tag:theconversation.com,2011:/uk/topics/track-cycling-2728/articlesTrack cycling – The Conversation2015-06-02T13:45:49Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/416552015-06-02T13:45:49Z2015-06-02T13:45:49ZHow Bradley Wiggins can break cycling’s toughest record<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/83645/original/image-20150602-6997-ldxuji.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Wiggo is days away from 60 minutes of pain.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sebastien Nogier/EPA</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The <a href="http://www1.skysports.com/cycling/news/15264/9838682/smashing-hour-world-record-inspiring-cyclist-bradley-wiggins">challenge for Bradley Wiggins</a> is beautifully simple: complete the greatest number of laps of a velodrome track in one hour by pedalling as close as possible to the black racing line. However, the simplicity is deceptive, the pain is intense, and cycling’s hour record requires meticulous preparation in terms of equipment, training and strategy in order to have the best chance of success. </p>
<p>The wind can be a friend to the cyclist, but is more often the foe. This is because the power needed to overcome drag rises in proportion to the cube of velocity, so at 50kmph, more than 90% of the rider’s power output is spent fighting the wind. </p>
<p>A skilled road racer can use the wind to their advantage by <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-science-behind-tour-de-frances-hide-and-seek-tactics-29008">slipstreaming to save energy</a> before choosing the prime moment to attack, but when the rider is alone against the clock there is no place to hide. This is why the time-trial is known as the “race of truth” and the <a href="http://www.cyclingweekly.co.uk/tag/hour-record">hour record</a>, which is held under relatively stable conditions in a velodrome, is possibly the perfect time-trial. </p>
<h2>Marginal gains</h2>
<p>Alex Dowsett is the current holder of the hour record in a year which has seen a glut of attempts after the sport’s governing body <a href="http://www.cyclingweekly.co.uk/news/latest-news/hour-record-rule-change-athletes-hour-scrapped-123397">eased back on the rules</a>. On May 2, <a href="http://movistarteam.com/equipo/alex-dowsett">Dowsett</a> rode to a remarkable distance of 52.937km (Wiggins is targeting <a href="http://www.cyclingweekly.co.uk/news/latest-news/sir-bradley-wiggins-reveals-hour-record-target-distance-174752">55.250km</a>).</p>
<p>I was lucky enough to help <a href="http://www.writtle.ac.uk/pge_PressRelease.cfm?ID=1215">construct the training plan</a> which got Alex there, and the experience offers up some useful insights into just what it takes.</p>
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<span class="caption">And 52.937 km later, you get to celebrate. Alex Dowsett on the Manchester velodrome.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.crankphoto.co.uk">Chris Keller-Jackson</a></span>
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<p>Since Francesco Moser’s successful attempt in 1984 (51.151 km) when he adopted a special skinsuit, disc wheels and low-profile frame, aerodynamics have featured prominently in the technical preparation. People may remember the intriguing battle between <a href="http://www.cyclingweekly.co.uk/news/battle-of-the-brits-hour-record-heroes-27170">Graeme Obree and Chris Boardman</a> as they traded blows over the record and adopted a range of startling on-bike positions in the pursuit of aerodynamic advantage. </p>
<p>Current rules on equipment and riding position are still strict, so any gains come from refinements that take many hours of wind tunnel testing. But they can be found. </p>
<p>Even something as simple as the skinsuit and socks underwent numerous redesigns for Alex‘s attempt to ensure the fabric and fit produced minimal drag. In fact every possible trick of engineering and physics was afforded Alex from the use of custom aero equipment like the disc wheels, frame, handlebars and helmet through to the use of low viscosity lubricants and ceramic bearings. </p>
<p>We even estimated that by heating the velodrome to 28-29 degrees celsius, the reduction in air density and subsequent drag would more than compensate for any loss of performance due to dehydration – although he did still take the precaution of precooling with an ice jacket.</p>
<h2>Easing off</h2>
<p>Training for the hour is pretty similar to tuning an engine. The key to effective physical preparation is to ensure the training is correctly sequenced and monitored to optimise gains in fitness whilst avoiding overtraining. By employing mostly high volume endurance riding with regular intense intervals and carefully timed races, Alex’s fitness was systematically developed with the goal of generating greater power output for the same blood lactate concentration and heart rate. </p>
<p>However, improvements are often masked by accumulated fatigue so a taper was employed prior to the event whereby training load, but not intensity, was reduced to help recovery without compromising fitness. In spite of research, tapering is still very much an art with many cyclists under-performing if they feel “too fresh”: sometimes as a coach you really can be too good.</p>
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<span class="caption">Looking for a smart start.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/toasty/914441359/in/photolist-2oNKyk-5mfbt4-hNJJvt-p2CD3J-ieksfj-qyfyBh-nJ8eNA-iNxnMX-4D14F1-pC4RX2-ftsRg4-dYoLEK-9Ejxgc-fAzXdg-fDiP6C-2gP5ix-fwEW4n-pEb6uJ-at6dj7-fxU3Eb-fySWhi-pmpLnE-oFn4Ye-qGMSWp-svdL46-pjbLqw-hNFzwm-qaSraY-thMioR-9sXPMk-pYv2Tf-rdEWQB-qXGor6-7NYfve-8MXhjZ-pPVCZw-95rwVx-8oTvmn-r7Q3z1-sodcbE-mqs6dU-q3WdnY-3q2Q57-oTHvBL-qqyV3d-qZ6qJ7-4V6Yux-9kiucX-qu5NHJ-fBkwit">Kenneth Lu</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
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<p>The hour record is an aerobic event, in fact the intake of air is pretty crucial you might say. But it also demands a significant contribution from those anaerobic <a href="http://sportsmedicine.about.com/od/anatomyandphysiology/a/MuscleFiberType.htm">Type II muscle fibres</a> which don’t get their energy from oxygen and which are engaged at the tortuous start when the rider is trying to churn a massive gear into life.</p>
<p>Theory states that provided the athlete maintains an even pacing strategy at a power output where heart rate, oxygen uptake and blood lactate concentration remain close to a steady state, then the maximum speed should be achieved. Not only is this sweet spot difficult to judge, but the hour record is raced from a standing start that threatens to immediately over-tax the anaerobic systems which tire quickly. The dilemma for Wiggins will be the same as for every hour record racer: go out too slow and valuable speed is lost; too fast and you are plunged into an oxygen deficit that takes dozens of laps to repay.</p>
<p>The precise mechanisms of fatigue are hotly debated in the literature but what we do know is that as time passes any theoretical steady state is lost: fuel is burnt, <a href="http://www.news-medical.net/health/What-are-Metabolites.aspx">chemicals build up which contribute to exhaustion</a>, water is lost and heat accumulates. </p>
<p>The postural muscles throughout the body which maintain the rider’s unnatural aerodynamic position struggle under the strain of high cornering forces and the fixed wheel becomes an instrument of torture with no break from the relentless rhythm of pedalling – there is no freewheeling relief on a track bike. There is some respite as the bike accelerates through each bend, but this is accompanied by an abrupt drop in speed at the start of the following straight. Consequently, the perception of effort rises and the rider’s willpower to continue and ability to hold the line are tested.</p>
<h2>Pace planning</h2>
<p>And so to the biggest deception of all. During the opening 20 minutes the pace is easily manageable with the freshness of the taper, the warm air, the full aero package and low friction components. The speed is “free” and the temptation to ride too fast is great: many have. The previous record holder, Australia’s Rohan Dennis (52.491km), almost paid the price of an ambitious start to slow significantly later on. And it is not hard to pick out Jack Bobridge’s failed attempt from the chart below.</p>
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<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Comparing the pacing. How the riders have approached this year’s Hour record attempts.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://twitter.com/xavierdisley/status/598394274036744192/photo/1">B Xavier Disley, PhD</a></span>
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<p>Alex’s hour on the other hand was well-drilled with the pace rehearsed over thousands of training laps. He rode to a strict schedule, never going too deep, never accumulating a debt he could not repay. And in the last third of the race, confident that he had budgeted wisely, he attacked Dennis’s record.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Highlights of Rohan Dennis’ record ride.</span></figcaption>
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<p>Was his a “perfect hour” as it was dubbed by his sponsors, or was it too respectful? Maybe it was the euphoria of success, but Alex didn’t show the usual signs of exhaustion at the finish, even lifting his bike above his head in celebration. What is for certain is that Wiggins, having openly pledged to set a record that will stand for many years, cannot afford to hold anything back, not even in the first 20 minutes.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/41655/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark Walker does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Riding a bike for 60 minutes doesn’t sound like the hardest thing in the world, but trying to cover 55km will push the Tour de France winner to the limit.Mark Walker, Deputy Head of the School of Sport, Equine & Animal Sciences, Writtle CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/242362014-03-28T14:11:25Z2014-03-28T14:11:25ZExplainer: how do cyclists reach super fast speeds?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/44820/original/fqs27k76-1395853284.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Blink and you'll miss the subtle changes we've made to bikes of late.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/thelearningcurvedotca/5901564926/sizes/l">thelearningcurvedotca</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Even though spoked wheels and pneumatic tyres were invented in the 1880s, bicycle design hasn’t really changed a great deal in the time since – at least, at face value. However, look closer and around a hundred years of research or development has taken the humble bicycle from boneshaker to a speed machine.</p>
<h2>The basics</h2>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/44821/original/qnfnh4bh-1395853407.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/44821/original/qnfnh4bh-1395853407.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/44821/original/qnfnh4bh-1395853407.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/44821/original/qnfnh4bh-1395853407.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/44821/original/qnfnh4bh-1395853407.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/44821/original/qnfnh4bh-1395853407.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=610&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/44821/original/qnfnh4bh-1395853407.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=610&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/44821/original/qnfnh4bh-1395853407.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=610&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Karl von Drais in the days before lycra.</span>
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<p>A modern bicycle is still made up of a double diamond shaped frame, two wheels with air-inflated tyres and a chain-based drivetrain – the mechanism through which the whole system runs. Though we’ve stuck to the basics, man and his machine have increased in speed from the 14.5 km per hour reportedly achieved by Karl von Drais in 1817 to a mind-blowing 55km in a Tour de France time trial nearly 200 years later. </p>
<p>The ability to improve speed on a bicycle comes down to two fundamental factors: you either increase the power that propels the rider forwards or you decrease the resistant forces that are holding that rider back.</p>
<p>The rider’s ability to produce power is generally down to their physiology and biomechanics. The resistant forces that slow a cyclist are mainly air resistance, total mass and any frictional losses, such as the drivetrain or the rolling resistance of the wheels against the ground. If every athlete has an equal chance of winning the challenge for engineers and scientists then is to focus on the technology the cyclist uses to obtain a competitive advantage.</p>
<h2>The trouble with air</h2>
<p>It has been <a href="http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=msdT4iQ50cgC&pg=PA5&lpg=PA5&dq=cyclist+90%25+force+air+resistance+25+mph&source=bl&ots=Udlf9RU6bb&sig=wGc4XSru0-jixptWNIrdtvKNxZo&hl=en&sa=X&ei=ZQszU9joF87Q7AaIr4DoBg&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=cyclist%2090%25%20force%20air%20resistance%2025%20mph&f=false">demonstrated</a> that once a cyclist travelling outdoors gets past speeds of 25 miles per hour, around 90% of the force holding them back will be air resistance. But the relationship between speed and air resistance is not a linear one. It can, for example, take twice as much human power to ride a bicycle at 30 miles an hour as it does at 20 miles an hour.</p>
<p>As a result, reducing air resistance has become a top priority in professional cycling technology in recent times. At the London 2012 Olympic Games, Team GB’s track riders were using bikes, helmets and clothing solely designed to help contribute to the optimisation of each rider’s aerodynamics. Team principal, David Brailsford, has referred to this process as the “aggregation of marginal gains”.</p>
<p>To achieve this, wind tunnels are now used by both professional and amateur athletes to analyse the aerodynamic drag, then work out how to get the rider and machine working together optimally. There is a complication in this process, though, in that the best aerodynamic solution is typically specific to every rider, so each needs to make individual choices about their helmet and bicycle and especially their riding position.</p>
<p>The second problem is that wind tunnels are few and far between and are by no means cheap to access. Thankfully, alternatives for those without an Olympic-sized budget are emerging. You can now use computational fluid dynamic software which can be, in essence, a virtual wind tunnel. This software allows an engineer to simulate a variety of air flow conditions on a new bicycle design, therefore cutting down the time and costs of prototyping and testing. There is now also published <a href="http://www.recumbents.com/WISIL/MartinDocs/Forward%20Integration%20modeling.pdf">research</a> which allows riders to assess their aerodynamics out in the field rather than in a wind tunnel.</p>
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<span class="caption">Ermargerd! I love this helmet!</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">EPA/Ian Langsdon</span></span>
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<p>Mark Cavendish famously won his Tour de France stages and world title in 2011 wearing a skin suit and an aerodynamic helmet while the majority of his competitors were still wearing baggier jerseys and heavily vented helmets. Team GB had realised that even though a rider may be sheltered by 200 others during a road stage, when Cavendish sprints for the finish line, he is alone in undisturbed air for around 200 metres at speeds well above 40 miles an hour. Every small advantage at this point converts into winning millimetres.</p>
<h2>Tinkering with the tech</h2>
<p>Racing bicycles themselves have been subject to a tremendous amount of aerodynamic refinement over the last five years. Braking systems have been positioned so as to be sheltered from the main airflow and gear cables are now run on the inside of the frame. Wheel designs have not only improved in reducing aerodynamic drag, but are now being optimised to provide benefits such as increased rider stability from crosswinds. Innovations like these have traditionally been directed towards making better bikes for either time trials or triathlons but is now spreading towards the road bikes used in mass start racing.</p>
<p>The mechanical properties of the racing bicycle have also evolved. Like computational fluid dynamic software, finite element analysis allows us to optimise the design of bike components to simulate the stresses and strains that they will face when in use. This has allowed us to develop composite frames that weigh as little as 800g but are still stiff enough to sprint for a stage win and comfortable enough to be ridden for five hours or more, day after day.</p>
<p>Even the humble gear derailleur, relatively unchanged in principle since its original invention in 1951 has lately begun to shape shift. The most advanced systems are now electronically powered and triggered. This has allowed for smooth gear changes requiring only thin wires and a small battery as opposed to having a frame design compromised by the limitations of needing cable runs for mechanically actuated gears.</p>
<p>All these improvements have enabled us to morph the humble bicycle into a speed machine without tampering with its basic design. So where does this all lead next? In competitive sport, the technology is typically regulated by its governing body. In the case of cycling, this means that the equipment is currently limited in both its size, nature and weight, so we are more likely to see more incremental improvements than a radical shift away from the bikes we use now.</p>
<p>The average leisure cyclist is not limited by such constraints allowing us to benefit from any level of innovation. For example, if you look at bicycle land-speed records, recumbent cycles – which are unique in the way they position the rider lying down – can move at far higher speeds than a conventional bicycle. And for enthusiastic amateurs, new bicycle designs are continuing to become lighter, faster and ultimately more efficient. Anything could happen.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/24236/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bryce Dyer does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Even though spoked wheels and pneumatic tyres were invented in the 1880s, bicycle design hasn’t really changed a great deal in the time since – at least, at face value. However, look closer and around…Bryce Dyer, Senior Lecturer in Product Design, Bournemouth UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/84702012-08-06T04:07:05Z2012-08-06T04:07:05ZOlympic cycling – why do men’s and women’s events differ?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/13742/original/j4p3qwhc-1343868674.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Marianne Vos of the Netherlands takes gold in the London 2012 women's road race.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ian Langsdon/EPA</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>You’ll have noticed the distances ridden by female and male elite cyclists differ in some Olympic events and are identical in others, which raises the obvious question: why?</p>
<p>If we really wanted to simplify things, we could say most of the differences between men’s and women’s sporting performances can be explained by discrepancies in body dimensions and body composition. </p>
<p>Because men are larger and have a higher muscle mass than women, they can produce more power during <a href="https://theconversation.com/track-cycling-world-championships-the-making-of-modern-sprinters-623">sprint</a> but also endurance events. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/13811/original/vjj2rh27-1343965492.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/13811/original/vjj2rh27-1343965492.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/13811/original/vjj2rh27-1343965492.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=863&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/13811/original/vjj2rh27-1343965492.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=863&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/13811/original/vjj2rh27-1343965492.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=863&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/13811/original/vjj2rh27-1343965492.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1084&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/13811/original/vjj2rh27-1343965492.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1084&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/13811/original/vjj2rh27-1343965492.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1084&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Physiological differences between men and women (seriously, check out his quads!) are only part of the story.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">EPA/Ian Langsdon</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As a result, we observe a systematic difference between the world records established by men and women in sports in which athletes have to fight against the clock, such as athletics, swimming or cycling. </p>
<p>It’s more difficult to compare the performances of men and women in cycling, as sometimes the race format varies between genders, even for the same event, as evidenced by the following competitions at the London Olympics:</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www.london2012.com/cycling-road/">cycling road races</a>: 250km for men, 140km for women</li>
<li><a href="http://www.london2012.com/documents/venue-documents/cycling-time-trial-route.pdf">road cycling time trials</a>: 44km for men and 29km for women</li>
<li><a href="http://www.london2012.com/cycling-track/">track cycling - team sprint</a>: three laps for men and two laps for women</li>
<li><a href="http://www.london2012.com/cycling-track/event/women-team-pursuit/competition-format/index.html">track cycling - team pursuit</a>: 4,000m for men and 3,000m for women</li>
<li><a href="http://www.london2012.com/cycling-mountain-bike/event/men/competition-format/index.html">mountain bike cross-country</a>: distance adjusted so the event lasts between 90 minutes and 105 minutes</li>
</ul>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/13806/original/sbn4xsjj-1343964047.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/13806/original/sbn4xsjj-1343964047.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/13806/original/sbn4xsjj-1343964047.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/13806/original/sbn4xsjj-1343964047.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/13806/original/sbn4xsjj-1343964047.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=518&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/13806/original/sbn4xsjj-1343964047.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=518&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/13806/original/sbn4xsjj-1343964047.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=518&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The field in the women’s road race at the Olympics was considerably smaller than the men’s.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">EPA/Olaf Kraak</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But race formats do not systematically vary between men and women. Indeed, the race format is identical, or almost identical, for the following events:</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www.london2012.com/cycling-track/event/men-sprint/competition-format/">track cycling – individual sprint</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.london2012.com/cycling-track/event/men-keirin/competition-format/index.html">track cycling - keirin</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.london2012.com/cycling-bmx/about/">BMX cycling</a></li>
</ul>
<p>Women can maintain the same relative power (expressed as a percentage of their maximum) as men when competing over the same time durations. But the speeds reached by cyclists are significantly higher than those attained by runners or swimmers. </p>
<p>As a consequence, identical relative differences in speed (in percentage terms) result in absolute differences (in km/h) that are higher in male and female cyclists compared to those seen for runners and swimmers. </p>
<p>Race durations vary more in cycling than in other sports if men and women are competing over the same distance. And because the intensity an athlete can maintain, whether male or female, decreases with the duration of the effort, no adjustment of the race distance will increase the difference in absolute speed between men and women cycling races. </p>
<p>This seems to explain the discrepancy in the distances of the individual time trial in road cycling between the sexes.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/o_5Y-huPAcU?wmode=transparent&start=125" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The Kierin is virtually identical for men and women.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But it’s not only a question of distance. The number of cyclists taking part in Olympic and other major cycling events needs to be considered. Cycling is different from swimming and running events because of the high degree of interaction between a cyclist and his or her opponents and teammates. </p>
<p>Because the main resistance cyclists have to overcome is aerodynamic, the number of riders involved in a race and the way they interact is going to affect their power, their speed and the relationship between those two parameters. </p>
<p>The best way for a cyclist to reduce resistance is to use the <a href="http://www.exploratorium.edu/cycling/aerodynamics2.html">drafting technique</a> – sheltering behind another cyclist, teammate or otherwise. The fewer cyclists there are in a group, the more often each cyclist will have to ride at the front and face high aerodynamic resistance.</p>
<p>If you look at the Olympic <a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/sport/blog/2012/jul/28/olympic-road-race-mens-cycling-live?newsfeed=true">road</a> <a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/sport/2012/jul/29/olympic-road-race-womens-cycling-live">races</a> that were held recently, you will notice 144 men were on the start list while only 67 women were listed. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/13807/original/nh44c2vy-1343964334.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/13807/original/nh44c2vy-1343964334.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/13807/original/nh44c2vy-1343964334.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/13807/original/nh44c2vy-1343964334.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/13807/original/nh44c2vy-1343964334.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/13807/original/nh44c2vy-1343964334.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/13807/original/nh44c2vy-1343964334.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The men’s team sprint is raced over three laps by teams of three …</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">EPA/Ian Langsdon</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Similarly, the women’s team sprint and team pursuit (both of which are shorter for women) are relatively new events in track cycling. And we can assume the size of the teams (two in the team sprint, versus three for the men and three in team pursuit versus four for the men) has been reduced to compensate for the lower numbers of female cyclists. </p>
<p>Reducing the distance of the events for women seems quite a logical decision. It means the relative intensity of the efforts produced by women and men is comparable for the same event while avoiding a big drop in the speed of women’s races. </p>
<p>As unfortunately illustrated by Swiss rider <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/olympics/cycling/9439612/London-2012-Olympics-Fabian-Cancellara-to-defend-time-trial-title-despite-road-race-crash-injuries.html">Fabian Cancellara’s</a> crash during the Olympic road race, cycling events rely on speed for the suspense to be maximal. </p>
<p>Why? Because cyclists can only express their full repertoire of skills when riding at high speeds. Cyclists are not simply athletes able to push really hard on the pedals. To be successful, they need to have great technical and tactical capacities.</p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/13808/original/7k2jh97s-1343964440.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/13808/original/7k2jh97s-1343964440.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=898&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/13808/original/7k2jh97s-1343964440.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=898&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/13808/original/7k2jh97s-1343964440.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=898&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/13808/original/7k2jh97s-1343964440.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1128&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/13808/original/7k2jh97s-1343964440.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1128&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/13808/original/7k2jh97s-1343964440.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1128&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">… while the women’s is raced over two laps by teams of two.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">EPA/Ian Langsdon</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>And for those skills to have a real impact on performance, the races need to be conducted at high speeds with some interactions with the other riders. </p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.google.com.au/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=5&ved=0CF0QFjAE&url=http%3A%2F%2Fopenlearn.open.ac.uk%2Ffile.php%2F4419%2F!via%2Foucontent%2Fcourse%2F5185%2Falternatives%2Fx-s172_1.doc&ei=JtIZULm1NeeeiAeGvoHgCA&usg=AFQjCNHJzUpD8nJri7ORKPgylPYNvshoKQ">technical skills</a> consist in the ability of the cyclists to corner, change direction, or maintain their trajectory while looking at their opponents (who are sometimes behind). </p>
<p>The tactical skills of cyclists consist in deciding when to produce their effort in order to win the race, considering the strength and weaknesses of their opponents and team mates. </p>
<p>The technical and tactical skills of the riders are key determinants of performance in many cycling events: the road race (which was won at the Olympics by an experienced cyclist, 38-year-old Khazakhstan rider <a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/sport/2012/jul/28/alexandre-vinokourov-olympic-gold-road-race">Alexandr Vinokourov</a>), individual sprint and keirin (where the winner isn’t always the fastest cyclist in the flying 200m event), and also BMX (where avoiding crashes is a key factor of success).</p>
<p>In this way, the race formats of some cycling events are adjusted so that the results of women’s competition is determined by the same combination of physical, technical and tactical abilities observed in men’s cycling.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/8470/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Rouffet does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>You’ll have noticed the distances ridden by female and male elite cyclists differ in some Olympic events and are identical in others, which raises the obvious question: why? If we really wanted to simplify…David Rouffet, PhD, Sport Performance Analysis, ISEAL, Victoria UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/79992012-08-02T20:17:07Z2012-08-02T20:17:07ZRiding smart: how AI gives Olympic track cyclists an edge<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/13754/original/6wybxn88-1343880059.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Machine learning techniques can help riders stand out from the rest of the field.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">AAP Image/Joe Castro</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>With track cycling events <a href="http://www.london2012.com/cycling-track/schedule-and-results/">now underway</a> at the London Olympics, athletes from around the world are pushing themselves to the limit to outperform their rivals and, hopefully, claim gold.</p>
<p>Back here in Melbourne, my colleagues and I have been using artificial intelligence (AI) techniques to help give Australian track cyclists a competitive edge in the Games.</p>
<p>How? Well, we’re using machine learning – a sub-branch of AI that gets machines to learn from experience – to provide advice about team selection, training and performance strategies in the omnium - a new, and <a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/other_sports/cycling/8403854.stm">controversial</a> addition to the Olympic track cycling calendar.</p>
<p>The omnium is a multi-leg track event introduced by the <a href="http://www.uci.ch/Templates/UCI/UCI8/layout.asp?MenuID=MTYzMDQ&LangId=1">International Cycling Union (UCI)</a> in 2007. It replaces events that are no longer on the Olympic calendar (the individual pursuit, time trial, points race and scratch race) with the aim of presenting equal opportunities for male and female cyclists.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/13751/original/6c3sbpt5-1343879844.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/13751/original/6c3sbpt5-1343879844.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/13751/original/6c3sbpt5-1343879844.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/13751/original/6c3sbpt5-1343879844.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/13751/original/6c3sbpt5-1343879844.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/13751/original/6c3sbpt5-1343879844.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/13751/original/6c3sbpt5-1343879844.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">AAP Image/Joe Castro</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The omnium has undergone a number of changes since its inception (such as the lengthening of events and addition of the elimination race in 2010) but the current version involves six events:</p>
<ul>
<li><p><strong>Flying lap (FL):</strong> a simple race against the clock over 250m.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Time trial (TT):</strong> a simple race against the clock, from a standing start. This is raced over 1km for men and over 500m for women.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Points race (PR):</strong> a race in which riders score points for sprint “primes” every 10 laps during the race and if they manage to lap the field. This race is held over 30km for men and over 20km for women.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Elimination race (ER):</strong> a bunch race with an intermediate sprint every two laps. The last rider at each sprint point is eliminated with the last remaining rider being dubbed the winner.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Individual pursuit (IP)</strong>: a race in which two riders start at opposite sides of the track and race to complete the distance in the shortest possible time. The IP is raced over 4,000m for men and over 3,000m for women.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Scratch race (SR)</strong>: Raced over 16km for men and 10km for women, this is a straightforward event, with the first person to cross the finish line being dubbed the winner.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>In each of the six omnium events, the first-placed rider gets one point, the second-placed rider two points, and so on. The rider with the fewest points after all six events is the winner of the competition.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/2U1cFqvDV4E?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>So what’s the link between cycling and AI? Well, first of all, it’s helpful to remind ourselves that machine learning is the subsection of learning in which AI systems attempt to learn automatically.</p>
<p>A machine-learning system can take advantage of data (such as a cyclist’s placing in the individual pursuit) to capture characteristics of interest of their unknown underlying probability distribution (such as the likelihood of winning gold, or any medal, given a specific performance in the individual pursuit).</p>
<p>In this way, machine learning provides important knowledge for strategic decision-making to support elite athletes:</p>
<ul>
<li>in deciding which cyclists should be chosen to train for omnium competitions</li>
<li>in advising coaches and cyclists on what performances are required in each of the six constituent events in order for the cyclist to obtain a medal, and</li>
<li>in the provision of real-time advice during the event as to what performance the cyclist must attain in the remaining events to obtain a medal.</li>
</ul>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/4fcqyzVJwHM?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">An example of a Bayesian network.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Through the use of a machine learning technique known as <a href="http://research.microsoft.com/apps/pubs/default.aspx?id=69588">Bayesian networks</a> (a type of statistical model, see above), we found that, contrary to the intuition of most cycling experts, the new six-event omnium disadvantages endurance riders compared to sprinters.</p>
<p>We also found that the rankings of riders in the time trial and flying lap individual events are most correlated with the overall final standings of riders.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/13773/original/s4j5nhbk-1343891476.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/13773/original/s4j5nhbk-1343891476.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=843&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/13773/original/s4j5nhbk-1343891476.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=843&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/13773/original/s4j5nhbk-1343891476.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=843&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/13773/original/s4j5nhbk-1343891476.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1060&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/13773/original/s4j5nhbk-1343891476.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1060&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/13773/original/s4j5nhbk-1343891476.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1060&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Nettie Edmondson will be looking to improve on the omnium silver medal she won at the World Championships in April.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">AAP Image/Joe Castro</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Accordingly, omnium riders may and should put more emphasis on the non-interactive (individual) series events (the flying lap, time trial, and individual pursuit) to maximise their overall success.</p>
<p>The addition of the elimination race to the omnium (in 2010) was shown to have no correlation with overall success nor with any other individual event in the omnium so far. Nevertheless, a poor performance in elimination race (finishing in the bottom half of the field) makes the probability of obtaining a medal very low.</p>
<p>This has led us to conduct further investigations. Our findings suggest the elimination race can be classified into three distinct components – laps 1-18, 19-30 and 31-50 – and that in the first third of the race, cyclists should avoid being placed low on the track and at the bottom of the peleton.</p>
<p>But in terms of the big picture, as long as riders can achieve an overall score up to a certain point (41 for men and 42 for women), it almost doesn’t matter how bad the ranking they achieve in any one single individual event – they may still win a medal.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/BH98lrUPtss?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>Analysis of timed components of the six-event omnium also shed light on the required finish time in these components that’s necessary for winning a medal. For instance, for a male athlete to win a medal, he needs to ride a time of 4 minutes 30 seconds (or less) in the individual pursuit.</p>
<p>These findings are assisting selectors, coaches, and cyclists by allowing more informed and enhanced decision-making. Our research has been conducted in association with Cycling Australia who suggested the topic, read our results, and make recommendations about restructuring the questions we ask. The information was used and evaluated at the Track Cycling World Championships, held in Melbourne in April 2012.</p>
<p>So while you’re sitting on the couch in the small hours of the morning, watching Australia’s track cyclists battle it out in the omnium over the next four days, it’s worth considering the preparation that’s gone into the efforts you see on the screen, both physical and statistical.</p>
<p><strong>Further reading:</strong></p>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/track-cycling-world-championships-the-making-of-modern-sprinters-6235">Track Cycling World Championships: the making of modern sprinters</a> - David Rouffet, The Conversation<br></li>
</ul><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/7999/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>John Zeleznikow receives funding from the European Union, Australian Research Council and the Australian Football League</span></em></p>With track cycling events now underway at the London Olympics, athletes from around the world are pushing themselves to the limit to outperform their rivals and, hopefully, claim gold. Back here in Melbourne…John Zeleznikow, Professor of Information Systems; Research Associate, Institute of Sport, Exercise and Active Living, Victoria UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/79172012-07-06T00:57:47Z2012-07-06T00:57:47ZBritain vs Australia in Olympic cycling: is there a hometown advantage?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/12632/original/kbgthf37-1341455466.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">When differences are measured in milliseconds, athletes will look for anything to get the edge.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Joe Castro/ AAP</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>There is perhaps no greater sporting rivalry than that between Great Britain and Australia – it’s like the little brother trying to knock off his older sibling in any pursuit possible, simply for the glory of bragging rights. And track cycling is one of the most hotly contested of those pursuits. </p>
<p>Later this month, at the Olympics, the stage will be set for yet another opportunity to become the hero or the goose. Will hometown advantage help the British gain an edge over Australian athletes? </p>
<p>In sport psychology literature, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10413209908402954">several</a> <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10413200902795331">researchers</a> have tried to determine whether a <a href="http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=5002469623">home advantage exists</a> when it comes to elite-level sports. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/12635/original/phgpb46k-1341456031.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/12635/original/phgpb46k-1341456031.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/12635/original/phgpb46k-1341456031.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=869&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/12635/original/phgpb46k-1341456031.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=869&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/12635/original/phgpb46k-1341456031.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=869&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/12635/original/phgpb46k-1341456031.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1092&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/12635/original/phgpb46k-1341456031.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1092&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/12635/original/phgpb46k-1341456031.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1092&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Anna Meares.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">David Crosling/AAP</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The answer, put simply, is yes, there does seem to be an advantage, particularly when you look at home winning percentage – the combination of games won at home versus games lost at home. The figure provides a quantitative measure for level of success at home based on winning and losing.</p>
<p>Researchers have studied sports such as basketball, baseball, ice hockey and soccer. Most have found evidence that the home team wins more often. But most of the focus was on using winning percentage as the indicator for advantage, and <a href="http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb6401/is_2_25/ai_n28915877/?tag=content;col1">some researchers</a> have <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10413209908402954">called for investigation</a> into other factors that might contribute to the findings.</p>
<p>Home winning percentage explains how well a team plays at home, but it doesn’t always account for whether a team plays and wins well when on the road. (For example, what does it mean if you have seven wins and no losses at home versus 11 wins and two losses away? Is home really an advantage here?). </p>
<p>The other variable that has rarely been mentioned is the <em>type</em> of event being studied. Little - if any - attention has been given to international events such as the Olympics.</p>
<p>Before we cry foul at the apparent home advantage our British friends may have, perhaps we should consider the whole picture. Specifically, let’s look at what being at home might mean for the might of the British cycling machine when hosting the strength of the Australian cycling program.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/12634/original/j5pxgyzc-1341455861.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/12634/original/j5pxgyzc-1341455861.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/12634/original/j5pxgyzc-1341455861.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=367&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/12634/original/j5pxgyzc-1341455861.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=367&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/12634/original/j5pxgyzc-1341455861.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=367&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/12634/original/j5pxgyzc-1341455861.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/12634/original/j5pxgyzc-1341455861.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/12634/original/j5pxgyzc-1341455861.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The British men’s pursuit team in full flow.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Joe Castro/AAP</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The research mentioned previously looked at teams that have won championships such as the <a href="http://www.nba.com">NBA</a> (National Basketball Association) and the <a href="http://www.nhl.com">NHL</a> (National Hockey League). These sports are played nationally, across some 80 or more games and multiple championship games. </p>
<p>The Olympics is quite different: it’s an international mega-event. How do findings on hometown advantage relate to an event that occurs across only a few races (or even one race) and happens only once every four years?</p>
<p>An Olympic cyclist isn’t just competing for his or her country: he or she is also competing for something that won’t come around again the following season. </p>
<p>Some NBA players have won five championships, and played in several other championship games, yet few Olympians return more than twice. There are (potentially) fewer opportunities to win. With this simple idea in mind, it’s perhaps little wonder this historic event carries such prestige. But with prestige often come increased expectations.</p>
<p>Perhaps most relevant to cycling enthusiasts is the research on World Cup soccer and <a href="http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=5002469623">home advantage</a>. This looked at the mechanisms that may lead to advantage, and argued that travel (across time zones), cultural differences in food and language, and familiarity with the playing facility all play a part. </p>
<p>Focusing on these variables could help us get a fuller picture when we try to figure out whether Britain’s cycling team will have a home advantage. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/t5oCd8Bmveg?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>Will travel, and being in an unfamiliar stadium, affect the Australian cycling team? Teams will have been in Europe for more than a month before the games. In fact, in professional road cycling many of our Aussie cyclists are even based in Europe during the northern summer season. Travel doesn’t seem to be a major disadvantage.</p>
<p>Language, culture and food are unlikely to be an issue. I think the eating options of a developed country, and the kitchen in an Olympic village (coupled with team dietitians) mean foreign riders won’t fear being starved of their typical dishes.</p>
<p>Research is important but it isn’t everything. We should also look at anecdotal evidence, given the lack of empirical research on home advantage for the Olympics. The previous two Olympic campaigns and events in between are perhaps a good starting point. </p>
<p>The might of the British cycling machine was at its best on the track in Beijing (not at home) and the Australians were incredibly strong in Athens (not at home). Australian cyclist <a href="http://www.annameares.com.au/">Anna Meares</a> dominated the track world championships in 2011; they were held in the Netherlands. Australian <a href="http://www.shaneperkins.com/">Shane Perkins</a> won his first Men’s Keirin world title at the same event. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.cadelevans.com.au/">Cadel Evans</a> won the Tour de France in 2011, and the <a href="http://www.greenedgecycling.com/">Green Edge</a> cycling team has propelled its members to the front of many European events. It seems plausible that winning is indeed possible in Europe. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/12636/original/fx8692d8-1341456137.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/12636/original/fx8692d8-1341456137.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/12636/original/fx8692d8-1341456137.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=893&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/12636/original/fx8692d8-1341456137.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=893&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/12636/original/fx8692d8-1341456137.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=893&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/12636/original/fx8692d8-1341456137.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1122&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/12636/original/fx8692d8-1341456137.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1122&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/12636/original/fx8692d8-1341456137.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1122&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Shane Perkins holds his son Aidan as he celebrates winning the Men’s Team Sprint at the 2012 UCI Track Cycling World Championship in Melbourne.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Joe Castro/AAP</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The team pursuit is an event that has been like an <a href="http://www.rupertswood.com/5560850/rupertswood-mansion-cricket-the-ashes.htm">Ashes battle</a> between Australia and Great Britain. In February, at the World Cup, the Aussies took gold in the <a href="http://www.london2012.com/venue/velodrome/">Olympic Velodrome</a> that will host the Games. </p>
<p>The biggest British win on our soil was at the World Championships in Melbourne earlier this year (see video above), in which Britain beat Australia by a tenth of a second.</p>
<p>Teams and individuals may be more likely to win at home, that’s true, but equally they will be most likely exposed to more spotlight, home expectation, and potential scrutiny than many of the foreign visitors. <a href="http://persweb.wabash.edu/facstaff/hortonr/articles%20for%20class/baumeister%20schlenker%20response.pdf">Some studies</a> have even found that home advantage disappears as the importance of the event increases. </p>
<p>I’ve heard countless athletes talk about the pressure of performing at home, and how relieved they were to be playing away from the eyes of significant others. </p>
<p>For our British friends, the eyes of all of their significant others and a whole nation will be closely upon them. Those competitors who don’t find this helpful will likely experience more anxiety than ever before. </p>
<p>Ultimately, I think the advantage will lie in the athlete’s perception of advantage and disadvantage. Aussie women and men have won in Europe before (even at the same venue). They speak the local language, and will be well adjusted to the time-zone difference. </p>
<p>The Aussies and the British are evenly matched by form. So now we will have to see if being at home feels like a burden or a turbo-boost.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/7917/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Williams is affiliated with Malaysian Track Cycling</span></em></p>There is perhaps no greater sporting rivalry than that between Great Britain and Australia – it’s like the little brother trying to knock off his older sibling in any pursuit possible, simply for the glory…David Williams, Sessional lecturer, sports pscyhology, Victoria UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/62352012-04-03T20:10:47Z2012-04-03T20:10:47ZTrack Cycling World Championships – the making of modern sprinters<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/9238/original/mjwpm6df-1333425215.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Shane Perkins is just one of the Australians going for gold at the world championships.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">AAP Image/David Crosling</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Today in Melbourne the <a href="http://www.2012trackworlds.com.au/">2012 UCI Track Cycling World Championships</a> get underway. Results from the five-day competition will determine which riders represent the various national track cycling teams at the Olympics later this year.</p>
<p>So what is track cycling all about? What events are involved? And what makes a strong sprint cyclist?</p>
<p>Track cycling is composed of three different types of events:</p>
<ul>
<li>sprint events (the individual sprint, team sprint, <a href="http://www.2012trackworlds.com.au/event-guide/event-descriptions/">keirin</a> and individual time-trials)</li>
<li>endurance events (<a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GVljuORV6n0">the madison</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scratch_race">scratch race</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Points_race">points race</a>)</li>
<li>combined events (the <a href="http://www.cyclingtips.com.au/track-events-explained/">omnium</a>).</li>
</ul>
<h2>Practice laps</h2>
<p>In the lead up to the world champs, riders from 42 countries had access to the <a href="http://www.hisensearena.com.au/desktopdefault.aspx">Hisense Arena velodrome</a> for limited periods in order to train (six sessions of 105 minutes per team). During each training session, riders from seven different countries shared the track.</p>
<p>Those training sessions offered riders a chance to learn (or remember) the features unique to the Hisense Arena track. All velodromes have their own characteristics, including different:</p>
<ul>
<li>lengths (Hisense Arena’s velodrome is 250m long; Olympic velodromes must be between 250 and 400m long)</li>
<li>banking angle (42º at Hisense; other tracks have angles as low as 33º) </li>
<li>track surface (strips of Baltic pine at Hisense)</li>
<li>bend curvature.</li>
</ul>
<p>By competing or training at Hisense Arena before the event, riders might find they have an advantage that could help them gain as much as a tenth of a second – more than enough to win a race.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/9240/original/jmbw734b-1333425860.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/9240/original/jmbw734b-1333425860.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/9240/original/jmbw734b-1333425860.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=363&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/9240/original/jmbw734b-1333425860.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=363&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/9240/original/jmbw734b-1333425860.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=363&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/9240/original/jmbw734b-1333425860.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/9240/original/jmbw734b-1333425860.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/9240/original/jmbw734b-1333425860.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The World Championships are being held at Melbourne’s Hisense Arena.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">AAP Image/Brandon Malone</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Fast and furious</h2>
<p>While all track cycling events are entertaining, the sprint events are certainly the most electrifying.</p>
<p><strong>Individual sprint</strong></p>
<p>The individual sprint competition starts with qualifying, with each rider trying to set the fastest time over 200m. During <a href="http://www.trackcyclingnews.com/london12.html">the recent Track Cycling World Cup event in London</a>, men had to set times lower than 10.3 seconds, while women had to set times below 11.5 seconds in order to qualify. At the end of qualifying, riders are ranked in order of time. </p>
<p>Riders then go head-to-head in an attempt to make it to the next round. The fastest sprinter faces the 16th fastest rider, the second-fastest sprinter faces the 15th-fastest sprinter, and so on. In this way, the fastest riders will face each other only during the final rounds.</p>
<figure>
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</figure>
<p><strong>Team sprint</strong></p>
<p>In this event, two teams of riders compete against one another in an attempt to progress to the next round. Men’s races are contested by teams of three over three laps, and women’s races are contested by teams of two over two laps.</p>
<p>After each lap, one rider from each team peels off leaving a single rider to represent the team at the finish line. During the recent World Cup event in London, a new world record was set by the Australian team during qualifying (32.828 seconds); a time that was later eclipsed by the British team in the final (32.754 seconds). </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/skAaRP6UdiA?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p><strong>Keirin</strong></p>
<p>The Keirin is a race contested by up to seven riders that starts behind a motorbike (or “derny”). The derny overtakes all the riders at the start of the race (at a speed of 25km/h in the women’s race, and 30km/h in the men’s).</p>
<p>In the opening seconds of the race, the riders will try to strategically position themselves behind the derny without overtaking it. The pace of the race is progressively increased until the derny reaches 45km/h (or 50km/h in the men’s race) and leaves the track.</p>
<p>At this point, with two and a half laps to go, the riders try to overtake each other at the optimal moment, using trajectories that will surprise their opponents.</p>
<p>Riding immediately behind another rider is far more aerodynamic than riding at the front of the bunch (a greater-than-25%-reduction in terms of power output required). However, overtaking a rider requires covering more distance, especially if the overtaking happens on the bend. </p>
<p>Because of the high speeds reached during the final laps (around 70km/h) and the large number of riders on the track, the <a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sD5UK-qt9HY">risk of collision</a> is very high. Each rider has to make very quick decisions about when to put their wheel in a very small gap that can be available for a fraction of a second.</p>
<p>By failing to adopt the right trajectory or to produce enough power, riders can crash or find themselves hundredths of a second behind the leader – enough to lose the race.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/BslnO7x5TbQ?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p><strong>Individual time-trials</strong></p>
<p>Raced over 1km for men and 500m for women, individual time-trials are a simple race against the clock. The rider that completes the required distance in the shortest amount of time is the winner. These races can be decided by thousandths of a second.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/WiPbO5TxTCY?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<h2>Anatomy of a track cyclist</h2>
<p>Unlike the <a href="https://theconversation.com/high-end-bikes-for-sale-but-what-are-you-really-buying-3502">bikes being used by road cyclists</a>, track cyclists don’t have a range of gears to maximise the performance of their muscles.</p>
<p>Indeed, track cyclists ride fixed-gear bikes with fixed wheels. When the wheels are in motion, the pedals must be too; there’s no opportunity for free-wheeling on the track. This allows sprint cyclists to stand still during races (a “trackstand”), <a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Za161a34CBk">waiting for their opponent to make the move</a> that will start the contest. </p>
<p>Given riders only have one gear to use during the race, they need to carefully choose how big a gear they will use. The bigger the gear, the greater the distance travelled with every pedal revolution and the easier it is to maintain a higher speed. </p>
<p>But the bigger the gear, the harder it is to accelerate at the start of the race and when opponents try to break away. These factors could potentially cost the rider valuable time. </p>
<p>Sprint cyclists normally use a gear that has between 49 and 52 teeth at the front and 12 to 15 teeth at the back – a big, heavy gear that requires a lot of strength to push.</p>
<p>Like a car engine, human muscles can produce a maximal amount of power at a certain range of revolutions per minute (or “cadence”, in cycling parlance). For most humans, the optimal pedalling cadence is around 115-130 rotations per minute.</p>
<p>When pedalling at these cadences, world-class sprint track cyclists can produce incredible levels of power: more than 2,200 watts for men and more than 1,400 watts for women. Healthy men and women in most other walks of life would struggle to produce more than 800 watts and 600 watts on a bike, respectively.</p>
<figure>
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<p>To produce these amazing levels of power, professional sprinters carefully select a gearing that will allow their muscles to work at the optimal cadence at the critical moment of the race.</p>
<p>The key muscles in sprint cycling are those crossing the hip and knee joints, specifically the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gluteus_maximus_muscle">gluteus maximus</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vastus_lateralis_muscle">vastus lateralis</a>. These two muscles combined produce 55% of a professional sprinter’s power.</p>
<p>These muscles are <a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_p1ul3bdD138/TSYRI59xDPI/AAAAAAAAAGc/Ar62CwTVOhU/s1600/Chris%2BHoy%2Blegs.jpg">strongly developed in sprint track cyclists</a>, as a result of work done during training sessions at the velodrome and at the gym. </p>
<p>Such athletes are specialists, their bodies honed for a very specific task – to ride very fast over short distances. Asking Australian champions <a href="http://www.annameares.com.au/">Anna Meares</a> or <a href="http://www.shaneperkins.com/">Shane Perkins</a> if they’re going to compete at the Tour de France one day would be like asking Usain Bolt if he’s planning to win a marathon. </p>
<p>And as for appearing at the Olympics later this year? The strongest of the bunch will be there.</p>
<p><strong>Further reading:</strong></p>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www.cyclingtips.com.au/track-events-explained/">Track events explained</a> - Cycling Tips</li>
</ul><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/6235/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Rouffet has received funding from the Australian Sport Commission and Victoria University to study the neuromuscular factors of performance in Olympic Sprint Cyclists.</span></em></p>Today in Melbourne the 2012 UCI Track Cycling World Championships get underway. Results from the five-day competition will determine which riders represent the various national track cycling teams at the…David Rouffet, PhD, Sport Performance Analysis, ISEAL, Victoria UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.