tag:theconversation.com,2011:/uk/topics/most-read-year-one-education-13270/articlesMost-read year one Education – The Conversation2014-09-25T20:07:02Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/316782014-09-25T20:07:02Z2014-09-25T20:07:02Z‘Gentle parenting’ explainer: no rewards, no punishments, no misbehaving kids<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/59214/original/cjgmgwkq-1410914769.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Gentle parenting means no punishments and no rewards: just a partnership with your kids where they want to do the right thing for the sake of doing the right thing.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/downloading_tips.mhtml?code=&id=142149835&size=medium&image_format=jpg&method=download&super_url=http%3A%2F%2Fdownload.shutterstock.com%2Fgatekeeper%2FW3siZSI6MTQxMDk0MzU0MSwiYyI6Il9waG90b19zZXNzaW9uX2lkIiwiZGMiOiJpZGxfMTQyMTQ5ODM1IiwicCI6InYxfDEwMTI3NTg4fDE0MjE0OTgzNSIsImsiOiJwaG90by8xNDIxNDk4MzUvbWVkaXVtLmpwZyIsIm0iOiIxIiwiZCI6InNodXR0ZXJzdG9jay1tZWRpYSJ9LCJZYzBiRk93eWlZcmw0c0xHQmtRemsyQkZld00iXQ%2Fshutterstock_142149835.jpg&racksite_id=ny&chosen_subscription=1&license=standard&src=7ymR2sKz705Czx4k0u3rDA-1-95">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In a piece in The Conversation, <a href="https://theconversation.com/yes-physically-disciplining-kids-is-an-act-of-violence-31425">Bernadette Saunders</a> described positive discipline. Parents who practise positive discipline or gentle parenting use neither rewards nor punishments to encourage their children to behave. </p>
<p>By “no rewards” I mean they don’t use charts or “bribes” such as lollies or toys. Many don’t even say “<a href="http://www.alfiekohn.org/parenting/gj.htm">good girl/boy</a>” or “<a href="http://www.janetlansbury.com/2012/02/parent-do-overs-7-confidence-building-responses/">good job</a>”. </p>
<p>And by “no punishments” I mean they don’t use time-outs, smacking, shaming or yelling. Forget the <a href="http://www.supernanny.co.uk/Advice/-/Parenting-Skills/-/Discipline-and-Reward/Make-the-Naughty-Step-Work-for-You.aspx">naughty step</a>, forget the <a href="http://discipline.about.com/od/increasepositivebehaviors/a/Sticker-Charts-Motivate-Your-Preschooler-With-A-Reward-System.htm">sticker chart</a>, let’s take a journey into the world of <a href="http://www.economist.com/news/united-states/21593491-attempts-go-where-calm-and-reasonableness-fear-tread-beyond-naughty-step">gentle or positive discipline</a>, which aims to teach children empathy, self-control and calmness.</p>
<h2>What is discipline?</h2>
<p><a href="http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Parenting_discipline">Discipline</a> has come to mean many things in our culture. When we are discussing child rearing, we understand it to mean <a href="http://childparenting.about.com/od/behaviordiscipline/a/The-9-Biggest-Discipline-Mistakes.htm">reprimanding</a> a child for “bad behaviour”. The word discipline comes from the word disciple and means <a href="http://www.multiplyingconnections.org/become-trauma-informed/discipline-means-teach-or-train">to teach</a>. </p>
<p>The discipline advocated by gentle parenting families is internalised. They argue that to offer rewards and punishments overrides a child’s natural inclination to try. It teaches them to behave in certain ways <a href="http://www.naturalchild.org/robin_grille/rewards_praise.html">for a reward</a>, or to avoid punishment.</p>
<p>Advocates of gentle parenting say that rewards and punishments do not encourage children to internalise <a href="http://www.naturalchild.org/jan_hunt/rewards.html">good behaviour for its own sake</a>.</p>
<h2>What might this type of approach look like?</h2>
<p>There are many websites and groups that can help you to practise this parenting approach. Here are a few steps that parents take to <a href="http://sarahockwell-smith.com/2014/04/18/what-is-gentle-parenting/">encourage a partnership</a> with their children:</p>
<ol>
<li><p>They start from a place of <a href="http://www.parentingwithpresence.net/index.php?pageid=4933">connection</a> and believe that all behaviour stems from how connected the child is with their caregivers.</p></li>
<li><p>They give choices not <a href="http://www.janetlansbury.com/2012/10/if-gentle-discipline-isnt-working-this-might-be-the-reason/">commands</a> (“would you like to brush your teeth before or after you put on your pyjamas?”).</p></li>
<li><p>They take a <a href="http://www.playfulparenting.com">playful</a> approach. They might use playfulness to clean up (“let’s make a game of packing up these toys”) or to diffuse tension (having a playful pillow fight).</p></li>
<li><p>They allow <a href="http://www.baojournal.com/BDB%20WEBSITE/BDB-no-10/A01.pdf">feelings to run their course</a>. Rather than saying “shoosh”, or yelling “stop!”, parents actively listen to crying. They may say, “you have a lot of/strong feelings about [situation]”.</p></li>
<li><p>They describe the behaviour, not the child. So, rather than labelling a child as naughty or nice, they will explain the way actions make them feel. For example, “I get so frustrated cleaning crumbs off the couch.” </p></li>
<li><p>They <a href="http://www.littleheartsbooks.com">negotiate limits</a> where possible. If it’s time to leave the park, they might ask, “How many more minutes/swings before we leave?” However, they can be flexible and reserve “no” for situations that can hurt the child (such as running on the road or touching the hot plate) or others (including pets). They might say: “Hitting me/your sister/pulling the dog’s tail hurts, I won’t let you do that.”</p></li>
<li><p>They treat their children as partners in the family. A partnership means that the child is invited to help make decisions and to be included in the household tasks. Parents apologise when they get it wrong.</p></li>
<li><p>They will not do <a href="http://www.handinhandparenting.org/article/can-i-have-a-hug-helping-children-with-hello-and-goodbye/">forced affection</a>. When Uncle Ray wants to hug your child and s/he says no, then the child gets to say what happens to their body. They also don’t force <a href="http://www.today.com/parents/why-i-dont-force-my-kids-say-please-or-walk-1C7398514">please</a> or thank you.</p></li>
<li><p>They trust their children. What you might think of as “bad” behaviour is seen as the sign of an unmet need.</p></li>
<li><p>They take parental time-outs when needed. Before they crack, they step away, take a breath and regain their composure.</p></li>
</ol>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/59215/original/wspws4bw-1410915061.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/59215/original/wspws4bw-1410915061.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/59215/original/wspws4bw-1410915061.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/59215/original/wspws4bw-1410915061.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/59215/original/wspws4bw-1410915061.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/59215/original/wspws4bw-1410915061.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/59215/original/wspws4bw-1410915061.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/59215/original/wspws4bw-1410915061.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The most important aspect of positive discipline is the connection you have with your child.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/downloading_tips.mhtml?code=&id=114973864&size=medium&image_format=jpg&method=download&super_url=http%3A%2F%2Fdownload.shutterstock.com%2Fgatekeeper%2FW3siZSI6MTQxMDk0MzgxOCwiYyI6Il9waG90b19zZXNzaW9uX2lkIiwiZGMiOiJpZGxfMTE0OTczODY0IiwicCI6InYxfDEwMTI3NTg4fDExNDk3Mzg2NCIsImsiOiJwaG90by8xMTQ5NzM4NjQvbWVkaXVtLmpwZyIsIm0iOiIxIiwiZCI6InNodXR0ZXJzdG9jay1tZWRpYSJ9LCI5VG5mNmFkSWZXR3FPUXR0Y0ZkM2JuK293YWsiXQ%2Fshutterstock_114973864.jpg&racksite_id=ny&chosen_subscription=1&license=standard&src=7ymR2sKz705Czx4k0u3rDA-1-73">Shutterstock</a></span>
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<h2>What are the benefits?</h2>
<p>There are many sites that claim benefits to this approach. For example, <a href="http://www.attachmentparentingaustralia.com/#What_are_the_benefits_of_attachment_parenting">Attachment Parenting International</a> argues that the child is more sensitive to others’ needs because they have learnt to expect that their needs will be met, they will be treated with respect and they are equal partners in the family.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.positivediscipline.com/what-is-positive-discipline.html">Others</a> argue that it may take more effort, but is more effective, because punishment and rewards are only short-term solutions. As <a href="http://www.alfiekohn.org/teaching/pbracwak.htm">Alfie Kohn</a> argues, using rewards and punishments is about doing things <em>to</em>, not <em>with</em> children. Taking a gentle parenting or positive discipline approach invites children to partner with their parents to learn how to live in the community as productive members.</p>
<h2>What are the problems?</h2>
<p>The problems people may see with this style of parenting generally stem from a problem of definition. Gentle parenting is not <a href="http://www.ahaparenting.com/parenting-tools/positive-discipline/permissive-parenting">permissive parenting</a>. Permissive parenting means never saying no, not provoking tantrums or crying and always wanting to please the child. This style of parenting is the <a href="http://www.janetlansbury.com/2012/09/respectful-parenting-is-not-passive-parenting/">antithesis of gentle parenting</a>. </p>
<p>Sometimes parents who practise gentle parenting are described as <a href="https://www.facebook.com/pages/Sanctimommy/523533471000365">sanctimommies</a>. The term is meant to imply they are sanctimonious. However, the issue is generally with that individual parent, not their parenting style. </p>
<p>Gentle parenting also requires parental self-control, because you have to take a step back, think and ask, “What is my child’s behaviour communicating in this moment?” and, “What can I do differently to prevent this behaviour next time?”</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/31678/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rebecca English does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>In a piece in The Conversation, Bernadette Saunders described positive discipline. Parents who practise positive discipline or gentle parenting use neither rewards nor punishments to encourage their children…Rebecca English, Lecturer in Education, Queensland University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/317682014-09-22T20:27:18Z2014-09-22T20:27:18ZHow to tell if your child has a speech or language impairment<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/59209/original/vxrsgwhh-1410912509.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Your child says "poon" for "spoon" and "fum" for "thumb". How do you know if this is normal, or if they have a speech or language impairment? </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/downloading_tips.mhtml?code=&id=75757024&size=medium&image_format=jpg&method=download&super_url=http%3A%2F%2Fdownload.shutterstock.com%2Fgatekeeper%2FW3siZSI6MTQxMDk0MTIzOCwiYyI6Il9waG90b19zZXNzaW9uX2lkIiwiZGMiOiJpZGxfNzU3NTcwMjQiLCJwIjoidjF8MTAxMjc1ODh8NzU3NTcwMjQiLCJrIjoicGhvdG8vNzU3NTcwMjQvbWVkaXVtLmpwZyIsIm0iOiIxIiwiZCI6InNodXR0ZXJzdG9jay1tZWRpYSJ9LCJ4cEV1WDM3RENpMGMwSWZveTR1TTdHWEZMWFkiXQ%2Fshutterstock_75757024.jpg&racksite_id=ny&chosen_subscription=1&license=standard&src=rsGYfzzrvxLuJsHYe6mb0Q-1-0">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Babies are born communicating. Their cries and coos speak volumes. However, much-anticipated first words do not appear until 12 months later. By 18 months, the average child says about 50 words. By the time a child is ready to start school, their vocabulary will be <a href="http://www.theroadmap.ualberta.ca/vocabularies">an estimated 2,300 to 4,700 words</a>. </p>
<p>Speech and language development takes time. Speech gradually becomes easier to understand; language gradually becomes more sophisticated. </p>
<p>Problems arise when speech and language milestones are not met. Left untreated, children who start school with speech and language difficulties <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21498580">face an increased risk</a> of reading and writing difficulties, more bullying, poorer peer relationships and less enjoyment of school. So, what should parents expect of children at different ages? </p>
<h2>‘Normal’ speech and language development</h2>
<p>During the early years a child learns language - that is, converting thoughts and emotions into words. A child also learns speech - that is, figuring out the mouth movements needed to make speech sounds in words and deciphering the rules for how those sounds combine to form words. </p>
<p>For instance, children learning English learn that you can start a word with three consonants, but that the first consonant must be s, the second consonant p, t or k and the third consonant l, r, w or j as in splash, street and square. </p>
<p>By 24 months, a child should have at least 50 words and should be putting two words together. These two-word utterances should form basic sentences to request actions (“mummy up”), request objects (“more milk”) and make comments (“big ball”).</p>
<p>The child should also understand a range of words and follow simple commands (“Where’s your nose?” “Where’s Amy’s tummy?”). <a href="http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/82/3/447.abstract">Approximately 50%</a> of a 24-month-old’s speech should be understood by an unfamiliar listener. </p>
<p>Speech errors such as substituting easy speech sounds for more difficult sounds (saying “wook” for “look”), omitting sounds in words (saying “poon” for “spoon”) and deleting entire syllables (saying “getti” for “spaghetti”) are typical of this age.</p>
<p>Between 24 and 36 months, a child’s speech and language ability should show rapid growth. By 36 months, 75% of what a child says should be understood by an unfamiliar listener. </p>
<p>By 48 months, a child should be talking in much longer, grammatically correct sentences. The child should be joining sentences using words such as “and” and “because”. </p>
<p>As many parents will be able to confirm, children can ask an average of <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17394580">107 questions an hour</a> including: what, where, who, whose, why and how? A four-year-old should be able to explain recent events. However, they may struggle with some elements, particularly those involving time. “When” questions can be difficult for a child to answer.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/59210/original/btv6v44z-1410912808.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/59210/original/btv6v44z-1410912808.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/59210/original/btv6v44z-1410912808.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/59210/original/btv6v44z-1410912808.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/59210/original/btv6v44z-1410912808.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/59210/original/btv6v44z-1410912808.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/59210/original/btv6v44z-1410912808.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/59210/original/btv6v44z-1410912808.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">By 24 months, 50% of your child’s speech should be intelligible to a stranger.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/downloading_tips.mhtml?code=&id=120257953&size=medium&image_format=jpg&method=download&super_url=http%3A%2F%2Fdownload.shutterstock.com%2Fgatekeeper%2FW3siZSI6MTQxMDk0MTU2NSwiYyI6Il9waG90b19zZXNzaW9uX2lkIiwiZGMiOiJpZGxfMTIwMjU3OTUzIiwicCI6InYxfDEwMTI3NTg4fDEyMDI1Nzk1MyIsImsiOiJwaG90by8xMjAyNTc5NTMvbWVkaXVtLmpwZyIsIm0iOiIxIiwiZCI6InNodXR0ZXJzdG9jay1tZWRpYSJ9LCJBcjRnblBkWUVuVU5RRDlUYXhlaGh0eE5ZQ2siXQ%2Fshutterstock_120257953.jpg&racksite_id=ny&chosen_subscription=1&license=standard&src=rsGYfzzrvxLuJsHYe6mb0Q-1-107">Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>Familiar two- and three-step instructions (“wash your hands and dry them”) as well as less routine-bound instructions (“show me the monkey sitting under the chair”) should be understood. Speech should be 100% intelligible to an unfamiliar listener by 48 months. </p>
<p>Errors such as “poon” for “spoon” should have disappeared. Some speech sounds may still be difficult: particularly “r” and “th”, so that “rabbit” may still be pronounced as “wabbit” and “thumb” may be pronounced as “fum”. </p>
<p>If your two-year-old isn’t talking, or your four-year-old’s speech is difficult to understand, seek the advice of a speech pathologist. Do not wait until your child starts school to seek help. <a href="http://lshss.pubs.asha.org/article.aspx?articleid=1780466">Children can have better outcomes</a> if they receive help before they start school.</p>
<h2>Vocabulary and long-term outcomes</h2>
<p>The amount and types of words addressed to children in the home from a young age correlates with their growing vocabulary. In an interesting <a href="http://www.aft.org/pdfs/americaneducator/spring2003/TheEarlyCatastrophe.pdf">longitudinal study</a> of 42 children and their families, two researchers observed children at home once a month for an hour for 2 ½ years. </p>
<p>When they analysed their data according to family socio-economic status (upper socio-economic status, middle/lower socio-economic status and welfare) they noticed that the average child from a family on welfare heard 616 words per hour, the average child from a middle/lower socio-economic status (working class) family heard 1,251 words per hour while the average child from an upper socio-economic status (professional) family <a href="http://www.aft.org/pdfs/americaneducator/spring2003/TheEarlyCatastrophe.pdf">heard 2153 words per hour</a>. When they extrapolated their results over four years of experience, <a href="http://www.aft.org/pdfs/americaneducator/spring2003/TheEarlyCatastrophe.pdf">they found</a> that:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>the average child in a professional family would have accumulated experience with almost 45 million words </p>
</blockquote>
<p>while </p>
<blockquote>
<p>an average child in a welfare family would have accumulated experience with 13 million words. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Not surprisingly, the children who heard more words, <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8013242">had bigger vocabularies</a> and better language abilities by school age. Vocabulary size is important because children who start school with larger vocabularies <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/edu/98/3/554/">develop superior reading abilities</a>.</p>
<p>Children should be seen and heard, and engaged in conversation from a young age. If you are concerned about your child’s speech or language development, seek the advice of a speech pathologist.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/31768/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elise Baker has received funding from the Australian Research Council, and the New South Wales Department of Education. She works for The University of Sydney. She is affiliated with Speech Pathology Australia. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Natalie Munro has received funding from NSW SPELD. She works for The University of Sydney. She is affiliated with Speech Pathology Australia. </span></em></p>Babies are born communicating. Their cries and coos speak volumes. However, much-anticipated first words do not appear until 12 months later. By 18 months, the average child says about 50 words. By the…Elise Baker, Speech Language Pathologist and Lecturer, Discipline of Speech Pathology, University of SydneyNatalie Munro, Speech language pathologist & Lecturer, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/303032014-08-12T20:31:52Z2014-08-12T20:31:52ZPrivate schooling has little long-term pay-off<p>In a <a href="https://theconversation.com/state-school-kids-do-better-at-uni-29155">recent article for The Conversation</a>, Barbara Preston examined the link between type of school attended and progress at university. Barbara concluded that after controlling for tertiary entrance score, university students from government schools outperformed students from private schools. </p>
<p>This finding suggests that paying for an expensive private school education might not be the best preparation for university study. If this is the case, perhaps parents paying private school fees are looking for longer term pay-offs for their investment.</p>
<h2>So who has more success <em>after</em> university?</h2>
<p>I analysed data from the 12th wave of the <a href="http://www.melbourneinstitute.com/hilda/data/">Household Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia (HILDA)</a> project to examine the longer-term outcomes of attending private schools. For the analysis, I selected one respondent aged between 25 and 34 years per household. The majority of young people have completed their education by the age of 25 and are settled in their careers by the age of 34.</p>
<p>Preliminary analysis shows that individuals who attended Catholic or independent schools were more likely to have completed Year 12 and to have graduated from university, after controlling for the effects of parents’ education, age and sex. </p>
<p>But are there differences in labour market outcomes? Here the type of private school is important. Although those who attended a Catholic school were, on average, 1.3 times more likely to be employed on a full-time basis compared to those who attended a government school, former independent school students were no more likely to be employed full-time than those who attended a government school after controlling for the effects of level of education, sex and age.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/56241/original/6vn9qby2-1407816765.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/56241/original/6vn9qby2-1407816765.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/56241/original/6vn9qby2-1407816765.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/56241/original/6vn9qby2-1407816765.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/56241/original/6vn9qby2-1407816765.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/56241/original/6vn9qby2-1407816765.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=463&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/56241/original/6vn9qby2-1407816765.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=463&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/56241/original/6vn9qby2-1407816765.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=463&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<p>This result seems to suggest that paying private school fees is no guarantee of securing full-time employment. Given that women in this age cohort are in their prime child-bearing years, I also looked at the effect of interactions between sex and type of school attended; sex and age; and sex and level of education to determine whether there are differences between men and women. As expected, women were less likely than men to be employed full-time.</p>
<p>Next, I examined the earnings of those employed full-time according to type of school attended, controlling for the effects of sex, age and level of education. When it comes to weekly earnings, having attended a private school rather than a government school has no effect. </p>
<p>So there would seem to be no return on the parents’ investment in terms of the earnings of their offspring.</p>
<p>Perhaps parents were seeking to ensure that their offspring secured jobs with high levels of prestige in order to maintain their social status. After taking into account the effects of level of education, sex and age, having attended a Catholic school is associated with higher, on average, levels of occupational prestige than having attended a government school. On average, attendance at an independent school is not associated with higher levels of occupational prestige.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/56242/original/728q27h7-1407816813.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/56242/original/728q27h7-1407816813.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/56242/original/728q27h7-1407816813.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=313&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/56242/original/728q27h7-1407816813.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=313&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/56242/original/728q27h7-1407816813.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=313&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/56242/original/728q27h7-1407816813.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/56242/original/728q27h7-1407816813.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/56242/original/728q27h7-1407816813.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<h2>So why choose a private school?</h2>
<p>A closer examination of university graduates may shed some light on this paradox. Of the individuals who had completed a university-level qualification, those who had attended an independent school were more likely to have graduated from a Group of Eight (Go8) university compared to those who attended a government school. However, individuals who had attended a Catholic school were no more likely to have graduated from a Go8 university. Perhaps parents expect that graduation from an elite university would provide a pathway into a higher-paying career.</p>
<p>For university graduates employed on a full-time basis, graduation from a Go8 university had no effect on occupational prestige after taking into consideration the effects of sex, age and type of school attended. There was no pay-off for graduation from a Go8 university in the form of increased earnings, nor did type of school attended have any effect, after controlling for the effects of age, sex and field of study.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/56243/original/q7sjh6kk-1407816834.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/56243/original/q7sjh6kk-1407816834.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/56243/original/q7sjh6kk-1407816834.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/56243/original/q7sjh6kk-1407816834.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/56243/original/q7sjh6kk-1407816834.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/56243/original/q7sjh6kk-1407816834.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=491&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/56243/original/q7sjh6kk-1407816834.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=491&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/56243/original/q7sjh6kk-1407816834.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=491&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<p>These results must call into question the wisdom of paying private school fees, particularly for independent schools <a href="http://www.exfin.com/private-school-costs">whose fees can be anywhere from</a> $20,000 to $34,000 a year. The massive growth in the number of private schools since the 1990s may be having the effect of diluting the advantages perceived to be attached to private schooling. </p>
<p>If, as these results suggest, there is no long-term advantage to be gained from paying to attend an independent school, why do parents stretch their family budgets to pay private school fees? In a climate where university fees are set to rise, parents across the country may start asking themselves this very question.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/30303/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jenny Chesters does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>In a recent article for The Conversation, Barbara Preston examined the link between type of school attended and progress at university. Barbara concluded that after controlling for tertiary entrance score…Jenny Chesters, Research Fellow, University of CanberraLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/291552014-07-16T20:21:15Z2014-07-16T20:21:15ZState school kids do better at uni<p>State school graduates do better at university than private school graduates with the same end-of-school tertiary entrance score. That’s the clear finding in a number of Australian studies since the 1980s (<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8454.2007.00302.x">here</a>, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8462.2005.00349.x">here</a>, <a href="http://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=374963634623048;res=IELHSS">here</a> and <a href="http://aed.sagepub.com/content/29/2/175.abstract">here</a>), and in England since the 1990s (<a href="http://www.hefce.ac.uk/media/hefce/content/pubs/2014/201403/HEFCE2014_03.pdf">here</a>, <a href="http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/88/1/WRAP_Smith_Jeremy_twerp657.pdf">here</a>, and <a href="http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/economics/staff/academic/naylor/publications/obes2001.pdf">here</a>).</p>
<p>The Australian research compared academic results at the end of first year at particular universities for cohorts whose entry was based on tertiary entrance scores (now ATAR) for the previous year in the same state. <a href="http://www.hefce.ac.uk/media/hefce/content/pubs/2014/201403/HEFCE2014_03.pdf">The most recent English research</a> tracked all students who completed the end-of-school A-levels and went directly on to complete a full-time four-year degree course.</p>
<p>The differences between graduates of state and private schools were substantial (though less pronounced among those who did very well at university). The Australian research found that, on average, graduates of state schools received the same marks at the end of first-year university as graduates of private schools who had tertiary entrance scores around three to six points higher. </p>
<p>The English research found that at each A-level standard, on average around 7 percentage points more graduates of state schools than graduates of private schools received first or second-class, first division (upper second) honours.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/53815/original/smd7w9nh-1405377650.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/53815/original/smd7w9nh-1405377650.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/53815/original/smd7w9nh-1405377650.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=442&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53815/original/smd7w9nh-1405377650.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=442&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53815/original/smd7w9nh-1405377650.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=442&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53815/original/smd7w9nh-1405377650.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=555&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53815/original/smd7w9nh-1405377650.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=555&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53815/original/smd7w9nh-1405377650.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=555&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">English results for graduates of independent schools and all categories of state schools, showing percentages that received an upper second or better degree by A-level achievement at the end of school.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Research in both <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8454.2007.00302.x">Australia</a> and <a href="http://www.hefce.ac.uk/media/hefce/content/pubs/2014/201403/HEFCE2014_03.pdf">England</a> also found that with the same tertiary entrance scores:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>graduates of co-educational schools tend to do better than graduates of single-sex schools</p></li>
<li><p>graduates of lower-fee private schools (in Australia, Catholic schools) tend to do better than graduates of higher-fee private schools (in Australia, independent schools)</p></li>
<li><p>graduates of schools with lower average tertiary entrance scores tend to do better than graduates of schools with higher average tertiary entrance scores</p></li>
<li><p>graduates of (English) state comprehensive schools do better (to a small extent) than graduates of state selective schools. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>The general finding is that graduates of non-elite and co-educational schools do better at university than graduates of socially and academically elite and single-sex schools who achieved the same tertiary entrance score. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/53816/original/79kp4bpv-1405377693.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/53816/original/79kp4bpv-1405377693.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/53816/original/79kp4bpv-1405377693.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=229&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53816/original/79kp4bpv-1405377693.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=229&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53816/original/79kp4bpv-1405377693.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=229&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53816/original/79kp4bpv-1405377693.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=288&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53816/original/79kp4bpv-1405377693.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=288&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53816/original/79kp4bpv-1405377693.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=288&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Independent private schools have similar shares of enrolments in the final school year in Australia and the UK, but the state sector has a smaller share in Australia due to the large private Catholic sector (which at the secondary level has a socio-economic profile closer to the independent sector according to ABS Census data)</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>So what can explain this difference?</h2>
<p>There are no definitive explanations for these findings, though there is <a href="http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/88/1/WRAP_Smith_Jeremy_twerp657.pdf">some</a> attempt in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8454.2007.00302.x">literature</a>, some indicative data, and much informed speculation. And there is, of course, great variation among individual students – and among schools, universities and university courses. </p>
<p>Explanations tend to focus on aspects of secondary schooling and on students’ effort levels at university (associated with their cultures and aspirations), and any may be involved in particular cases:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Preparation for the end-of-school assessments in private schools, relative to state schools, boosts tertiary entrance results above “underlying ability”, and graduates regress to “underlying ability” level at university.</p></li>
<li><p>Preparation for life and learning beyond school in private schools (and single-sex schools) relative to state schools (and co-educational schools) is poor, resulting in university performance below “underlying ability”.</p></li>
<li><p>Graduates of private schools make less effort at university because of perceived long-term advantages of their secondary schooling and other socio-cultural reasons.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>It appears a reasonable assumption that tertiary entrance scores are boosted by a better quality of education at high fee private schools. Fee-based resources several times greater than those of state schools can fund smaller classes and other ways to enhance learning. In addition, selection and exclusion practices can ensure an academic atmosphere not disturbed by disruptive, difficult-to-teach students, or even students without high academic aspirations.</p>
<p>However, there appears to be contrary evidence: state school students tend to do better in NAPLAN tests than private school students at schools of similar socio-economic status (especially at higher socio-economic levels), according to data on the <a href="http://www.myschool.edu.au/">My School website</a> analysed by researchers Bernie Shepherd and Chris Bonnor for a forthcoming publication.</p>
<p>Thus other explanations are likely. One involves a narrow focus on tertiary entrance results at many elite schools. Tertiary entrance results are a central aspect of the status and marketing of high-fee private schools – supported by high-visibility league tables and human interest stories in the media. High pressure, close supervision and narrowly defined learning <a href="http://www.forbes.com/sites/nickmorrison/2014/03/31/university-success-rates-hold-lessons-for-private-schools/">leave little room</a> for independent, self-motivated learning, and developing the personal and social skills required for success at university.</p>
<p>Single-sex school cultures and practices may not prepare students well for university life. This is <a>hinted at</a> in the <a href="http://aer.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/25/2/237">literature</a>, but was “obvious” for a recent university graduate I spoke to who attended both single-sex and co-educational secondary schools and said many single-sex school graduates “do not learn to socialise at school, and when they get to uni they just party”.</p>
<p>Other possible explanations relate to cultural class assumptions around success and entitlement. Some private school graduates may have an explicit belief (whether reasonable or not) that just having attended such an elite school will lead to employment advantages after university. Thus the incentive to work hard at university is <a href="http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/88/1/WRAP_Smith_Jeremy_twerp657.pdf">diminished</a>.</p>
<p>Some may have a less conscious belief that they have innate superior intelligence that will get them though university without much additional effort. This sense is not properly tested in the “hothouse” atmosphere of closely supervised elite schooling, but is found wanting in the more open society of university.</p>
<p>There may also be a lack of motivation for university among those from elite private schools where university is the norm. Those from state schools, where many different destinations are common, make a more deliberate choice for university.</p>
<h2>What are the implications?</h2>
<p>The government has set its sights on a highly differentiated fee and scholarship regime for higher education. Graduates of many universities <a href="https://theconversation.com/hecs-upon-you-natsem-models-the-real-impact-of-higher-uni-fees-27808">are likely to have debts</a> of over $100,000 for popular and socially important courses such as science, and <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/national/aspiring-veterinarians-face-higher-university-fees-20140712-3btyt.html">debts of over $250,000</a> for longer courses such as veterinary science. </p>
<p>Universities with high-demand courses and high fees will need fairer criteria for access to all courses and for the awarding of all scholarships based on entry-level academic merit. This is not just a matter of justice for individuals, but also for our future as a well-educated, productive and fair society.</p>
<p>English education commentator Nick Morrison <a href="http://www.forbes.com/sites/nickmorrison/2014/03/31/university-success-rates-hold-lessons-for-private-schools/">suggested</a> that the disparity between state and private school graduates’ success at university </p>
<blockquote>
<p>should provoke fee-paying schools to question whether they are doing all they can to equip students for university.</p>
</blockquote>
<p><a href="http://www.afr.com/p/personal_finance/smart_money/do_the_sums_on_the_true_cost_of_BYWALSruFXKa7jDnRPDp3J">The Australian Financial Review</a> recently urged people to “do the sums on the true cost of private schools”. It’s apparent that high private school fees may not be buying effective education. In the context of university debts upwards of $100,000, families should “do the sums” on comparable expenditure on schooling.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/29155/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Barbara Preston has consulted to a wide range of organisations in the schools and university sectors, including public and private sector teacher unions, teacher professional associations, regulatory authorities, councils of deans and a state vice-chancellors committee. She currently has no relevant consultancies or affiliations.</span></em></p>State school graduates do better at university than private school graduates with the same end-of-school tertiary entrance score. That’s the clear finding in a number of Australian studies since the 1980s…Barbara Preston, PhD candidate, Education, Science, Technology & Mathematics Faculty, University of CanberraLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/204972013-11-24T19:03:50Z2013-11-24T19:03:50ZWhy some kids can’t spell and why spelling tests won’t help<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/35857/original/fv7m6gpm-1385082224.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=14%2C630%2C3249%2C2882&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Spelling tests aren't teaching kids to spell. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Test image from www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>A couple of years ago, early one morning, <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/national/toxic-smoke-fears-as-industrial-fire-burns-in-canberra-20110916-1kccu.html">I received an SMS</a> advising “resadents to stay indoors because of a nearby insadent”. I was shocked by the spelling, as much as the message. Surely, I thought, if it was a real message then the spelling would be correct. </p>
<p>Spelling matters. In a text message from a friend teeing up a night out “c u at 8” is fine - but in an emergency warning text from a government agency, I expect the spelling to be standard. But why is it that some people struggle with standard spelling? </p>
<p>Spelling remains the most relentlessly tested of all the literacy skills, but it is the least taught. </p>
<p>Sending a list of words home on Monday to be tested on Friday is not teaching. Nor is getting children to write their spelling words out 10 times, even if they have to do it in rainbow colours.</p>
<p>Looking, covering, writing and checking does not teach spelling. Looking for little words inside other words, and doing word searches are just time fillers. And writing your “spelling” words in spirals or backwards is just plain stupid. </p>
<p>And yet, this is a good summary of most of the current spelling programs in schools today.</p>
<p>So, what should spelling teaching look like? </p>
<h2>Finding meaning</h2>
<p>Children should know the meanings of the words they spell, and as logical as that sounds - ask a child in your life what this week’s spelling words mean, and you might be surprised by their answers. </p>
<p>If spelling words are simply strings of letters to be learnt by heart with no meaning attached and no investigation of how those words are constructed, then we are simply assigning our children a task equivalent to learning ten random seven-digit PINs each week. </p>
<p>That is not only very very hard, it’s pointless.</p>
<h2>More than sounds</h2>
<p>English is an alphabetic language; we use letters to write words. But it is not a phonetic language: there is no simple match between sounds and letters. </p>
<p>We have 26 letters, but we have around 44 sounds (it’s not easy to be precise as different accents produce different sounds) and several hundred ways to write those sounds. </p>
<p>So, while sounds - or phonics - are important in learning to spell, they are insufficient. When the only tool we give young children for spelling is to “sound it out”, we are making a phonological promise to them that English simply cannot keep.</p>
<h2>How words make their meanings</h2>
<p>Sounds are important in learning to spell, but just as important are the morphemes in words. Morphemes are the meaningful parts of words. For example, “jumped” has two morphemes - “jump” and “ed”. “Jump” is easily recognised as meaningful, but “ed” is also meaningful because it tells us that the jump happened in the past. </p>
<p>Young spellers who are relying on the phonological promise given to them in their early years of schooling typically spell “jumped” as “jumt”. </p>
<p>When attempting to spell a word, the first question we should teach children to ask is not “what sounds can I hear?” but “what does this word mean?”. This gives important information, which helps enormously with the spelling of the word. </p>
<p>In the example of “jumt” it brings us back to the base word “jump”; where the sound of “p” can now be heard, and the past marker “ed” , rather than the sound “t” which we hear when we say the word. </p>
<p>Consider the author of the emergency text message at the beginning of this article as they pondered which of the many plausible letters they could use for the sound they could hear in “res - uh - dent”. </p>
<p>If they had asked themselves first, “What does this word mean?” the answer would have been people who “reside”, and then they would have heard the answer to their phonological dilemma.</p>
<h2>Where words come from</h2>
<p>English has a fascinating and constantly evolving history. Our words, and their spellings, come from many languages. Often we have kept the spellings from the original languages, while applying our own pronunciation. </p>
<p>As a result, only about 12% of words in English are spelt the way they sound. But that doesn’t mean that spelling is inexplicable, and therefore only learned by rote - it means that teaching spelling becomes a fascinating exploration of the remarkable history of the language - etymology. </p>
<p>Some may think that etymology is the sole province of older and experienced learners, but it’s not. </p>
<p>Young children are incredibly responsive to stories about words, and these understandings about words are key to building their spelling skills, but also building their vocabulary. </p>
<p>Yet poor spellers and young spellers are rarely given these additional tools to understand how words work and too often poor spellers are relegated to simply doing more phonics work. </p>
<h2>Teaching - not testing</h2>
<p>The only people who benefit from spelling tests are those who do well on them - and the benefit is to their self-esteem rather than their spelling ability. They were already good spellers. </p>
<p>The people who don’t benefit from spelling tests are those who are poor at spelling. They struggled with spelling before the test, and they still struggle after the test. Testing is not teaching.</p>
<p>Parents and teachers should consider these questions as they reflect on the ways in which spelling is approached in their school.</p>
<p>Are all children learning to love words from their very first years at school? Are they being fascinated by stories about where words come from and what those stories tell us about the spelling of those words? </p>
<p>Are they being excited by breaking the code, figuring how words are making their meanings and thrilled to find that what they’ve learned about one word helps them solve another word? </p>
<p>Put simply - is spelling your child’s favourite subject?</p>
<p>If the answer is no, then something needs to be done about the teaching.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/20497/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Misty Adoniou is a Senior Lecturer in Language, Literacy and Teaching English as a Second Language at the University of Canberra. She occasionally presents workshops in schools on the teaching of spelling.</span></em></p>A couple of years ago, early one morning, I received an SMS advising “resadents to stay indoors because of a nearby insadent”. I was shocked by the spelling, as much as the message. Surely, I thought…Misty Adoniou, Senior Lecturer in Language, Literacy and TESL, University of CanberraLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.