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Stories abound of pastors providing “drive-through ashes” in which the penitent does not even have to get out of the car. A <a href="https://ashestogo.org/about-ashes-to-go/locations/where-to-find-ashes-to-go-this-year/">website</a> called “ashes to go” provides not only a list of global sites at which one can receive ashes in this way, but also has an FAQ section containing advice for churches contemplating such a service.</p>
<p>For a supremely ironic twist on Ash Wednesday, one only has to observe that the Gospel reading appointed for the day is from <a href="http://bible.oremus.org/">Matthew, chapter 6</a>. Here Jesus rails against religious hypocrisy by criticizing those whose religious piety is done mainly for show:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“Whenever you fast, do not look dismal, like the hypocrites, for they disfigure their faces so as to show others that they are fasting. Truly I tell you, they have received their reward. But when you fast, put oil on your head and wash your face, so that your fasting may be seen not by others but by your Father who is in secret; and your Father who sees in secret will reward you.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Christians bearing the sign of the cross on their forehead this Wednesday will be sharing a formal practice that dates back over a thousand years, and more than that – in a tradition that goes back much earlier.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/91556/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Laver is affiliated with the Episcopal Church as a priest.</span></em></p>Churches started to use ashes early as the ninth century as a symbol of repentance. In 1091, Pope Urban II ritualized their use to mark the beginning of Lent. Today, churches provide ‘ashes to go.’Michael Laver, Professor of History and Associate Dean, College of Liberal Arts, Rochester Institute of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/759822017-04-13T01:38:11Z2017-04-13T01:38:11ZIs temptation such a bad thing?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/165136/original/image-20170412-25878-l0n283.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">What is the true nature of temptation?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/eightbittony/16982298150/in/photolist-rSEHzY-rcd2Dd-EG4kp-cbs58j-aNvBKF-8sgEFs-6RAthq-8qpTBn-ga8uZa-kinw5r-DKX4X-dq2Zxv-9VCNng-4EPYTV-3nuosN-618mvK-3RUmi5-4zmZjD-ehAwD4-9eMbpq-ac5QPC-5ZRaWr-bakY1Z-bmjzX-Es8BM9-8hBfHv-9xHBkA-bo3g38-puGxN-aCnC2o-nJNviA-bo7VEX-dq39Q1-dqadpy-9pdgSb-4tuA8U-7NW6p-8ktRdY-2JbA6-dGnTka-9XanSU-8Zuf4g-8kukPq-bq4Wnf-8kqBWV-8kuyzE-8kunD3-6PGVE3-8ktN8U-8ktK9q">EightBitTony</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The Washington Post recently published a profile on Karen Pence, the “<a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/karen-pence-is-the-vice-presidents-prayer-warrior-gut-check-and-shield/2017/03/28/3d7a26ce-0a01-11e7-8884-96e6a6713f4b_story.html?utm_term=.3e3c4df52f96">prayer-warrior wife</a>” of Vice President Mike Pence. The piece cited information on the Pences’ marriage: specifically that Mike Pence will not dine with a woman, or be present where alcohol is served, without Karen Pence beside him.</p>
<p>Since the publication of the Washington Post piece, the Pence family rule has become the <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2017/03/pence-wife-billy-graham-rule/521298/">subject of much discussion</a>. For the socially liberal, this practice appears “misogynistic” or even “bizarre.” But, for many conservatives, it is “wise.” </p>
<p>The intent behind the rule is to avoid not only tempting situations but also anything that might be interpreted as sinful behavior. In the run-up to <a href="http://www.upperroom.org/en/lent101">Lent</a> many Christians strengthen themselves against temptation as they prepare to celebrate <a href="http://www.history.com/topics/holidays/history-of-easter">Easter</a>, the day of the resurrection of Jesus Christ. </p>
<p>Is temptation such a bad thing? </p>
<h2>Temptation is an invitation to sin</h2>
<p>Chilean Catholic priest <a href="https://evangelizadorasdelosapostoles.wordpress.com/2010/07/29/segundo-galilea-1928-2010-in-memoriam-una-espiritualidad-de-la-liberacion-primera-parte/">Segundo Galilea</a>, in his book, <a href="https://www.icspublications.org/products/temptation-and-discernment">“Temptation and Discernment,”</a> describes temptation as an “invitation” to violate God’s will or law: in other words, an invitation to <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14004b.htm">sin</a>. </p>
<p>But the idea of temptation as an “invitation” is a little more complicated: Who or what is sending the invitation and, even more basically, what is the nature of temptation itself?</p>
<p>The classic Christian story about temptation involves Christ’s 40 days in the wilderness, a period that the 40 days of Lent commemorates. As recounted in the <a href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew+4%3A1-11">Gospel of Matthew</a>, Satan tempts Jesus as he is fasting – he invites him.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/165137/original/image-20170412-25901-1e79yg3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/165137/original/image-20170412-25901-1e79yg3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165137/original/image-20170412-25901-1e79yg3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165137/original/image-20170412-25901-1e79yg3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165137/original/image-20170412-25901-1e79yg3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165137/original/image-20170412-25901-1e79yg3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165137/original/image-20170412-25901-1e79yg3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The temptation of Christ, Gloucester Cathedral, Gloucester, United Kingdom.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/overton_cat/6335651226/in/photolist-aDRSnY-67oRsA-snpfx8-aDRSCj-sntTUq-snnkvU-s5Renj-989k29-67jvzc-67oxHY-67oAAU-snharw-GJiHuD-snrAcD-rrvqXb-pDdn7k-94oKRf-94oJzh-ch9dXU-67j4KM-aDMYMx-67jbor-67oWeo-67orsW-9jntRW-rtA9wo-spYC2X-67oLMQ-s8cWse-67jzhc-67okC5-67p12G-oePgBY-ocX9u9-67onXb-67ojho-s854Rh-snh8LC-92faVW-rtMpqi-snrAdv-67iZx4-rrGJdF-s5Z8mM-sruZjM-64cdvC-aDMZ4B-seFrPE-8faABu-67joct">Walwyn</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The devil specifically asks him to turn stones into bread. He also dares Jesus to throw himself down from a temple while calling angels to the rescue. The most tempting offer Satan makes to Jesus is a gift of all world’s kingdoms if only the son of God will bow down to him. </p>
<p>Jesus rejects Satan’s temptations and shows that the power of God is not to be confused with human understandings of power. Jesus did not come to set up a worldly kingdom, but a heavenly one. From this perspective, temptation is an invitation from the devil not just to turn away from God, but to deny who and what God is.</p>
<p>Christians understand Jesus to be both divine and human. But the rest of us are only human. And so, along with the belief that temptation is an invitation from the devil is the understanding that temptation is an invitation that can also come from within ourselves. </p>
<h2>Temptation comes from within</h2>
<p>As human beings we are limited, and never feel completely whole. The rite of <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02258b.htm">baptism</a>, so central to Christianity, removes the “original sin” that all humans have. But nonetheless we experience suffering and death, along with constant daily challenges that show us that we are limited in our physical, emotional and intellectual capabilities. </p>
<p>As human beings, we exist in a constant state of need.</p>
<p>But Christians believe that God offers us eternal life. <a href="https://oca.org/saints/lives/2000/01/21/100249-st-maximus-the-confessor">St. Maximus the Confessor</a>, an early Christian theologian, argued that human destiny ultimately leads to becoming “like” God and an eternal life understood as unity with God. </p>
<p>Sin can be anything that distracts us on our journey to the final wholeness found in and with God.</p>
<p>But temptation is not just an invitation or a call to walk away from the path that leads toward God; temptation is also an incitement or an “invitatio” – a Latin word that can mean “invitation” as well. </p>
<p>What this means is that our own neediness “incites” or “invites” us to seek wholeness in ways different from what God intends: For example, the greed of individuals incites or invites them to cheat on their taxes. Similarly, feelings of inadequacy could incite or invite people to lie on their resume. And likewise, feelings of being unloved can often incite or invite people to sleep around. </p>
<p>In this sense, temptation comes from the inside, not the outside. </p>
<p>It then follows that God’s law isn’t simply a list of do’s and don’t’s for avoiding hell and getting into heaven. Instead, God’s law is a treasure map that leads to real riches: a wholeness that only God can provide.</p>
<h2>Why be afraid of temptation?</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/165146/original/image-20170412-25888-1otsvru.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/165146/original/image-20170412-25888-1otsvru.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165146/original/image-20170412-25888-1otsvru.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165146/original/image-20170412-25888-1otsvru.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165146/original/image-20170412-25888-1otsvru.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=525&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165146/original/image-20170412-25888-1otsvru.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=525&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165146/original/image-20170412-25888-1otsvru.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=525&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Mike Pence and his wife Karen, listen to a singing of ‘(Back Home Again in) Indiana’ during the opening ceremonies for the Indiana State Fair in Indianapolis, on Aug. 5, 2016.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">AP Photo/Michael Conroy</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>To return to Mike and Karen Pence, I have to say there is something both sweet and remarkable about two partners who are unapologetic about being a couple: It’s a message that we can never be completely whole if we go it alone. </p>
<p>The vice president is following what is known as the “<a href="http://www.slate.com/blogs/xx_factor/2017/03/31/the_pence_billy_graham_rule_isn_t_that_weird_in_practice.html">Billy Graham rule</a>,” a <a href="http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2017/march-web-only/other-billy-graham-rules.html">code of conduct</a> about money, power and sex for ministers of the Christian Gospel, developed by the well-known Christian evangelist <a href="http://www.biography.com/people/billy-graham-9317669">Billy Graham</a> and other preachers during a <a href="http://www.modbee.com/news/local/news-columns-blogs/jeff-jardine/article142983274.html">conference in Modesto, California in 1948</a>. </p>
<p>For some of us, following the Billy Graham rule might be wise: not because we fear that someone else might be dangerous, but because all too often we are a danger to ourselves.</p>
<p>Nonetheless, I would offer a cautionary note about the Billy Graham rule and exercising relentless rigor in making sure that sin can’t deliver an invitation in the first place: Temptation is strongest when it comes disguised as “good.” This is a point made often by <a href="http://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/pope-francis-satan-seduces-by-disguising-evil-as-good-85265/">Pope Francis</a>. While some humans actually intentionally choose evil, we are more likely to give into temptation if it comes under the appearance of doing something good. And doing good can certainly bring more temptation: the temptation to overly enjoy praise, esteem and fame. </p>
<p>This can become a slippery slope that leads to pride: believing that we are good because people perceive us as good. The <a href="http://biblehub.com/proverbs/16-18.htm">Bible</a> tells us that such pride comes before “fall,” meaning that we can easily let down our guard if think that we have become immune to temptation in its hidden forms. </p>
<p>The problem comes when we become so afraid of being tempted, or receiving an invitation to violate God’s law, that we lose opportunities to experience a taste of wholeness in our everyday lives. </p>
<p>And while temptation can be an invitation to sin, experiencing temptation can be an invitation of a different kind: a “challenge” to consider more deeply our need to be made whole.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/75982/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mathew Schmalz does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>While temptation can be an invitation to sin, experiencing temptation can also make us consider more deeply: What is it that tempts us and why?Mathew Schmalz, Associate Professor of Religion, College of the Holy CrossLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/740262017-03-13T00:42:28Z2017-03-13T00:42:28ZMixing glitter and protest to support LGBTQ rights<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/160363/original/image-20170310-19256-1eurksj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">On Ash Wednesday 2017 glitter was used to show support for LGBTQ rights.
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://parity.nyc/">Parity </a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>On Ash Wednesday, March 1, <a href="https://www.google.com/maps/d/u/0/viewer?mid=1QB8Cnd18dkMBhOTNisCNb2tbalI&ll=53.397471600000024%2C-2.9696844000000056&z=3">a number of</a> churches and Christian groups in the U.S. blended purple glitter into the blessed ashes before applying them to the foreheads of Christians to mark the beginning of Lent. </p>
<p>The use of glitter was intended as a display of solidarity with the LGBTQ community at a time when bathroom-related laws threaten transgender rights. Recently, the Trump administration <a href="http://www.cnn.com/2017/02/22/politics/doj-withdraws-federal-protections-on-transgender-bathrooms-in-schools/">reversed Title IX guidance providing protections</a> for transgender public school students that allowed them to use bathrooms and facilities corresponding with their gender identity.</p>
<p>Fourteen states have <a href="http://www.ncsl.org/research/education/-bathroom-bill-legislative-tracking635951130.aspx">introduced legislation</a> that would impose restrictions on transgender people using public restrooms. Some <a href="http://www.ncsl.org/research/civil-and-criminal-justice/2016-state-religious-freedom-restoration-act-legislation.aspx">states</a>, as well as the <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/white-house-considering-order-on-religious-freedom-that-critics-warn-could-lead-to-discrimination/2017/02/02/631ea41a-e8ee-11e6-bf6f-301b6b443624_story.html">Trump administration</a>, are also considering laws that would allow businesses and organizations to refuse services to LGBTQ people based on religious objections. </p>
<p>In this context, Rev. Marian Edmonds-Allen, executive director of <a href="http://parity.nyc/">Parity</a>, a faith-based New York City organization that organized the Glitter Ash Wednesday events, <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/acts-of-faith/wp/2017/03/01/on-ash-wednesday-ashes-to-go-with-a-little-extra-sparkle/?utm_term=.93ecf4b77caf">explained</a> that the events were meant to be acts of love and resistance at a time when members of the LGBTQ community could feel especially vulnerable to discrimination.</p>
<p>As a sociologist and social movements scholar, I have <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.17813/1086-671X-20-3-259">studied</a> the emergence of innovative tactics in the movement for LGBTQ rights in the United States. </p>
<p>Ash Wednesday 2017 was not the first time that glitter has been used to show support for LGBTQ rights. There is a notable history of the use of glitter to express moral outrage and show resistance. Perhaps the most memorable use of glitter as a symbol of support for LGBT rights is the tactic of <a href="https://priceonomics.com/the-glorious-history-of-glitter-bombing/">glitter bombing</a>.</p>
<p>So, what is the history of using glitter as a method of expressing support for the rights of LGBTQ Americans? And what makes glitter an effective tool of resistance?</p>
<h2>Emergence of glitter bombing</h2>
<p>“Glitter bombings” were confrontational public protests in which activists showered politicians with glitter and shouted slogans highlighting their anti-LGBTQ policy positions. </p>
<p>The tactic was initially conceived by Minnesota activist <a href="http://minnesota.cbslocal.com/2011/11/12/meet-the-man-behind-the-glitter-bomb-movement/">Nick Espinosa</a>, who yelled “feel the rainbow” as he doused conservative talk show host Newt Gingrich with glitter at a book signing event in 2011. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/LSb3kTA6vVI?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
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<p>This became a <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-fix/wp/2015/03/06/a-brief-history-of-politicians-getting-glitter-bombed/?utm_term=.ecd1c074e663">popular</a> method of highlighting LGBTQ rights in the months preceding the 2012 election. </p>
<p>Activists intended glitter bombings to be <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/28/opinion/sunday/glitter-a-kinder-gentler-prank.html">harmless</a>, visually spectacular protests that would capture media attention and appear playful. Opponents of the tactic, however, debated whether it counted as <a href="http://wclcriminallawbrief.blogspot.com/2012/03/is-glitter-bombing-criminal-assault.html">criminal assault</a> and if it posed a <a href="https://thinkprogress.org/doctor-glitter-bombing-is-a-health-hazard-39f36cdef649#.9mlt8x343">health risk</a> to targets. </p>
<p>Republican presidential candidates were especially popular targets: <a href="http://www.huffingtonpost.com/news/rick-santorum-glitter-bomb/">Rick Santorum</a>, for example, was glitter-bombed six times between December 2011 and February 2012, and <a href="http://www.huffingtonpost.com/news/romney-glitter-bomb/">Mitt Romney</a> was glitter-bombed twice before he received the Republican Party nomination as a presidential candidate. </p>
<p>Minnesota activists who called themselves “the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jun/22/political-protest-hold-eggs-throw-glitter">glitterati</a>” also highlighted the anti-LGBTQ policies of organizations with glitter bombs. In a particularly creative protest, activists dropped <a href="http://www.citypages.com/news/minnesota-state-fair-glitter-bombed-over-anti-gay-marriage-booth-video-6550723">bags of confetti</a> from the Minnesota State Fair sky ride attraction onto the state fair booth of conservative organizations of Minnesota. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/160351/original/image-20170310-19251-zrt5bi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/160351/original/image-20170310-19251-zrt5bi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/160351/original/image-20170310-19251-zrt5bi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/160351/original/image-20170310-19251-zrt5bi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/160351/original/image-20170310-19251-zrt5bi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=520&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/160351/original/image-20170310-19251-zrt5bi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=520&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/160351/original/image-20170310-19251-zrt5bi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=520&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Mitt Romney being glitter-bombed in 2012.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">AP Photo/Gerald Herbert</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Another group of activists <a href="http://www.motherjones.com/mojo/2011/07/video-bachmann-clinic-glitter-bombed">threw glitter</a> in the lobby of the Bachmann Clinic in Minnesota, which was known for engaging in the controversial and <a href="http://www.apa.org/about/policy/sexual-orientation.aspx">scientifically disproven</a> practice of <a href="http://www.ncsl.org/research/education/-bathroom-bill-legislative-tracking635951130.aspx">“reparative therapy,”</a> which is intended to “convert” members of the LGBTQ community to heterosexual or gender normative behavior through prayer. </p>
<h2>Glitter dance parties</h2>
<p>As I <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.17813/1086-671X-20-3-259">detail in my research</a>, glitter bombings of individual political candidates were a short-lived tactic that was used for about a year between the spring of 2011 and the summer of 2012. However, supporters of LGBTQ rights have continued to use glitter at larger protest events. </p>
<p>In 2012, for example, the Minnesota “glitterati” returned to the Bachmann Clinic for a <a href="http://www.citypages.com/news/bachmann-and-associates-visited-by-gay-barbarian-flash-mob-photos-6540206">flash mob-style dance</a> to Lady Gaga’s iconic song “Born this Way,” during which more than 30 protesters <a href="http://www.citypages.com/news/marcus-bachmann-speaks-out-on-glitter-baptism-gay-barbarians-6560305">“baptized”</a> an effigy of clinic director Marcus Bachmann with glitter, leaving an enduring dusting of rainbow sparkles in the clinic’s parking lot. </p>
<p>More recently, in the days before the 2017 inauguration, activists organized a “<a href="http://www.advocate.com/politics/2017/1/18/activists-threw-queer-dance-party-outside-mike-pences-house">queer dance party</a>” in front of the temporary home of Vice President Mike Pence in a residential neighborhood in Washington, D.C. Billed by organizers as “a glitter-filled, rainbow-filled <a href="http://www.glamour.com/story/the-glitter-bomb-dance-party-at-mike-pences-house-tonight-is-the-protest-of-our-dreams">extravaganza</a>,” the protest included glitter in all forms – sparkling body paint, bedazzled signs, sequinned costumes and biodegradable confetti. Other glitter-laden dance parties took place outside an <a href="http://www.slate.com/blogs/outward/2017/01/20/queer_protest_at_the_trump_inauguration.html">inauguration entrance</a> and in front of Trump properties in cities across the U.S. </p>
<h2>Enabling connection</h2>
<p>The question is, why do LGBTQ rights activists use glitter?</p>
<p>Think of glitter as an accessory that adds social meaning, along with extra sparkle and flair, to the <a href="http://www.press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/R/bo4100797.html">traditional repertoire</a> of social movement tactics. </p>
<p>In my research on the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.17813/1086-671X-20-3-259">emergence of glitter bombing</a> as a social movement tactic, I found that the use of glitter to express support for LGBTQ rights is especially effective for several interrelated reasons.</p>
<p>First, glitter resonates with cultural conceptions of the LGBTQ community. The imagery of glitter is tied to <a href="http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/abs/10.1016/S0163-786X%2804%2925005-4">dance clubs</a>, <a href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/407209">drag queens</a>, and the colorful history of using visual culture and fashion as methods of making LGBTQ communities visible.</p>
<p>As the <a href="http://parity.nyc/glitter-ash-wednesday/">Glitter Ash Wednesday website</a> reads, “glitter is an inextricable element of queer history.” Broadly, this kind of <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/285098685_Ideology_Frame_Resonance_and_Participant_Mobilization">resonance</a> allows movements to connect with members of the public and mobilize supporters. </p>
<h2>Tactical resistance</h2>
<p>Second, the celebratory nature of glitter makes it a particularly poignant counterpoint to the difficult political and social issues of anti-LGBTQ violence and discrimination. Whether used in <a href="http://www.huffingtonpost.com/nick-espinosa/the-glitter-bomber-speaks_b_983331.html">glitter bombs</a> against political leaders, showered over <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/19/nyregion/trump-tower-protest-inauguration.html?_r=0">dancing protesters</a> or used in <a href="http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2017/02/15/glitter-ash-wednesday-hopes-sparkle-lgbt-christians-supporters/97938752/">Ash Wednesday</a> events, glitter is fun, fabulous and playful, as long as it is used in a nonviolent way.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/160217/original/image-20170309-21020-ng6t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/160217/original/image-20170309-21020-ng6t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=550&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/160217/original/image-20170309-21020-ng6t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=550&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/160217/original/image-20170309-21020-ng6t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=550&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/160217/original/image-20170309-21020-ng6t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=691&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/160217/original/image-20170309-21020-ng6t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=691&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/160217/original/image-20170309-21020-ng6t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=691&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A marriage equality rally in front of the U.S. Supreme Court in 2015.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/perspective/17119892969/in/photolist-s5PVJr-JD72Nf-8VRdbT-H5Mn6M-jnB39A-RHxnZM-a79exW-Bie6zy-CW3zhB-edDc1X-odvViV-bmxnHM-CF3HKQ-JtPbx2-odWAKA-JqjvuC-ahPB1H-ouzpLE-ckArxW-aq5dKj-8VREht-ejYMES-8WxJEF-oCzEav-53g91-8WxNQk-c1k1qy-ozJyD6-b9CuHz-e3GZbs-4h5thR-8VZiA9-aZ62eB-5BQa17-agjfs-g9mRWb-agjeL-rqthGx-rd7Fn4-isDsoR-agjd3-9juzdb-arZsYF-jBCrpV-6pdhm7-agjff-9qEoeq-bg94Kk-dwLsd4-PtgLLD">Elvert Barnes</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The use of upbeat imagery and <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9781137350602_4">performance</a> to express political dissent adopts an approach that social movements scholars call <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14742830802283550">“tactical frivolity.”</a> This strategy attracts public attention in a way that confrontation may not. It can help mobilize people who might not participate in more contentious forms of protest.</p>
<p>As organizer and Episcopal priest Rev. Elizabeth M. Edman <a href="http://www.latimes.com/nation/la-na-ash-wednesday-glitter-20170301-story.html">said</a> in a media interview, </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“Glitter is serious business for queer people. Glitter is how we have long made ourselves visible, even though becoming visible puts us at risk.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Lastly, glitter is an equal opportunity tactic. It is inexpensive, easy to obtain and easy to use. The most effective tactics are both easily accessible and <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9780470674871.wbespm131/abstract">widely applicable</a>. </p>
<p>At the same time, it can be added in to other forms of political expression across a variety of contexts.</p>
<h2>Critics of glitter</h2>
<p>Such use of glitter, however, can also lead to serious objections.</p>
<p>Although Mitt Romney joked about the first glitter bombing, calling it <a href="http://politicalticker.blogs.cnn.com/2012/02/01/for-romney-all-that-glitters-is-not-confetti/">confetti</a> to celebrate his victory in the Florida primary elections, the second activist to use the tactic against Romney was <a href="http://newsfeed.time.com/2012/02/09/glitter-bombing-a-politician-could-get-you-six-months-in-jail">detained</a> by the Secret Service and later faced misdemeanor charges. </p>
<p>In the case of the more recent Glitter Ash Wednesday events, some conservative Christians felt that it was <a href="http://www.lifezette.com/faithzette/sacrilege-glitter-ash-wednesday/">sacrilegious</a> to mix glitter in with blessed ashes. Others saw the events as a <a href="http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/maryland/bs-md-glitter-ash-wednesday-20170301-story.html">frivolous alteration</a> of a somber religious tradition. </p>
<h2>Keeping up with the protest tradition</h2>
<p>Nonetheless, creative and confrontational protest tactics have been a central element of the <a href="http://rhr.dukejournals.org/content/1995/62/105.full.pdf+html">movement for LGBTQ rights</a> in the U.S. </p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/160364/original/image-20170310-19251-1hz82xb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/160364/original/image-20170310-19251-1hz82xb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=906&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/160364/original/image-20170310-19251-1hz82xb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=906&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/160364/original/image-20170310-19251-1hz82xb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=906&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/160364/original/image-20170310-19251-1hz82xb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1138&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/160364/original/image-20170310-19251-1hz82xb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1138&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/160364/original/image-20170310-19251-1hz82xb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1138&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Glitterash events were a quieter use of sparkle.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://chaseahall.com">Chase Hall.</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In 1977, for example, celebrity singer and former Miss Oklahoma beauty pageant winner <a href="http://www.out.com/today-gay-history/2016/10/14/today-gay-history-gay-activist-pies-anita-bryant-face">Anita Bryant</a> was “pied” by gay rights activists. Bryant was a vocal opponent of local ordinances that provided protections for the LGBTQ community. Protesters responded by throwing a pie in her face at a press conference, to which she famously responded, “At least it was a fruit pie.”</p>
<p>The glitter ash events organized for Ash Wednesday are a quieter use of sparkle in this tradition of protests in support of the LGBTQ community. The blending of glitter with Ash Wednesday ashes exemplifies the ease with which glitter can be adapted and applied to create opportunities for people to express radical love and solidarity.</p>
<p>Purple glitter transformed a solemn act symbolizing faith, repentance and the inward reflection that takes place during Lent into a “<a href="http://parity.nyc/glitter-ash-wednesday/">fabulously conspicuous</a>” expression of love.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/74026/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anya M. Galli Robertson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>There is a long history of the use of glitter to express moral outrage and show resistance. What is the power of glitter?Anya M. Galli Robertson, Doctoral Candidate in Sociology, University of MarylandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/740242017-03-08T03:06:07Z2017-03-08T03:06:07ZHow to use digital devices this Lent for holy reflection<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/159845/original/image-20170307-14957-1gd8jrp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Should you be digitally fasting this Lent?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/success?src=h9D6Z4hi4LjgAwKOptZRGg-1-23">Cellphone image via www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The season of Lent is upon us. This is a <a href="http://www.patheos.com/blogs/markdroberts/2017/02/26/ash-wednesday-lent-begin-week/">holy season for Christians</a> who seek to identify with Jesus Christ’s 40 days of fasting as he prepared to be tested and later crucified. In order to identify with Christ’s self-sacrifice, Christians often join in a <a href="http://www.patheos.com/Topics/Journey-of-Lent">symbolic fast</a>, giving up certain foods such as meat or chocolate or even giving up certain practices. </p>
<p>In recent years, fasting from the internet or other forms of technology <a href="http://www.huffingtonpost.com/jeremy-shure/digital-sabbath-20_b_5288740.html">has become popular</a>. Fasting from technology is encouraged by many religious leaders as the ideal way for individuals to <a href="http://www.sabbathmanifesto.org/">reflect on their daily dependency</a> on technology. Sometimes called taking a “digital Sabbath,” it refers to the Christian and Jewish practice, in which one day a week is set aside as sacred. </p>
<p>On such a day, secular practices such as using media are <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-science-behind-behavior/201605/what-is-digital-fast-and-should-i-go-one">halted</a> in order to help believers focus on God and their faith. This is based on the premise that the best way to critically engage with technology is to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2015/jun/27/turn-off-tune-out-national-unplugging-day-hopes-to-give-britain-a-digital-detox">unplug from it</a>. It’s a way to remember that true communication is unmediated by technology and grounded in being with one another in the “real world.”</p>
<p>Unplugging from social media or limiting one’s internet use for a set period such as during Lent can be helpful for some individuals. My research, conducted over two decades, however, shows that some of core assumptions on which digital fasting is based on can be problematic or misguided. </p>
<p>Technology can, in fact, be <a href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/national/on-faith/the-religious-authorities-and-pundits-are-wrong-technology-is-good-for-religion/2012/05/31/gJQAsDHi6U_story.html">good for religion</a>. The question is, how do we engage with technology thoughtfully and actively?</p>
<h2>Media and immoral values?</h2>
<p>First, let’s look at <a href="https://usnews.newsvine.com/_news/2011/11/23/8936147-for-some-churches-the-internet-clicks-for-others-it-doesnt">how religious groups interact</a> and make decisions about new forms of media. </p>
<p>In my book, <a href="http://bakerpublishinggroup.com/books/networked-theology/343270">“Networked Theology</a>,” my coauthor <a href="https://www.laidlaw.ac.nz/staff/stephen-garner/">Stephen Garner</a> and I discuss how some religious communities believe the media primarily promote immoral values and frivolous entertainment. Therefore, they insist interaction with media via digital devices should be controlled, just as is done during a digital fast. </p>
<p>In “Networked Theology,” we explain how abstaining from media is based on an assumption often referred to as “technological determinism.” It is a theory that argues media technology shapes how individuals in society think and act. Technology is presented as the central factor driving society, and its character is often described as selfish and dehumanizing. </p>
<p>This view presents the internet as a medium that creates environments that disconnect us from reality. For example, YouTube could be seen to promote entertainment culture over wisdom, Facebook encourages self-promotion over community-building and Twitter facilitates tweeting whatever comes to one’s mind rather than listening. </p>
<h2>People are not passive users</h2>
<p>The truth is digital media is increasingly a part of daily routines. People learn, do business and communicate with technology. Often technology enhances our daily lives, such as eyeglasses correcting vision or the telephone helping people communicate across time and space. </p>
<p>The problem, however, comes when <a href="http://www.theccsn.com/networked-theology-negotiating-faith-in-digital-culture-review-by-annalee-ward/">we assume</a> that people have only two options: to engage technology and inevitably be seduced by it, or refuse to use it in order to resist its power. </p>
<p>Digital fasting follows this second option. It presents individuals as slaves of technology. Taking the occasional timeout from the all-powerful grip of technology is done in order to simply regroup and prepare to again face its irresistible seduction. </p>
<p>In my view, such an approach places too much emphasis on the assertion that technological devices now dictate most people’s lives. It also does not take into account that technology users have the ability to make their own choices about how they approach it. So people can choose to use technology in ways that fulfill spiritual goals. </p>
<p>In “Networked Theology,” we argue that digital technology can be reshaped by users. As <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2012/02/we-dont-need-a-digital-sabbath-we-need-more-time/252317/">others have written</a>, we agree that people should take more responsibility for the time spent with their devices. </p>
<h2>Deepening devotion with technology</h2>
<p>So, instead of resisting technology during Lent, individuals could use this space of holy reflection to actively consider how to integrate technology to support their spiritual development. </p>
<p>Religious groups have the ability to <a href="http://bakerpublishinggroup.com/books/networked-theology/343270">determine the culture</a> technology promotes, if only they take time to prayerfully create their own “theology of technology.” </p>
<p>I describe part of this process as being “techno-selective.” What this means is reflecting on the technology we select and how and why we use it. It also means being proactive in shaping our technologies so they enhance and not distract from our spiritual journeys. </p>
<p>A digital Lent can become about considering how our devices can help us do justice, practice kindness and demonstrate humility in our world. For example, people could ask if their postings on Facebook are helping in creating a positive or more abusive world? Or, whether the apps they use or their cellphone etiquette promotes peace and social change? </p>
<h2>Apps for social justice</h2>
<p>In the last five years I have been working with a team of students at Texas A&M University to explore how social and mobile media are being developed that can support a variety of religious beliefs and practices. We found there are <a href="http://religionnews.com/2014/05/07/study-finds-religious-apps-helps-user-practice-mobile-faith/">religious apps</a> to help people do that. <a href="http://today.tamu.edu/2014/05/01/internet-memes-provide-unique-insights-into-how-faith-is-viewed/">Internet memes</a> also provide unique insights into common stereotypes about religion within popular culture. </p>
<p>Memes can be crafted to counter such misconceptions. For example, the wearing of hijabs, or head scarves, by Muslim women is viewed by many outside the religion as oppressive, but wearing the veil and modesty are themes frequently affirmed in memes created by Muslims. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/159846/original/image-20170307-14963-16vuool.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/159846/original/image-20170307-14963-16vuool.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159846/original/image-20170307-14963-16vuool.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159846/original/image-20170307-14963-16vuool.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159846/original/image-20170307-14963-16vuool.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159846/original/image-20170307-14963-16vuool.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159846/original/image-20170307-14963-16vuool.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Digital devices can create space for holy reflection.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/djlindalovely/5589407785/in/photolist-9vVbcK-6AgwYe-bEPBU-7Z41YR-o8xzsJ-7Gbx-9SeRDj-5cSf7p-5qXzkC-63i8A6-cfkW6-4hY9GD-52gWpm-4YTLGA-7kRerG-efGXpW-5nAmLP-cfGGv-3MC85-57WXwE-cfGQu-6dYDGk-5HSETE-5sG9w-7ayvdJ-JJBNi-4KEjy6-cfGRS-fb3NvN-3tZG7-5xvf1P-3tZGa-6FAN7R-2z5RBg-cfGVn-oUR15-6E945z-3tZG8-5hppWH-5TAyFN-aVexQ-cfGx8-vE35x-6c6EiD-cfGQe-2fQKQ-7SZDtF-enTT1-QBz9Wb-7Ufnq6">Linda Flores</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Further, our research on <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/2050157914520846">religious mobile apps</a> has found increasing numbers of apps are available that help individuals stay faithful in their religious practices on a daily basis. <a href="http://www.tylerpaper.com/TP-Religion/200896/path-ways-apps-conduits-for-prayer-meditation-and-reading-sacred-texts#.U5Xbicu9KSP">Apps can help</a> with the reading of sacred texts, provide religious study aids, help locate kosher or halal products to maintain a holy lifestyle and connect people with <a href="http://www.tylerpaper.com/TP-Religion/200896/path-ways-apps-conduits-for-prayer-meditation-and-reading-sacred-texts#.U5Xbicu9KSP">places of worship</a> and also to other beliefs.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/technology-is-forever-changing-how-we-pray_55e4d864e4b0b7a9633a0a82">Prayer and meditation apps</a> can help users remember <a href="http://www.gizmodo.com.au/2014/04/from-sexting-to-sacraments-how-mobile-apps-are-taking-on-religion/">when to pray</a> and become more accountable in these daily spiritual practices. </p>
<p>Also apps designed to encourage <a href="http://tech.co/mobile-future-social-good-apps-2016-02">involvement in social justice</a> causes, such as TraffickStop, Lose Weight or Donate and CharityMiles, help raise awareness of key issues and even help users link their daily practices, such as what they eat, to micro-donations to social justice organizations.</p>
<h2>A digital Lent?</h2>
<p>Lent is a great time for religious individuals and groups to pause and consider not only their own technological practices and how they shape our world but also the ways in which digital resources can be integrated into their communities to support their beliefs. </p>
<p>So instead of giving up Facebook for Lent, consider doing Lent digitally.</p>
<p>Practicing 40 days of technoselectivity might actually have a longer-term impact socially and spiritually on one’s daily life. It could even <a href="http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20170222-how-smartphones-and-social-media-are-changing-religion">deepen religious devotion</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/74024/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Heidi A. Campbell does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Digital fasting during Lent has become popular. Technology, in fact, can be good for religion.Heidi A. Campbell, Professor, Texas A&M UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/537602016-02-09T09:49:26Z2016-02-09T09:49:26ZThe surprising truth about fasting for Lent<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/110601/original/image-20160208-2634-1fpnsud.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Forty days in the wilderness: Temptations of Christ, St Mark's Basilica.</span> </figcaption></figure><p>The excesses of the carnival are over, the clean-up completed. And so begins the year’s traditional period of abstinence. Leading up to Christianity’s most holy day, Easter, is the 40-day period called Lent, when pledges are made to give up everything from alcohol and smoking to nail-biting and overeating. </p>
<p>But given the importance of Jesus’s death from the very dawn of Christianity, it’s rather surprising that the practice of recognising this significant period has changed considerably over the past two thousand years – and in some very strange ways. </p>
<h2>Lent in the New Testament</h2>
<p>Today, Lent is connected with the 40-day fast that Jesus undergoes (<a href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=mark+1%3A13&version=NRSV">Mark 1:13</a>; <a href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=matt+4%3A1-11&version=NRSV">Matthew 4:1–11</a>; <a href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=luke+4%3A1-13&version=NRSV">Luke 4:1–13</a>). Mark tells us that Jesus was tempted by Satan, but it is in Matthew and Luke that the details of the temptation are fleshed out. All three accounts say that Jesus went without food for the 40 days.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/109370/original/image-20160127-26769-1ma2jdd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/109370/original/image-20160127-26769-1ma2jdd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/109370/original/image-20160127-26769-1ma2jdd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=785&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109370/original/image-20160127-26769-1ma2jdd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=785&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109370/original/image-20160127-26769-1ma2jdd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=785&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109370/original/image-20160127-26769-1ma2jdd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=987&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109370/original/image-20160127-26769-1ma2jdd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=987&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109370/original/image-20160127-26769-1ma2jdd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=987&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The devil carries Jesus up to a mountain to tempt him with an earthly kingdom (Luke 4:5–8; Matthew 4:8–10) Missal, France c.1470-75; Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, MS 425, fol. 48r.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Christians, like adherents to many other religions, have long fasted. But it was only after Christians began to fast specifically prior to Easter, about 300 years after Jesus’s death, that anyone looked to the Bible to find a source for the practice. Before then, surprisingly, the two hadn’t been connected. So how did it happen?</p>
<h2>The holiness of hunger</h2>
<p>Fasting – not eating (and sometimes drinking) for an extended period of time – is a practice that goes back long before Jesus. Ancient Jews fasted on certain days throughout the year. <a href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark+2%3A18-23&version=NRSV">Mark 2:18–23</a> and <a href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew+6%3A16%E2%80%9318&version=NRSV">Matthew 6:16–18</a>, for example, both take for granted that fasting is a normal part of Jewish religious practice. Other Jewish texts from the Greco-Roman period depict fasting as an effective substitute for sacrifice. About a hundred years before Jesus, the <a href="http://wesley.nnu.edu/sermons-essays-books/noncanonical-literature/noncanonical-literature-ot-pseudepigrapha/the-psalms-of-solomon/">Psalms of Solomon 3:8–9</a> describe fasting as a way to atone for sins and as a habitual practice of the righteous.</p>
<p>In the earliest years of Christianity, Christians seem to have observed the same fast days that Jews observed. Some authors were violently opposed to this cultural and religious intermingling. John Chrysostom (c. 349-407), writing against Christians sharing anything in common with Jews, <a href="http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/chrysostom_adversus_judaeos_01_homily1.htm">admonishes Christians</a> who fast on the Jewish Day of Atonement, Yom Kippur. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/110593/original/image-20160208-2634-ary3j8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/110593/original/image-20160208-2634-ary3j8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1601&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/110593/original/image-20160208-2634-ary3j8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1601&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/110593/original/image-20160208-2634-ary3j8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1601&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/110593/original/image-20160208-2634-ary3j8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=2011&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/110593/original/image-20160208-2634-ary3j8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=2011&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/110593/original/image-20160208-2634-ary3j8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=2011&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">John Chrysostom Dionisius.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/John_Chrysostom_%28Dionisius%29.jpg">Wikimedia</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Not eating and not drinking could be seen as a means of atonement, as with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yom_Kippur">Yom Kippur</a>, but it could also clear the way for an expected meeting with God. Moses, for example, fasted prior to going up the mountain to meet with God and receive the Ten Commandments in <a href="http://biblehub.com/exodus/34-28.htm">Exodus 34:28</a>. Fasting is also prominent in other texts, closer in date to Jesus’s time, such as <a href="http://www.tyndale.cam.ac.uk/Tyndale/staff/Head/4Ezra.htm">4 Ezra</a>. In this first century text, Ezra prepares to receive revelations from God <a href="http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/r/rsv/rsv-idx?type=DIV1&byte=3652195">by abstaining from food and drink for seven days</a>. After his period of fasting, an angel tells him divine secrets.</p>
<p>Jesus’s fast in the desert, then, would have been understood to prepare him to commune with God and to strengthen him against the devil’s temptations. It is little wonder, then, that later Christians began to associate fasting with being close to God. Perhaps the most well-known development of fasting practice that emerges after antiquity is the so-called “<a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zhjT8CIZLM4C&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false">holy anorexics</a>” – women, such as Angela of Foligno (1248–1309) and Catherine of Siena (1347–1380), who refused all food but the Eucharist.</p>
<h2>The true origins of Lent</h2>
<p>Christian texts as early as the second century talk about fasting leading up to Easter, but different Christian groups appear to observe different types and lengths of fasts, and even within a church there were differences of opinion. Irenaeus of Lyons noted the <a href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.x.xxv.html">variety</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>For the dispute is not only about the day, but also about the actual form of the fast. For some think that they should fast one day, others two, others again more; some for that matter, count their day as consisting of 40 hours day and night.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The earliest reference to a sustained fast of more than two or three days is in the <a href="http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/didascalia.html">Didascalia</a>, a Syrian Christian document probably from the the third century AD.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Therefore you shall fast in the days of the Pascha from the tenth, which is the second day of the week; and you shall sustain yourselves with bread and salt and water only, at the ninth hour, until the fifth day of the week. But on the Friday and on the Sabbath fast wholly, and taste nothing … For thus did we also fast, when our Lord suffered, for a testimony of the three days …</p>
</blockquote>
<p>This text connects a six-day fast with Easter and with Jesus’s suffering, but surprisingly still not with Jesus’s 40-day temptation depicted in Matthew, Mark, and Luke. It was <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0620.htm">Peter I of Alexandria</a> in the fourth century who connected Christian penitential (still not Lenten) fasting to Jesus’s 40-day fast in the wilderness: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>It is sufficient, I say, that from the time of their submissive approach, other forty days should be enjoined upon them, to keep them in remembrance of these things; those forty days during which, though our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ had fasted, He was yet, after He had been baptised, tempted of the devil. And when they shall have, during these days, exercised themselves much, and constantly fasted, then let them watch in prayer, meditating upon what was spoken by the Lord to him who tempted Him to fall down and worship him: ‘Get behind me, Satan; for it is written, You shall worship the Lord your God, and Him only shall you serve.’</p>
</blockquote>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/110604/original/image-20160208-2598-o4toj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/110604/original/image-20160208-2598-o4toj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=422&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/110604/original/image-20160208-2598-o4toj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=422&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/110604/original/image-20160208-2598-o4toj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=422&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/110604/original/image-20160208-2598-o4toj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=531&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/110604/original/image-20160208-2598-o4toj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=531&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/110604/original/image-20160208-2598-o4toj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=531&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sandro Botticelli The Temptation of Christ detail.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Indeed, the likely reason why fasting later became associated with the run-up to Easter is that people started holding baptisms at Easter. The three-week long preparation for becoming a Christian through baptism included fasting, and as baptism became more strongly associated with Easter in the fourth century AD, it is possible that fasting in the lead-up became more generalised to include people who were already Christians. Until Christians decided on a standard way to calculate the date of Easter, <a href="http://blog.oup.com/2013/03/constantine-and-easter/">under the Emperor Constantine</a>, a specific Lenten fast was far from universal.</p>
<p>The changing traditions associated with Lent can be seen also in <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3410618/Pope-overturns-centuries-tradition-allowing-women-footwashing-service-Lent.html">Pope Francis’s recent announcement</a> that women would be included in the foot washing service performed to commemorate Jesus’s washing of his disciples’ feet (<a href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=john+13&version=NRSV">John 13:1–20</a>). </p>
<p>Either way, it is clear that many of the feast and fast days of Christianity predate the religion, but also have been transformed over time by its adherents. And it serves as a reminder that nothing remains the same – even religion.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/53760/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>M J C Warren does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Lent is inextricably linked to Jesus’s 40 days in the wilderness, right? In fact, it’s not that simple.M J C Warren, Lecturer in Biblical and Religious Studies, University of SheffieldLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.