tag:theconversation.com,2011:/uk/topics/space-research-8221/articlesSpace research – The Conversation2024-02-05T02:45:50Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2226072024-02-05T02:45:50Z2024-02-05T02:45:50ZNASA is looking for commercial Mars missions. Do people still want to go to Mars?<p>Mars has been a source of myth, lore and inspiration since antiquity. It is also an interesting place to research – a legitimate candidate for us to find some form of alien life.</p>
<p>Since the 1960s, Mars has been a popular destination for space missions. Now, for the first time, <a href="https://arstechnica.com/space/2024/02/for-the-first-time-nasa-has-asked-industry-about-private-missions-to-mars/">NASA has invited the private sector</a> to submit proposals on commercial Mars missions.</p>
<p>These missions would range from carrying various payloads to the red planet, to providing communications relay services. No talk of a Mars astronaut just yet.</p>
<p>But do people still want to go to Mars? Absolutely. One question is, what is the best way to get people there? Another question – should we?</p>
<h2>Modern exploration of Mars</h2>
<p>Since 1960, there have been <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_missions_to_Mars">50 missions</a> with scientific and technical objectives related to Mars. Thirty-one of these have been deemed successful, which is not a bad strike rate.</p>
<p>There have also been plenty of spectacular failures, like the <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-40029180">crash of the Schiaparelli lander</a> in 2016.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573300/original/file-20240204-25-6zvmkz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573300/original/file-20240204-25-6zvmkz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573300/original/file-20240204-25-6zvmkz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=645&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573300/original/file-20240204-25-6zvmkz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=645&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573300/original/file-20240204-25-6zvmkz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=645&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573300/original/file-20240204-25-6zvmkz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=811&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573300/original/file-20240204-25-6zvmkz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=811&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573300/original/file-20240204-25-6zvmkz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=811&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Satellite image of the Schiaparelli impact area taken on October 25, 2016. Insets show areas where the lander crashed (centre left), impact from the front heat shield (upper right), and the parachute and rear heat shield (lower left).</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA21131">NASA/JPL-Caltech/Univ. of Arizona</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These missions have returned a wealth of information about Mars – its atmosphere, orbit, geology and more. According to some parts of the internet, they have also returned amazing images of “<a href="https://www.space.com/17191-face-on-mars.html">faces” on its surface</a>, “<a href="https://mars.nasa.gov/resources/26754/door-shaped-fracture-spotted-by-curiosity-at-east-cliffs/">doors” in rocky cliffs</a> and “<a href="https://spaceexplored.com/2023/04/14/strange-dragon-bone-looking-mars-rocks-spotted-by-curiosity-rover/">fossilised bones</a>”.</p>
<p>In all cases, geologists had more mundane explanations (rocks). But such public interest shows that Mars truly occupies our imaginations.</p>
<p>A typical interplanetary space mission <a href="https://lasp.colorado.edu/mop/files/2019/11/Mission-costs.pdf">costs at least a billion US dollars</a>, so the world’s major space agencies have spent no less than US$50 billion on Mars over the years. And this is just to send cameras, rovers and landers. To send people to Mars would be next level.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573262/original/file-20240204-27-sk4u6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573262/original/file-20240204-27-sk4u6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573262/original/file-20240204-27-sk4u6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=443&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573262/original/file-20240204-27-sk4u6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=443&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573262/original/file-20240204-27-sk4u6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=443&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573262/original/file-20240204-27-sk4u6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=556&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573262/original/file-20240204-27-sk4u6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=556&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573262/original/file-20240204-27-sk4u6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=556&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The original image of a ‘face on Mars’, taken by the Viking 1 spacecraft in 1976.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA01141">NASA/JPL</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/our-long-fascination-with-the-journey-to-mars-106541">Our long fascination with the journey to Mars</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>A better way to do business?</h2>
<p>NASA is starting to explore different ways to undertake space missions. For decades, NASA and other space agencies around the world have spent large sums on in-house planning, development, prototyping and production for space missions. </p>
<p>In the 2020s, the technologies that enable and support space exploration are increasingly being developed in the commercial world. An example most people will be familiar with is Elon Musk’s <a href="https://www.spacex.com/">SpaceX</a>. Many of the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/10/05/science/elon-musk-spacex-starship-mars.html">SpaceX objectives have Mars</a> and beyond as the ultimate goal – “<a href="https://www.spacex.com/humanspaceflight/">making humanity interplanetary</a>”. </p>
<p>The development of the Falcon rockets by SpaceX, Starlink satellites, and the Starship rocket could not be further from NASA’s historical model. Where the NASA approach has been conservative, SpaceX makes lots of changes fast, iterates quickly, and learns quickly from failure.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/921VbEMAwwY?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The SpaceX Starship rocket development.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>And SpaceX is not alone. There is a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_private_spaceflight_companies">growing industry of commercial providers of access to space</a>, particularly in the United States.</p>
<p>NASA’s current roadmap involves going “back to the Moon” to re-establish a human presence with the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/">Artemis program</a>, then on to <a href="https://mars.nasa.gov/#red_planet/5">a human presence on Mars</a>. In this roadmap, the concept of leveraging commercial providers has taken hold. </p>
<p>Instead of in-house development, NASA is moving in favour of specifying requirements and then assessing the solutions commercial providers might supply in a competitive process.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/all-uk-astronaut-mission-shows-that-private-enterprise-is-vital-to-the-future-of-space-exploration-216762">All-UK astronaut mission shows that private enterprise is vital to the future of space exploration</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Pros and cons</h2>
<p>It appears that now, even compared to 20 years ago, such an approach has become much more viable, as demonstrated by SpaceX. In theory, it could be cheaper and more efficient.</p>
<p>Likely the bigger positive effect will be the substantial stimulus to the commercial sector. With companies innovating to meet the requirements of space missions, the technology spin-offs will potentially have more <a href="https://managementconsulted.com/roi-of-a-space-mission/">economic and social impact than getting to Mars itself</a>.</p>
<p>There is a <a href="https://theconversation.com/four-surprising-technological-innovations-that-came-out-of-the-apollo-moon-landings-119605">good history of this</a> from the development of technologies for space and from mega-science projects more generally.</p>
<p>However, it is very early days and the commercial approach has to prove itself. There is always an argument that once you start to cease in-house development at a place like NASA, capabilities start to gradually decay. Time will tell. The first steps – reaching the Moon – will go a long way in testing the approach.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/humans-are-going-back-to-the-moon-to-stay-but-when-that-will-be-is-becoming-less-clear-221996">Humans are going back to the Moon to stay, but when that will be is becoming less clear</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573312/original/file-20240205-29-trs5bq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573312/original/file-20240205-29-trs5bq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573312/original/file-20240205-29-trs5bq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573312/original/file-20240205-29-trs5bq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573312/original/file-20240205-29-trs5bq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573312/original/file-20240205-29-trs5bq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573312/original/file-20240205-29-trs5bq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573312/original/file-20240205-29-trs5bq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">NASA’s Curiosity Mars rover spotted a tiny flower-shaped rock while exploring the planet’s surface – one of many features geologists are learning about.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://mars.nasa.gov/resources/26587/curiosity-finds-a-martian-flower/">NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>But should humans go to Mars?</h2>
<p>Mars entered the modern psyche as a place of mystery, promise and danger. This was illustrated vividly more than 100 years ago by H.G. Wells in the novel The War of the Worlds. The number of books, songs, TV shows and movies about Mars is enormous, containing some great (and not so great) art.</p>
<p>Should humans go to Mars? Musk wants to do it, sure. In the 2010s, the Dutch <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_One">Mars One</a> startup selected 100 volunteers to travel to Mars on a one-way ticket and raised millions of dollars before going bankrupt in 2019. There will always be some cross-section of society wanting to live on Mars.</p>
<p>Some will argue that before humans become interplanetary and start to “mess up” another planet, we should make sure Earth is looked after. Others point out that space exploration should <a href="https://theconversation.com/sustainability-is-often-an-afterthought-in-space-exploration-that-needs-to-change-as-the-industry-grows-211335">do more to include sustainability</a>.</p>
<p>Despite this debate, if the history of human exploration is anything to go by, you only need a tiny fraction of the population to be motivated enough to do it. If they also have the capital, it will happen.</p>
<p>I can’t see that Mars will be much different.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222607/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Steven Tingay does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Mars has been a popular destination since space exploration began – and there are plenty of people who’d love to go there.Steven Tingay, John Curtin Distinguished Professor (Radio Astronomy), Curtin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2193962024-01-21T23:31:52Z2024-01-21T23:31:52ZThe Solar System used to have nine planets. Maybe it still does? Here’s your catch-up on space today<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566534/original/file-20231219-25-4dyqky.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=31%2C15%2C5161%2C3230&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Some of us remember August 24 2006 like it was yesterday. It was the day Pluto got booted from the exclusive “planets club”.</p>
<p>I (Sara) was 11 years old, and my entire class began lunch break by passionately chanting “Pluto is a planet” in protest of the information we’d just received. It was a touching display. At the time, 11-year-old me was outraged – even somewhat inconsolable. Now, a much older me wholeheartedly accepts: Pluto is not a planet. </p>
<p>Similar to Sara, I (Rebecca) vividly remember Pluto’s re-designation to dwarf status. For me, it wasn’t so much that the celestial body had been reclassified. That is science, after all, and things change with new knowledge. Rather, what got to me was how the astronomy community handled the PR. </p>
<p>Even popular astronomers known for their public persona stumbled through mostly <a href="https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=100145890">unapologetic explanations</a>. It was a missed opportunity. What was poorly communicated as a demotion was actually the discovery of new exciting members of our Solar System, of which <a href="https://www.loc.gov/everyday-mysteries/astronomy/item/why-is-pluto-no-longer-a-planet/">Pluto was the first</a>. </p>
<p>The good news is astronomers have better media support now, and there’s a lot of amazing science to catch up on. Let’s go over what you might have missed.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566535/original/file-20231219-19-8m96pv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566535/original/file-20231219-19-8m96pv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566535/original/file-20231219-19-8m96pv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566535/original/file-20231219-19-8m96pv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566535/original/file-20231219-19-8m96pv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566535/original/file-20231219-19-8m96pv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566535/original/file-20231219-19-8m96pv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566535/original/file-20231219-19-8m96pv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pluto didn’t meet the criteria of a fully fledged planet. But there may still be a 9th planet in our Solar System waiting to be found.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A throwback to a shocking demotion</h2>
<p>Pluto’s fate was almost certainly sealed the day Eris was discovered in 2005. Like Pluto, Eris orbits in the outskirts of our Solar System. Although it has a smaller radius than Pluto, it has <a href="https://astronomy.swin.edu.au/cosmos/m/Mass">more mass</a>.</p>
<p>Astronomers concluded that discovering objects such as Pluto and Eris would only become more common as our telescopes became more powerful. They were right. Today there are five known <a href="https://theconversation.com/new-dwarf-planet-in-the-outer-solar-system-62354">dwarf planets</a> in the Solar System. </p>
<p>The conditions for what classifies a “planet” as opposed to a “dwarf planet” were <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/solar-system/planets/what-is-a-planet/">set by the International Astronomical Union</a>. To cut a long story short, Pluto wasn’t being targeted back in 2006. It just didn’t meet all three criteria for a fully fledged planet:</p>
<ol>
<li>it must orbit a star (in our Solar System this would be the Sun)</li>
<li>it must be big enough that gravity has forced it into a spherical shape</li>
<li>it must be big enough that its own gravity has cleared away any other objects of a similar size near its orbit.</li>
</ol>
<p>The third criterion was Pluto’s downfall. It hasn’t cleared its neighbouring region of other objects. </p>
<p>So is our Solar System fated to have just eight planets? Not necessarily. There may be another one waiting to be found. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/ive-always-wondered-why-are-the-stars-planets-and-moons-round-when-comets-and-asteroids-arent-160541">I've always wondered: why are the stars, planets and moons round, when comets and asteroids aren't?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Is there a Planet Nine out there?</h2>
<p>With the discovery of new and distant dwarf planets, astronomers eventually realised the dwarf planets’ motions around the Sun didn’t quite add up. </p>
<p>We can use complicated <a href="https://www.caltech.edu/about/news/caltech-researchers-find-evidence-real-ninth-planet-49523">simulations in supercomputers</a> to model how gravitational interactions would play out in a complex environment such as our Solar System. </p>
<p>In 2016, California Institute of Technology astronomers Konstantin Batygin and Mike Brown concluded – after modelling the dwarf planets and their observed paths – that mathematically there ought be a ninth planet out there.</p>
<p>Their <a href="https://www.caltech.edu/about/news/caltech-researchers-find-evidence-real-ninth-planet-49523">modelling</a> determined this planet would have to be about ten times the mass of Earth, and located some 90 billion kilometres away from the Sun (about 15 times farther then Pluto). It’s a pretty bold claim, and some remain sceptical.</p>
<p>One might assume it’s easy to determine whether such a planet exists. Just point a telescope towards where you think it is and look, right? If we can see galaxies billions of light years away, shouldn’t we be able to spot a ninth planet in our own Solar System?</p>
<p>Well, the issue lies in how (not) bright this theoretical planet would be. Best estimates suggest it sits at the depth limit of Earth’s largest telescopes. In other words, it could be 600 times fainter than Pluto.</p>
<p>The other issue is we don’t know exactly where to look. Our Solar System is <em>really</em> big, and it would take a significant amount of time to cover the entire sky region in which Planet Nine might be hiding. To further complicate things, there’s only a small window each year during which conditions are just right for this search. </p>
<p>That isn’t stopping us from looking, though. In 2021, a team using the Atacama Cosmology Telescope (a millimetre-wave radio telescope) published the results from their <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-4357/ac2307">search for a ninth planet’s</a> movement in the outskirts of the Solar System. </p>
<p>While they weren’t able to confirm its existence, they provided ten candidates for further follow-up. We may only be a few years from knowing what lurks in the outskirts of our planetary neighbourhood.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566540/original/file-20231219-17-8m96pv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566540/original/file-20231219-17-8m96pv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566540/original/file-20231219-17-8m96pv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566540/original/file-20231219-17-8m96pv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566540/original/file-20231219-17-8m96pv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566540/original/file-20231219-17-8m96pv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566540/original/file-20231219-17-8m96pv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566540/original/file-20231219-17-8m96pv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The ACT sits at an altitude of 5,190 meters in Chile’s Atacama desert. Here, the lack of atmospheric water vapour helps to increase its accuracy.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nist.gov/measuring-cosmos/atacama-cosmology-telescope">NIST/ACT Collaboration</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Finding exoplanets</h2>
<p>Even though we have telescopes that can reveal galaxies from the universe’s earliest years, we still can’t easily directly image planets outside of our Solar System, also called exoplanets. </p>
<p>The reason can be found in fundamental physics. Planets emit very dim red wavelengths of light, so we can only see them clearly when they’re reflecting the light of their star. The farther away a planet is from its star, the harder it is to see. </p>
<p>Astronomers knew they’d have to find other ways to look for planets in foreign star systems. Before Pluto was reclassified they had already detected the <a href="https://exoplanets.nasa.gov/resources/2084/greetings-from-your-first-exoplanet.">first exoplanet</a>, 51 Pegasi B, using a <a href="https://www.planetary.org/articles/color-shifting-stars-the-radial-velocity-method">radial velocity method</a>. </p>
<p>This gas giant world is large enough, and close enough to its star, that the gravitational tug of war between the two can be detected all the way from Earth. However, this method of discovery is tedious and challenging from Earth’s surface. </p>
<p>So astronomers came up with another way to find exoplanets: the transit method. When Mercury or Venus pass in front of the Sun, they block a small amount of the Sun’s light. With powerful telescopes, we can look for this phenomenon in distant star systems as well. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566539/original/file-20231219-15-rhodbm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566539/original/file-20231219-15-rhodbm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566539/original/file-20231219-15-rhodbm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=619&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566539/original/file-20231219-15-rhodbm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=619&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566539/original/file-20231219-15-rhodbm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=619&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566539/original/file-20231219-15-rhodbm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=778&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566539/original/file-20231219-15-rhodbm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=778&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566539/original/file-20231219-15-rhodbm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=778&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In August, the TESS telescope took this snapshot of the Large Magellanic Cloud (right) and the bright star R Doradus (left).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA/MIT/TESS</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We do this via the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/kepler">Kepler</a> space telescope and the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (<a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/tess">TESS</a>). Both have observed tens of thousands of stars and discovered thousands of new planets – dozens of which are about the same size as Earth. </p>
<p>But these observatories can only tell us a planet’s size and distance from its star. They can’t tell us if a planet <a href="https://theconversation.com/do-aliens-exist-we-asked-five-experts-161811">might be hosting life</a>. For that we’d need the James Webb Space Telescope.</p>
<h2>Looking for life</h2>
<p>The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) has just wrapped up its first year and a half of science. Among its many achievements is the detection of molecules in the atmospheres of exoplanets, a feat made possible by the transit method. </p>
<p>One of these exoplanets, WASP-17, is also known as a “hot Jupiter”. It seems to have been plucked from a page in a sci-fi novel, with evidence for <a href="https://webbtelescope.org/contents/media/images/2023/140/01HC3B0DZNEMRQT3KQ6X4ZMNN2">quartz nanocrystals</a> in its clouds. </p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/10-times-this-year-the-webb-telescope-blew-us-away-with-new-images-of-our-stunning-universe-194739">10 times this year the Webb telescope blew us away with new images of our stunning universe</a>
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<p>Meanwhile, the <a href="https://exoplanets.nasa.gov/what-is-an-exoplanet/planet-types/super-earth/">super-Earth</a> <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/universe/exoplanets/webb-discovers-methane-carbon-dioxide-in-atmosphere-of-k2-18-b/">K2-18b</a> (a Kepler find) shows signs of methane and carbon dioxide. But while such discoveries are amazing, the magic ingredient <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/eight-ingredients-life-in-space.html#:%7E:text=Liquid%20water%20is%20an%20essential,substances%20than%20most%20other%20liquids.">necessary for life</a> still eludes us: water vapour.</p>
<p>The field of planetary studies is evolving and 2024 looks promising. Maybe JWST will finally produce signs of water vapour in an exoplanet atmosphere. Who knows, we might even have a ninth planet surprise us all, filling the void left by Pluto. </p>
<p>Stay tuned for exciting science to come.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566536/original/file-20231219-21-vpjm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566536/original/file-20231219-21-vpjm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566536/original/file-20231219-21-vpjm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566536/original/file-20231219-21-vpjm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566536/original/file-20231219-21-vpjm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566536/original/file-20231219-21-vpjm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566536/original/file-20231219-21-vpjm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566536/original/file-20231219-21-vpjm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Small bodies on the very fringes of our Solar System are essentially invisible to us – but advanced new techniques and technologies are changing this.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA/Jasmin Moghbeli</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/219396/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>When most of us left school there were still 9 planets – but we’ve come a long way since Pluto’s demotion. Here’s what’s next on the space agenda.Sara Webb, Lecturer, Centre for Astrophysics and Supercomputing, Swinburne University of TechnologyRebecca Allen, Coordinator Swinburne Astronomy Online | Program Lead of Microgravity Experimentation, Space Technology and Industry Institute, Swinburne University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2037522023-04-13T20:08:42Z2023-04-13T20:08:42ZAstronomers have directly detected a massive exoplanet. The method could transform the search for life beyond Earth<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520725/original/file-20230413-14-kps5s1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=29%2C44%2C4877%2C3185&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Finding life on other planets might well be the holy grail of astronomy, but the hunt for suitable host planets that can sustain life is a resource-intensive task.</p>
<p>The search for exoplanets (planets outside our Solar System) involves competing for time on Earth’s biggest telescopes – yet the hit rate of this search can be disappointingly low. </p>
<p>In a <a href="http://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abo6192">new study</a> published today in Science, I and my international team of colleagues have combined different search techniques to discover a new giant planet. It could change the way we try to image planets in the future.</p>
<h2>Imaging planets is no small feat</h2>
<p>To satisfy our curiosity about our place in the universe, astronomers have developed many techniques to search for planets orbiting other stars. Perhaps the simplest of these is called direct imaging. But it’s not easy.</p>
<p>Direct imaging involves attaching a powerful camera to a large telescope and trying to detect light emitted, or reflected, from a planet. Stars are bright, and planets are dim, so it’s akin to searching for fireflies dancing around a spotlight. </p>
<p>It’s no surprise only about 20 planets have been found with this technique to date.</p>
<p>Yet direct imaging is of great value. It helps shed light on a planet’s atmospheric properties, such as its temperature and composition, in a way other detection techniques can’t.</p>
<h2>HIP99770b: a new gas giant</h2>
<p>Our direct imaging of a new planet, named HIP99770b, reveals a hot, giant and moderately cloudy planet. It orbits its star at a distance that falls somewhere between the orbital distances of Saturn and Uranus around our Sun. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520712/original/file-20230413-26-kg7d4d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520712/original/file-20230413-26-kg7d4d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520712/original/file-20230413-26-kg7d4d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=362&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520712/original/file-20230413-26-kg7d4d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=362&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520712/original/file-20230413-26-kg7d4d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=362&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520712/original/file-20230413-26-kg7d4d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=455&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520712/original/file-20230413-26-kg7d4d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=455&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520712/original/file-20230413-26-kg7d4d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=455&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The HIP99770 star is almost 14 times brighter than the Sun. But since its planet has an orbit larger than Saturn’s, the planet receives a similar amount of energy as Jupiter does from the Sun.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>With about 15 times the mass of Jupiter, HIP99770b is a real giant. However, it’s also more than 1,000°C, so it’s not a good prospect for a habitable world.</p>
<p>What the HIP99770 system does offer is an analogy to our own Solar System. It has a cold “debris disk” of ice and rock far out from the star, akin to a scaled-up version of the Kuiper Belt in our Solar System. </p>
<p>The main difference is that the HIP99770 system is dominated by one high-mass planet, rather than several smaller ones.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520697/original/file-20230413-28-yujzdr.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520697/original/file-20230413-28-yujzdr.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520697/original/file-20230413-28-yujzdr.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=599&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520697/original/file-20230413-28-yujzdr.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=599&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520697/original/file-20230413-28-yujzdr.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=599&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520697/original/file-20230413-28-yujzdr.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=753&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520697/original/file-20230413-28-yujzdr.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=753&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520697/original/file-20230413-28-yujzdr.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=753&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Images of the HIP99770 system, taken with exoplanet imager SCExAO (Subaru Coronagraphic Extreme Adaptive Optics Project) coupled with data from the CHARIS instrument (Coronagraphic High-Resolution Imager and Spectrograph).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Searching with the light on</h2>
<p>We reached our findings by first detecting hints of a planet via indirect detection methods. We noticed the star was wobbling in space, which hinted at the presence of a planet in the vicinity with a large gravitational pull.</p>
<p>This motivated our direct imaging efforts; we were no longer searching in the dark.</p>
<p>The extra data came from the European Space Agency’s <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Gaia">Gaia spacecraft</a>, which has been measuring the positions of nearly one billion stars since 2014. Gaia is sensitive enough to detect tiny variations of a star’s motion through space, such as those caused by planets. </p>
<p>We also supplemented these data with measurements from Gaia’s predecessor, Hipparcos. In total, we had 25 years’ worth of “astrometric” (positional) data to work with.</p>
<p>Previously, researchers <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/0004-637X/831/2/136/meta">have used indirect methods</a> to guide imaging that has discovered companion stars, but not planets.</p>
<p>It’s not their fault: massive stars such as HIP99770 – which is almost twice the mass of our Sun – are reluctant to give up their secrets. Otherwise-successful search techniques can rarely reach the levels of precision required to detect planets around such massive stars.</p>
<p>Our detection, which used both direct imaging and astrometry, demonstrates a more efficient way to search for planets. It’s the first time the direct detection of an exoplanet has been guided through initial indirect detection methods.</p>
<p>Gaia is expected to continue observing until at least 2025, and its archive will remain useful for decades to come.</p>
<h2>Mysteries remain</h2>
<p>Astrometry of HIP99770 suggests it belongs to the Argus association of stars – a group of stars that moves together through space. This would suggest the system is rather young, about 40 million years old. That would make it roughly one-hundredth of the age of our Solar System.</p>
<p>However, our analysis of the star’s pulsations, as well as models of the planet’s brightness, suggest an older age of between 120 million and 200 million years. If this is the case, HIP99770 might just be an interloper in the Argus group.</p>
<p>Now that it’s known to host a planet, astronomers will aim to further unravel the mysteries of HIP99770 and its immediate environment.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-next-generation-gamma-ray-observatory-is-underway-to-probe-the-extreme-universe-191772">A 'next-generation' gamma-ray observatory is underway to probe the extreme Universe</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/203752/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Simon Murphy receives funding from the Australian Research Council. He contributed to this research whilst at the University of Sydney, as well as at the University of Southern Queensland, where he now works as an ARC Future Fellow.</span></em></p>Astronomers are hot on the search for new exoplanets – planets that lie beyond our Solar System – which might show potential for sustaining life.Simon J. Murphy, Senior Lecturer, Astrophysics, University of Southern QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1918522022-11-17T01:03:46Z2022-11-17T01:03:46ZArtemis 1 is off – and we’re a step closer to using Moon dirt for construction in space<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495774/original/file-20221116-22-xx3grw.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=20%2C0%2C4433%2C2964&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">John Raoux</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>NASA has just launched its first rocket in the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/">Artemis program</a>, which will, among other things, take scientific experiments to produce metal on the Moon.</p>
<p>In recent years, <a href="https://ispace-inc.com/news/?p=2062">a number of businesses</a> and organisations have ramped up efforts to establish technologies on the Moon. But doing work in space is expensive. Sending just one kilogram of material to the Moon <a href="https://www.astrobotic.com/lunar-delivery/landers/">can cost</a> US$1.2 million (A$1.89 million).</p>
<p>What if we could save money by using the resources that are already there? This process is called in-situ resource utilisation, and it’s exactly what astrometallurgy researchers are trying to achieve. </p>
<h2>Why the Moon?</h2>
<p>The Moon has amazing potential for future space exploration. Its gravity is only one-sixth as strong as Earth’s, which makes it much easier to fly things from the Moon to Earth’s orbit than to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2352309318300099">fly them direct from Earth</a>! And in an industry where every kilogram costs a fortune, the ability to save money is extremely attractive.</p>
<p>Although people have been looking at making oxygen and rocket fuel <a href="https://adsabs.harvard.edu/pdf/1985lbsa.conf..559C">in space for decades</a>, the Artemis program marks the first time we have solid plans to make and use metal in space. </p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-moons-top-layer-alone-has-enough-oxygen-to-sustain-8-billion-people-for-100-000-years-170013">The Moon's top layer alone has enough oxygen to sustain 8 billion people for 100,000 years</a>
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<p><a href="https://www.lunarresources.space/">A number of companies</a> are looking at extracting metals and oxygen from Moon dirt. At first these will be demonstrations, but eventually Moon metal will be a viable option for construction in space. </p>
<p>As a researcher in this field, I expect that in about 10 to 20 years from now we’ll have demonstrated the ability to extract metals from the Moon, and will likely be using these to construct large structures in space. So exactly <em>what</em> will we be able to extract? And how would we do it? </p>
<h2>What’s out there?</h2>
<p>There are two main geological regions on the Moon, both of which you can see on a clear night. The dark areas are called the maria and have a higher concentration of iron and titanium. The light areas are called the highlands (or terrae) and have more aluminium.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491280/original/file-20221024-4807-w6xqi7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An image of an almost-full Moon." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491280/original/file-20221024-4807-w6xqi7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491280/original/file-20221024-4807-w6xqi7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491280/original/file-20221024-4807-w6xqi7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491280/original/file-20221024-4807-w6xqi7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491280/original/file-20221024-4807-w6xqi7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=532&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491280/original/file-20221024-4807-w6xqi7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=532&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491280/original/file-20221024-4807-w6xqi7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=532&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">On a clear night, you can see the Moon’s two geologic regions – the darker maria and the lighter highlands.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In general, the dirt and rocks on the Moon contain silicon, oxygen, aluminium, iron, calcium, magnesium, titanium, sodium, potassium and manganese. That might sound like a mouthful, but it’s not really that much to choose from. There are some other trace elements, but dealing with those is a spiel for another day.</p>
<p>We know metals such as iron, aluminium and titanium are <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0079642519300593?via%3Dihub">useful for construction</a>. But what about the others? </p>
<p>Well, it turns out when you have limited options (and the alternative is spending a small fortune), scientists can get pretty creative. We can use silicon to make <a href="https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/14378201-solar-power-satellites">solar panels</a>, which could be a primary source of electricity on the Moon. We could use magnesium, manganese and chromium to make metal alloys with <a href="https://ascelibrary.org/doi/10.1061/9780784412190.020">interesting properties</a>, and sodium and potassium as <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/0471238961.1915040912051311.a01.pub3">coolants</a>. </p>
<p>There are also studies looking at using the reactive metals (aluminium, iron, magnesium, titanium, silicon, calcium) as a form of battery or “<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360319997001353">energy carrier</a>”. If we really needed to, we could even use them as a form of solid <a href="https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19910019908">rocket fuel</a>. </p>
<p>So we do have options when it comes to sourcing and using metals on the Moon. But how do we get to them? </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/artemis-1-how-this-2022-lunar-mission-will-pave-the-way-for-a-human-return-to-the-moon-173130">Artemis 1: how this 2022 lunar mission will pave the way for a human return to the Moon</a>
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<hr>
<h2>How would extraction work?</h2>
<p>While the Moon has metals in abundance, they’re bound up in the rocks as oxides – metals and oxygen stuck together. This is where astrometallurgy comes in, which is simply the study of extracting metal from space rocks. </p>
<p>Metallurgists use a variety of methods to separate metals and oxygen from within rocks. Some of the more common extraction methods use chemicals such as <a href="http://oro.open.ac.uk/69313/">hydrogen</a> and <a href="https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/isijinternational/50/1/50_1_35/_pdf">carbon</a>. </p>
<p>Some such as “electrolytic separation” <a href="https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/79757">use pure electricity</a>, while more novel solutions involve <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004cosp...35.2975S/abstract">completely vaporising the rocks</a> to make metal. If you’re interested in a full rundown of lunar astrometallurgy you can read about it in <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08827508.2021.1969390">one of my research papers</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/488444/original/file-20221006-22-b0e296.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/488444/original/file-20221006-22-b0e296.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=357&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488444/original/file-20221006-22-b0e296.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=357&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488444/original/file-20221006-22-b0e296.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=357&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488444/original/file-20221006-22-b0e296.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488444/original/file-20221006-22-b0e296.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488444/original/file-20221006-22-b0e296.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Researchers at the University of Glasgow used an electrolysis separation process to get a pile of metal (right) from simulated Moon dirt (left).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Beth Lomax/University of Glasgow</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Regardless of the method used, extracting and processing metals in space presents many challenges. </p>
<p>Some challenges are obvious. The Moon’s relatively weak gravity means traction is basically nonexistent, and digging the ground like we do on Earth isn’t an option. Researchers are <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/topics/technology/features/RASSOR.html">working on</a> these problems. </p>
<p>There’s also a lack of important resources such as water, which is often used for metallurgy on Earth. </p>
<p>Other challenges are more niche. For instance, one Moon day is as long as 28 Earth days. So for two weeks you have ample access to the Sun’s power and warmth … but then you have two weeks of night. </p>
<p>Temperatures also fluctuate wildly, from 120°C during the day to -180°C at night. Some permanently shadowed areas <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0019103516304869?via%3Dihub">drop below -220°C</a>! Even if resource mining and processing were being done remotely from Earth, a lot of equipment wouldn’t withstand these conditions.</p>
<p>That brings us to the human factor: would people themselves be up there helping out with all of this? </p>
<p>Probably not. Although we’ll be sending more people to the Moon in the future, the dangers of meteorite impacts, radiation exposure from the Sun, and extreme temperatures mean this work will need to be done remotely. But controlling robots hundreds of thousands of kilometres away is also a challenge.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/so-a-helicopter-flew-on-mars-for-the-first-time-a-space-physicist-explains-why-thats-such-a-big-deal-159334">So a helicopter flew on Mars for the first time. A space physicist explains why that's such a big deal</a>
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<p>It’s not all bad news, though, as we can actually use some of these factors to our advantage. </p>
<p>The extreme vacuum of space can reduce the energy requirements of some processes, since a vacuum helps substances vaporise at lower temperatures (which you can test by trying to boil water <a href="https://mountainhouse.com/blogs/backpacking-hiking/effects-of-altitude-on-water-boiling-time">on a tall mountain</a>). A similar thing happens with molten rocks in space.</p>
<p>And while the Moon’s lack of atmosphere makes it uninhabitable for humans, it also means more access to sunlight for solar panels and direct solar heating. </p>
<p>While it may take a few more years to get there, we’re well on our way to making things in space from Moon metal. Astrometallurgists will be looking on with keen interest as future Artemis missions take off with the tools to make this happen.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/6jBScTfn8R0?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Artemis 1 took off spectacularly just after 5pm AEDT on November 16.</span></figcaption>
</figure><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/191852/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Matthew Shaw does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>We know going back to the Moon is expensive. Here’s how we could use metals extracted from Moon dirt to save millions of dollars.Matthew Shaw, PhD Candidate - Astrometallurgy, Swinburne University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1916772022-10-03T01:38:19Z2022-10-03T01:38:19ZAustralia’s first Binar spacecraft just came down to Earth as a fireball. Here’s what we learned<p>This weekend marked a milestone for Western Australia’s <a href="https://www.binarspace.com/">Binar Space Program</a> as its first satellite Binar-1 lived up to its name.</p>
<p>Binar is the word for “fireball” in the Noongar language spoken by the Aboriginal people of Perth. Binar-1 became a real “Binar” as it re-entered Earth’s atmosphere over the weekend. Although the chance of it being seen over Australia was low, with the right amount of luck it would have appeared as a shooting star in the night sky.</p>
<p>Binar-1 was built by a team of PhD students and engineers at Curtin University’s <a href="https://sstc.curtin.edu.au/">Space Science and Technology Centre</a>. Its mission: a technology demonstration to test whether the innovative design – all systems integrated on a single circuit board at its core – would survive in space. </p>
<p>Although parts of the mission were not a <a href="https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/smallsat/2022/all2022/56/">complete success</a>, owing to some last-minute design changes, that goal was still achieved.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/tiny-satellites-are-changing-the-way-we-explore-our-planet-and-beyond-179667">Tiny satellites are changing the way we explore our planet and beyond</a>
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<h2>A tiny sky cube</h2>
<p>Binar-1 is a 1U size <a href="https://www.cubesat.org/about">CubeSat</a>, meaning it measured just 10 centimetres across, roughly the size of a lunchbox. Don’t let the size fool you – the satellite was packed with microelectronics to optimise its volume for countless future science and education missions.</p>
<p>It was launched to the International Space Station on August 29 2021 aboard a SpaceX resupply mission, and deployed from the station’s Kibō module.</p>
<p>As a “technology demonstrator”, the spacecraft was flying its essential systems for the first time. The lessons learned from its fiery end will prepare the Binar Space Program for the next step: Binar-2, 3, and 4.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A team of scientists in dark crew shirts looking at a screen above their heads" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/487487/original/file-20220930-16-6hokvp.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/487487/original/file-20220930-16-6hokvp.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487487/original/file-20220930-16-6hokvp.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487487/original/file-20220930-16-6hokvp.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487487/original/file-20220930-16-6hokvp.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487487/original/file-20220930-16-6hokvp.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487487/original/file-20220930-16-6hokvp.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Members of the Binar Space Program watch the live streamed deployment of Binar-1 in October last year.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Curtin University</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Five major takeaways from Binar-1</h2>
<p><strong>Lock down high-level mission objectives at the beginning</strong></p>
<p>From the start of the mission, the team struggled to grasp what was achievable with the time and money available. This cost us valuable time, as redesigns were necessary every time we defined a new objective. Once we realised a technology demonstration was our true target, we could nail what we were trying to deliver.</p>
<p><strong>Be prepared for delays</strong></p>
<p>By having a plan for delays, we can be more agile when it comes to tight launch deadlines. With Binar-1, we assumed our test schedule would stick to the timeline, but this was never likely.</p>
<p>For our next launch, we’ve prioritised which tests we know are essential and which tests we can drop, so we can make better choices when it’s time to meet our deadlines.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A pair of hands in dark gloves working on computing chips" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/487488/original/file-20220930-20-z9qra2.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/487488/original/file-20220930-20-z9qra2.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487488/original/file-20220930-20-z9qra2.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487488/original/file-20220930-20-z9qra2.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487488/original/file-20220930-20-z9qra2.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487488/original/file-20220930-20-z9qra2.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487488/original/file-20220930-20-z9qra2.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Installing the star-tracker camera payload into Binar-1. The star tracker was designed and developed by undergraduates at Curtin University. An improved version will fly on Binar-2, 3 and 4.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Curtin University</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong>Test as you fly</strong></p>
<p>One of the challenges we faced was testing our designs in a manner that replicated the satellite’s behaviour in space. It may seem like an obvious lesson - but using the antennas to test your satellite systems, instead of that convenient USB port you had designed it with, makes a big difference. </p>
<p><strong>Prepare for operation throughout the design process</strong></p>
<p>You can’t learn this lesson without actually flying the satellite – but we certainly were not as prepared as we could have been for operations.</p>
<p>The number of tweaks to the ground station and command and control processes once our satellite was already flying made it clear that involving the operation plan from an early stage will prepare you for mission success.</p>
<p><strong>Remove as many assumptions as you can</strong></p>
<p>A few too many assumptions were made during the design, which certainly affected the assembly and testing of Binar-1. For example, we assumed the radio module we tested on the ground worked the same as the one we sent to space – but that wasn’t the case, leading to some frantic last-minute changes that eventually meant we didn’t get the images or data we hoped for from orbit.</p>
<p>For our future missions, all assumptions need to be vetted by the entire team to minimise the impact they can have on a mission if the assumptions are inaccurate.</p>
<h2>Onward with the mission</h2>
<p>The Binar Space Program and the Space Science and Technology Centre are now preparing for their first real science mission. On board our three CubeSats will be a radiation material test performed in collaboration with the <a href="https://www.csiro.au/en/">CSIRO</a>, a software experiment letting the spacecraft make decisions on its own, and a few others designed by undergraduate students at the university.</p>
<p>But the mission’s final piece of science won’t come until it too meets its fiery end – it’s our very own attempt to catch a falling star, a tracking system to identify exactly when each of the next spacecraft will become a Binar.</p>
<p>Our current spacecraft burn up before they reach the ground, but eventually, we hope to return one of our satellites to Earth in one piece, and this tracking system is just one of many small steps towards this massive goal. If you want to follow along and catch these fireballs with your own eyes in the future, you can read more on the <a href="https://www.binarspace.com/">Binar Space Program website</a>.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-wants-a-space-industry-so-why-wont-we-pay-for-the-basic-research-to-drive-it-178878">Australia wants a space industry. So why won't we pay for the basic research to drive it?</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/191677/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Fergus Downey receives funding from the Australian governments Research Training Program.</span></em></p>In Western Australia, the first of a series of little satellites just burned up in the sky – exactly as planned.Fergus Downey, PhD Student, Curtin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1886992022-08-16T20:04:11Z2022-08-16T20:04:11ZScientists are turning data into sound to listen to the whispers of the universe (and more)<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/479315/original/file-20220816-22-o373py.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=14%2C2%2C1902%2C1003&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">CSIRO </span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>We often think of astronomy as a visual science with beautiful images of the universe. However, astronomers use a wide range of analysis tools beyond images to understand nature at a deeper level. </p>
<p>Data sonification is the process of converting data into sound. It has powerful applications in research, education and outreach, and also enables blind and visually impaired communities to understand plots, images and other data. </p>
<p>Its use as a tool in science is still in its early stages – but astronomy groups are leading the way. </p>
<p>In a <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2206.13536">paper</a> published in Nature Astronomy, my colleagues and I discuss the current state of data sonification in astronomy and other fields, provide an overview of 100 sound-based <a href="https://sonification.design/">projects</a> and explore its future directions.</p>
<h2>The cocktail party effect</h2>
<p>Imagine this scene: you’re at a crowded party that’s quite noisy. You don’t know anyone and they’re all speaking a language you can’t understand – not good. Then you hear bits of a conversation in a far corner in your language. You focus on it and head over to introduce yourself. </p>
<p>While you may have never experienced such a party, the thought of hearing a recognisable voice or language in a noisy room is familiar. The ability of the human ear and brain to filter out undesired sounds and retrieve desired sounds is called the “<a href="https://www.audiology.org/the-cocktail-party-effect/">cocktail party effect</a>”. </p>
<p>Similarly, science is always pushing the boundaries of what can be detected, which often requires extracting very faint signals from noisy data. In astronomy we often push to find the faintest, farthest or most fleeting of signals. Data sonification helps us to push these boundaries further.</p>
<p>The video below provides examples of how sonification can help researchers discern faint signals in data. It features the sonification of nine bursts from a repeating fast radio burst called FRB121102. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/i3x0sBCQ_c8?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Casey Law/Youtube.</span></figcaption>
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<p>Fast radio bursts are millisecond bursts of radio emission that can be detected halfway across the universe. We don’t yet know what causes them. Detecting them in other wavelengths is the key to understanding their nature. </p>
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<em>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-brief-history-what-we-know-so-far-about-fast-radio-bursts-across-the-universe-154381">A brief history: what we know so far about fast radio bursts across the universe</a>
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<h2>Too much of a good thing</h2>
<p>When we explore the universe with telescopes, we find it’s full of cataclysmic explosions including the supernova deaths of stars, mergers of black holes and neutron stars that create gravitational waves, and fast radio bursts. </p>
<p>Here you can listen to the merger of two black holes.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/QyDcTbR-kEA?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">LIGO/YouTube.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>And the merger of two neutron stars.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/_SQbaILipjY?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">LIGO/YouTube.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These events allow us to understand extreme physics at the highest-known energies and densities. They help us to measure the expansion rate of the universe and how much matter it contains, and to determine where and how the elements were created, among other things. </p>
<p>Upcoming facilities such as the Rubin Observatory and the Square Kilometre Array will detect tens of millions of these events each night. We employ computers and artificial intelligence to deal with these massive numbers of detections. </p>
<p>However, the majority of these events are faint bursts, and computers are only so good at finding them. A computer can pick out a faint burst if it’s given a template of the “desired” signal. But if signals depart from this expected behaviour, they become lost. </p>
<p>And it’s often these very events that are the most interesting and yield the biggest insight into the nature of the universe. Using data sonification to verify these signals and identify outliers can be powerful.</p>
<h2>More than meets the eye</h2>
<p>Data sonification is useful for interpreting science because humans interpret audio information faster than visual information. Also, the ear can discern more pitch levels than the eye can discern levels of colour (and over a wider range).</p>
<p>Another direction we’re exploring for data sonification is multi-dimensional data analysis – which involves understanding the relationships between many different features or properties in sound.</p>
<p>Plotting data in ten or more dimensions simultaneously is too complex, and interpreting it is too confusing. However, the same data can be comprehended much more easily through sonification. </p>
<p>As it turns out, the human ear can tell the difference between the sound of a trumpet and flute immediately, even if they play the same note (frequency) at the same loudness and duration. </p>
<p>Why? Because each sound includes higher-order harmonics that help determine the sound quality, or timbre. The different strengths of the higher-order harmonics enable the listener to quickly identify the instrument. </p>
<p>Now imagine placing information – different properties of data – as different strengths of higher-order harmonics. Each object studied would have a unique tone, or belong to a class of tones, depending on its overall properties. </p>
<p>With a bit of training, a person could almost instantly <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/proceedings-of-the-international-astronomical-union/article/exploring-data-sonification-to-enable-enhance-and-accelerate-the-analysis-of-big-noisy-and-multidimensional-data/75B27517323BEFD4581F79FF05C7F8BD#">hear and recognise</a> all of the object’s properties, or its classification, from a single tone.</p>
<h2>Beyond research</h2>
<p>Sonification also has great uses in education (<a href="https://www.sonokids.org/">Sonokids</a>) and outreach (for example, <a href="https://www.system-sounds.com/about-2/">SYSTEM Sounds</a> and <a href="https://www.audiouniverse.org/">STRAUSS</a>), and has widespread applications in areas including medicine, finance and more.</p>
<p>But perhaps its greatest power is to enable blind and visually impaired communities to understand images and plots to help with everyday life. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/479293/original/file-20220816-26-ou63h9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A close-up photo of a green walk signal on a traffic light." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/479293/original/file-20220816-26-ou63h9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/479293/original/file-20220816-26-ou63h9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479293/original/file-20220816-26-ou63h9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479293/original/file-20220816-26-ou63h9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479293/original/file-20220816-26-ou63h9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479293/original/file-20220816-26-ou63h9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479293/original/file-20220816-26-ou63h9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The ‘ticking’ noise that plays with the walk signal at traffic lights is one example of how sonification can assist blind and visually impaired people.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>It can also enable meaningful scientific research, and do so quantitatively, as <a href="https://www.jeffreyhannam.com/starsound">sonification research tools</a> provide numerical values on command.</p>
<p>This capability can help promote STEM careers among blind and visually impaired people. And in doing so, we can tap into a massive pool of brilliant scientists and critical thinkers who may otherwise not have envisioned a path towards science.</p>
<p>What we need now is government and industry support in developing sonification tools further, to improve access and usability, and to help establish sonification standards. </p>
<p>With the growing number of tools available, and the growing need in research and the community, the future of data sonification sounds bright!</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/digital-inequality-why-can-i-enter-your-building-but-your-website-shows-me-the-door-182432">Digital inequality: why can I enter your building – but your website shows me the door?</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/188699/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jeffrey Cooke does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Listening for events like black hole collisions is important in astronomy research – and the technology is only getting better.Jeffrey Cooke, Professor, Centre for Astrophysics and Supercomputing, Swinburne University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1876312022-07-31T20:05:55Z2022-07-31T20:05:55ZWe found some strange radio sources in a distant galaxy cluster. They’re making us rethink what we thought we knew.<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/475823/original/file-20220725-24-3t22af.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C9315%2C9315&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The colliding cluster Abell 3266 as seen across the electromagnetic spectrum, using data from ASKAP and the ATCA (red/orange/yellow colours), XMM-Newton (blue) and the Dark Energy Survey (background map).</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Christopher Riseley (Università di Bologna)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The universe is littered with galaxy clusters – huge structures piled up at the intersections of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-thread-of-the-cosmic-web-astronomers-spot-a-50-million-light-year-galactic-filament-151569">cosmic web</a>. A single cluster can span millions of light-years across and be made up of hundreds, or even thousands, of galaxies.</p>
<p>However, these galaxies represent only a few percent of a cluster’s total mass. About 80% of it is <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/dark-matter-95">dark matter</a>, and the rest is a hot plasma “soup”: gas heated to above 10,000,000°C and interwoven with weak magnetic fields.</p>
<p>We and our international team of colleagues have identified a series of rarely observed radio objects – a radio relic, a radio halo and fossil radio emission – within a particularly dynamic galaxy cluster called Abell 3266. They defy existing theories about both the origins of such objects and their characteristics.</p>
<h2>Relics, haloes and fossils</h2>
<p>Galaxy clusters allow us to study a broad range of rich processes – including magnetism and plasma physics – in environments we can’t recreate in our labs. </p>
<p>When clusters collide with each other, huge amounts of energy are put into the particles of the hot plasma, generating radio emission. And this emission comes in a variety of shapes and sizes. </p>
<p>“Radio relics” are one example. They are arc-shaped and sit towards a cluster’s outskirts, powered by shockwaves travelling through the plasma, which cause a jump in density or pressure, and energise the particles. An example of a shockwave on Earth is the sonic boom that happens when an aircraft breaks the sound barrier.</p>
<p>“Radio haloes” are irregular sources that lie towards the cluster’s centre. They’re powered by turbulence in the hot plasma, which gives energy to the particles. We know both haloes and relics are generated by collisions between galaxy clusters – yet many of their gritty details remain elusive. </p>
<p>Then there are “fossil” radio sources. These are the radio leftovers from the death of a supermassive black hole at the centre of a radio galaxy. </p>
<p>When they’re in action, black holes shoot huge jets <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-new-image-shows-jets-of-plasma-shooting-out-of-a-supermassive-black-hole-164709">of plasma</a> far out beyond the galaxy itself. As they run out of fuel and shut off, the jets begin to dissipate. The remnants are what we detect as radio fossils.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-radio-astronomy-7420">Explainer: radio astronomy</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<h2>Abell 3266</h2>
<p>Our <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/mnras/stac1771">new paper</a>, published in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, presents a highly detailed study of a galaxy cluster called Abell 3266.</p>
<p>This is a particularly dynamic and messy colliding system around 800 million light-years away. It has all the hallmarks of a system that <em>should</em> be host to relics and haloes – yet none had been detected until recently. </p>
<p>Following up on work conducted using the <a href="https://www.mwatelescope.org">Murchison Widefield Array</a> earlier <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/stac335">this year</a>, we used new data from the <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/askap-33989">ASKAP radio telescope</a> and the <a href="https://www.csiro.au/en/about/facilities-collections/ATNF/Australia-Telescope-Compact-Array">Australia Telescope Compact Array</a> (ATCA) to see Abell 3266 in more detail.</p>
<p>Our data paint a complex picture. You can see this in the lead image: yellow colours show features where energy input is active. The blue haze represents the hot plasma, captured at X-ray wavelengths.</p>
<p>Redder colours show features that are only visible at lower frequencies. This means these objects are older and have less energy. Either they have lost a lot of energy over time, or they never had much to begin with.</p>
<p>The radio relic is visible in red near the bottom of the image (see below for a zoom). And our data here reveal particular features that have never been seen before in a relic.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/475884/original/file-20220725-23-tpk3sc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/475884/original/file-20220725-23-tpk3sc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=321&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475884/original/file-20220725-23-tpk3sc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=321&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475884/original/file-20220725-23-tpk3sc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=321&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475884/original/file-20220725-23-tpk3sc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475884/original/file-20220725-23-tpk3sc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475884/original/file-20220725-23-tpk3sc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The ‘wrong-way’ relic in Abell 3266 is shown here with yellow/orange/red colours representing the radio brightness.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Christopher Riseley, using data from ASKAP, ATCA, XMM-Newton and the Dark Energy Survey)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Its concave shape is also unusual, earning it the catchy moniker of a “wrong-way” relic. Overall, our data break our understanding of how relics are generated, and we’re still working to decipher the complex physics behind these radio objects.</p>
<h2>Ancient remnants of a supermassive black hole</h2>
<p>The radio fossil, seen towards the upper right of the lead image (and also below), is very faint and red, indicating it is ancient. We believe this radio emission originally came from the galaxy at the lower left, with a central black hole that has long been switched off.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/476662/original/file-20220729-14-jfj12d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/476662/original/file-20220729-14-jfj12d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=575&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/476662/original/file-20220729-14-jfj12d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=575&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/476662/original/file-20220729-14-jfj12d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=575&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/476662/original/file-20220729-14-jfj12d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=722&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/476662/original/file-20220729-14-jfj12d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=722&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/476662/original/file-20220729-14-jfj12d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=722&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The radio fossil in Abell 3266 is shown here with red colours and contours depicting the radio brightness measured by ASKAP, and blue colours showing the hot plasma. The cyan arrow points to the galaxy we think once powered the fossil.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Christopher Riseley, using data from ASKAP, XMM-Newton and the Dark Energy Survey</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our best physical models simply can’t fit the data. This reveals gaps in our understanding of how these sources evolve – gaps that we’re working to fill.</p>
<p>Finally, using a clever algorithm, we de-focused the lead image to look for very faint emission that’s invisible at high resolution, unearthing the first detection of a radio halo in Abell 3266 (see below).</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/476659/original/file-20220729-5473-l4tehb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/476659/original/file-20220729-5473-l4tehb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=576&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/476659/original/file-20220729-5473-l4tehb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=576&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/476659/original/file-20220729-5473-l4tehb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=576&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/476659/original/file-20220729-5473-l4tehb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=724&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/476659/original/file-20220729-5473-l4tehb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=724&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/476659/original/file-20220729-5473-l4tehb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=724&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The radio halo in Abell 3266 is shown here with red colours and contours depicting the radio brightness measured by ASKAP, and blue colours showing the hot plasma. The dashed cyan curve marks the outer limits of the radio halo.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Christopher Riseley, using data from ASKAP, XMM-Newton and the Dark Energy Survey</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Towards the future</h2>
<p>This is the beginning of the road towards understanding Abell 3266. We have uncovered a wealth of new and detailed information, but our study has raised yet more questions.</p>
<p>The telescopes we used are laying the foundations for revolutionary science from the <a href="https://www.skao.int">Square Kilometre Array</a> project. Studies like ours allow astronomers to figure out what we don’t know – but you can be sure we’re going to find out.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>We acknowledge the Gomeroi people as the traditional owners of the site where ATCA is located, and the Wajarri Yamatji people as the traditional owners of the Murchison Radioastronomy Observatory site, where ASKAP and the Murchison Widefield Array are located.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/187631/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christopher Riseley works for Alma Mater Studiorum - Università di Bologna. He is also affiliated with the Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica (INAF) and CSIRO Space & Astronomy. He is supported by funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the ERC Starting Grant 'DRANOEL', number 714245.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tessa Vernstrom works for the International Centre for Radio Astronomy Research (ICRAR) at the University of Western Australia. She is affiliated with CSIRO Space & Astronomy. </span></em></p>One of the objects is a ‘fossil’ radio source – a leftover from the death of a supermassive black hole that once shot out huge jets of plasma.Christopher Riseley, Research Fellow, Università di BolognaTessa Vernstrom, Senior research fellow, The University of Western AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1857032022-07-22T04:26:22Z2022-07-22T04:26:22ZA cosmic tango: this distant planet’s very strange orbit points to a violent and chaotic past<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/472689/original/file-20220706-15-b826b6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=57%2C34%2C3776%2C2121&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/kevinmgill/35268999232">kevinmgill/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you close your eyes and imagine a system of planets orbiting a distant star, what do you see? </p>
<p>For most people, such thoughts conjure up systems that mirror <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1538-3873/ab8eb9">the Solar System</a>: planets orbiting a host star on near-circular orbits – <a href="https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/overview/">rocky planets closer in, and giants such as Jupiter in the icy depths</a>.</p>
<p>However, the more we study the cosmos, the more we begin to realise planetary systems like our own might be more of an exception than a rule. </p>
<p>Imagine a system with one gaseous planet, a little larger than Saturn, skimming the surface of its host star on an extremely fast orbit. It’s hellishly hot and glows a dull red, baking in stellar radiation.</p>
<p>Then imagine another giant planet farther out, larger than Jupiter, moving on a distant and highly elongated orbit which makes it look more like a comet than a traditional planet.</p>
<p>It doesn’t sound much like home, does it? Yet that’s what we found.</p>
<h2>Introducing the HD83443 planetary system</h2>
<p>The story of the HD83443 system begins in the late 20th century, when astronomers began obsessively observing stars similar to the Sun. They were looking for evidence of those stars <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-how-to-find-an-exoplanet-part-1-56682">wobbling back and forth</a> under the influence of unseen planetary companions. </p>
<p>Using the 3.9 metre <a href="https://aat.anu.edu.au/about-us/AAT">Anglo-Australian Telescope</a> at the <a href="https://www.sidingspringobservatory.com.au/">Siding Spring Observatory</a> near Coonabarabran, researchers <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002ApJ...578..565B/abstract">discovered</a> a planet orbiting the star HD83443. This planet, HD83443b, was as massive as the gas giants Saturn and Jupiter.</p>
<p>But that’s where the similarities ended. HD83443b is a “hot Jupiter”: a giant gas planet skimming the surface of its host star (which is a little smaller and cooler than the Sun), and completing each lap in less than three Earth days!</p>
<p>For two decades since its discovery, we have continued to monitor the HD83443’s movements. In recent years, we’ve been conducting this work at the University of Southern Queensland’s Mt Kent <a href="https://www.unisq.edu.au/hes/school-of-mathematics-physics-and-computing/mt-kent-observatory">Observatory</a>.</p>
<p>By combining our observations with others, we discovered a strange new planet in the system, which we describe in a paper <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022AJ....163..273E/abstract">published last month</a>.</p>
<p>This world, HD83443c, takes more than 22 years to orbit its host star, and is some 200 times more distant than its hellish sibling. Since HD83443c’s “year” is so long, we needed more than two decades of observations to confirm its existence – by tracking a single lap around its host star.</p>
<p>But what’s really unusual is the eccentricity of its orbit. While the planets in the Solar System follow near-circular orbits, HD83443c follows a much more elongated path reminiscent of comets in our Solar System.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474008/original/file-20220713-16-nufp4y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474008/original/file-20220713-16-nufp4y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474008/original/file-20220713-16-nufp4y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474008/original/file-20220713-16-nufp4y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474008/original/file-20220713-16-nufp4y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474008/original/file-20220713-16-nufp4y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=593&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474008/original/file-20220713-16-nufp4y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=593&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474008/original/file-20220713-16-nufp4y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=593&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">If HD83443c was in the Solar System, it would approach the Sun almost to the orbit of Mars, then swing outwards, ending up between the orbits of Saturn and Uranus, before falling Sunward once again. Color code: purple = HD83443c, green = Earth, red = Mars, blue = Jupiter and yellow = Saturn.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The aftermath of a planetary tango</h2>
<p>Planets such as the “hot Jupiter”, HD83443b, are particularly interesting to astronomers as they’re unlike anything close to home. Gas giants such as Jupiter begin their lives far from their host star where ices are abundant.</p>
<p>Those ices allow them to rapidly grow, gaining enough mass to shroud themselves in huge atmospheres. </p>
<p>Unlike the Solar System’s giant planets, as HD83443b grew to maturity, it must have migrated inwards to end up close to its host star. What caused this migration? </p>
<p>Well, over the years, astronomers have found many hot Jupiters. In trying to understand those weird planets, several mechanisms have been proposed to explain their migration – but in most cases, any evidence of the cause of the migration is lost in the distant past.</p>
<p>In the specific case of HD83443b, however, it seems our new discovery might have provided the evidence of the smoking gun. The newly-discovered world, HD83443c, might be the reason its sibling ended up on its current hellish orbit.</p>
<p>Imagine HD83443c and HD83443b first forming in the icy depths of the HD83443 system. They would have been buried in the massive disc of gas and dust surrounding the star, called a “protoplanetary disk”. </p>
<p>As the planets moved through the disc, they fed from it, growing ever more massive, and drifting slowly inward as they interact with the disc around them. </p>
<p>Eventually they came too close together. They didn’t quite collide, but as they swung past one another, their immense gravitational pulls acted like a slingshot, catapulting them both onto new orbits. </p>
<p>HD83443b, the hot Jupiter, was flung inwards onto an orbit that skims the star’s surface at its closest approach, before swinging back outwards towards the initial scene of near collision. The other planet, HD83443c, is flung outwards onto its current elongated path.</p>
<p>Over millennia, something remarkable happened. Every time HD83443b swung close to its host star, its presence raised tides on the star, and in turn the host star caused tides to rise on it. This would have essentially “applied the brakes” to HD83443b’s motion. </p>
<p>This means HD83443b lost a tiny bit of speed each time it swung past the host star. As it flew back outwards again, it failed to travel as far as before and its orbit was slowly circularised. It was dragged inwards until it reached its current tiny, circular orbit – on which it will spend the rest of its life.</p>
<p>HD83443c, however, experienced no such fate. After having been flung outwards during the initial encounter with HD83443b, it remained so distant from the central star that its orbit was never impacted.</p>
<p>Its very slow and elongated orbit is evidence of that initial planetary encounter from when the system was young.</p>
<h2>Is there no place like home?</h2>
<p>This story is a fascinating one – but the main goal of our ongoing search for alien worlds is to find places much more like home. </p>
<p>We’re using the same tools that led us to HD83443c to find planetary systems like our own – with giant planets on orbits far from their host stars. We may need to gaze out at distance stars for decades at a time, watching their graceful celestial waltz. </p>
<p>We will no doubt find many more surprising systems akin to HD83443, that reveal more about the true variety of planetary systems out there.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/yv4DbU1CWAY?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">This video, by NASA, shows the story of the first 30 years of the Exoplanet Era, and the first 5,000 known exoplanets. Future research will hopefully reveal tens of thousands more – including systems like our Solar System.</span></figcaption>
</figure><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/185703/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brad Carter receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jonti Horner received funding from the Australian Research Council in 2016 to help construct Minerva-Australis, the exoplanet detection array at the University of Southern Queensland that was used to detect HD83443 c. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Adriana Errico does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The unusual planetary system has a host star orbited by two giants. One has an incredible odd route around its star. And the other (unlike our own gas giants) is hellishly hot.Adriana Errico, Computer engineer, MSc Bioinformatics, University of Southern QueenslandBrad Carter, Professor (Physics), University of Southern QueenslandJonti Horner, Professor (Astrophysics), University of Southern QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1870152022-07-17T20:02:24Z2022-07-17T20:02:24ZA cosmic time machine: how the James Webb Space Telescope lets us see the first galaxies in the universe<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474234/original/file-20220715-18-x7oyaq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=11%2C7%2C2492%2C1246&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA/JWST</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>It has been an exciting week with the release of breathtaking photos of our Universe by the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST). Images such as the one below give us a chance to see faint distant galaxies as they were more than 13 billion years ago.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474100/original/file-20220714-32310-u56z33.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474100/original/file-20220714-32310-u56z33.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474100/original/file-20220714-32310-u56z33.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474100/original/file-20220714-32310-u56z33.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474100/original/file-20220714-32310-u56z33.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474100/original/file-20220714-32310-u56z33.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474100/original/file-20220714-32310-u56z33.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474100/original/file-20220714-32310-u56z33.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The SMACS 0723 deep field image was taken with only a 12.5-hour exposure. Faint galaxies in this image emitted this light more than 13 billion years ago.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA, ESA, CSA, and STScI</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It’s the perfect time to step back and appreciate our first-class ticket to the depths of the Universe and how these images allow us to look back in time. </p>
<p>These images also raise interesting points about how the expansion of the Universe factors into the way we calculate distances at a cosmological scale. </p>
<h2>Modern time travel</h2>
<p>Looking back in time might sound like a strange concept, but it’s what space researchers do every single day. </p>
<p>Our Universe is bound by the rules of physics, with one of the best-known “rules” being the speed of light. And when we talk about “light”, we’re actually referring to all the wavelengths across the electromagnetic spectrum, which <a href="https://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/einstein/light/constant-speed">travel</a> at around a whooping 300,000 kilometres per second. </p>
<p>Light travels so fast that in our everyday lives it appears to be instantaneous. Even at these break-neck speeds, it still takes some time to travel anywhere across the cosmos.</p>
<p>When you look at the Moon, you actually see it as it was 1.3 seconds ago. It’s only a tiny peek back in time, but it’s still the past. It’s the same with sunlight, except the photons (light particles) emitted from the Sun’s surface travel just over eight minutes before they finally reach Earth. </p>
<p>Our galaxy, the Milky Way, spans 100,000+ light-years. And the beautiful newborn stars seen in JWST’s Carina Nebula image are 7,500 light-years away. In other words, this nebula as pictured is from a time roughly 2,000 years earlier than when the first ever writing is thought to have been <a href="https://www.getty.edu/news/where-did-writing-come-from/">invented</a> in ancient Mesopotamia. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474137/original/file-20220714-20-dx407b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474137/original/file-20220714-20-dx407b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474137/original/file-20220714-20-dx407b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474137/original/file-20220714-20-dx407b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474137/original/file-20220714-20-dx407b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474137/original/file-20220714-20-dx407b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474137/original/file-20220714-20-dx407b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474137/original/file-20220714-20-dx407b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Carina Nebula is a birthplace for stars.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA, ESA, CSA, and STScI</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Anytime we look away from the Earth, we’re looking back in time to how things once were. This is a superpower for astronomers because we can use light, as observed throughout time, to try to puzzle together the mystery of our universe.</p>
<h2>What makes JWST spectacular</h2>
<p>Space-based telescopes let us see certain ranges of light that are unable to pass through Earth’s dense atmosphere. The Hubble space telescope was designed and optimised to use both ultraviolet (UV) and visible parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. </p>
<p>The JWST was designed to use a broad range of infrared light. And this is a key reason the JWST can see further back in time than Hubble. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474138/original/file-20220714-32258-sse7sj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474138/original/file-20220714-32258-sse7sj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=314&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474138/original/file-20220714-32258-sse7sj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=314&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474138/original/file-20220714-32258-sse7sj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=314&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474138/original/file-20220714-32258-sse7sj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474138/original/file-20220714-32258-sse7sj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474138/original/file-20220714-32258-sse7sj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The electromagnetic spectrum with Hubble and JWST’s ranges. Hubble is optimised to see shorter wavelengths. These two telescopes complement each other, giving us a fuller picture of the universe.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA, J. Olmsted (STScI)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Galaxies emit a range of wavelengths on the electromagnetic spectrum, from gamma rays to radio waves, and everything in between. All of these give us important information about the different physics occurring in a galaxy.</p>
<p>When galaxies are near us, their light hasn’t changed that much since being emitted, and we can probe a vast range of these wavelengths to understand what’s happening inside them.</p>
<p>But when galaxies are extremely far away, we no longer have that luxury. The light from the most distant galaxies, as we see it now, has been stretched to longer and redder wavelengths due to the expansion of the universe.</p>
<p>This means some of the light that would have been visible to our eyes when it was first emitted has since lost energy as the universe expanded. It’s now in a completely different region of the electromagnetic spectrum. This is a phenomenon called “<a href="https://astronomy.swin.edu.au/cosmos/c/cosmological+redshift">cosmological redshift</a>”.</p>
<p>And this is where the JWST really shines. The broad range of infrared wavelengths detectable by JWST allow it to see galaxies Hubble never could. Combine this capability with the JWST’s enormous mirror and superb pixel resolution, and you have the most powerful time machine in the known universe.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/two-experts-break-down-the-james-webb-space-telescopes-first-images-and-explain-what-weve-already-learnt-186738">Two experts break down the James Webb Space Telescope's first images, and explain what we've already learnt</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Light age does not equal distance</h2>
<p>Using the JWST, we will be able to capture extremely distant galaxies as they were only 100 million years after the Big Bang – which happened around 13.8 billion years ago. </p>
<p>So we will be able to see light from 13.7 billion years ago. What’s about to hurt your brain, however, is that those galaxies are not 13.7 billion light-years away. The actual distance to those galaxies today would be ~46 billion light-years.</p>
<p>This discrepancy is all thanks to the expanding universe, and makes working on a very large scale tricky.</p>
<p>The universe is expending due to something called “<a href="https://astronomy.swin.edu.au/cosmos/d/Dark+Energy">dark energy</a>”. It’s thought to be a universal constant, acting equally in all areas of space-time (the fabric of our universe). </p>
<p>And the more the universe expands, the greater the effect dark energy has on its expansion. This is why even though the universe is 13.8 billion years old, it’s actually about 93 billion light-years across. </p>
<p>We can’t see the effect of dark energy on a galactic scale (within the Milky Way) but we can see it over much greater cosmological distances. </p>
<h2>Sit back and enjoy</h2>
<p>We live in a remarkable time of technology. Just 100 years ago, we didn’t know there were galaxies outside our own. Now we estimate there are trillions, and we are spoilt for choice.</p>
<p>For the foreseeable future, the JWST will be taking us on a journey through space and time each and every week. You can stay up to date with the latest news as <a href="https://jwst.nasa.gov/content/multimedia/images.html">NASA</a> releases it.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/187015/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sara Webb does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Why is the universe 13.8 billion years old, but 93 billion light-years across? It’s all about how light travels through the cosmos.Sara Webb, Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Centre for Astrophysics and Supercomputing, Swinburne University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1812412022-05-19T20:01:31Z2022-05-19T20:01:31ZWhat’s it like to be on Venus or Pluto? We studied their sand dunes and found some clues<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/458386/original/file-20220418-22-1t0v2e.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4045%2C5085&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Sand blown by wind into ripples within Victoria Crater at Meridiani Planum on Mars, as photographed by NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter on October 3, 2006.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA08813">NASA/JPL-Caltech/University of Arizona/Cornell/Ohio State University</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>What is it like to be on the surface of Mars or Venus? Or even further afield, such as on Pluto, or Saturn’s moon Titan? </p>
<p>This curiosity has driven advances in space exploration since Sputnik 1 was launched <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.org/thisday/oct4/ussr-launches-sputnik/">65 years</a> ago. But we’re only beginning to scratch the surface of what is knowable about other planetary bodies in the Solar System.</p>
<p>Our <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41550-022-01669-0">new study</a>, published today in Nature Astronomy, shows how some unlikely candidates – namely sand dunes – can provide insight into what weather and conditions you might experience if you were standing on a far-off planetary body. </p>
<h2>What’s in a grain of sand?</h2>
<p>English poet William Blake <a href="https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/43650/auguries-of-innocence">famously wondered</a> what it means “to see a world in a grain of sand”. </p>
<p>In our research, we took this quite literally. The idea was to use the mere presence of sand dunes to understand what conditions exist on a world’s surface. </p>
<p>For dunes to even exist, there are a pair of “<a href="https://theconversation.com/exo-earths-and-the-search-for-life-elsewhere-a-brief-history-33096">Goldilocks</a>” criteria that must be satisfied. First is a supply of erodible but durable grains. There must also be winds fast enough to make those grains hop across the ground – but not fast enough to carry them high into the atmosphere.</p>
<p>So far, the direct measurement of winds and sediment has only been possible on Earth and Mars. However, we have observed wind-blown sediment features on multiple other bodies (and even <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1612176114">comets</a>) by satellite. The very presence of such dunes on these bodies implies the Goldilocks conditions are met.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/460205/original/file-20220428-18-ofmyhl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/460205/original/file-20220428-18-ofmyhl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460205/original/file-20220428-18-ofmyhl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460205/original/file-20220428-18-ofmyhl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460205/original/file-20220428-18-ofmyhl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460205/original/file-20220428-18-ofmyhl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460205/original/file-20220428-18-ofmyhl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Windblown features on (from top left, clockwise) Earth, Mars, Titan, Venus, Pluto and Triton have been imaged by satellites.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nature Astronomy/Image adapted from Gunn and Jerolmack (2022)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our work focused on Venus, Earth, Mars, Titan, Triton (Neptune’s largest moon) and Pluto. Unresolved debates about these bodies have gone on for decades. </p>
<p>How do we square the apparent wind-blown features on Triton’s and Pluto’s surfaces with their thin, tenuous atmospheres? Why do we see such prolific sand and dust activity on Mars, despite measuring winds that seem too weak to sustain it? </p>
<p>And does Venus’s thick and stiflingly hot atmosphere move sand in a similar way to how air or water move on Earth?</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Mars ripples" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/461935/original/file-20220509-7428-n5ash3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/461935/original/file-20220509-7428-n5ash3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461935/original/file-20220509-7428-n5ash3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461935/original/file-20220509-7428-n5ash3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461935/original/file-20220509-7428-n5ash3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461935/original/file-20220509-7428-n5ash3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461935/original/file-20220509-7428-n5ash3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Windblown ripples on the Bagnold Dunes on Mars were photographed by the rover Curiosity.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Furthering the debate</h2>
<p>Our study offers predictions for the winds required to move sediment on these bodies, and how easily that sediment would break apart in those winds. </p>
<p>We constructed these predictions by piecing together results from a host of other research papers, and testing them against all the experimental data we could get our hands on.</p>
<p>We then applied the theories to each of the six bodies, drawing on telescope and satellite measurements of variables including gravity, atmospheric composition, surface temperature, and the strength of sediments.</p>
<p>Studies before ours have looked at either the wind speed threshold required to move sand, or the strength of various sediment particles. Our work combined these together – looking at how easily particles could break apart in sand-transporting weather on these bodies.</p>
<p>For example, we know Titan’s equator has sand dunes – but we aren’t sure of what sediment encircles the equator. Is it pure <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.0608561103">organic haze</a> raining down from the atmosphere, or is it mixed with denser ice?</p>
<p>As it turns out, we discovered loose aggregates of organic haze would disintegrate upon collision if they were blown by the winds at Titan’s equator. </p>
<p>This implies Titan’s dunes probably aren’t made of purely organic haze. To build a dune, sediment must be blown around in the wind for a long time (some of Earth’s dune sands are a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo985">million years</a> old).</p>
<p>We also found wind speeds would have to be excessively fast on Pluto to transport either methane or nitrogen ice (which is what Pluto’s dune sediments were hypothesised to be). This calls into question whether “dunes” on Pluto’s plain, <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/feature/scientists-probe-mystery-of-pluto-s-icy-heart">Sputnik Planitia</a>, are dunes at all.</p>
<p>They may instead be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2020.103350">sublimation waves</a>. These are dune-like landforms made from the sublimation of material, instead of sediment erosion (such as those seen on Mars’s north polar cap).</p>
<p>Our results for Mars suggest more dust is generated from wind-blown sand transport on Mars than on Earth. This suggests our models of the Martian atmosphere may not be effectively capturing Mars’s strong “<a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/41161/katabatic-winds-rake-terra-nova-bay">katabatic</a>” winds, which are cold gusts that blow downhill at night.</p>
<h2>Potential for space exploration</h2>
<p>This study comes at an interesting stage of space exploration.</p>
<p>For Mars, we have a relative abundance of observations; five space agencies are conducting active missions in orbit, or in situ. Studies such as ours help inform the objectives of these missions, and the paths taken by rovers such as <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4czjS9h4Fpg">Perseverance</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/on-its-first-try-chinas-zhurong-rover-hit-a-mars-milestone-that-took-nasa-decades-161078">Zhurong</a>.</p>
<p>In the outer reaches of the Solar System, Triton has not been observed in detail since the NASA Voyager 2 flyby in 1989. There is currently a <a href="https://doi.org/10.3847/PSJ/abf654">mission proposal</a> which, if selected, would have a probe launched in 2031 to study Triton, before annihilating itself by flying into Neptune’s atmosphere.</p>
<p>Missions planned to Venus and Titan in the coming decade will revolutionise our understanding of these two. NASA’s <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/dragonfly/dragonfly-overview/index.html">Dragonfly</a> mission, slated to leave Earth in 2027 and arrive on Titan in 2034, will land an uncrewed helicopter on the moon’s dunes.</p>
<p>Pluto was observed during a 2015 <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NEdvyrKokX4">flyby</a> by NASA’s ongoing New Horizons mission, but there are no plans to return.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/jupiter-saturn-uranus-neptune-why-our-next-visit-to-the-giant-planets-will-be-so-important-and-just-as-difficult-175918">Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune: why our next visit to the giant planets will be so important (and just as difficult)</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/181241/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew Gunn received funding from the National Aeronautics and Space Agency. </span></em></p>There are many bodies in the solar system we can’t easily access. But observations of their winds and sediments reveal a surprising amount.Andrew Gunn, Lecturer, Monash UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1817212022-05-15T20:15:15Z2022-05-15T20:15:15ZHumans have big plans for mining in space – but there are many things holding us back<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462948/original/file-20220513-27-56onz3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=69%2C50%2C4124%2C2546&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Like Earth, planetary bodies such as the Moon, Mars, asteroids and comets contain substantial deposits of valuable resources. This has caught the attention of both researchers and industry, with hopes of one day mining them to support a space economy.</p>
<p>But setting up any kind of off-Earth mining industry will be no small feat. Let’s look at what we’re up against.</p>
<h2>In-situ resource utilisation</h2>
<p>When you think of off-Earth mining, you might imagine extracting materials from various bodies in space and bringing them back to Earth. But this is unlikely to be the first commercially viable example. </p>
<p>If we wanted to establish a permanent human presence on the Moon, as <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2021/nasa-s-artemis-base-camp-on-the-moon-will-need-light-water-elevation/">NASA has proposed</a>, we would need to resupply astronauts living there. Resources such as water can only be recycled to an extent.</p>
<p>At the same time, resources are extremely expensive to launch from Earth. As of 2018, it <a href="https://ttu-ir.tdl.org/handle/2346/74082">cost about A$3,645</a> to launch one kilogram of material into low Earth orbit, and more to launch it higher, or onto the Moon. It’s likely materials mined in space will be used in space, to help save on these costs.</p>
<p>Harvesting materials required on-site is called “in-situ resource utilisation”. It can involve anything from mining ice, to collecting soil to build structures. NASA is currently exploring the possibility of constructing buildings on the Moon with <a href="https://3dprintingindustry.com/news/nasa-to-explore-3d-printed-lunar-structure-possibilities-with-redwire-regolith-print-launch-193859/">3D printing</a>.</p>
<p>Mining in space could also transform satellite management. Current practice is to de-orbit satellites after 10–20 years when they run out of fuel. One lofty goal of space companies such as Orbit Fab is to design a type of satellite that can be <a href="https://phys.org/news/2021-09-gas-station-space.html">refuelled</a> using propellant collected in space.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A satellite in space orbits Earth (visible in the background)" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462949/original/file-20220513-12-3uiujr.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462949/original/file-20220513-12-3uiujr.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462949/original/file-20220513-12-3uiujr.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462949/original/file-20220513-12-3uiujr.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462949/original/file-20220513-12-3uiujr.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462949/original/file-20220513-12-3uiujr.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462949/original/file-20220513-12-3uiujr.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">It would be difficult to achieve a complete overhaul of how satellites are designed. But in the long term, doing so may revolutionise the industry.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Even for low-Earth orbit satellites, the energy required to reach them from the Moon is less than that needed to reach them from Earth.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/thousands-of-satellites-are-polluting-australian-skies-and-threatening-ancient-indigenous-astronomy-practices-173840">Thousands of satellites are polluting Australian skies, and threatening ancient Indigenous astronomy practices</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What resources are out there?</h2>
<p>When it comes to off-Earth mining opportunities, there are a few resources that are both abundant and valuable. <a href="http://astrotecture.com/Welcome_files/AIAA-2013-5304_Asteroid_Mining.pdf">Some asteroids contain</a> vast amounts of iron, nickel, gold and platinum group metals, which can be used for construction and electronics.</p>
<p>Lunar regolith (rock and soil) <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0309133314567585">contains helium-3</a>, which may become a valuable resource in the future if nuclear fusion becomes viable and widespread. British company Metalysis has developed a process which could <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/Turning_Moon_dust_into_oxygen">extract oxygen from lunar regolith</a>.</p>
<p>Ice is <a href="https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/full/10.1089/space.2019.0002">expected to exist</a> on the Moon’s surface, at permanently shadowed craters near its poles. We also think there’s ice beneath the surface of Mars, asteroids and comets. This could be used to support life, or be broken down into oxygen and hydrogen and used as propellant.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-moons-top-layer-alone-has-enough-oxygen-to-sustain-8-billion-people-for-100-000-years-170013">The Moon's top layer alone has enough oxygen to sustain 8 billion people for 100,000 years</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How would we mine in space?</h2>
<p>My (Michael’s) PhD thesis involved testing how exploration techniques would operate on <a href="https://unsworks.unsw.edu.au/bitstreams/e119dfe6-fea0-4657-b1b2-a32c15136af2/download">the Moon and Mars</a>. Our other work has included economic modelling for <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0094576517305131?">ice mining on Mars</a>, and computer modelling on the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0094576522001473">stability of tunnels</a> on the Moon.</p>
<p>Some proposals for off-Earth mining are similar to mining on Earth. For instance, we could mine lunar regolith with a <a href="https://aip.scitation.org/doi/pdf/10.1063/1.1649662">bucket-wheel excavator</a>, or mine an asteroid using a <a href="http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext">tunnel boring machine</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462950/original/file-20220513-18-nuftq9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A large bucket-wheel excavator being used in a coal mine." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462950/original/file-20220513-18-nuftq9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462950/original/file-20220513-18-nuftq9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462950/original/file-20220513-18-nuftq9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462950/original/file-20220513-18-nuftq9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462950/original/file-20220513-18-nuftq9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462950/original/file-20220513-18-nuftq9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462950/original/file-20220513-18-nuftq9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Bucket-wheel excavators are large machines used in surface mining, including coal mining, which allow continuous digging.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Other proposals are more unfamiliar – such as using a <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yvBVuewGuxs">vacuum-like machine</a> to pull regolith up a tube (which has seen limited use in excavation on Earth). </p>
<p>Researchers from the University of New South Wales Sydney and the Australian National University propose using <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0265964615300114">biomining</a>. In this, bacteria introduced to an asteroid would consume certain minerals and produces a gas, which could then be harvested and collected by a probe.</p>
<h2>Huge challenges persist</h2>
<p>Our work at UNSW’s <a href="https://www.acser.unsw.edu.au/">Australian Centre for Space Engineering Research</a> involves finding ways to reduce risks in a space resources industry. Needless to say, there are many technical and economical challenges.</p>
<p>The same launch costs that have so many eager to begin off-Earth mining also mean getting mining equipment to space is expensive. Mining operations will have to be as light as possible to be cost-effective (or even feasible).</p>
<p>Moreover, the further something is from Earth, the longer it takes to reach. There is delay of up to 40 minutes when sending a command to a Mars rover and finding out whether it was successful.</p>
<p>The Moon only has a 2.7 second delay for communications, and may be easier to mine remotely. Near-Earth objects also have orbits similar to Earth, and occasionally <a href="https://theskylive.com/near-earth-objects">pass by Earth</a> at distances comparable to the Moon. They’re an ideal candidate to mine as they require little energy to reach and return from.</p>
<p>Off-Earth mining would need to be mostly automated, or remotely controlled, given the additional challenges of sending humans to space – such as needing life support, avoiding radiation, and extra launch costs. </p>
<p>However, even mining systems on Earth aren’t fully automated yet. Robotics will need to improve before asteroids can be mined.</p>
<p>While spacecraft have landed on asteroids several times and even retrieved samples – which were returned to Woomera in South Australia, during the Hayabusa 1 and 2 <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/world/asia/japanese-asteroid-mission-to-drop-ancient-samples-in-australian-desert-20201119-p56g02.html">missions</a> – our overall success rate for landing on asteroids and comets is low. </p>
<p>In 2014, the Philae lander sent to comet 67P/Churyumov/Gerasimenko famously tumbled <a href="https://www.space.com/27767-philae-comet-landing-nearly-failed-infographic.html">into a ditch</a> during a failed landing attempt.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462955/original/file-20220513-17-vrl4aq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Philae lander on comet's surface" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462955/original/file-20220513-17-vrl4aq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462955/original/file-20220513-17-vrl4aq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462955/original/file-20220513-17-vrl4aq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462955/original/file-20220513-17-vrl4aq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462955/original/file-20220513-17-vrl4aq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462955/original/file-20220513-17-vrl4aq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462955/original/file-20220513-17-vrl4aq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The European Space Agency’s Philae lander, which accompanied the Rosetta spacecraft, bounced back twice before settling in an awkward position inside a ditch.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wiki Commons</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There are also environmental considerations. Mining in space may help reduce the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0094576519313839">amount of mining</a> needed on Earth. But that’s if off-Earth mining results in fewer, and not more, rocket launches, or if the resources are returned to and used on Earth. </p>
<p>Although collecting resources in space might mean not having to launch them from Earth, more launches may inevitably take place as the space economy grows. </p>
<p>Then there’s the question of whether proposed mining techniques will even work in <a href="https://unsworks.unsw.edu.au/bitstreams/e119dfe6-fea0-4657-b1b2-a32c15136af2/download">space environments</a>. Different planetary bodies have different atmospheres (or none), gravity, geology, and electrostatic environments (for example, they may have electrically charged soil due to <a href="https://www.nature.com/news/2007/070129/full/news070129-16.html">particles from the Sun</a>). </p>
<p>How these conditions will affect off-Earth operations is still largely unknown.</p>
<h2>But work is underway</h2>
<p>While it’s still early days, a number of companies are currently developing technologies for off-Earth mining, space resource exploration, and for other uses in space.</p>
<p>The Canadian <a href="https://www.csmc-scms.ca/">Space Mining Corporation</a> is developing infrastructure required to support life in space, including oxygen generators and other machinery. </p>
<p>US-based company <a href="https://www.offworld.ai/">OffWorld</a> is developing industrial robots for operations on Earth, the Moon, asteroids and Mars. And the <a href="https://asteroidminingcorporation.co.uk/about">Asteroid Mining Corporation</a> is also working to establish a market for space resources.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/181721/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Dello-Iacovo is affiliated with the Animal Justice Party and Sentience Institute. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Serkan Saydam receives funding from ARC, ACARP, CRC-P, ESA, Australia - Korea Foundation. He is affiliated with UNSW Sydney (Australian Centre for Space Engineering Research) and School of Minerals and Energy Resources Engineering, International Society of Rock Mechanics (ISRM) Commission on Planetary Rock Mechanics, Society of Mining Professors, and the Fellow member of the AusIMM, member of AaEe, Engineers Australia, Australian Geomechanics Society, and AIAA. </span></em></p>There’s a lot of technological progress required before off-Earth mining operations can be considered feasible.Michael Dello-Iacovo, Casual academic, UNSW SydneySerkan Saydam, Off Earth Mining, Future Mining, Mining Systems, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1805082022-05-02T20:43:42Z2022-05-02T20:43:42ZWe’ve used a new technique to discover the brightest radio pulsar outside our own galaxy<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/459633/original/file-20220426-24-1yteib.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1876%2C1235&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Artist's impression of the PSR J0523-7125 in the Large Magellanic Cloud. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Carl Knox, ARC Centre of Excellence for Gravitational Wave Discovery (OzGrav)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>When a star explodes and dies in a supernova, it takes on a new life of sorts. </p>
<p>Pulsars are the extremely rapidly rotating objects left over after massive stars have exhausted their fuel supply. They are extremely dense, with a mass similar to the Sun crammed into a region the size of Sydney. </p>
<p>Pulsars emit beams of radio waves from their poles. As those beams sweep across Earth, we can detect rapid pulses as often as hundreds of times per second. With this knowledge, scientists are always on the lookout for new pulsars within and outside our Milky Way galaxy.</p>
<p>In research <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-4357/ac61dc">published today in the Astrophysical Journal</a>, we detail our findings on the most luminous radio pulsar ever discovered outside the Milky Way.</p>
<p>This pulsar, named PSR J0523-7125, is located in the Large Magellanic Cloud – one of our closest neighbouring galaxies – and is more than ten times brighter than all other radio pulsars outside the Milky Way. It may be even brighter than those within it.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/gjLk_72V9Bw?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Source: Youtube/NASA.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why wasn’t PSR J0523-7125 discovered before?</h2>
<p>There are more than 3,300 radio pulsars known. Of these, 99% reside within our galaxy. Many were discovered with CSIRO’s famous Parkes radio telescope, <a href="https://blog.csiro.au/parkes-telescope-indigenous-name/">Murriyang</a>, in New South Wales. </p>
<p>About 30 radio pulsars have been found outside our galaxy, in the Magellanic Clouds. So far we don’t know of any in more distant galaxies. </p>
<p>Astronomers search for pulsars by looking for their distinctive repeating signals in radio telescope data. This is a computationally intensive task. It works most of the time, but this method can sometimes fail if the pulsar is unusual: such as very fast, very slow, or (in this case) if the pulse is very wide.</p>
<p>A very wide pulse reduces the signature “flickering” astronomers look for, and can make the pulsar harder to find. We now know PSR J0523-7125 has an extremely wide beam, and thus escaped detection. </p>
<p>The Large Magellanic Cloud has been explored by the Parkes telescope several times over the past 50 years, and yet this pulsar had never been spotted. So how were we able to find it?</p>
<h2>An unusual object emerges in ASKAP data</h2>
<p>Pulsar beams can be highly circularly polarised, which means the electric field of light waves rotate in a circular motion as the waves travel through space. </p>
<p>Such circularly polarised signals are very rare, and usually only emitted from objects with very strong magnetic fields, such as pulsars or dwarf stars.</p>
<p>We wanted to pinpoint unusual pulsars that are hard to identify with traditional methods, so we set out to find them by specifically detecting circularly polarised signals. </p>
<p>Our eyes can’t distinguish between polarised and unpolarised light. But the ASKAP radio telescope, owned and operated by Australia’s national science agency CSIRO, has the equivalent of <a href="https://blog.csiro.au/a-chance-encounter-with-a-pulsar/">polarised sunglasses that can recognise circularly polarised events</a>.</p>
<p>When looking at data from our ASKAP <a href="https://www.vast-survey.org/">Variables and Slow Transients</a> (VAST) survey, an undergraduate student noticed a circular polarised object near the centre of the Large Magellanic Cloud. Moreover, this object changed brightness over the course of several months: another very unusual property that made it unique.</p>
<p>This was unexpected and exciting, since there was no known pulsar or dwarf star at this position. We figured the object must be something new. We observed it with many different telescopes, at different wavelengths, to try and solve the mystery. </p>
<p>Apart from the Parkes (Murriyang) telescope, we used the space-based <a href="https://swift.gsfc.nasa.gov/">Neil Gehrels Swift Observatory</a> (to observe it at X-ray wavelengths) and the <a href="https://www.gemini.edu/">Gemini telescope</a> in Chile (to observe it at infrared wavelengths). Yet we detected nothing. </p>
<p>The object couldn’t be a star, as stars would be visible in optical and infrared light. It was unlikely to be a normal pulsar, as the pulses would have been detected by Parkes. Even the Gemini telescope didn’t provide an answer.</p>
<p>Ultimately we turned to the new, highly sensitive <a href="https://www.sarao.ac.za/science/meerkat/">MeerKAT radio telescope</a> in South Africa, owned and operated by the South African Radio Astronomy Observatory. Observations with MeerKAT revealed the source is indeed a new pulsar, PSR J0523-7125, spinning at a rate of about three rotations per second. </p>
<p>Below you can see the MeerKAT image of the pulsar with polarised “sunglasses” on (left) and off (right). If you move the slider, you’ll notice PSR J0523-7125 is the only bright object when the glasses are on.</p>
<iframe frameborder="0" class="juxtapose" width="100%" height="600" src="https://cdn.knightlab.com/libs/juxtapose/latest/embed/index.html?uid=241ff938-c4fa-11ec-b5bb-6595d9b17862"></iframe>
<p>Our analysis also confirmed its location within the Large Magellanic Cloud, about 160,000 light years away. We were surprised to find PSR J0523-7125 is more than ten times brighter than all other pulsars in that galaxy, and possibly the brightest pulsar ever found.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/fifty-years-ago-jocelyn-bell-discovered-pulsars-and-changed-our-view-of-the-universe-88083">Fifty years ago Jocelyn Bell discovered pulsars and changed our view of the universe</a>
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<h2>What new telescopes can do</h2>
<p>The discovery of PSR J0523-7125 demonstrates our ability to find “missing” pulsars using this new technique. </p>
<p>By combining this method with ASKAP’s and MeerKAT’s capabilities, we should be able to discover other types of extreme pulsars – and maybe even other unknown objects that <a href="https://theconversation.com/we-found-a-mysterious-flashing-radio-signal-from-near-the-centre-of-the-galaxy-167802">are hard to explain</a>. </p>
<p>Extreme pulsars are one of the missing pieces in the vast picture of the pulsar population. We’ll need to find more of them before we can truly understand pulsars within the framework of modern physics.</p>
<p>This discovery is just the beginning. ASKAP has now finished its pilot surveys and is expected to launch into full operational capacity later this year. This will pave the way for even more discoveries, when the global <a href="https://www.skatelescope.org/">SKA</a> (square kilometre array) telescope network starts observing in the not too distant future. </p>
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<p><em>Akncowledgement: We acknowledge the Wajarri Yamatji as the traditional owners of the Murchison Radio-astronomy Observatory site where ASKAP is located, and the Wiradjuri people as the traditional owners of the Parkes Observatory.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/180508/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Yuanming Wang receives support from the China Scholarship Council, and as a Graduate Student with the University of Sydney and CSIRO Astronomy and Space Science. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Kaplan receives funding from the National Science Foundation.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tara Murphy receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p>The pulsar PSR J0523-7125 is more than ten times brighter than any other radio pulsar outside the Milky Way.Yuanming Wang, PhD student, University of SydneyDavid Kaplan, Professor of Physics, University of Wisconsin-MilwaukeeTara Murphy, Professor, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1797602022-03-23T19:06:19Z2022-03-23T19:06:19ZWhat will Australia’s new Defence Space Command do?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/453725/original/file-20220323-19-1eb4id.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=10%2C0%2C2385%2C1591&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://images.defence.gov.au/20210521raaf8659002_0027.jpg">Department of Defence / LAC Sam Price</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australia established a Defence Space Command <a href="https://www.airforce.gov.au/our-mission/defence-space-command">in January</a> this year, “to achieve our strategic space ambitions and lead the effort to assure Australia’s access to space”. The government also plans to spend <a href="https://www.defence.gov.au/sites/default/files/2020-11/Factsheet_Space.pdf">around A$7 billion</a> on space defence over the next decade.</p>
<p>Many areas within defence are already engaged in space activities, but Defence Space Command will bring them together. It will aim to build space capability not only in defence but also the rest of government, industry, and the research and education sectors. </p>
<p>I’m director of <a href="https://www.unsw.adfa.edu.au/unsw-canberra-space">UNSW Canberra Space</a> – the space mission, research and education program at the Australian Defence Force Academy, which develops and flies satellite missions for Defence Space Command. I have seen first-hand how defence, universities and industry can work together to develop Australian space technology and skills.</p>
<h2>Preparing for (and preventing) conflict</h2>
<p>Why do we need to put so much effort into space and space defence? One reason is Australia (like the rest of the world) depends on space-based technologies to provide communications, navigation and timing, and Earth-observing services.</p>
<p>However, space is increasingly “<a href="https://www.un.org/press/en/2013/gadis3487.doc.htm">congested, contested and competitive</a>”, according to the United Nations committee responsible for disarmament and international security in space. </p>
<p>Space services such as <a href="https://www.planet.com">Planet’s remote sensing network</a> (every part of the planet imaged from space, every day) and <a href="https://www.starlink.com">Starlink’s broadband internet constellation</a> are growing rapidly. There are now <a href="https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/satellite-database">almost 5,000 operational satellites</a> orbiting Earth. </p>
<p>The risk of collisions is increasing, as is the potential for conflict. Many nations now regard space as a “<a href="https://www.spaceforce.mil/Portals/1/Space%20Capstone%20Publication_10%20Aug%202020.pdf">warfighting domain</a>”, and the challenges are not just technological but political and ethical.</p>
<p>Defence Space Command will prepare for such space conflict, and deter it as much as possible.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/an-australian-space-command-could-be-a-force-for-good-or-a-cause-for-war-158232">An Australian 'space command' could be a force for good — or a cause for war</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>A commercial environment</h2>
<p>Another reason for Australia to step more boldly into space is increasing commercialisation. Space is no longer solely the domain of government space agencies. A rapidly growing array of private companies are now leading the way.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.industry.gov.au/about-us/about-the-australian-space-agency">Australian Space Agency</a>, established in 2018, is tasked with growing the country’s space industry to take a share of the global space economy. Along the way, this industry will support Defence Space Command and defence more broadly. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/space-agency-for-australia-heres-why-its-important-96105">Space Agency for Australia: here's why it's important</a>
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<hr>
<p>Australian players are new to the game, and the history of competitive markets shows disruptive innovation – the kind that creates new markets or sources of value – is the only way new entrants can compete and win against incumbents. <a href="https://issuu.com/bpts/docs/nobel_iii-digital-book/418">Australia must be prepared to take risks in space</a>, flying often, learning from failure, and commercialising innovative technologies from research-driven space missions. </p>
<p>Australia (defence included) must embrace disruptive innovation in the space domain, or we will become technically capable but not necessarily commercially or militarily competitive.</p>
<h2>Skills for space</h2>
<p>To rise to these challenges, Defence Space Command will need a highly skilled space workforce. </p>
<p>There are currently few personnel in defence who understand the complexities and harsh realities of operating in space through hands-on experience. Knowing which missions to do and how to do them right can’t be learnt from textbooks.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2018/06/the-3-skill-sets-workers-need-to-develop-between-now-and-2030/">Analysis from various quarters</a> also emphasises the workforce of the future will have a growing need for technological skills, particularly in the areas of automation and artificial intelligence; social and emotional skills, for leadership and teamwork in complex situations; and higher cognitive skills, including critical thinking and complex information processing.</p>
<p>All these are crucial for defence. The complexities of the space domain, the cross-disciplinary skills required, and the relevance of space to all aspects of society, mean training a future space workforce can inspire and educate, not just technologists and war fighters, but the critical thinkers and leaders of the future.</p>
<h2>How universities fit in</h2>
<p>This is where universities come in. Many of Australia’s universities are rapidly building space expertise, including Curtin University and the University of Melbourne. Take, for example, our work.</p>
<p>We help meet three critical needs: attracting and training a highly skilled workforce; pursuing and commercialising disruptive innovation; and performing early analysis and feasibility studies of potential space missions.</p>
<p>Defence and UNSW Canberra have jointly invested more than A$30 million since 2015 in this program. In that time, we have has developed four missions with five satellites. We have also performed extensive research and development for artificial intelligence-enabled space systems. We have also tracked and predicted the behaviour of satellites and their interactions with the space environment (known as “space domain awareness”).</p>
<p>Our <a href="https://www.unsw.adfa.edu.au/unsw-canberra-space/missions/m2">most recent mission, M2</a>, was launched in March 2021. It consists of two advanced satellites demonstrating technologies for Earth observation, satellite monitoring, communications and in-orbit artificial intelligence. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/453728/original/file-20220323-27-eog8j5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/453728/original/file-20220323-27-eog8j5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453728/original/file-20220323-27-eog8j5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453728/original/file-20220323-27-eog8j5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453728/original/file-20220323-27-eog8j5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453728/original/file-20220323-27-eog8j5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453728/original/file-20220323-27-eog8j5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The M2 mission demonstrated cutting-edge technologies.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">UNSW Canberra</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our missions have grown defence’s capacity and capability for developing and operating space technologies to meet national needs. The technical and operational lessons we learn feed directly into our space education program and also our plans for the future. </p>
<p>Just as importantly, the team has spawned three Canberra-based spin-off companies (<a href="https://www.skykraft.com.au">Skykraft</a>, <a href="https://infinityavionics.com">Infinity Avionics</a> and <a href="https://www.nominalsys.com">Nominal Systems</a>) and established a domestic supply chain of approximately 30 organisations to support the missions. We have also contributed more than 20 highly skilled space professionals to other parts of the Australian space sector. </p>
<p>UNSW Canberra Space, along with our colleagues across the university sector, agencies such as Defence Science and Technology Group, the Australian Space Agency, CSIRO and Geoscience Australia, and in industry, has ambitious plans for new Australian space missions in the coming years. </p>
<p>The innovations that flow will be many, and the growth in skills across the country will be extensive. With coordination, these outcomes will make an important and enduring contribution to the success of Defence Space Command. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-wants-a-space-industry-so-why-wont-we-pay-for-the-basic-research-to-drive-it-178878">Australia wants a space industry. So why won't we pay for the basic research to drive it?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/179760/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Russell Boyce owns shares in Skykraft, and chairs the board of Infinity Avionics. </span></em></p>The future of Australia’s space efforts will hinge on coordination between defence, industry and universities.Russell Boyce, Chair for Intelligent Space Systems and Director, UNSW Canberra Space, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1783152022-03-17T04:15:21Z2022-03-17T04:15:21ZThe James Webb Space Telescope has taken its first aligned image of a star. Here’s how it was done<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/452681/original/file-20220317-8345-4q9ile.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=203%2C415%2C5225%2C3011&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>In a huge milestone, the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) has finally <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-s-webb-reaches-alignment-milestone-optics-working-successfully">been aligned</a> to produce the first unified image of a single star.</p>
<p>Most <a href="https://spaceplace.nasa.gov/telescopes/en/">traditional telescopes</a> these days (like one you might have in your backyard) have a single primary mirror that collects distant light from stars. But the JWST has 18 mirrors! These had to be aligned extremely precisely to capture the image NASA released today. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/452628/original/file-20220316-8637-1fgidb5.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/452628/original/file-20220316-8637-1fgidb5.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452628/original/file-20220316-8637-1fgidb5.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452628/original/file-20220316-8637-1fgidb5.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452628/original/file-20220316-8637-1fgidb5.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452628/original/file-20220316-8637-1fgidb5.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452628/original/file-20220316-8637-1fgidb5.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This gif shows the several intermediary images of stars used for the crucial JWST mirror alignment process.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA/Twitter</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The challenge with JWST</h2>
<p>The JWST is the largest telescope humans have ever sent into space. It’s so big that none of our rockets can carry it when fully extended. As such, it was designed to be neatly folded to fit inside the cargo hold atop an <a href="https://www.arianespace.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Arianespace_Brochure_Ariane5_Sept2019.pdf">Ariane 5 launch vehicle</a>. </p>
<p>The telescope uses segmented mirror technology. This technology has been in use for a few decades now, by some of the largest optical telescopes in the world, including the <a href="https://www.keckobservatory.org">Keck Observatory</a> in Hawaii (which has two 10m-diameter mirrors, each made of 36 hexagonal segments). </p>
<p>The main challenge with the JWST was being able to unfold it to its fully extended form in space, under extreme conditions of heat and cold, and with no human assistance. </p>
<p>This process began in January. Once the mirror segments were unfolded, they had to be aligned so all 18 combined to form a single 6.5m-diameter curved mirror.</p>
<p>The JWST has now completed this <a href="https://blogs.nasa.gov/webb/2022/02/03/photons-incoming-webb-team-begins-aligning-the-telescope/">alignment process</a>, giving us the first unified image. The image was taken using the <a href="https://jwst-docs.stsci.edu/jwst-near-infrared-camera">near infrared camera (NIRCam)</a>, one of the telescope’s <a href="https://www.stsci.edu/jwst/instrumentation/instruments">four key science instruments</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/452683/original/file-20220317-8368-1ec7r1m.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Close-up view of the NIRCam instrument" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/452683/original/file-20220317-8368-1ec7r1m.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/452683/original/file-20220317-8368-1ec7r1m.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452683/original/file-20220317-8368-1ec7r1m.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452683/original/file-20220317-8368-1ec7r1m.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452683/original/file-20220317-8368-1ec7r1m.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452683/original/file-20220317-8368-1ec7r1m.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452683/original/file-20220317-8368-1ec7r1m.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The NIRCam is the optical system that captures images on the James Webb Space Telescope.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>But how was this done?</h2>
<p>There are seven <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/nasawebbtelescope/13291045605/">small motors</a> fixed behind each of the JWST’s 18 slightly curved hexagonal mirrors. Their purpose is to move and reshape the curvature of each segment so that all 18 can act as a single large mirror. </p>
<p>Six of these motors are grouped in pairs, equally distanced and located around each mirror segment. These are used to move the mirror.</p>
<p>The seventh motor is at the centre and is connected to the mirror’s six corners with struts. This motor can adjust the tension of the struts to optimise the curvature of that mirror segment.</p>
<p>The motors can move the mirrors very precisely, to within about 1/10,000th of the diameter of a human hair. This precision (to within a fraction of a wavelength of light) is important for obtaining high quality images from the telescope.</p>
<p>NASA scientists used a mathematical analysis called “<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006SPIE.6265E..11D/abstract">phase retrieval</a>” to study how the movement of each individual segment changed the sharpness of the final image. </p>
<p>Once they had this information, there were two crucial tasks to complete before the segments could function as a single, monolithic mirror: coarse alignment and fine alignment. </p>
<h2>Coarse and fine alignment</h2>
<p>In coarse alignment, the mirror segments were moved vertically (up and down) until they aligned to form one giant mirror. However, there were still minute alignment errors that needed to be corrected to obtain the best possible image. </p>
<p>This is where the fine alignment happens. In this process, rather than moving the mirror segments, the small optics inside NIRCam are moved instead. </p>
<p>When the telescope is pointed at a star, the light from the star first hits the primary mirror, in which the individual segments are now aligned reasonably well.</p>
<p>The light then continues its path through the secondary and tertiary mirrors inside the telescope and enters the NIRCam instrument. During the fine alignment, the optics inside NIRCam are very carefully adjusted until the star is completely in focus. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/452690/original/file-20220317-8303-olr076.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/452690/original/file-20220317-8303-olr076.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/452690/original/file-20220317-8303-olr076.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452690/original/file-20220317-8303-olr076.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452690/original/file-20220317-8303-olr076.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452690/original/file-20220317-8303-olr076.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452690/original/file-20220317-8303-olr076.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452690/original/file-20220317-8303-olr076.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">There are four different types of mirrors on the Webb telescope: primary mirror segments, the secondary mirror, tertiary mirror and the fine steering mirror.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/nasawebbtelescope/5890960025/in/album-72157658888594928/">NASA/Ball Aerospace/Tinsley</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The coarse and fine alignment steps are both repeated until the sharpest image can be obtained. The image released by NASA this week shows how a star looks when these steps are completed. </p>
<p>Prior to this, NASA released a “stacked” image (likely of the same star) back in February. </p>
<p>For this, each of the individual mirror segments were fine-tuned to create <a href="https://blogs.nasa.gov/webb/wp-content/uploads/sites/326/2022/02/SegmentAlignment.gif">18 sharp images of the star</a>, but each from a slightly different vantage point. The 18 images were then stacked to produce the image below. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/452402/original/file-20220316-15-1x1dxvw.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Stacked image of a star taken by the James Webb Space Telescope" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/452402/original/file-20220316-15-1x1dxvw.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/452402/original/file-20220316-15-1x1dxvw.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452402/original/file-20220316-15-1x1dxvw.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452402/original/file-20220316-15-1x1dxvw.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452402/original/file-20220316-15-1x1dxvw.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452402/original/file-20220316-15-1x1dxvw.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452402/original/file-20220316-15-1x1dxvw.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">NASA scientists stacked the 18 individual images captured by the primary mirror segments to create a stacked image.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://blogs.nasa.gov/webb/wp-content/uploads/sites/326/2022/02/PostImageStacking.jpeg">NASA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The next steps</h2>
<p>While the successful testing of the NIRCam is a breakthrough for the JWST, there are many more steps to be completed before it can fulfil its potential. </p>
<p>Next NASA will look at how the other instruments perform with images of stars, and do further fine tuning to the optics in those instruments. After this, the instrument commissioning phase will start. Apart from NIRCam, there are three other instruments on board the JWST: <a href="https://jwst-docs.stsci.edu/jwst-near-infrared-spectrograph">NIRSpec</a>, <a href="https://jwst-docs.stsci.edu/jwst-near-infrared-imager-and-slitless-spectrograph">NIRISS</a>, and <a href="https://jwst-docs.stsci.edu/jwst-mid-infrared-instrument">MIRI</a>. </p>
<p>While NIRCam will primarily provide images of the Universe over the near-infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum, NIRSpec can split that light to study different signatures (variations in the properties of the incoming light).</p>
<p>NIRISS will provide similar functionality to NIRCam, while MIRI will look at the Universe at much higher wavelengths (reaching the mid infrared range).</p>
<p>All the instruments will be brought to their working temperatures and tested. Some initial steps have already begun and all indications so far are good. Many of the steps also have redundancies built into them, which means if a system should fail, there will be another way to achieve the same objective.</p>
<p>You can keep up to date with the JWST’s activities <a href="https://www.jwst.nasa.gov/content/webbLaunch/whereIsWebb.html">online</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/nasas-james-webb-space-telescope-has-reached-its-destination-1-5-million-km-from-earth-heres-what-happens-next-175327">NASA's James Webb Space Telescope has reached its destination, 1.5 million km from Earth. Here's what happens next</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/178315/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Themiya Nanayakkara is affiliated with the James Webb Australian Data Centre hosted at the Swinburne University of Technology. </span></em></p>The telescopes primary mirror segments are now working together to provide a single, sharp image.Themiya Nanayakkara, Chief Astronomer at the James Webb Australian Data Centre, Swinburne University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1759182022-02-21T05:00:45Z2022-02-21T05:00:45ZJupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune: why our next visit to the giant planets will be so important (and just as difficult)<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446075/original/file-20220213-17-1s3hlo0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=15%2C3%2C2580%2C1191&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sOpMrVnjYeY&t=2225s&ab_channel=SpaceX">SpaceX</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The giant planets – Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune - are some of the most awe-inspiring in our Solar System, and have great importance for space research and our comprehension of the greater universe.</p>
<p>Yet they remain the least explored – especially the “ice giants” Uranus and Neptune – due to their distance from Earth, and the extreme conditions spacecraft must survive to enter their atmospheres. As such, they’re also the least understood planets in the Solar System.</p>
<p>Our <a href="https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/10.2514/1.A34282">ongoing</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.2514/1.J060560">research</a> looks at how to overcome the harsh entry conditions experienced during giant planet missions. As we look forward to potential future missions, here’s what we might expect.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446070/original/file-20220213-13-wp9do.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446070/original/file-20220213-13-wp9do.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446070/original/file-20220213-13-wp9do.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=227&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446070/original/file-20220213-13-wp9do.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=227&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446070/original/file-20220213-13-wp9do.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=227&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446070/original/file-20220213-13-wp9do.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=286&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446070/original/file-20220213-13-wp9do.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=286&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446070/original/file-20220213-13-wp9do.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=286&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Jupiter is about ten times as large as Earth – with a 69,911km radius (compared to Earth’s 6,371km radius).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Beinahegut</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>But first, what are giant planets?</h2>
<p>Unlike rocky planets, giant planets don’t have a surface to land on. Even in their lower atmospheres they remain gaseous, reaching extremely high pressures that would crush any spacecraft well before it could land on anything solid.</p>
<p>There are two types of giant planets: gas giants and ice giants. </p>
<p>The larger Jupiter and Saturn are gas giants. These are mainly made of hydrogen and helium, with an outer gaseous layer and a partially liquid “metallic” layer below that. They’re also believed to have a small rocky core. </p>
<p>Uranus and Neptune have similar outer atmospheres and rocky cores, but their inner layer is made up of about 65% water and other so-called “ices” (although these technically remain liquid) such as <a href="https://www.lpi.usra.edu/icegiants/mission_study/Exec-Summary.pdf">methane and ammonia</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446068/original/file-20220213-17-gke7kv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446068/original/file-20220213-17-gke7kv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446068/original/file-20220213-17-gke7kv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446068/original/file-20220213-17-gke7kv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446068/original/file-20220213-17-gke7kv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446068/original/file-20220213-17-gke7kv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446068/original/file-20220213-17-gke7kv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446068/original/file-20220213-17-gke7kv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Relative size and composition of the giant planets in our solar system (with Earth also shown for comparison).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">JPL/Caltech (based on material from the Lunar and Planetary Institute)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Slingshots to the edge of the Solar System</h2>
<p>Any giant planet mission is extremely difficult. Still, there have been some past missions sent to the gas giants.</p>
<p>NASA’s 1989 Galileo mission had to slingshot around Venus and Earth to give it enough momentum to <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/feature/30-years-ago-galileo-off-to-orbit-jupiter">get to Jupiter</a>, which it orbited for eight years. The 2011 <a href="https://spaceflight101.com/juno/juno-mission-trajectory-design/">Juno mission</a> spent five years in transit, using a flyby around Earth to reach Jupiter (which it still orbits).</p>
<p>Similarly, the Cassini-Huygens mission run by NASA and the European Space Agency (ESA) <a href="https://sci.esa.int/web/cassini-huygens/-/31240-getting-to-saturn">took seven years</a> to reach Saturn. The spacecraft spent 13 years exploring the planet and its surrounds, and launched a probe to explore Saturn’s moon, <a href="https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/cassini/science/titan/">Titan</a>.</p>
<p>Flight times get even longer for the two ice giants, which are much further from the Sun. Neither has had a dedicated mission so far. </p>
<h2>A complex journey</h2>
<p>The last and only spacecraft to visit the ice giants was <a href="https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/voyager-2/in-depth/">Voyager 2</a>, which flew by Uranus in 1986 and Neptune in 1989. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446498/original/file-20220215-17-rqmzoy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446498/original/file-20220215-17-rqmzoy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446498/original/file-20220215-17-rqmzoy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446498/original/file-20220215-17-rqmzoy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446498/original/file-20220215-17-rqmzoy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446498/original/file-20220215-17-rqmzoy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446498/original/file-20220215-17-rqmzoy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Voyager 2, the only spacecraft ever to have visited Neptune, took a photo of the planet in 1989.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA/JPL</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While momentum is building for a return, it won’t be simple. If we launch during the next convenient <a href="https://www.lpi.usra.edu/icegiants/mission_study/Exec-Summary.pdf">launch windows</a> of 2030–34 for Uranus and 2029–30 for Neptune, flight times would vary from 11 to 15 years.</p>
<p>A major issue is power. The Juno spacecraft is the most distant object from the Sun to have <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasas-juno-spacecraft-breaks-solar-power-distance-record">used solar panels</a>. It orbits Jupiter, which is <a href="https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/jupiter/in-depth/">five times further away</a> from the Sun than Earth is. Yet, where Juno’s solar cells would generate 14 kilowatts of continuous power on Earth, they only <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasas-juno-spacecraft-breaks-solar-power-distance-record">generate 0.5kW at Jupiter</a>. </p>
<p>Meanwhile, Uranus and Neptune are <a href="https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/uranus/in-depth/">20</a> and <a href="https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/neptune/in-depth/">30</a> times further away, respectively, from the Sun than Earth is. Power for these missions would have to be generated from the radioactive <a href="https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/galileo/in-depth/#otp_spacecraft_and_instruments">decay of plutonium</a> (the power source for both the Galileo and Cassini missions). </p>
<p>This radioactive decay can damage and interfere with instruments. It is therefore reserved for spacecraft which really need it, such as missions operating far away from the Sun. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/so-a-helicopter-flew-on-mars-for-the-first-time-a-space-physicist-explains-why-thats-such-a-big-deal-159334">So a helicopter flew on Mars for the first time. A space physicist explains why that's such a big deal</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Fighting the heat</h2>
<p>The massive scale of giant planets means orbit speeds for incoming spacecraft are incredibly fast. And these speeds greatly heat up the spacecraft. </p>
<p>The Galileo probe entered Jupiter’s atmosphere at <a href="https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/galileo-probe/in-depth/">47.5 kilometres per second</a>, surviving the harshest entry conditions ever experienced by an entry probe. The shock layer which formed at the front of the spacecraft during entry reached a temperature of 16,000°C – around three times the temperature of the Sun’s surface.</p>
<p>Even so, the distribution of the <a href="https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/10.2514/2.3293">heat shield’s</a> mass was found to be inefficient – showing we still have a lot to learn about entering giant planets.</p>
<p>Proposed future probe missions to Uranus and Neptune would occur at slower entry speeds of <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11214-020-0638-2">22km/s and 26km/s</a>, respectively. </p>
<p>For this, NASA have developed a tough but relatively lightweight material woven from carbon fibre, called <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/ames/heeet">HEEET</a> (Heatshield for Extreme Entry Environment Technology), designed specifically for surviving giant planet and Venusian entry. </p>
<p>While the material has been tested with a <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/entry-systems-vehicle-development/tps-materials.html">full-scale prototype</a>, it has yet to fly on a mission.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446526/original/file-20220215-8037-1brq7ct.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446526/original/file-20220215-8037-1brq7ct.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446526/original/file-20220215-8037-1brq7ct.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446526/original/file-20220215-8037-1brq7ct.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446526/original/file-20220215-8037-1brq7ct.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446526/original/file-20220215-8037-1brq7ct.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446526/original/file-20220215-8037-1brq7ct.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">It’s planned NASA’s HEEET material will be used for future ice giant entry missions.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The next steps</h2>
<p>In 2024, NASA’s Europa Clipper mission <a href="https://europa.nasa.gov/">will launch</a> to investigate Jupiter’s moon Europa, which is believed to house an <a href="https://europa.nasa.gov/why-europa/overview/">ocean of liquid water</a> below its icy surface, where signs of life may be found. The <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasas-dragonfly-will-fly-around-titan-looking-for-origins-signs-of-life/">Dragonfly</a> mission, planned to launch in 2026, will similarly aim to search for signs of life on Saturn’s moon Titan.</p>
<p>There are plans for a joint <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0032063318303507">NASA-ESA mission</a> to visit one of the ice giants within the upcoming launch window. But while there has been <a href="https://www.lpi.usra.edu/icegiants/documents_presentations/">extensive</a> <a href="https://sci.esa.int/web/future-missions-department/-/61307-cdf-study-report-ice-giants">preparation</a>, it’s undecided which ice giant will be visited. </p>
<p>A single mission to both planets is being considered. An entry probe is planned, too. But if the mission visits both planets, it’s undecided which planet’s <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S003206331830350">atmosphere the probe would explore</a>.</p>
<p>If we want to meet the upcoming launch window, it’s expected mission concepts will need to be finalised <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0032063320300040">by 2025</a>, at the latest. In other words, crunch time is coming. </p>
<p>Should a mission go forward, the two most important <a href="https://www.lpi.usra.edu/icegiants/mission_study/Full-Report.pdf">goals</a> for NASA’s scientists will be to determine the interior makeup of ice giants (exactly what they are made of) and their composition (how they are formed).</p>
<p>Other objectives will include studying their magnetic fields, which are <a href="https://www.lpi.usra.edu/icegiants/mission_study/Full-Report.pdf">very different</a> to gas giants and all other types of planets. </p>
<p>They’ll also want to study the heat released by both Uranus and Neptune, which both have average temperatures of around -200°C. All giant planets are meant to be very slowly cooling down, as they release energy gained during their formation. </p>
<p>This heat release can be detected for Jupiter, Saturn and Neptune. Uranus, however, doesn’t seem to release heat – and scientists don’t know why.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/175918/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chris James receives funding from the University of Queensland, the Australian Research Council, and the U.S. Office of Naval Research. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Yu Liu does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>There has never been a dedicated mission sent to the “ice giants”, Uranus and Neptune. But there may be one on the horizon.Chris James, ARC DECRA Fellow, Centre for Hypersonics, School of Mechanical and Mining Engineering, The University of QueenslandYu Liu, Honorary Fellow, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1765592022-02-16T01:14:24Z2022-02-16T01:14:24ZFresh from the ISS: how a group of high school students is leading an experiment on space-made yoghurt<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446438/original/file-20220215-27-1bm8y8s.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=3%2C0%2C1273%2C848&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://images.nasa.gov/details-iss049e009355">NASA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s probably no surprise that keeping healthy in space is incredibly important. And without the typical resources found on Earth, creative solutions have to be explored.</p>
<p>Right now, some excited Year 10 and 11 students from around Victoria are waiting with anticipation as their space-made yoghurt – fresh off the International Space Station (ISS) – heads back to Australia from NASA facilities in the United States.</p>
<p>The students worked with researchers at the Swinburne University of Technology to design an experiment investigating the nutritional values of space-made yoghurt. The results could provide insight into how to best help astronauts with vital nutrition during long-haul spaceflight.</p>
<h2>The human gut</h2>
<p>A critical factor in human health is the overall health of our gut microbiome, which is estimated to host more than 100 trillion bacteria. </p>
<p>Maintaining the health and diversity of these bacteria might be even more important in space than on Earth. In 2019, NASA released groundbreaking <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aau8650">results</a> from a year-long study on astronaut twins Mark and Scott Kelly. </p>
<p>In 2016, Scott spent 365 days on the ISS, experiencing reduced gravity, while Mark remained on Earth. A fascinating result from the study was that Scott experienced significant changes to his gastrointestinal microbiome when in space – and which didn’t persist after he returned to Earth. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/445430/original/file-20220209-17-1kvdk10.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/445430/original/file-20220209-17-1kvdk10.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445430/original/file-20220209-17-1kvdk10.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445430/original/file-20220209-17-1kvdk10.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445430/original/file-20220209-17-1kvdk10.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445430/original/file-20220209-17-1kvdk10.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445430/original/file-20220209-17-1kvdk10.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In 2016, Mark and Scott Kelly were part of a study on how living in space can affect the human body.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA/Robert Markowitz</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It’s theorised the changes in microbiome experienced by astronauts are due to the lack of exposure to the “everyday” microbes encountered on Earth. Additionally, astronauts in space are exposed to less gravity, and high levels of radiation, which increase as they travel further away.</p>
<p>Understanding how to supplement astronauts’ gut bacteria and sustain its health is one of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments_category">NASA’s current research goals</a>. NASA is exploring this through both the use of capsule probiotics and <a href="https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20140013481">simulated gravity</a> experiments.</p>
<h2>Why yoghurt?</h2>
<p>Yoghurt is made by the bacterial fermentation of milk. The lactic acid produced in this process acts on the milk’s proteins to create yoghurt’s signature tart taste and thick texture. We wanted to see how this process is affected in the space environment. </p>
<p>Our student-led experiment is investigating whether different probiotic strains of bacteria can be used to make yoghurt directly in space. The ideal outcome would be to show that healthy, living bacteria cultures can be generated from frozen bacteria and milk products sent to space. This has not yet been achieved, although yoghurt has been made using bacteria returned from space <a href="https://www.livescience.com/1068-space-yogurt-astro-bacteria.html">previously</a>.</p>
<p>This would be hugely beneficial during long space flights, where fresh food is limited and typical probiotic capsules would lose potency. Yoghurt also offers the nutritional benefits of the milk the bacteria are feeding off. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-a-simulated-mars-mission-taught-me-about-food-waste-132010">What a simulated Mars mission taught me about food waste</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>The road to space</h2>
<p>Our brilliant students began this journey via two paths. Through the ongoing <a href="https://www.shineinspace.com/">SHINE program</a>, six exceptional STEM students from Victoria’s <a href="https://www.haileybury.com.au">Haileybury school</a> worked with Swinburne staff and student mentors to develop, prototype and produce an experiment for the ISS. </p>
<p>In the past, this program has sent <a href="https://www.swinburne.edu.au/news/2019/04/swinburne-backed-shine-microcavity-experiment-blasts-off-to-international-space-station/">human teeth</a>, <a href="https://www.shineinspace.com/sproutstranauts-experiment">chia seeds</a> and <a href="https://knowing.swinburne.edu.au/post/171877367129/swinburne-students-shine-in-space-program">magnetorheological fluid</a> to the ISS. For the 2021-22 experiment the students had 24 five-millilitre vials (things have to be tiny in space) in which to build their detailed experiment. </p>
<p>The second path was via the inaugural <a href="https://www.swinburne.edu.au/news/2021/02/launching-students-ideas-into-space/">Swinburne Youth Space Innovation Challenge</a> (SYSIC), which provides the opportunity to send an experiment to space as part of the Swinburne/<a href="https://www.rhodiumscientific.com/press">Rhodium Scientific</a> payload. </p>
<p>Teams from four Victorian schools undertook an 11-week crash course in space applications before pitching their dream experiment. The winning team from Viewbank College was assigned six dedicated experimental vials, with all other teams also awarded a vial – all working towards the goal of investigating probiotics, bacteria and yoghurt in space. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446207/original/file-20220214-25-swdzaw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446207/original/file-20220214-25-swdzaw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=331&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446207/original/file-20220214-25-swdzaw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=331&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446207/original/file-20220214-25-swdzaw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=331&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446207/original/file-20220214-25-swdzaw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446207/original/file-20220214-25-swdzaw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446207/original/file-20220214-25-swdzaw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The 2021 SYSIC winning team from Viewbank College blew the judges away with their insightful idea of investigating magnetic fields on plant growth in space. Pictured (L-R): Tarnie Jones, Belle Shi, Madeline Luvaul and Paisley Noble.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Aboard the ISS</h2>
<p>Once ready for flight, the final bacteria samples were prepared and put into deep freeze by our Rhodium Scientific partners at the Kennedy Space Centre in the US. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/445435/original/file-20220209-21-1mlv2px.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/445435/original/file-20220209-21-1mlv2px.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445435/original/file-20220209-21-1mlv2px.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445435/original/file-20220209-21-1mlv2px.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445435/original/file-20220209-21-1mlv2px.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=670&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445435/original/file-20220209-21-1mlv2px.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=670&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445435/original/file-20220209-21-1mlv2px.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=670&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The experiment samples were prepared at the Kennedy Space Centre (left), which involved putting them through a rapid-spinning vortex procedure (right).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Rhodium Scientific</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>All 33 vials boarded their rideshare to the ISS via the SpaceX Crew Dragon 24, and were launched on December 24. Once onboard, the samples were removed from deep freeze by Astronaut Mark Vande Hei and set aside in a room-temperature experiment chamber in the <a href="https://iss.jaxa.jp/en/kibo/">Japanese Experiment Module</a>, named Kibo. </p>
<p>After the allotted 48- and 72-hour timestamps (the time it takes to typically make yoghurt on Earth) the samples were placed back in deep freeze to preserve the progress. It’s expected they would have become yoghurt during this time. </p>
<p>The samples <a href="https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2022/01/crs-24-return/">returned to Earth</a> in late January and will be investigated by staff and students in the coming months, once they return to Australia. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/445423/original/file-20220209-13-k1diwc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/445423/original/file-20220209-13-k1diwc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445423/original/file-20220209-13-k1diwc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445423/original/file-20220209-13-k1diwc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445423/original/file-20220209-13-k1diwc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445423/original/file-20220209-13-k1diwc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445423/original/file-20220209-13-k1diwc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Rhodium Probiotic Challenge samples were boarded on the SpaceX Crew Dragon 24 spacecraft.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What we might find</h2>
<p>The students chose to explore six different bacteria strains mixed together in various combinations, as well as certain strains isolated. With both the space-based experiment and control experiments conducted on Earth, we’ll be able to determine whether the bacteria sent to the ISS were significantly affected by reduced gravity. </p>
<p>Working from the lab at Swinburne, we will use methods such as DNA sequencing to isolate any variations in the genetic makeup of the bacteria, and investigate how many generations (or cell divisions) have occurred in the samples. </p>
<p>The students also purposely designed the experiment to test both dairy and non-dairy milk options, to see the potential differences in nutritional output. But perhaps the most exciting part for all involved will be the final taste test – and finding out if space yoghurt really is out of this world.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/176559/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The students produced 33 experiment vials, which were boarded on the SpaceX Crew Dragon 24 and launched in December.Sara Webb, Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Centre for Astrophysics and Supercomputing, Swinburne University of TechnologyRebecca Allen, Coordinator Swinburne Astronomy Online | Program Lead of Microgravity Experimentation, Space Technology and Industry Institute, Swinburne University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1766902022-02-15T03:42:22Z2022-02-15T03:42:22ZThe International Space Station is set to come home in a fiery blaze – and Australia will likely have a front row seat<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446192/original/file-20220214-19-z6fu9c.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=13%2C17%2C2982%2C1926&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>For more than two decades the International Space Station (ISS) has been the mainstay of human presence and research in space. More than 100 metres long, it’s the largest object ever placed in space, and its construction brought together the space agencies from the United States, Europe, Russia, Japan and Canada.</p>
<p>The ISS has hosted research that could not have been done anywhere else, in the fields of microgravity, space biology, human physiology and fundamental physics. It also provides a base for deep space exploration.</p>
<p>Now, the end of its life has been planned. <a href="https://www.space.com/how-to-destroy-a-space-station-safely">According to NASA</a>, the station is expected to be de-orbited by 2031 (an extension from the original plan to de-orbit by 2020). But if the ISS is so important, why is there an end-of-life plan at all?</p>
<h2>In short, the ISS is getting old</h2>
<p>The first components of the ISS were launched in the 1990s. And although many parts have been updated and replaced, it’s not feasible to replace everything. </p>
<p>In particular, the main structural components can’t be replaced. While they are checked, monitored and repaired, there are limits to this. The ISS was not designed to last forever.</p>
<p>It survives in a harsh environment, travelling at 27,500 kilometres per hour, with a day/night cycle every 90 minutes (the time it takes the ISS to orbit Earth). </p>
<p>The temperature differences experienced during each cycle put a small fatiguing load on the structure. Over a few years, this is not significant. But over the course of decades this can cause fatigue failures in the metal structure.</p>
<p>So there comes a time when the costs and risks of maintaining the ISS become too high, and this has been determined to be in 2030.</p>
<h2>How will the de-orbiting work?</h2>
<p>As with all objects under the influence of gravity, given time the ISS would simply fall down to Earth. This is because, even at the orbital altitude of 400km, there is some drag due to small particles. In fact, the ISS currently requires a regular boost to lift its orbital altitude, which is slowly – but constantly – decreasing.</p>
<p>A natural re-entry would be a completely uncontrolled process, and there would be no way of predicting where this would take place. The responsible (and planned) approach is to use thrusters to slow the ISS down, causing the de-orbit to happen much faster and in a specific location decided in advance.</p>
<p>The slowing down will initially be done using thrusters on the station, and on support vehicles docked to the station. This process may take a few months and will slowly reduce the orbital altitude of the ISS, preparing it for the final re-entry phase. </p>
<p>In the final phase, the deceleration will be much more rapid, and will determine the ISS’s final re-entry trajectory. Although it hasn’t been decided exactly how the ISS will reach its final deceleration, the favoured option is to use three modified Russian Progress spacecraft. </p>
<p>The spacecraft will be docked to the ISS and fire their propulsion systems to achieve the required deceleration – controlling the trajectory of the re-entry and the re-entry location.</p>
<h2>Artificial fireballs</h2>
<p>It will take a couple of minutes for the ISS to pass through the atmosphere. It’s likely the higher-altitude phase of this will take place near or above Australia.</p>
<p>The re-entry will be a visually spectacular event, resembling multiple large shooting stars. An increasing number of space debris breakup events have been observed and videoed over the last few years.</p>
<p>But these re-entries have been small objects, sized in the order of metres, such as the <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OhBw5yaR_SU">ATV-1</a> and <a href="http://atv5.seti.org/cygnus/">Cygnus</a> spacecrafts. Meanwhile, the ISS is about the size of a football field, and will be correspondingly more spectacular.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446194/original/file-20220214-13-89ti8u.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Space debris ablaze as it crashes down to Earth" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446194/original/file-20220214-13-89ti8u.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446194/original/file-20220214-13-89ti8u.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446194/original/file-20220214-13-89ti8u.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446194/original/file-20220214-13-89ti8u.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446194/original/file-20220214-13-89ti8u.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446194/original/file-20220214-13-89ti8u.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446194/original/file-20220214-13-89ti8u.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The ISS will burn up into many smaller ‘fireballs’ as it passes through the atmosphere – creating a spectacular view.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Crashing at Point Nemo</h2>
<p>Due to the danger of components reaching the surface, it will be important to make sure they fall where there is minimal risk to people or property. Even a controlled re-entry will potentially spread pieces of debris over an area of hundreds, if not thousands, of kilometres. </p>
<p>This is why the ISS re-entry (and most space debris de-orbits) will target an area known as the South Pacific Ocean Uninhabited Area (SPOUA), the centre of which is known as Point Nemo, or the “<a href="https://futurism.com/the-byte/deep-sea-graveyard-dead-spacecraft">Spacecraft Cemetery</a>” .</p>
<p>The SPOUA is used as Earth’s dumping ground for space debris. It’s the largest uninhabited area on Earth, and hence has the lowest risk associated with debris from re-entry.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446198/original/file-20220214-55472-tbyu1a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446198/original/file-20220214-55472-tbyu1a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446198/original/file-20220214-55472-tbyu1a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=545&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446198/original/file-20220214-55472-tbyu1a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=545&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446198/original/file-20220214-55472-tbyu1a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=545&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446198/original/file-20220214-55472-tbyu1a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=685&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446198/original/file-20220214-55472-tbyu1a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=685&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446198/original/file-20220214-55472-tbyu1a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=685&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Point Nemo, known as ‘the oceanic pole of inaccessibility’, is a point in the ocean which is the farthest away from any land.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://spaceplace.nasa.gov/spacecraft-graveyard/en/#">NASA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The ISS will be travelling at something like 6km per second when it hits the atmosphere. This high speed will cause the air in front of the structure to heat up significantly, reaching temperatures in excess of 10,000°C. </p>
<p>This will cause the structure to break into smaller pieces. Most of it will burn up as it falls, but it’s very likely some small pieces will survive – especially some of the heavier and denser internal components. </p>
<p>Any surviving debris will eventually sink into the ocean and disappear.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/IR2aol0Bna4?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The Cygnus spacecraft is an uncrewed cargo ship that brings supplies to the ISS and removes unwanted waste. For disposal, the spacecraft and waste burn up upon re-entry.</span></figcaption>
</figure><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/176690/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Fabian Zander receives funding from the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p>How will they bring the structure back safely? And where will the surviving components crash?Fabian Zander, Senior Research Fellow in Aerospace Engineering, University of Southern QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1761392022-02-02T19:10:18Z2022-02-02T19:10:18ZWe’ve found the first ever ‘shocked’ zircon crystal from Mars. It provides a new view on when conditions for life may have arisen<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443935/original/file-20220202-23-1vkfxyk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=7%2C7%2C1031%2C469&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Are we alone in the Universe? <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/big-questions/what-are-characteristics-planetary-systems-orbiting-other-stars-and-do-they-harbor-life">Billions of dollars</a> are being spent trying to answer that simple question. The implications of finding evidence for life beyond Earth are staggering. The “before and after” mark would punctuate human history.</p>
<p>Mars is currently the most popular exploration target to search for evidence of life elsewhere. Yet little is known about its early history. <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abl7497">Our research on a Martian meteorite</a> provides new clues about early surface conditions on the red planet.</p>
<h2>Windows into the past</h2>
<p>Today Mars is cold and inhospitable. But it may have been more Earth-like and habitable in a bygone era. Landforms on Mars record the action of liquid surface water, perhaps as early as 3.9 billion years ago.</p>
<p>Like Earth, early Mars was subject to a global bombardment from chunks of rock and ice floating around the Solar System. Giant impacts both destroy and create favourable environments for life. So to untangle when conditions suitable for life may have arisen on Mars, we have to track the history of both water and impacts.</p>
<p>A flotilla of rovers and orbiting spacecraft have been dispatched to Mars, with two <a href="https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/mars-2020-rover/in-depth/">NASA rovers specifically exploring impact craters</a> for evidence of past life. Samples collected by rovers will be returned in future missions. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/perseverance-mars-rover-how-to-prove-whether-theres-life-on-the-red-planet-154982">Perseverance Mars rover: how to prove whether there’s life on the red planet</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>For now, meteorites are the only samples of Mars available to study here on Earth. Martian meteorites are born when an impact on Mars ejects rocky fragments that later intercept Earth’s orbit. Most Martian meteorites are igneous rocks, such as basalt. One meteorite, NWA 7034, is different, as it represents a rare sample of the surface of Mars.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443681/original/file-20220201-25-tnll3f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443681/original/file-20220201-25-tnll3f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443681/original/file-20220201-25-tnll3f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=316&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443681/original/file-20220201-25-tnll3f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=316&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443681/original/file-20220201-25-tnll3f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=316&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443681/original/file-20220201-25-tnll3f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443681/original/file-20220201-25-tnll3f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443681/original/file-20220201-25-tnll3f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Meteorite NWA 7034 has been dubbed ‘Black Beauty’.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Carl Agee</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Sending shock waves</h2>
<p>The NWA 7034 meteorite, weighing about 320g, was found in the desert of northwest Africa and <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/science.1228858">first reported in 2013</a>. Unique oxygen isotope signatures reveal its origin from Mars. Other meteorites blasted off of Mars during the same event have since been found.</p>
<p>NWA 7034 is a complicated rock made of broken rock and mineral shards called “breccia”. Its various fragments record different snippets of Martian history.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443689/original/file-20220201-15-1jlzon5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443689/original/file-20220201-15-1jlzon5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443689/original/file-20220201-15-1jlzon5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443689/original/file-20220201-15-1jlzon5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443689/original/file-20220201-15-1jlzon5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443689/original/file-20220201-15-1jlzon5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443689/original/file-20220201-15-1jlzon5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443689/original/file-20220201-15-1jlzon5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In this element map of the martian meteorite NWA 7034 different colours correspond to different rock and mineral fragments.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Tiny grains of the mineral zircon occur in NWA 7034. Zircon is a “geochronometer”, meaning it records (and reveals to us) how much time has passed since it crystallised from magma. <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-018-0222-z">Prior studies of NWA 7034</a> found it contains the oldest known zircons from Mars – some up to 4.48 billion years old. </p>
<p>Zircon is quite useful for studying meteorite impacts. It preserves microscopic damage caused by the passage of shock waves, and these “shocked grains” provide a solid record of impact. However, no zircons with definitive shock damage had been identified in previous studies of NWA 7034. </p>
<p>NWA 7034 is similar to a type of sedimentary rock on Earth called conglomerate. In such rocks, every mineral can have a different origin. With that in mind, we set out to survey additional zircon grains in NWA 7034 to see if we could find any that recorded evidence of impact. </p>
<p>We looked at more than 60 zircons, but found only one shocked grain. This means the impact occurred before the grain was mixed into the pile of fragments that became a rock.</p>
<h2>Reassessing Mars’s timelines</h2>
<p>The type of shock features we found are called “deformation twins”. High pressure shock waves squeeze zircon like an accordion. This process can reorganise atoms within the crystal, to form a duplicated “twin” of zircon, which we can detect. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443690/original/file-20220201-20-94z008.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443690/original/file-20220201-20-94z008.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443690/original/file-20220201-20-94z008.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=605&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443690/original/file-20220201-20-94z008.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=605&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443690/original/file-20220201-20-94z008.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=605&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443690/original/file-20220201-20-94z008.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=760&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443690/original/file-20220201-20-94z008.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=760&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443690/original/file-20220201-20-94z008.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=760&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Scanning electron image of a shocked zircon in the matrix of martian meteorite NWA 7034.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium%E2%80%93lead_dating">We determined</a> the zircon crystallised 4.45 billion years ago, making it one of the oldest zircons known from Mars – even older than the oldest known piece of Earth (<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo2075">also a zircon</a>). </p>
<p>We don’t know what kind of rock the shocked zircon originally formed in. The original igneous host rock was ripped apart during impacts on Mars. The zircon is a broken fragment from a larger grain mixed in with the matrix of the meteorite. </p>
<p>We do, however, know where shocked zircons like this are made. On Earth, shocked zircons with deformation twins are only found at impact craters. Moreover, they occur at all of Earth’s largest asteroid strikes.</p>
<p>Zircons with shock features have been found at Vredefort in South Africa, Sudbury in Canada and Chicxulub in Mexico. The Mexican crater formed about 65 million years ago, and has been linked to the extinction of the dinosaurs. In this case, shocked zircons were one product of an impact large enough to cause a mass extinction.</p>
<p>Prior studies cited an absence of shock features in zircon from NWA 7034 to indicate a decline in catastrophic impacts on Mars by 4.48 billion years. It was further proposed that habitable conditions existed as of 4.2 billion years ago. </p>
<p>However, the shocked zircon we found crystallised 4.45 billion years ago. The shock event would have had to have occurred at least 30 million years after Mars had supposedly stopped being bombarded.</p>
<h2>When exactly was the impact?</h2>
<p>Although determining the precise age of impact is difficult, geochemical <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.aap8306">studies of NWA 7034</a> reveal its main components were subject to meteorite impacts before roughly 4.3 billion years ago. In this scenario, the zircon may have been shocked during this time, somewhere between 4.3 and 4.45 billion years ago. </p>
<p>Alternatively, it may have formed more recently, but before a decline in the rate of impacts earlier than 3 billion years ago. Both <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1090544">land forms</a> and <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature07097">water-bearing minerals</a> argue for early surface water on Mars, possibly by 3.9 to 3.7 billion years ago. This may be the best indicator for when habitable conditions existed.</p>
<p>Our findings raise new questions about the early impact history of Mars. Determining the origin of the shocked zircon, and time of impact, will provide better context for interpreting the planet’s history as archived in meteorite NWA 7034 – and potentially a timeframe for when conditions for life may have emerged.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/as-new-probes-reach-mars-heres-what-we-know-so-far-from-trips-to-the-red-planet-153791">As new probes reach Mars, here's what we know so far from trips to the red planet</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/176139/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Aaron J. Cavosie receives funding from the Australian Research Council</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Morgan Cox does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The zircon crystal was found in the NWA 7034 meteorite, dubbed ‘Black Beauty’ – uncovered from the desert of northwest Africa.Aaron J. Cavosie, Senior research fellow, Curtin UniversityMorgan Cox, Geologist, Curtin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1752402022-01-26T19:03:24Z2022-01-26T19:03:24ZThis object in space flashed brilliantly for 3 months, then disappeared. Astronomers are intrigued<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/442444/original/file-20220125-19-6p41pi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=22%2C49%2C2973%2C2946&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Artist visualisation</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><blockquote>
<p>“Holy sharks, Batman, it’s periodic!” </p>
</blockquote>
<p>I exclaimed on Slack.</p>
<p>It was the first lockdown of 2021 in Perth, and we were all working from home. And when astronomers look for something to distract themselves from looming existential dread, there’s nothing better than a new cosmic mystery. </p>
<p>In 2020 I gave an undergraduate student, Tyrone O'Doherty, a fun project: look for radio sources that are changing in a <a href="https://www.ted.com/talks/natasha_hurley_walker_how_radio_telescopes_show_us_unseen_galaxies">large radio survey</a> I’m leading. </p>
<p>By the end of the year he’d found a particularly unusual source that was visible in data from early 2018, but had disappeared within a few months. The source <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-04272-x">was named GLEAM-X J162759.5-523504</a>, after the survey it was found in and its position. </p>
<p>Sources that appear and disappear are called “radio transients” and are usually a sign of extreme physics at play. </p>
<h2>The mystery begins</h2>
<p>Earlier this year I started investigating the source, expecting it to be something we knew about – something that would change slowly over months and perhaps point to an exploded star, or a big collision in space. </p>
<p>To understand the physics, I wanted to measure how the source’s brightness relates to its frequency (in the electromagnetic spectrum). So I looked at observations of the same location, taken at different frequencies, before and after the detection, and it wasn’t there. </p>
<p>I was disappointed, as spurious signals do crop up occasionally due to telescope calibration errors, Earth’s ionosphere reflecting TV signals, or aircraft and satellites streaking overhead. </p>
<p>So I looked at more data. And in an observation taken 18 minutes later, there the source was again, in exactly the same place and at exactly the same frequency – like nothing astronomers had ever seen before.</p>
<p>At this point I broke out in a cold sweat. There is a worldwide research effort searching for repeating cosmic radio signals transmitted at a single frequency. It’s called the <a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-what-has-the-search-for-extraterrestrial-life-actually-yielded-and-how-does-it-work-122454">Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence</a>. Was this the moment we finally found that the truth is … <em>out there</em>?</p>
<figure>
<iframe src="https://player.vimeo.com/video/657269342" width="500" height="281" frameborder="0" webkitallowfullscreen="" mozallowfullscreen="" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">One of the brightest pulses from the new radio transient detected with the Murchison Widefield Array.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The plot thickens</h2>
<p>I rapidly downloaded more data and posted updates on Slack. This source was incredibly bright. It was outshining everything else in the observation, which is nothing to sniff at. </p>
<p>The brightest radio sources are supermassive black holes flaring huge jets of matter into space at nearly the speed of light. What had we found that could possibly be brighter than that?</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/experts-solve-the-mystery-of-a-giant-x-shaped-galaxy-with-a-monster-black-hole-as-its-engine-138205">Experts solve the mystery of a giant X-shaped galaxy, with a monster black hole as its engine</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Colleagues were beginning to take notice, posting:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>It’s repeating too slowly to be a pulsar. But it’s too bright for a flare star. What is this? (alien emoji icon)??? </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Within a few hours, I breathed a sigh of relief: I had detected the source across a wide range of frequencies, so the power it would take to generate it could only come from a natural source; not artificial (and not aliens)! </p>
<p>Just like <a href="https://www.space.com/32661-pulsars.html">pulsars</a> – highly magnetised rotating neutron stars that beam out radio waves from their poles – the radio waves repeated like clockwork about three times per hour. In fact, I could predict when they would appear to an accuracy of one ten-thousandth of a second.</p>
<p>So I turned to our enormous data archive: 40 petabytes of radio astronomy data recorded by the Murchison Widefield Array in Western Australia, during its eight years of operation. Using <a href="https://pawsey.org.au/">powerful supercomputers</a>, I searched hundreds of observations and picked up 70 more detections spanning three months in 2018, but none before or after.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/tuning-in-to-cosmic-radio-from-the-dawn-of-time-51584">Tuning in to cosmic radio from the dawn of time</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The amazing thing about radio transients is that if you have enough frequency coverage, you can work out how far away they are. This is because lower radio frequencies arrive slightly later than higher ones depending on how much space they’ve traveled through. </p>
<p>Our new discovery lies about 4,000 light years away – very distant, but still in our galactic backyard.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/442445/original/file-20220125-13-54xe4a.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/442445/original/file-20220125-13-54xe4a.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442445/original/file-20220125-13-54xe4a.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442445/original/file-20220125-13-54xe4a.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442445/original/file-20220125-13-54xe4a.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442445/original/file-20220125-13-54xe4a.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442445/original/file-20220125-13-54xe4a.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Interstellar space slows down long wavelength radio waves more than short.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">ICRAR</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We also found the radio pulses were almost completely <a href="https://www.sciencefocus.com/science/what-is-polarised-light/">polarised</a>. In astrophysics this usually means their source is a strong magnetic field. The pulses were also changing shape in just half a second, so the source has to be less than half a light second across, much smaller than our Sun.</p>
<p>Sharing the result with colleagues across the world, everyone was excited, but no one knew for sure what it was.</p>
<h2>The jury is still out</h2>
<p>There were two leading explanations for this compact, rotating, and highly magnetic astrophysical object: a white dwarf, or a neutron star. These remain after stars run out of fuel and collapse, generating magnetic fields billions to quintillions times stronger than our Sun’s. </p>
<p>And while we’ve never found a neutron star that behaves quite this way, theorists have predicted such objects, called an “ultra-long period magnetars”, could exist. Even so, no one expected one could be so bright.</p>
<figure>
<iframe src="https://player.vimeo.com/video/657248792" width="500" height="281" frameborder="0" webkitallowfullscreen="" mozallowfullscreen="" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">We think the source could be either a magnetar or a white dwarf, or something completely unknown.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This is the first time we’ve ever seen a radio source that repeats every 20 minutes. But maybe the reason we never saw one before is that we weren’t looking.</p>
<p>When I first started trying to understand this source, I was biased by my expectations: transient radio sources either change quickly like pulsars, or slowly like the fading remnants of a supernova.</p>
<p>I wasn’t looking for sources repeating at 18-minute intervals – an unusual period for any known class of object. Nor was I searching for something that would appear for a few months and then disappear forever. No one was.</p>
<p>As astronomers build <a href="https://www.skatelescope.org/">new</a> <a href="https://www.lsst.org/">telescopes</a> that will collect vast quantities of data, it’s vital we keep our minds, and our search techniques, open to unexpected possibilities. The universe is full of wonders, should we only choose to look.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/175240/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Natasha Hurley-Walker is supported by an Australian Research Council Future Fellowship (project number FT190100231) funded by the Australian Government.</span></em></p>A mysterious repeating signal from our galactic backyard is a reminder the universe is full of unexpected surprises, if only we should look.Natasha Hurley-Walker, Radio Astronomer, Curtin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1650682021-08-04T14:57:14Z2021-08-04T14:57:14ZOne of Nigeria’s satellites is on its last legs: why this is worrying<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412979/original/file-20210725-21-1jqv8m5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Satellite images are critical for security, communication, agriculture and other essential services. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Satellite image (c) 2020 Maxar Technologies.</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Nigeria has sponsored or co-sponsored six satellites, of which only two are currently operational. One of them is <a href="https://www.thecable.ng/extra-nigerias-satellite-is-outdated-but-functioning-by-grace-says-nasrda-dg">functioning even though it has passed its expiry date</a>, according to the director general of the <a href="https://nasrda.gov.ng/">National Space Research and Development Agency</a>. The Conversation’s West Africa regional editor, Adejuwon Soyinka, asks <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14777622.2017.1339254">space policy researcher</a> Samuel Oyewole to explain what this means for the country.</em> </p>
<p><strong>What does it mean for a satellite to run out of fuel or expire?</strong></p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/5-8/features/nasa-knows/what-is-a-satellite-58.html">satellite</a> can be said to have expired by design or operation. Like every other machine, satellites are designed with a projected expiry date or calculated life expectancy. Beyond this period the operational survival is not guaranteed by the manufacturer. The ability to keep functioning beyond the set date is driven by a combination of factors. These include the quality of its design, development and maintenance as well as a favourable host environment. A satellite can survive as long as it is supported by its hardware and software, control system and hosting orbit. </p>
<p>Operationally, a satellite expires when any of its critical components suffers enough damage or is degraded to the point of causing system or major sub-system failure. </p>
<p>A satellite is made up of different components. These include a protective box, on-board computer for receiving, processing and transmitting signals, as well as solar array panels, batteries and fuel for energy. Any problem with any of these can translate to the operational end of a satellite.</p>
<p>Unlike cars or aircraft, satellites don’t really need fuel for their daily orbital operation. They mostly rely on solar powered batteries. However, the fuel is relevant in supporting satellites to maintain orbital trajectory and conduct manoeuvres when required. Hence, when a satellite runs out of power it is usually switched off to avoid collision. </p>
<p>Beyond these, an accident or an attack can end the operational life expectancy of a satellite. Space is a very harsh environment, which is becoming increasingly congested.</p>
<p>For example, a satellite can be damaged or destroyed by: </p>
<ul>
<li><p>harsh space weather, including radiation and solar flare;</p></li>
<li><p>collision with another satellite and space debris, such as natural meteoroids (rocks and metallic objects) and human-made junk in orbit; and </p></li>
<li><p>attacks from <a href="https://www.popularmechanics.com/military/weapons/a32008306/anti-satellite-weapons/">anti-satellite weapons</a>, including missiles, weaponised satellites, lasers and hacking. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>This means it’s important that satellites are designed to the highest engineering quality. </p>
<h2>What’s the status of the satellite?</h2>
<p>Nigeria currently has a <a href="http://www.cgwic.com/in-orbitdelivery/communicationssatellite/program/NigComSat-1R.html">communication satellite, NigComSat-1R</a>, and an Earth observation <a href="https://earth.esa.int/web/eoportal/satellite-missions/n/nigeriasat-2">satellite, NigeriaSat-2</a>, in operation. </p>
<p>The communication satellite was designed to last for 15 years (2011-2026) in orbit. The Earth observation satellite is surviving beyond projected life expectancy of seven years (2011-2018). This is a testament to the quality of its engineering, thanks to its manufacturer, the UK based Surrey Satellite Technology Limited. A favourable host environment would also be a factor. </p>
<p>The director general of the <a href="https://nasrda.gov.ng/">National Space Research and Development Agency</a> said recently that the satellite was <a href="https://www.thecable.ng/extra-nigerias-satellite-is-outdated-but-functioning-by-grace-says-nasrda-dg">surviving by grace</a>. It’s possible he was referring to the operation endurance of NigeriaSat-2.</p>
<p>Nevertheless, some of the critical components of the satellite may not endure much longer. This would mean it would stop operating.</p>
<h2>What are the implications if it stops operating?</h2>
<p>If <a href="https://earth.esa.int/web/eoportal/satellite-missions/n/nigeriasat-2">NigeriaSat-2</a> goes down without replacement, it will affect Nigeria’s capacity to access space support for development and security. </p>
<p>For example, the satellite provides information on security, agriculture and transportation. Aside from satellite generated data, the Nigerian government has limited capacity to determine things like agricultural and construction activities across the country in almost real time. </p>
<p>In addition, information from satellite is vital for disaster management – it enables early warnings to be issued – and national security policy. </p>
<p>By having its own satellite, Nigeria doesn’t need to rely on basic satellite data from other countries. </p>
<p>Without this satellite – or a replacement – Nigeria would be forced to rely on its archive or foreign government and private companies to supply the relevant data. This isn’t optimal. Firstly, information from the archives would be old. Secondly, relying on foreign government or information from private companies carries risks. </p>
<h2>What can be done to manage the loss of the satellite?</h2>
<p>The loss of any satellite is inevitable. So timely investment in a replacement is critical. The government has started moving in this direction. The <a href="https://www.budgetoffice.gov.ng/index.php/2021-fgn-approved-budget-details?task=document.viewdoc&id=906">approved 2021 budget</a> has limited provision for manufacturing and launching NigeriaSat-3 and NigeriaSar-1. It also includes plan for training 60 engineers, among other things. But this should have been done much earlier. </p>
<h2>What’s your assessment of Nigeria’s investment in satellite research and development?</h2>
<p>Nigeria has made huge investments in this area. More than <a href="https://africanews.space/how-much-has-nasrda-contributed-to-nigerias-economic-growth-and-development/">$1 billion</a> has been set aside for this purpose over the last two decades. This included about $450 million spent on two communication satellites and four Earth observatory or research satellites. </p>
<p>But investment still falls short of what is required. For example, the available satellites aren’t enough to ensure a national constellation that can provide adequate and reliable coverage for communication or Earth observatory services. </p>
<p>More importantly, Nigeria hasn’t invested in satellite manufacturing capability. It has trained many engineers. But it lacks required infrastructure to support building satellites. Existing satellites were designed and built in the UK, China and Japan. </p>
<p>Nigeria has got considerable benefit from its satellites, which have produced thousands of relevant images for development and security. And it has developed centres across the country to process and convert satellite data to what is easily consumable. These have been used to support agriculture, disaster management, education and military campaigns.</p>
<p>The communication satellite has also been useful in supporting civil, commercial and military demands. With the Earth observation satellite, it has <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10220461.2020.1782258">contributed</a> to the command and control via computers, communications, intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance of the Nigerian military. </p>
<p>Some federal ministries and agencies, as well as government and private-owned corporations, have equally benefited from their partnership with the Nigerian Communication Satellite Limited. </p>
<p>But there are still concerns that Nigeria’s space capabilities are underutilised. For example, data that is available from the Nigerian Earth observation satellites isn’t used in town planning in most state and local governments. </p>
<p>Similar concern is evident in the management of forest reserves. These have become sanctuaries for criminals. </p>
<p>Benefits from investment in satellite R&D are closely connected to the capacity of public institutions and the private sector to access, adopt and use space technologies to advance development and security in the country.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/165068/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Samuel Oyewole does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>An expert says Nigeria’s capacity to access space support for development and security will be affected if its satellite goes down.Samuel Oyewole, Lecturer, Political Science, Federal University, Oye EkitiLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1631732021-08-03T20:08:44Z2021-08-03T20:08:44ZI’m training to become Australia’s first woman astronaut. Here’s what it takes<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/414226/original/file-20210802-14-1n4e3af.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C569%2C4229%2C2664&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Me (top, third from right) with others from the International Space University, in front of the Shuttle Atlantis at NASA's Kennedy Space Center.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>I’m currently training to become Australia’s first woman astronaut. I expect to fly my first suborbital mission sometime in 2023 as a payload specialist on a commercial mission. In other words, I’ll be one of few certified crew members who can handle specialised scientific equipment aboard a suborbital spacecraft. </p>
<p>Once we’re up there, my team and I expect to conduct research on Earth’s atmosphere. It’s an opportunity I consider out of this world. But it has taken a lot of effort for this dream to be realised.</p>
<h2>My path to PoSSUM</h2>
<p>As a female STEM and legal professional, my past jobs included working as a research scientist in mining and metals for BHP-Billiton, Rio Tinto and the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation (ANSTO) — but I always loved space.</p>
<p>After combining my science degree with two law degrees, I won a scholarship for the International Space University. I eventually received an Australian Government Endeavour Executive Award for a project at the NASA Kennedy Space Centre. With this I pivoted towards a career in the space industry, and have never looked back.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/414235/original/file-20210803-21-pmf7j2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/414235/original/file-20210803-21-pmf7j2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/414235/original/file-20210803-21-pmf7j2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414235/original/file-20210803-21-pmf7j2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414235/original/file-20210803-21-pmf7j2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414235/original/file-20210803-21-pmf7j2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414235/original/file-20210803-21-pmf7j2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414235/original/file-20210803-21-pmf7j2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The International Space University students and teaching teams in 2012, in front of the Shuttle Atlantis at Kennedy Space Center.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>I was selected as a PoSSUM (Polar Suborbital Science in the Upper Mesosphere) Scientist-Astronaut candidate and global <a href="https://projectpossum.org/the-possum-13/">ambassador for 2021</a>. PoSSUM is a non-profit US astronautics research and education program run by the International Institute for Astronautical Sciences (IIAS). </p>
<p>The program uses next-generation suborbital spacecraft to study the upper atmosphere and its potential role in global climate change. Generally speaking, a suborbital spaceflight is any flight that reaches an altitude higher than 80km, but doesn’t escape Earth’s gravity to make it into orbit.</p>
<p>Anything above 80km is deemed “space” under US legislation, although some nations (including Australia) don’t agree with this and the <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/where-is-the-edge-of-space-and-what-is-the-karman-line">debate</a> about where “space” begins — also called the <a href="https://astronomy.com/news/2021/03/the-krmn-line-where-does-space-begin">Kármán line</a> — remains ongoing.</p>
<p>Last month, commercial space tourism companies Blue Origin and Virgin Galactic completed the very first suborbital spaceflights carrying passengers (without research). This was an incredible achievement, which many have said could mark the beginning commercial space tourism.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/414234/original/file-20210803-26072-18jhbnt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/414234/original/file-20210803-26072-18jhbnt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/414234/original/file-20210803-26072-18jhbnt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414234/original/file-20210803-26072-18jhbnt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414234/original/file-20210803-26072-18jhbnt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414234/original/file-20210803-26072-18jhbnt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414234/original/file-20210803-26072-18jhbnt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414234/original/file-20210803-26072-18jhbnt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In 2019 I led a Victorian Trade mission for aerospace in the US. This picture was taken in Connecticut at the International Space Trade Summit, where I spoke. I’m pictured here (third from the right) with the Victorian Delegation and Karl Rodrigues from the Australian Space Agency.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/keen-to-sign-up-for-space-tourism-here-are-6-things-to-consider-besides-the-price-tag-164940">Keen to sign up for space tourism? Here are 6 things to consider (besides the price tag)</a>
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<h2>Preparing for every possibility</h2>
<p>To graduate as a PoSSUM Scientist-Astronaut candidate, there are several academic and flight training components I must complete before I can head into space. </p>
<p>During academic training in 2020, I covered topics such as spaceflight physiology (what happens to the body in space), spaceflight life support, atmospheric science and spaceflight research equipment. </p>
<p>My flight training later this year will involve spending days with former NASA astronaut instructors and PoSSUM team scientists. On day one, we’ll begin to use the spaceflight simulator which is currently set up as the Virgin Galactic Unity 22 vehicle.</p>
<p>In the days that follow, we will receive high-G training, crew resource management training, high-altitude training and equipment training which will be crucial to conduct our research. We’ll learn how to operate a series of instruments to measure physical atmospheric properties. </p>
<p>We will also need to know our way around the spacesuits, which will be similar to those used by NASA. The famous orange suits are a life-support system for astronauts. Astronauts in orbital and suborbital spaceflights must wear them during launch, flight and return in case they have to exit the spacecraft in an emergency, or in case the spacecraft depressurises.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/414232/original/file-20210803-21-akr6b1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/414232/original/file-20210803-21-akr6b1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/414232/original/file-20210803-21-akr6b1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414232/original/file-20210803-21-akr6b1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414232/original/file-20210803-21-akr6b1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414232/original/file-20210803-21-akr6b1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414232/original/file-20210803-21-akr6b1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414232/original/file-20210803-21-akr6b1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Me sitting in the captain’s seat of the NASA’s Space Shuttle Endeavour.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We’ll need to learn how to manage unexpected events such as decompression, too. This is when the pressure inside a spacecraft or spacesuit is reduced by a leak. If pressure becomes too low, breathing oxygen can be forced out of the suit. The astronaut will then experience hypoxia (a lack of oxygen in body tissues), which can be deadly.</p>
<p>Or let’s say we’re not able to land where we planned to; the training will cover how to manage a water landing and a fast exit from the vehicle. We must be prepared in case one of the electrical or physical systems fails, causing a hazardous environment. </p>
<p>Nobody likes to imagine things going wrong, but planning for emergencies is necessary.</p>
<h2>A ‘steep’ learning curve aboard parabolic flights</h2>
<p>It’s likely I will complete my first research flight to space on the Virgin Galactic vehicle — but given the rate of spacecraft development, it could be another similar craft.</p>
<p>Launching aboard a spacecraft subjects the human body to a variety of forces. Learning to identify and manage changes caused by these forces is critical. On day four of training I will climb into an aerobatic aircraft with a cruise speed of 317km per hour, in which I will practice using equipment and techniques to avoid blackouts during aerobatic flight. </p>
<p>The final test will be a series of parabolic flights simulating microgravity aboard a different aircraft. In parabolic flights, an aircraft repeatedly climbs steeply, then enters a deep dive, to create weightlessness for up to 40 seconds. This is repeated 20-25 times during the flight to demonstrate weightlessness in space. Experiments are conducted during weightlessness.</p>
<p>The last day of training will involve using virtual and augmented reality to practise planning space missions. We’ll be able to work on any aspect of the training we feel is needed before our final evaluation. </p>
<p>If all goes to plan, I will graduate with FAA (Federal Aviation Administration) qualifications as a spaceflight crew member for any space vehicle in the US (orbital and suborbital). Both my training and the work I will do aboard my first suborbital flight as a payload specialist fall within the guidelines outlined in the FAA’s <a href="https://www.faa.gov/documentLibrary/media/Order/FAA_Order_8800.2.pdf">advisory circular</a> released on July 20. </p>
<p>If there are no further changes to the eligibility requirements or criteria, I could be nominated to receive Astronaut Wings once the mission is complete. </p>
<h2>Why do research in space anyway?</h2>
<p>But what’s the big deal when it comes to research in space? Well, for one, spaceflight allows researchers to observe how materials behave in the absence of gravity. </p>
<p>Studying how materials behave in weightless environments has proven immensely useful for scientists. For instance, studying how a virus replicates in space could help scientists develop better vaccines and treatments for diseases such as COVID-19. </p>
<p>Most people have heard of the International Space Station (ISS): the football-field sized laboratory in space which constantly orbits Earth. Generally, only space agency astronauts from the US, Russia, Japan and Europe will travel to and from the ISS in various orbital spacecraft (rockets). Doing research on the ISS is expensive, slow and subject to long wait times. </p>
<p>Australian companies can benefit from research opportunities offered by suborbital flights in the USA. Being able to complete human tended research on a suborbital research flight is a much more affordable option, and is therefore a game changer. It means small companies that couldn’t previously afford spaceflight can now get in the game. </p>
<p>It’s an honour for me to be able to train for this mission and hopefully bring the space dream closer to Australia. And by teaching space technology and law, I look forward to playing my part in advancing the next generation’s access to space. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/as-if-space-wasnt-dangerous-enough-bacteria-become-more-deadly-in-microgravity-141053">As if space wasn't dangerous enough, bacteria become more deadly in microgravity</a>
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</em>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/163173/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kim Ellis Hayes works for Swinburne University of Technology and owns International Earth & Space Technology Pty Ltd</span></em></p>Later this year I will spend time with former NASA astronaut instructors, before receiving high-G training, crew resource management training and spacesuit training, among other skills.Kim Ellis Hayes, Senior Lecturer in Space Research & Law / In training as Suborbital Spaceflight PoSSUM Astronaut Candidate Graduate, Swinburne University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1554842021-02-18T19:11:02Z2021-02-18T19:11:02ZThe heaviest stellar black hole in our galaxy is even more massive than we thought<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/384709/original/file-20210217-21-mxev8w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C5%2C3822%2C2138&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">International Centre for Radio Astronomy Research</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When one of us (Ilya Mandel) started grad school at the California Institute of Technology 20 years ago, he was greeted with a series of bets hanging on the wall outside the office of his PhD advisor, Kip Thorne. </p>
<p>One bet from 1974 was a wager with theoretical physicist Stephen Hawking, on whether an observed galactic X-ray source known as “Cygnus X-1” was actually a black hole feeding on hot gas. </p>
<p>Hawking bet it wasn’t, as a consolation prize in case black holes turned out not to exist (since this would mean a lot of the work he had done would be wasted).</p>
<p>At the time, black holes were exclusively theoretical predictions of Albert Einstein’s theory of general relativity: singularities in the fabric of space-time that prevented anything (including light) from escaping. </p>
<p>By 1990, astronomers were convinced Cygnus X-1, a binary star system, indeed hosted a black hole. Hawking conceded his bet against Thorne.</p>
<p>Three decades later, Cygnus X-1 is a gift that keeps on giving. In a paper published today in <a href="https://www.doi.org/10.1126/science.abb3363">Science</a>, our team reports the Cygnus X-1 black hole is heavier than previously thought, weighing about 21 times the mass of the Sun. </p>
<p>This makes it the heaviest stellar black hole — formed from the collapse of a star — ever detected without the use of gravitational waves. As it turns out, perhaps in line with a black hole not wanting to divulge its secrets, Cygnus X-1 still contains many mysteries. </p>
<p>Updated measurements from it are forcing us to revise our understanding of the most massive stars — particularly the rate at which they lose mass in stellar winds. </p>
<h2>Introducing Cygnus X-1</h2>
<p>Cygnus X-1 is located inside the Milky Way about 7,200 light years from Earth. It comprises what we now know to be a black hole in a 5.6-day orbit around a massive supergiant companion star.</p>
<p>Some of the gas blown off the surface of the star by its strong stellar wind is captured by the black hole. The gas spirals in towards the black hole, forming what’s known as an “accretion disk”. </p>
<p>Powerful jets (the contents of which are <a href="https://theconversation.com/cosmic-jets-whats-shooting-out-of-black-holes-20155">still debated</a>) are also launched outwards from near the black hole, travelling close to the speed of light.</p>
<p>We wanted to measure the mass of the black hole. But to do so, we first needed to know how far away it was from Earth.</p>
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<iframe src="https://player.vimeo.com/video/511469634" width="500" height="281" frameborder="0" webkitallowfullscreen="" mozallowfullscreen="" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
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<h2>How do you weigh a black hole?</h2>
<p>As Earth moves around the Sun, we see Cygnus X-1 from different vantage points. It appears to move back and forth very slightly against stationary background objects, in an effect we call “parallax”. </p>
<p>The amount of this tiny motion lets us calculate the distance between us and Cygnus X-1. But for an accurate measurement, we also had to take into account the orbital motion of the black hole around its companion star. </p>
<p>With <a href="https://public.nrao.edu/telescopes/vlba/">a network of radio telescopes</a>, we mapped out the black hole’s orbit, with a positional accuracy the equivalent of localising an object on the Moon to within ten centimetres.</p>
<p>By using our distance to Cygnus X-1 and the brightness and temperature of the star, we computed the size of the star. With this knowledge and the measured motion of the star during its orbit around the black hole, we could determine the black hole’s mass.</p>
<p>It is almost 50% more massive than <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0004-637X/742/2/84">previously thought</a>, with a mass that’s 21 times that of the Sun.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/385040/original/file-20210218-20-jkzjzn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/385040/original/file-20210218-20-jkzjzn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/385040/original/file-20210218-20-jkzjzn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385040/original/file-20210218-20-jkzjzn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385040/original/file-20210218-20-jkzjzn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385040/original/file-20210218-20-jkzjzn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385040/original/file-20210218-20-jkzjzn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385040/original/file-20210218-20-jkzjzn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Astronomers observed the Cygnus X-1 system from different angles, using the orbit.
of the Earth around the Sun to measure the perceived movement of the system
against background stars.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">International Centre for Radio Astronomy Research</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why do we care about its mass?</h2>
<p>Seeing a stellar remnant this heavy in our own galaxy offers insight into how much mass stars can lose to stellar winds. In general, the larger and more luminous a star is, the faster its rate of mass loss.</p>
<p>Some stars lose the equivalent of an Earth’s mass of gas (or more) each day. Mass is lost faster if the star has a high concentration of heavy elements, particularly iron. </p>
<p>Black holes are created when massive stars collapse in on themselves. Thus, the heaviest black holes are expected to form from the deaths of massive stars with the lowest iron concentrations, as these would have retained the most mass up until death.</p>
<p>The current iron concentration in our Milky Way galaxy suggests even stars that weigh hundreds of times the mass of the Sun at birth could lose enough of it to leave behind a fairly pedestrian remnant — only a few times the mass of the Sun. </p>
<p>Now, finding a black hole with a mass that’s 21 times the Sun’s tells us these stellar winds can’t be that strong, after all. So it means we need to slightly retune our models of how stars lose mass through their winds.</p>
<h2>Likely not a gravitational wave source</h2>
<p>Cygnus X-1 is also interesting because it could potentially be a frame from a film showing the formation of pairs of black holes, which later merge to produce <a href="https://theconversation.com/gravitational-waves-are-helping-us-crack-the-mystery-of-how-pairs-of-black-holes-form-8278">gravitational-wave signals</a>. </p>
<p>These waves can be observed using advanced instruments, such as the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-wave Observatory (LIGO) in the United States.</p>
<p>According to our new measurements, the star in Cygnus X-1 weighs more than 40 times the mass of the Sun. It’s therefore massive enough to one day form a black hole in its own right.</p>
<p>However, while it’s tempting to say Cygnus X-1 provides a link between pairs of stars and merging black holes, that would come with its own challenges.</p>
<p>For example, as described in <a href="https://www.doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/abbcd6">a companion paper</a> to our Science paper, published in the Astrophysical Journal, the Cygnus X-1 black hole is spinning on its own axis almost as rapidly as general relativity allows. </p>
<p>By comparison, the merging black holes in LIGO sources have far slower spins. This suggests the pathway by which those black holes formed may have been somewhat different.</p>
<p>In <a href="https://www.doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/abde4a">another companion paper</a> we argue Cygnus X-1 won’t make a gravitational-wave source because, after the collapse of the companion star, the resulting two black holes would be too far apart to merge. </p>
<p>Still, many questions remain regarding the history and the formation of Cygnus X-1, as well as its future. There may be a few more bets to be made and resolved, yet.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/155484/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>James Miller-Jones receives funding from the Australian Research Council and the Western Australian State Government.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ilya Mandel receives funding from the Australian Research Council, including through the Centre of Excellence for Gravitational Wave Discovery. </span></em></p>The black hole is part of a binary star system within our Milky Way galaxy. It orbits a colossal supergiant companion star.James Miller-Jones, Professor, Curtin UniversityIlya Mandel, Professor of Theoretical Astrophysics, Monash UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1545632021-02-04T07:06:04Z2021-02-04T07:06:04ZThese distant ‘baby’ black holes seem to be misbehaving — and experts are perplexed<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/382414/original/file-20210204-14-2u8inb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5476%2C2311&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dr Natasha Hurley-Walker (Curtin / ICRAR) and The GLEAM Team</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Radio images of the sky have revealed hundreds of “baby” and supermassive black holes in distant galaxies, with the galaxies’ light bouncing around in unexpected ways. </p>
<p>Galaxies are vast cosmic bodies, tens of thousands of light years in size, made up of gas, dust, and stars (like our Sun). </p>
<p>Given their size, you’d expect the amount of light emitted from galaxies would change slowly and steadily, over timescales far beyond a person’s lifetime. </p>
<p>But our research, <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article-abstract/501/4/6139/6031337?redirectedFrom=fulltext">published</a> in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, found a surprising population of galaxies whose light changes much more quickly, in just a matter of years.</p>
<h2>What is a radio galaxy?</h2>
<p>Astronomers think there’s a supermassive black hole at the centre of most galaxies. Some of these are “active”, which means they emit a lot of radiation. </p>
<p>Their powerful gravitational fields pull in matter from their surroundings and rip it apart into an orbiting donut of hot plasma called an “accretion disk”.</p>
<p>This disk orbits the black hole at nearly the speed of light. Magnetic fields accelerate high-energy particles from the disk in long, thin streams or “jets” along the rotational axes of the black hole. As they get further from the black hole, these jets blossom into large mushroom-shaped clouds or “lobes”.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/382398/original/file-20210204-18-coa4jt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Radio galaxy with bright yellow core, long thin jets extending in opposite directions and large red lobes" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/382398/original/file-20210204-18-coa4jt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/382398/original/file-20210204-18-coa4jt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/382398/original/file-20210204-18-coa4jt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/382398/original/file-20210204-18-coa4jt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/382398/original/file-20210204-18-coa4jt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=536&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/382398/original/file-20210204-18-coa4jt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=536&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/382398/original/file-20210204-18-coa4jt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=536&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The radio galaxy Hercules A has an active supermassive black hole at its centre. Here it is pictured emitting high energy particles in jets expanding out into radio lobes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA/ESA/NRAO</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This entire structure is what makes up a radio galaxy, so called because it gives off a lot of radio-frequency radiation. It can be hundreds, thousands or even millions of light years across and therefore can take aeons to show any dramatic changes.</p>
<p>Astronomers have long questioned why some radio galaxies host enormous lobes, while others remain small and confined. Two theories exist. One is that the jets are held back by dense material around the black hole, often referred to as frustrated lobes. </p>
<p>However, the details around this phenomenon remain unknown. It’s still unclear whether the lobes are only temporarily confined by a small, extremely dense surrounding environment — or if they’re slowly pushing through a larger but less dense environment.</p>
<p>The second theory to explain smaller lobes is the jets are young and have not yet extended to great distances. </p>
<h2>Old ones are red, babies are blue</h2>
<p>Both young and old radio galaxies can be identified by a clever use of modern radio astronomy: looking at their “radio colour”.</p>
<p>We looked at data from the <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-the-universe-looks-like-when-viewed-with-radio-eyes-66381">GaLactic and Extragalactic All Sky MWA (GLEAM) survey</a>, which sees the sky at 20 different radio frequencies, giving astronomers an unparalleled “radio colour” view of the sky. </p>
<p>From the data, baby radio galaxies appear blue, which means they’re brighter at higher radio frequencies. Meanwhile the old and dying radio galaxies appear red and are brighter in the lower radio frequencies.</p>
<p>We identified 554 baby radio galaxies. When we looked at identical data taken a year later, we were surprised to see 123 of these were bouncing around in their brightness, appearing to flicker. This left us with a puzzle. </p>
<p>Something more than one light year in size can’t vary so much in brightness over less than one year without breaking the laws of physics. So, either our galaxies were far smaller than expected, or something else was happening. </p>
<p>Luckily, we had the data we needed to find out.</p>
<p>Past research on the variability of radio galaxies has used either a small number of galaxies, archival data collected from many different telescopes, or was conducted using only a single frequency. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/weve-mapped-a-million-previously-undiscovered-galaxies-beyond-the-milky-way-take-the-virtual-tour-here-148442">We've mapped a million previously undiscovered galaxies beyond the Milky Way. Take the virtual tour here.</a>
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</p>
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<p>For our research, we surveyed more than 21,000 galaxies over one year across multiple radio frequencies. This makes it the first “spectral variability” survey, enabling us to see how galaxies change brightness at different frequencies. </p>
<p>Some of our bouncing baby radio galaxies changed so much over the year we doubt they are babies at all. There’s a chance these compact radio galaxies are actually angsty teens rapidly growing into adults much faster than we expected.</p>
<p>While most of our variable galaxies increased or decreased in brightness by roughly the same amount across all radio colours, some didn’t. Also, 51 galaxies changed in both brightness <em>and</em> colour, which may be a clue as to what causes the variability.</p>
<h2>3 possibilities for what is happening</h2>
<p><strong>1) Twinkling galaxies</strong></p>
<p>As light from stars travels through Earth’s atmosphere, it is distorted. This creates the twinkling effect of stars we see in the night sky, called “scintillation”. The light from the radio galaxies in this survey passed through our Milky Way galaxy to reach our telescopes on Earth. </p>
<p>Thus, the gas and dust within our galaxy could have distorted it the same way, resulting in a twinkling effect. </p>
<p><strong>2) Looking down the barrel</strong></p>
<p>In our three-dimensional Universe, sometimes black holes shoot high energy particles directly towards us on Earth. These radio galaxies are called “blazars”. </p>
<p>Instead of seeing long thin jets and large mushroom-shaped lobes, we see blazars as a very tiny bright dot. They can show extreme variability in short timescales, since any little ejection of matter from the supermassive black hole itself is directed straight towards us. </p>
<p><strong>3) Black hole burps</strong></p>
<p>When the central supermassive black hole “burps” some extra particles they form a clump slowly travelling along the jets. As the clump propagates outwards, we can detect it first in the “radio blue” and then later in the “radio red”.</p>
<p>So we may be detecting giant black hole burps slowly travelling through space. </p>
<h2>Where to now?</h2>
<p>This is the first time we’ve had the technological ability to conduct a large-scale variability survey over multiple radio colours. The results suggest our understanding of the radio sky is lacking and perhaps radio galaxies are more dynamic than we expected. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Artist's impression of the SKA: on the left multiple dishes scattered around representing SKA_MID and on the right a large collection of antennas representing SKA_LOW." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/382417/original/file-20210204-18-kxrm5w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/382417/original/file-20210204-18-kxrm5w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/382417/original/file-20210204-18-kxrm5w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/382417/original/file-20210204-18-kxrm5w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/382417/original/file-20210204-18-kxrm5w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/382417/original/file-20210204-18-kxrm5w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/382417/original/file-20210204-18-kxrm5w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An artist’s impression of the SKA telescope. On the left is SKA-Mid, fading into SKA-Low on the right.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">SKAO/ICRAR/SARAO</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As the next generation of telescopes come online, in particular the Square Kilometre Array (SKA), astronomers will build up a dynamic picture of the sky over many years.</p>
<p>In the meantime, it’s worth watching these weirdly behaving radio galaxies and keeping a particularly close eye on the bouncing babies, too.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-worlds-oldest-story-astronomers-say-global-myths-about-seven-sisters-stars-may-reach-back-100-000-years-151568">The world's oldest story? Astronomers say global myths about 'seven sisters' stars may reach back 100,000 years</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/154563/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kathryn Ross receives funding from the Australian Research Training Program (RTP), funded by the Australian Government. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr Natasha Hurley-Walker is supported by an Australian Research Council Future Fellowship (project number FT190100231), funded by the Australian Government.</span></em></p>Some of the baby radio galaxies found may not be ‘babies’ at all. Rather, they may be ‘angsty teens’, rapidly growing into adults much faster than researchers had anticipated.Kathryn Ross, PhD Student, Curtin UniversityNatasha Hurley-Walker, Radio Astronomer, Curtin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1464072020-09-20T19:42:37Z2020-09-20T19:42:37ZIf there is life on Venus, how could it have got there? Origin of life experts explain<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/358781/original/file-20200918-18-1xkxztj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=71%2C35%2C5919%2C3458&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/life-on-venus-traces-of-phosphine-may-be-a-sign-of-biological-activity-146093">recent discovery of phosphine</a> in the atmosphere of Venus is exciting, as it may serve as a potential sign of life (among other possible explanations). </p>
<p>The researchers, who <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-020-1174-4">published their findings in Nature Astronomy</a>, couldn’t really explain how the phosphine got there. </p>
<p>They explored all conceivable possibilities, including lightning, volcanoes and even delivery by meteorites. But each source they modelled couldn’t produce the amount of phosphine detected.</p>
<p>Most phosphine in Earth’s atmosphere is produced by living microbes. So the possibility of life on Venus producing phosphine can’t be ignored. </p>
<p>But the researchers, led by UK astronomer Jane Greaves, say their discovery “is not robust evidence for life” on Venus. Rather, it’s evidence of “anomalous and unexplained chemistry”, of which biological processes are just one possible origin.</p>
<p>If life were to exist on Venus, how could it have come about? Exploring the origins of life on Earth might shed some light.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/life-on-venus-traces-of-phosphine-may-be-a-sign-of-biological-activity-146093">Life on Venus? Traces of phosphine may be a sign of biological activity</a>
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<h2>The ingredients for life (as we know it)</h2>
<p>Understanding how life formed on Earth not only helps us understand our own origins, but could also provide insight into the key ingredients needed for life, as we know it, to form. </p>
<p>The details around the origins of life on Earth are still shrouded in mystery, with <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/lifes-origins-by-land-or-sea-debate-gets-hot/">multiple competing scientific theories</a>. But most theories include a common set of environmental conditions considered vital for life. These are: </p>
<p><strong>Liquid water</strong></p>
<p>Water is needed to dissolve the molecules needed for life, to facilitate their chemical reactions. Although other solvents (such as methane) have been suggested to potentially support life, water is most likely. This is because it <a href="http://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/uncategorized/2019/biological-roles-of-water-why-is-water-necessary-for-life/">can dissolve a huge range of different molecules</a> and is found throughout the universe.</p>
<p><strong>Mild temperatures</strong> </p>
<p>Temperatures higher than 122°C destroy most complex organic molecules. This would make it almost impossible for carbon-based life to form in very hot environment. </p>
<p><strong>A process to concentrate molecules</strong> </p>
<p>As the origin of life would have required a large amount of organic molecules, a process to concentrate organics from the diluted surrounding environment would be required – either through absorption onto mineral surfaces, evaporation or floating on top of water in oily slicks. </p>
<p><strong>A complex natural environment</strong></p>
<p>For life to have originated, there would have had to be a complex natural environment wherein a diverse range of conditions (temperature, pH and salt concentrations) could create chemical complexity. Life itself is incredibly complex, so even the most primitive versions would need a complex environment to originate.</p>
<p><strong>Trace metals</strong></p>
<p>A range of trace metals, amassed through water-rock interactions, would be needed to promote the formation of organic molecules.</p>
<p>So if these are the conditions required for life, what does that tell us about the likelihood of life forming on Venus? </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/358787/original/file-20200918-14-6vka30.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Photo of Venus" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/358787/original/file-20200918-14-6vka30.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/358787/original/file-20200918-14-6vka30.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=615&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358787/original/file-20200918-14-6vka30.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=615&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358787/original/file-20200918-14-6vka30.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=615&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358787/original/file-20200918-14-6vka30.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=773&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358787/original/file-20200918-14-6vka30.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=773&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358787/original/file-20200918-14-6vka30.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=773&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Venus has 90 times the atmospheric pressure of Earth.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>It’s unlikely today …</h2>
<p>The possibility of life as we know it forming on the surface of present-day Venus is incredibly low. An average surface temperature above 400°C means the surface can’t possibly have liquid water and this heat would also destroy most organic molecules. </p>
<p>Venus’s milder upper atmosphere, however, has temperatures low enough for water droplets to form and thus could potentially be suitable for the formation of life. </p>
<p>That said, this environment has its own limitations, such as clouds of sulfuric acid which would destroy any organic molecules not protected by a cell. For example, on Earth, molecules such as DNA are rapidly destroyed by acidic conditions, although some <a href="https://sciencing.com/types-bacteria-living-acidic-ph-9296.html">bacteria can survive</a> in extremely acidic environments.</p>
<p>Also, the constant falling of water droplets from Venus’s atmosphere down to its extremely hot surface would destroy any unprotected organic molecules in the droplets. </p>
<p>Beyond this, with no surfaces or mineral grains in the Venusian atmosphere on which organic molecules could concentrate, any chemical building blocks for life would be scattered through a diluted atmosphere – making it incredibly difficult for life to form. </p>
<h2>… but possibly less unlikely in the past</h2>
<p>Bearing all this in mind, if atmospheric phosphine is indeed a sign of life on Venus, there are three main explanations for how it could have formed. </p>
<p>Life may have formed on the planet’s surface when its conditions were very different to now. </p>
<p>Modelling suggests the surface of early Venus was very similar to early Earth, with lakes (or even oceans) of water and <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2016/nasa-climate-modeling-suggests-venus-may-have-been-habitable">mild conditions</a>. This was before a runaway greenhouse effect turned the planet into the hellscape it is today.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/358782/original/file-20200918-16-1s8z2gp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Computer generated surface view of Eistla Regio region on Venus." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/358782/original/file-20200918-16-1s8z2gp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/358782/original/file-20200918-16-1s8z2gp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358782/original/file-20200918-16-1s8z2gp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358782/original/file-20200918-16-1s8z2gp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358782/original/file-20200918-16-1s8z2gp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=587&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358782/original/file-20200918-16-1s8z2gp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=587&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358782/original/file-20200918-16-1s8z2gp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=587&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This is a computer-generated picture of the Eistla Regio region on Venus’s surface.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>If life formed back then, it might have adapted to spread into the clouds. Then, when intense climate change boiled the oceans away – killing all surface-based life – microbes in the clouds would have become the last outpost for life on Venus.</p>
<p>Another possibility is that life in Venus’s atmosphere (if there is any) came from Earth. </p>
<p>The planets of our inner solar system have been documented to exchange materials in the past. When meteorites crash into a planet, they can send that planet’s rocks hurtling into space where they occasionally intersect with the orbits of other planets.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/meteorites-from-mars-contain-clues-about-the-red-planets-geology-130104">Meteorites from Mars contain clues about the red planet's geology</a>
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<p>If this happened between Earth and Venus at some point, the rocks from Earth may have contained microbial life that could have adapted to Venus’s highly acidic clouds (similar to Earth’s acid-resistant bacteria).</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/358784/original/file-20200918-16-7blw0k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Rendered image of meteorite hitting Earth." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/358784/original/file-20200918-16-7blw0k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/358784/original/file-20200918-16-7blw0k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=384&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358784/original/file-20200918-16-7blw0k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=384&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358784/original/file-20200918-16-7blw0k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=384&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358784/original/file-20200918-16-7blw0k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358784/original/file-20200918-16-7blw0k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/358784/original/file-20200918-16-7blw0k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">If rocks from Earth containing microbial life entered Venus’s orbit in the past, this life may have adapted to Venus’s atmospheric conditions.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A truly alien explanation</h2>
<p>The third explanation to consider is that a truly alien form of life (life as we <em>don’t</em> know it) could have formed on Venus’s 400°C surface and survives there to this day. </p>
<p>Such a foreign life probably wouldn’t be carbon-based, as nearly all complex carbon molecules break down at extreme temperatures. </p>
<p>Although carbon-based life produces phosphine on Earth, it’s impossible to say <em>only</em> carbon-based life can produce phosphine. Therefore, even if totally alien life exists on Venus, it may produce molecules that are still recognisable as a potential sign of life. </p>
<p>It’s only through further missions and research that we can find out whether there is, or was, life on Venus. As prominent scientist Carl Sagan <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3114207/#:%7E:text=non%2Dlocal%20perception-,Introduction,et%20al.%2C%201999">once said</a>: “extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence”. </p>
<p>Luckily, two of the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-four-possible-missions-to-study-the-secrets-of-the-solar-system">four finalist proposals</a> for NASA’s next round of funding for planetary exploration are focused on Venus.</p>
<p>These include VERITAS, an orbiter proposed to map the surface of Venus, and DAVINCI+, proposed to drop through the planet’s skies and sample different atmospheric layers on the way down.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/146407/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Luke Steller receives funding from a Research Training Program scholarship provided by the Australian government. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Martin Van Kranendonk receives funding from the Australian Research Council and BHP. </span></em></p>Considering what we know about the key ingredients for life’s formation on Earth, here are three explanations for how this process may have occurred on our sister planet.Luke Steller, PhD Student, UNSW SydneyMartin Van Kranendonk, Professor and Head of School, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1410532020-07-23T19:52:25Z2020-07-23T19:52:25ZAs if space wasn’t dangerous enough, bacteria become more deadly in microgravity<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/347007/original/file-20200713-42-1k8juza.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=162%2C62%2C5013%2C2848&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>China <a href="https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/07/21/china-moves-massive-rocket-into-place-for-ambitious-mars-shot/">has launched</a> its Tianwen-1 mission to Mars. A rocket holding an orbiter, lander and rover took flight from the country’s Hainan province yesterday, with hopes to deploy the rover on Mars’s surface by early next year.</p>
<p>Similarly, the launch of the <a href="https://www.space.com/uae-hope-emirates-mars-mission-launch-webcast.html">Emirates Mars Mission</a> on Sunday marked the Arab world’s foray into interplanetary space travel. And on July 30, we expect to see NASA’s Mars Perseverance rover <a href="https://www.space.com/mars-rover-perseverance-launch-delay-july-30-2020.html">finally</a> take off from Florida.</p>
<p>For many nations and their people, space is becoming the ultimate frontier. But although we’re gaining the ability to travel smarter and faster into space, much remains unknown about its effects on biological substances, including us. </p>
<p>While the possibilities of space exploration seem endless, so are its dangers. And one particular danger comes from the smallest life forms on Earth: bacteria. </p>
<p>Bacteria live <a href="https://kids.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/frym.2017.00035">within us and all around us</a>. So whether we like it or not, these microscopic organisms tag along wherever we go – including into space. Just as space’s unique environment has an impact on us, so too does it impact bacteria.</p>
<h2>We don’t yet know the gravity of the problem</h2>
<p>All life on Earth evolved with gravity as an ever-present force. Thus, Earth’s life has not adapted to spend time in space. When gravity is removed or greatly reduced, processes influenced by gravity behave differently as well. </p>
<p>In space, where there is minimal gravity, sedimentation (when solids in a liquid settle to the bottom), convection (the transfer of heat energy) and buoyancy (the force that makes certain objects float) <a href="https://iss.jaxa.jp/en/kiboexp/seu/categories/microgravity/index.html">are minimised</a>.</p>
<p>Similarly, forces such as liquid <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/surface-tension-and-water?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects">surface tension</a> and capillary forces (when a liquid flows to fill a narrow space) <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0143-0807/35/5/055010">become more intense</a>. </p>
<p>It’s not yet fully understood how such changes impact lifeforms.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/347008/original/file-20200713-22-1a7jbvj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/347008/original/file-20200713-22-1a7jbvj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/347008/original/file-20200713-22-1a7jbvj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347008/original/file-20200713-22-1a7jbvj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347008/original/file-20200713-22-1a7jbvj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347008/original/file-20200713-22-1a7jbvj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347008/original/file-20200713-22-1a7jbvj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347008/original/file-20200713-22-1a7jbvj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">NASA’s Perseverance Mars rover will be launched later this month. Among other tasks, it will seek out past microscopic life and collect samples of Martian rock and regolith (broken rock and dust) to later be returned to Earth.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA/Cover Images</span></span>
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<h2>How bacteria become more deadly in space</h2>
<p>Worryingly, research from space flight missions has shown bacteria become more deadly and resilient when exposed to microgravity (when only tiny gravitational forces are present).</p>
<p>In space, bacteria seem to become <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00248-013-0193-4">more resistant to antibiotics</a> and <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41526-019-0091-2">more lethal</a>. They also stay this way for a short time after <a href="https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=14653292">returning to Earth</a>, compared with bacteria that never left Earth. </p>
<p>Adding to that, bacteria also seem to <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41526-017-0020-1">mutate quicker</a> in space. However, these mutations are predominately for the bacteria to <a href="https://msystems.asm.org/content/4/1/e00281-18">adapt to the new environment</a> – not to become super deadly. </p>
<p>More research is needed to examine whether such adaptations do, in fact, allow the bacteria to cause more disease. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/bacteria-found-to-thrive-better-in-space-than-on-earth-56740">Bacteria found to thrive better in space than on Earth</a>
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<h2>Bacterial team work is bad news for space stations</h2>
<p>Research has shown space’s microgravity promotes <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0062437">biofilm formation of bacteria</a>.</p>
<p>Biofilms are densely-packed cell colonies that produce a matrix of polymeric substances allowing bacteria to stick to each other, and to stationary surfaces. </p>
<p>Biofilms increase bacteria’s resistance to antibiotics, promote their survival and improve their ability to cause infection. We have seen biofilms <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31719234/">grow and attach to equipment</a> on space stations, causing it to biodegrade. </p>
<p>For example, biofilms have affected the <a href="https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4225/mir/mir.htm">Mir</a> space station’s navigation window, air conditioning, oxygen electrolysis block, water recycling unit and thermal control system. The prolonged exposure of such equipment to biofilms can lead to malfunction, which can have devastating effects.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/347010/original/file-20200713-42-pl734s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/347010/original/file-20200713-42-pl734s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/347010/original/file-20200713-42-pl734s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347010/original/file-20200713-42-pl734s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347010/original/file-20200713-42-pl734s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347010/original/file-20200713-42-pl734s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347010/original/file-20200713-42-pl734s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347010/original/file-20200713-42-pl734s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Microorganisms that form biofilms include bacteria, fungi and protists.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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<p>Another affect of microgravity on bacteria involves <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5581483/">their structural distortion</a>. Certain bacteria have shown reductions in cell size and increases in cell numbers when grown in microgravity. </p>
<p>In the case of the former, bacterial cells with smaller surface area have fewer molecule-cell interactions, and this reduces the effectiveness of antibiotics against them.</p>
<p>Moreover, the absence of effects produced by gravity, such as sedimentation and buoyancy, could alter the way bacteria take in nutrients or drugs intended to attack them. This could result in the increased drug resistance and infectiousness of bacteria in space.</p>
<p>All of this has serious implications, especially when it comes to long-haul space flights where gravity would not be present. Experiencing a bacterial infection that cannot be treated in these circumstances would be catastrophic.</p>
<h2>The benefits of performing research in space</h2>
<p>On the other hand, the effects of space also result in a unique environment that can be positive for life on Earth. </p>
<p>For example, <a href="https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introchem/chapter/molecular-crystals/">molecular crystals</a> in space’s microgravity grow much <a href="https://upward.issnationallab.org/microgravity-molecular-crystal-growth/">larger and more symmetrically</a> than on Earth. Having more uniform crystals allows the formulation of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/news/lmm_biophysics">more effective drugs</a> and treatments to combat various diseases including cancers and Parkinson’s disease. </p>
<p>Also, the crystallisation of molecules helps determine <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-x-ray-crystallography-22143">their precise structures</a>. Many molecules that cannot be crystallised on Earth can be in space. </p>
<p>So, the structure of such molecules <a href="https://www.issnationallab.org/blog/designing-better-drugs-piecing-together-protein-function-through-structure/">could be determined</a> with the help of space research. This, too, would aid the development of higher quality drugs.</p>
<p>Optical fibre cables can also be made to a <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/news/b4h-3rd/eds-mis-building-better-optical-fiber/#:%7E:text=Made%20in%20Space%E2%80%94Building%20a%20Better%20Optical%20Fiber,the%20AMF%20on%20the%20ISS.&text=Combined%20zirconium%2C%20barium%2C%20lanthanum%2C,and%20degrade%20an%20optical%20signal.">much better standard</a> in space, due to the optimal formation of crystals. This greatly increases data transmission capacity, making networking and telecommunications faster. </p>
<p>As humans spend more time in space, an environment riddled with known and unknown dangers, further research will help us thoroughly examine the risks – and the potential benefits – of space’s unique environment.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/with-or-without-you-the-role-of-the-moon-on-life-11501">With or without you: the role of the moon on life</a>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Vikrant Minhas is a co-founder of the space research company ResearchSat</span></em></p>Bacteria can become more deadly and antibiotic-resilient in space. And while more research is needed to figure out how severe the risks are, they could be catastrophic.Vikrant Minhas, PhD candidate, University of AdelaideLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.