tag:theconversation.com,2011:/uk/topics/traffic-4053/articlesTraffic – The Conversation2023-12-26T20:30:44Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2170782023-12-26T20:30:44Z2023-12-26T20:30:44ZSeeing a lot of mobile speed cameras on your summer road trips? Here’s how they work<p>As you’re driving around this summer holidays, there’s every chance you’ll see a strange-looking white or yellow box on the side of the road. </p>
<p>It might have cameras protruding overhead, or be emblazoned with road safety slogans.</p>
<p>It’s a mobile road safety camera. It’ll catch you out doing everything from speeding, to using your phone while driving, to failing to wear a seat belt.</p>
<p>So how did these cameras come about, and how do they work?</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-never-get-a-speeding-fine-again-and-maybe-save-a-childs-life-216347">How to never get a speeding fine again — and maybe save a child's life</a>
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<h2>Road toll refusing to budge</h2>
<p>In Australia, around <a href="https://app.powerbi.com/view?r=eyJrIjoiODE5NjMzMTItYTA1NS00ZDc3LTgyNjktZDZkZjc4N2Y1NDVkIiwidCI6ImFhMjFiNjQwLWJhYzItNDU2ZC04NTA1LWYyY2MwN2Y1MTc4NCJ9&pageName=ReportSection0c482aa770040dbbdc8e">1,200</a> people die in car crashes every year. </p>
<p>The number of people seriously injured has risen from <a href="https://app.powerbi.com/view?r=eyJrIjoiMGVlZDM0YzQtNWI3Mi00YzAyLWI5YjUtZGQyYzc3YjJmMmY3IiwidCI6ImFhMjFiNjQwLWJhYzItNDU2ZC04NTA1LWYyY2MwN2Y1MTc4NCJ9">34,000 in 2011 to around 39,000</a> in 2019 (although this may partly be explained by changes in the way admissions to hospital are reported). </p>
<p>Alarmingly, these numbers are showing no sign of decline.</p>
<p>It is widely recognised that behaviours such as speeding, drink or drug driving, fatigue, distraction and dangerous driving increase the risk of a crash. </p>
<p>Failing to wear a seat belt can lead to <a href="https://casr.adelaide.edu.au/publications/list/?id=1214">more severe injuries</a> when a crash occurs. </p>
<p>To reduce the trauma on our roads caused by these behaviours, we need to increase compliance with the road rules and encourage safer driving. The use of safety cameras for enforcement has become a crucial part of the <a href="https://www.roadsafety.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/National%20Road%20Safety%20Action%20Plan%202023-25_0.pdf">road safety response</a>.</p>
<h2>A short history of safety cameras</h2>
<p>Safety cameras were first used in Australia in 1985 with the introduction of speed cameras in <a href="https://www.monash.edu/muarc/archive/our-publications/reports/muarc242">Victoria</a>. </p>
<p>Since then, the use of safety cameras has grown to include fixed red light and speed cameras, mobile speed cameras (that can be moved to different locations), and point-to-point cameras (also known as average speed cameras). </p>
<p>In the past three years, mobile phone detection cameras have been introduced in New South Wales, Queensland, Victoria, the ACT and Tasmania, and will soon be operating in South Australia. They have also been trialled in Western Australia. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-do-people-tailgate-a-psychology-expert-explains-whats-behind-this-common-and-annoying-driving-habit-193462">Why do people tailgate? A psychology expert explains what's behind this common (and annoying) driving habit</a>
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<p>Currently, Queensland and Tasmania are the only states to also use these cameras for seat belt enforcement, although NSW intends to do so in <a href="https://www.transport.nsw.gov.au/roadsafety/topics-tips/mobile-phones">2024</a>.</p>
<p>Safety cameras, whether looking at speed or other dangerous driving behaviours, can be either fixed or mobile. </p>
<p>Fixed cameras are permanently located at one spot and operate around the clock. They have primarily been used to target speeding and red light running. </p>
<p>Mobile cameras, those roadside trailers you might see, can be moved from one location to another and can be deployed virtually anywhere at any time. They are mainly used to target speeding and can also be mounted on a vehicle or tripod. </p>
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<p>Trailer-based safety cameras can be left unattended in place for longer periods and are usually equipped with security devices such as alarms and security cameras. They also have a secure housing (that’s sometimes bulletproof) to protect against tampering and vandalism.</p>
<p>Typically, they’re placed in areas with a history of crashes or where speeding, distraction, restraint use, or safety are of concern.</p>
<h2>So how do they actually work?</h2>
<p>Safety cameras use radar or laser to detect and measure vehicle speeds. Sensors embedded in the road are used to detect red light running. </p>
<p>Depending on how they are set up, safety cameras can monitor multiple vehicles across multiple lanes and approaching from opposite directions. </p>
<p>They use high-definition cameras that are effective in different lighting and weather conditions, including night, fog and heavy rain. Some are able to identify and enforce speed limits for different types of vehicles (like heavy vehicles). </p>
<p>They may also use automated number plate recognition capabilities that allow them to detect or identify so-called “hot list” vehicles that are of interest to police (stolen, unregistered, unlicensed owners, for example).</p>
<p>Fixed and mobile cameras enforce speeds in their immediate vicinity, while point-to-point cameras measure the average speed of vehicles between two points and as vehicles pass the camera locations at the beginning and end of the zone. Currently point-to-point enforcement is fixed, but it is likely that portable cameras will also be used in the <a href="https://casr.adelaide.edu.au/publications/list/?id=1942">future</a>.</p>
<p>Mobile phone detection cameras make use of high-definition cameras and infrared lighting that allow them to see through the windscreen and determine when someone is illegally using a mobile phone. They can also determine whether they are wearing their seat belt correctly. </p>
<p>These cameras can also measure vehicle speed and use number plate recognition to monitor vehicles. It means they can help enforce pretty much everything. They can be either fixed or mobile.</p>
<h2>Do they work to improve driver behaviour?</h2>
<p>Research indicates safety cameras do just what the label implies: improve safety. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://library.college.police.uk/docs/what-works/SR8-Speed-Cameras-2017.pdf">systematic review</a> of the effects of different types of speed cameras suggests they are effective at reducing average speeds and the number of vehicles speeding, and, more importantly, reduce serious injury and fatal crashes by around 20% each.</p>
<p>Studies examining the effectiveness of mobile phone cameras are yet to be undertaken. However, NSW experienced a substantial decline in mobile phone use in the three years following their <a href="https://www.9news.com.au/national/speed-camera-fines-mobile-phones-sydney-new-south-wales-roads/89ebaea3-18d4-4b03-9772-ace7bdc1bc5b">introduction</a>. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/speeding-is-more-common-among-people-regularly-exposed-to-content-encouraging-speeding-175066">Speeding is more common among people regularly exposed to content encouraging speeding</a>
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<p>Enforcement data also shows that the cameras are an efficient and effective method of<a href="https://app.powerbi.com/view?r=eyJrIjoiZTAxY2EyOTAtYTdhMS00NTRiLWI0NDktM2U1ZDI0NzY0ZTU5IiwidCI6ImFhMjFiNjQwLWJhYzItNDU2ZC04NTA1LWYyY2MwN2Y1MTc4NCJ9">detecting infringements.</a></p>
<p>Merely relying on common sense, courtesy or self-interest will not be enough to reduce the trauma caused by bad driver behaviour. </p>
<p>Safety cameras work. They will continue to play an important part in reducing these behaviours and making our roads safer for everyone.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/217078/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The Centre for Automotive Safety Research receives funding from the government of South Australia. </span></em></p>As you travel around the country this holidays, you might see some roadside trailers or tripods. They’re mobile road safety cameras and they can catch out a range of bad driver behaviour.Simon Raftery, Research Fellow at the Centre for Automotive Safety Research, University of AdelaideLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2148192023-11-22T13:17:53Z2023-11-22T13:17:53ZDigitized records from wildlife centers show the most common ways that humans harm wild animals<p>At hundreds of wildlife rehabilitation centers across the U.S., people can learn about wild animals and birds at close range. These sites, which may be run by nonprofits or universities, often feature engaging exhibits, including “ambassador” animals that can’t be released – an owl with a damaged wing, for example, or a fox that was found as a kit and became accustomed to being fed by humans. </p>
<p>What’s less visible are the patients – sick and injured wild animals that have been admitted for treatment.</p>
<p>Each year, people bring hundreds of thousands of sick and injured wild animals to wildlife rehab centers. Someone may find an injured squirrel on the side of the road or notice a robin in their backyard that can’t fly, and then call the center to pick up an animal in distress.</p>
<p>We study <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Tara-Miller-8">ecology</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=XfgB_BUAAAAJ&hl=en">biology</a>, and recently used newly digitized records from wildlife rehabilitation centers to identify the human activities that are most harmful to wildlife. In the largest study of its kind, we reviewed 674,320 records, mostly from 2011 to 2019, from 94 centers to paint a comprehensive picture of threats affecting over 1,000 species across much of the U.S. and Canada. </p>
<p>Our findings, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2023.110295">published in the journal Biological Conservation</a>, point to some strategies for reducing harm to wildlife, especially injuries caused by cars.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/SEVqsMsvQws?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The Wildlife Rehabilitation Center of Minnesota, the largest independent rehab center in the U.S., treats over 1,000 sick and injured animals yearly.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Tracking the toll</h2>
<p>Humans are responsible for the deaths and injuries of billions of animals every year. Bats and birds fly into buildings, power lines and wind turbines. Domestic cats and dogs kill backyard birds and animals. Development, farming and industry alter or destroy wild animals’ habitats and expose wildlife to toxic substances like lead and pesticides. Extreme weather events linked to climate change, such as flooding and wildfires, can be devastating for wildlife.</p>
<p>Most Americans support <a href="https://www.ifaw.org/press-releases/survey-majority-americans-support-candidate-values-protection-endangered-species">protecting threatened and endangered species</a>, and <a href="https://biologicaldiversity.org/w/news/press-releases/survey-most-americans-believe-human-population-driving-wildlife-extinctions-2020-11-12/">recognize that human activities can harm wildlife</a>. But it is surprisingly difficult to determine which activities are most harmful to wildlife and identify effective solutions. </p>
<p>Information from wildlife rehab centers across the U.S. can help fill in that picture. When an animal is brought into one of these centers, a rehabilitator assesses its condition, documents the cause of injury or illness if it can be determined, and then prepares a treatment plan. </p>
<p>Wildlife rehabbers may be veterinarians, veterinary technicians or other staff or volunteers who are certified by state agencies to treat wildlife. They follow professional codes and standards, and sometimes publish research in peer-reviewed journals.</p>
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<h2>A growing data pool</h2>
<p>Until recently, most wildlife rehab records existed only in binders and file cabinets. As a result, studies drawing on these records typically used materials from a single location or focused on a particular species, such as bald eagles or foxes. </p>
<p>Recently, though, rehab centers have digitized hundreds of thousands of case records. Shareable digital records can improve wildlife conservation and public health. </p>
<p>For example, the <a href="https://www.wildlifecenter.org/">Wildlife Center of Virginia</a> has worked with government agencies and other rehab centers to establish the <a href="https://www.wild-one.org/">WILD-ONe database</a> as a tool for assessing trends in wildlife health. This will be an exciting area of research as more records are digitized and shared.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560206/original/file-20231117-19-6un51w.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Map showing distribution of wildlife centers that provided data for the study." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560206/original/file-20231117-19-6un51w.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560206/original/file-20231117-19-6un51w.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=348&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560206/original/file-20231117-19-6un51w.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=348&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560206/original/file-20231117-19-6un51w.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=348&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560206/original/file-20231117-19-6un51w.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=438&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560206/original/file-20231117-19-6un51w.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=438&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560206/original/file-20231117-19-6un51w.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=438&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Locations in the U.S. and Canada where animals were found (blue dots) before being brought to wildlife rehabilitation centers (red stars) included in Miller et al., 2023.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2023.110295">Miller et al., 2023</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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<h2>Threats vary by species</h2>
<p>Using this trove of data, we have been exploring patterns of wildlife health across North America. In our study, we <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2023.110295">identified key threats affecting wildlife</a> by region and for iconic and endangered species. </p>
<p>Overall, 12% of the animals brought to rehab centers during this period were harmed by vehicle collisions – the single largest cause of injury. For <a href="https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Great_Horned_Owl/overview#">great horned owls</a>, which are common across the U.S., cars were the most common cause of admission – possibly because the owls commonly <a href="https://www.fws.gov/story/threats-birds-collisions-road-vehicles">forage at the same height as vehicles</a>, and may feed on road kill. </p>
<p>Other threats reflect various animals’ habitats and life patterns. Window collisions were the most common injury for the <a href="https://www.batcon.org/bat/eptesicus-fuscus/">big brown bat</a>, another species found in many habitats across the U.S. Fishing incidents were the main reason for admission of endangered <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/kemps-ridley-turtle">Kemp’s ridley sea turtles</a>, which are found in the Gulf of Mexico and along the Atlantic coast.</p>
<p>Toxic substances and infectious diseases represented just 3.4% of cases, but were important for some species. <a href="https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Bald_Eagle/overview">Bald eagles</a>, for example, were the species most commonly brought to centers with lead poisoning. Eagles and other raptors <a href="https://www.wildlifecenter.org/lead-toxicity-raptors">consume lead ammunition inadvertently</a> when they feed on carcasses left in the wild by hunters. </p>
<p>In southern Florida, hurricanes and floods resulted in spikes in the numbers of animals brought to rehab centers, reflecting the <a href="https://theconversation.com/scientists-at-work-sloshing-through-marshes-to-see-how-birds-survive-hurricanes-146067">impact of climate-driven extreme weather events on wildlife health</a>. </p>
<p>About one-third of animals in the cases we reviewed were successfully released back to the wild, though this varied greatly among species. For example, 68% of brown pelicans were released, but only 20% of bald eagles. Unfortunately, some 60% of the animals died from their injuries or illnesses, or had to be humanely euthanized because they were unable to recover.</p>
<h2>Spotlighting solutions</h2>
<p>Our results spotlight steps that can help conserve wildlife in the face of these threats. For example, transportation departments can build more <a href="https://interestingengineering.com/lists/29-of-the-most-heartwarming-wildlife-crossings-around-the-world">road crossings for wildlife</a>, such as bridges and underpasses, to help animals avoid being hit by cars.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560059/original/file-20231116-29-cl09dy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A large wild cat emerges from an underpass beneath a highway." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560059/original/file-20231116-29-cl09dy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560059/original/file-20231116-29-cl09dy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560059/original/file-20231116-29-cl09dy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560059/original/file-20231116-29-cl09dy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560059/original/file-20231116-29-cl09dy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560059/original/file-20231116-29-cl09dy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560059/original/file-20231116-29-cl09dy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">A mountain lion uses an underpass to safely traverse Route 97 near Bend, Oregon.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
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<p>Wildlife management agencies can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-018-1132-x">ban or limit use of ammunition and fishing gear that contain lead</a> to reduce lead poisoning. And governments can <a href="https://www.humanesociety.org/resources/wildlife-disaster-preparedness">incorporate wildlife into disaster management plans</a> to account for surges in wildlife rescues after extreme weather events.</p>
<p>People can also make changes on their own. They can drive more slowly and pay closer attention to wildlife crossing roads, switch their fishing and hunting gear to nonlead alternatives, and <a href="https://www.allaboutbirds.org/news/how-can-i-keep-birds-from-hitting-my-windows/">put decals or other visual indicators on windows</a> to reduce bat and bird collisions with the glass.</p>
<p>To learn more about animals in your area and ways to protect them, you can <a href="https://www.humanesociety.org/resources/how-find-wildlife-rehabilitator">visit or call your local wildlife rehab center</a>. You can also donate to these centers, which we believe do great work, and are often underfunded.</p>
<p>The scale of threats facing wild animals can seem overwhelming, but wildlife rehabbers show that helping one injured animal at a time can identify ways to save many more animal lives.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/214819/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tara K. Miller received funding from the National Science Foundation. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Richard B. Primack does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Hundreds of wildlife rehabilitation centers across the US and Canada treat sick and injured animals and birds. Digitizing their records is yielding valuable data on human-wildlife encounters.Tara K. Miller, Policy Research Specialist, Repair Lab, University of VirginiaRichard B. Primack, Professor of Biology, Boston UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2154122023-10-25T12:32:06Z2023-10-25T12:32:06ZWhat are roundabouts? A transportation engineer explains the safety benefits of these circular intersections<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553088/original/file-20231010-25-nl84ck.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=8%2C8%2C1990%2C1483&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A large roundabout in China.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/traffic-circle-at-night-royalty-free-image/1415700368?phrase=roundabout&adppopup=true">Jiojio/Moment via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you live on the East Coast, you may have driven through roundabouts in your neighborhood countless times. Or maybe, if you’re in some parts farther west, you’ve never encountered one of these intersections. But roundabouts, while a relatively new traffic control measure, are <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2022/11/25/roundabout-revolution-traffic-circles/">catching on across the United States</a>.</p>
<p>Roundabouts, also known as traffic circles or rotaries, are <a href="https://highways.dot.gov/safety/intersection-safety/intersection-types/roundabouts">circular intersections</a> designed to improve traffic flow and safety. They offer several advantages over conventional intersections controlled by traffic signals or stop signs, but by far the most important one is safety. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555403/original/file-20231023-29-a5mlzl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A bird's-eye view of a roundabout, with a pink circular center with grass in the middle, and four roads converging from north, south, east and west." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555403/original/file-20231023-29-a5mlzl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555403/original/file-20231023-29-a5mlzl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555403/original/file-20231023-29-a5mlzl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555403/original/file-20231023-29-a5mlzl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555403/original/file-20231023-29-a5mlzl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555403/original/file-20231023-29-a5mlzl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555403/original/file-20231023-29-a5mlzl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Modern roundabouts can have one or two lanes, and usually have four exit options.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/2020CensusChallenges/f7a70b19f0c9416b85a99e19b874cf1f/photo?Query=roundabout&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=194&currentItemNo=2&vs=true&vs=true">AP Photo/Alex Slitz</a></span>
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<p><a href="https://udayton.edu/engineering/research/research-labs/transportation-group/index.php">I research transportation engineering</a>, particularly traffic safety and traffic operations. <a href="https://udayton.edu/engineering/research/research-labs/transportation-group/research.php">Some of my past studies</a> have examined the safety and operational effects of installing roundabouts at an intersection. I’ve also compared the performance of roundabouts versus stop-controlled intersections. </p>
<h2>A brief history of roundabouts</h2>
<p>As early as the 1700s, some city planners proposed and even constructed circular places, sites where roads converged, like <a href="https://www.discoveringbritain.org/activities/south-west-england/aerial/britain-from-the-air-bath-circus.html">the Circus</a> in Bath, England, and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Place_Charles_de_Gaulle">Place Charles de Gaulle</a> in France. In the U.S., architect Pierre L'Enfant <a href="https://science.howstuffworks.com/engineering/civil/roundabouts1.htm">built several into his design for Washington, D.C.</a>. These circles were the predecessors to roundabouts.</p>
<p>In 1903, French architect and influential urban planner Eugène Hénard was one of the first people who <a href="https://www.rutgersuniversitypress.org/9780813526911/ways-of-the-world/">introduced the idea</a> of <a href="https://highways.dot.gov/public-roads/autumn-1995/roundabouts-direct-way-safer-highways">moving traffic in a circle</a> to control <a href="https://trid.trb.org/view/458975">busy intersections in Paris</a>. </p>
<p>Around the same time, <a href="https://enotrans.org/the-life-of-eno/">William Phelps Eno</a>, an American businessman known as the father of traffic safety and control, also proposed roundabouts to alleviate <a href="https://trid.trb.org/view/458975">traffic congestion in New York City</a>. </p>
<p>In the years that followed, a few other cities tried out a roundabout-like design, with <a href="https://www.bridlevehicleleasing.co.uk/blog/why-doesnt-america-have-roundabouts">varying levels of success</a>. These roundabouts didn’t have any sort of standardized design guidelines, and most of them were too large to be effective and efficient, as vehicles would enter at higher speeds without always yielding. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://highways.dot.gov/public-roads/autumn-1995/roundabouts-direct-way-safer-highways">birth of the modern roundabout</a> came with yield-at-entry regulations, adopted in some towns in Great Britain in the 1950s. With yield-at-entry regulations, the vehicles entering the roundabout had to give way to vehicles already circulating in the roundabout. This was made a rule nationwide in the United Kingdom in 1966, then in France in 1983.</p>
<p>Yield-at-entry meant vehicles drove through these modern roundabouts more slowly, and over the years, engineers began adding more features that made them look closer to how roundabouts do now. Many added pedestrian crossings and splitter islands – or raised curbs where vehicles entered and exited – which <a href="https://highways.dot.gov/public-roads/autumn-1995/roundabouts-direct-way-safer-highways">controlled the vehicles’ speeds</a>.</p>
<p>Engineers, planners and decision-makers worldwide noticed that these roundabouts improved traffic flow, reduced congestion and improved safety at intersections. Roundabouts then spread <a href="https://www.bridlevehicleleasing.co.uk/blog/why-doesnt-america-have-roundabouts">throughout Europe and Australia</a>. </p>
<p>Three decades later, modern roundabouts came to North America. The <a href="https://highways.dot.gov/public-roads/autumn-1995">first modern roundabout</a> in the U.S. was built in <a href="https://www.8newsnow.com/news/local-news/highlighting-the-first-modern-roundabouts-in-the-country-during-national-roundabout-week/">Summerlin, on the west side of Las Vegas</a>, in 1990. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/46mOPz3rhHs?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Roundabouts require the driver to yield before entering and signal before exiting.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Ever since, the construction of modern roundabouts in the U.S. has picked up steam. There are now about <a href="https://roundabouts.kittelson.com/">10,000 roundabouts in the country</a>. </p>
<h2>Why use roundabouts?</h2>
<p>Roundabouts likely caught on so quickly because they reduce the number of <a href="https://www.transportation.ohio.gov/about-us/basics/roundabouts">potential conflict points</a>. A conflict point at an intersection is a location where the paths of two or more vehicles or road users cross or have the potential to cross. The more conflict points, the more likely vehicles are to crash.</p>
<p>A roundabout has only eight potential conflict points, compared to 32 at <a href="https://www.transportation.ohio.gov/about-us/basics/roundabouts">a conventional four-way intersection</a>. At roundabouts, vehicles don’t cross each other at a right angle, and there are fewer points where vehicles merge or diverge into or away from each other.</p>
<p>The roundabout’s tight circle forces approaching traffic to slow down and yield to circulating traffic, and then move smoothly around the central island. As a result, roundabouts have <a href="https://www.iihs.org/topics/roundabouts#safety-benefits">fewer stop-and-go issues</a>, which reduces fuel consumption and vehicle emissions and allows drivers to perform U-turns more easily. Since traffic flows continuously at lower speeds in a roundabout, this continuous flow minimizes the need for vehicles to stop, which reduces congestion. </p>
<p>The Federal Highway Administration estimates that when a roundabout replaces a stop sign-controlled intersection, it reduces serious and fatal injury crashes <a href="https://www.transportation.ohio.gov/about-us/basics/roundabouts">by 90%</a>, and when it replaces an intersection with a traffic light, it reduces serious and fatal injury crashes <a href="https://www.transportation.ohio.gov/about-us/basics/roundabouts">by nearly 80%</a>.</p>
<h2>Why do some places have more than others?</h2>
<p>Engineers and planners traditionally have installed roundabouts in intersections with <a href="https://www.in.gov/indot/traffic-engineering/roundabouts/">severe congestion or a history of accidents</a>. But, with public support and funding, they can get installed anywhere.</p>
<figure>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">For some traffic engineers, the sky’s the limit.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But roundabouts aren’t needed in every intersection. In places where congestion isn’t an issue, city planners <a href="https://www.bridlevehicleleasing.co.uk/blog/why-doesnt-america-have-roundabouts">tend not to push for them</a>. For example, while there are <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2022/11/25/roundabout-revolution-traffic-circles/">around 750 roundabouts</a> in Florida, there are fewer than 50 in <a href="https://www.dot.nd.gov/projects/roundabout/roundabout.htm">North Dakota</a>, <a href="https://www.keloland.com/keloland-com-original/more-roundabouts-possible-in-sioux-falls/">South Dakota</a> and <a href="https://www.dot.state.wy.us/home/news_info/roundabouts.html">Wyoming</a> combined. </p>
<p>Roundabouts have been <a href="https://www.iihs.org/topics/roundabouts#safety-benefits">gaining popularity</a> in the U.S. in recent years, in part because the <a href="https://highways.dot.gov/safety/proven-safety-countermeasures">Federal Highway Administration recommends them</a> as the safest option. Some states, like New York and Virginia, have adopted a “roundabout first” policy, where engineers default to using roundabouts where feasible when building or upgrading intersections. </p>
<p>In 2000, the U.S. <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2022/11/25/roundabout-revolution-traffic-circles/">only had 356 roundabouts</a>. Over the past two decades, that number has <a href="https://roundabouts.kittelson.com/">grown to over 10,000</a>. Love them or hate them, the roundabout’s widespread adoption suggests that these circular intersections are here to stay.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215412/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Deogratias Eustace receives funding from research funding agencies.</span></em></p>Whether you call them rotaries, traffic circles or roundabouts, they offer a safer alternative to the four-way stop. But the modern roundabout has been decades in the making.Deogratias Eustace, Professor of Civil, Environmental and Engineering Mechanics, University of DaytonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2109892023-09-15T06:58:10Z2023-09-15T06:58:10ZWales’ residential speed limit is dropping to 20mph – here’s how it should affect accidents and journey times<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/547541/original/file-20230911-21774-vlazi6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4608%2C3456&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The drop to 20mph in Wales will come into force at midnight on September 17. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/20-mph-speed-limit-sign-on-1166519551">steved_np3/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The default speed limit in residential areas in Wales will be <a href="https://www.gov.wales/introducing-default-20mph-speed-limits">reduced</a> from 30mph to 20mph from midnight on September 17. It will make Wales the first UK nation to adopt a 20mph default urban speed limit. </p>
<p>The new limit will apply to all “restricted” roads, which are roads in built-up areas with high levels of pedestrians. There are some exemptions and local authorities have been able to apply for certain roads to be kept at 30mph.</p>
<p>This change in the law has huge potential public health benefits, including decreasing the number of injuries and deaths from collisions, and may encourage more people to walk and cycle.</p>
<p>However, there is some opposition to the change, with concerns over journey times, additional costs to businesses in deliveries, uncertainties around its effect on vehicle emissions and the potential for increased frustration and road rage.</p>
<p>In bringing forward this change, the Welsh government has used the <a href="https://www.gov.wales/20mph-campaign-promotional-leaflet">strapline</a> “20mph. A bit slower but a whole lot better”, and has led the campaign with the promise of reducing collisions and saving lives. It says that in the time a car travelling at 20mph can stop, a car at 30mph would still be doing 24mph. It goes on to suggest that streets and communities will be safer, meaning people will walk more, improving health and wellbeing.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.gov.wales/state-evidence-20mph-speed-limits-regards-road-safety-active-travel-and-air-pollution-impacts">Evidence</a> suggests the Welsh government is broadly correct. Reducing the default speed limit to 20mph will reduce casualties, providing drivers with more time to react if things go wrong. </p>
<p>Following the implementation of 20mph limits in <a href="https://www.journalslibrary.nihr.ac.uk/phr/XAZI9445/#/abstract">Edinburgh</a>, for example, the number of collisions in one year fell by 40%. There were 23% fewer deaths and serious injuries were reduced by 33%. </p>
<p>Walking and cycling may increase too. We know that higher vehicle speeds are a <a href="https://injuryprevention.bmj.com/content/15/6/369.short">barrier</a> to walking and <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15568318.2021.1999539">cycling</a>, especially among <a href="https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/978-1-83982-744-020211002/full/html">older adults</a>.</p>
<h2>Opposition</h2>
<p>Not everyone in Wales is happy about the drop to 20mph. Several <a href="https://petitions.senedd.wales/petitions/245406">petitions</a> have attempted to stop the change, while the Welsh Conservatives <a href="https://nation.cymru/news/welsh-conservatives-planning-to-force-a-final-vote-on-20mph-speed-limit/">oppose</a> blanket reductions. Reports have also emerged of 20mph signs being <a href="https://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/wales-news/people-been-defacing-20mph-signs-27660830">defaced</a>. </p>
<p>A common complaint is that journey times will be slower. But a UK government <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/757307/20mph-headline-report.pdf">report</a> in 2018 looked at 12 case studies in England where 20mph limits were implemented, concluding that journey times increased by only 3% in residential areas and 5% in city centres, adding less than a minute to a five-mile trip.</p>
<p>Also, as traffic flows are often more interrupted in urban areas - with frequent junctions and traffic lights, for example - a slight reduction in maximum permitted speeds may smooth out the traffic flow, reducing perceived delays.</p>
<p>Driver behaviour is, of course, a complex subject. Some drivers simply do not want to slow down and feel they have a right to drive fast. Meanwhile, other drivers feel the pressure to conform with other people’s behaviour, fitting in with the prevailing norms on the road. </p>
<h2>Drivers’ opinions</h2>
<p>Charles was involved in a qualitative <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2214140514000383?via%3Dihub">study</a>, published in 2014, that attempted to categorise drivers’ opinions to work out how we might change attitudes and behaviour using the “diffusion of innovation” model, which is a theory that seeks to explain how, why and at what rate new ideas and technology spread. </p>
<p>In the study, drivers were sorted into categories of support for 20mph speed limits based on their answers to a series of questions. One group of “champions” was wholly supportive of 20mph regardless of others around them, even if tailgated or flashed by other vehicles. </p>
<p>In contrast, another group defined as “pragmatists” were more aware of others’ behaviour and were influenced by it, feeling the pressure to speed up. Many in this group had little awareness of speed limits in general, driving much more to the conditions or as others were around them. </p>
<p>And the final group of “opponents” tended to be strongly against speed limits. This tended to be reflected by how they set their own speed limits according to conditions. </p>
<p>The study suggested that champions respond well to information about the benefits of 20mph limits. But pragmatists need to accept that 20mph limits are normal and supported by most other drivers.</p>
<p>We know from the study that there is support for 20mph but also some ambivalence, which can be overcome after a bedding in period. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An aerial view of a residential street with 20 painted on the road in bold numbers." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/547756/original/file-20230912-21-fvdp8q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/547756/original/file-20230912-21-fvdp8q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547756/original/file-20230912-21-fvdp8q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547756/original/file-20230912-21-fvdp8q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547756/original/file-20230912-21-fvdp8q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547756/original/file-20230912-21-fvdp8q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547756/original/file-20230912-21-fvdp8q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The speed limit in this residential area in Pontypridd is already set at 20mph.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/pontypridd-wales-july-2022-aerial-view-2179041355">Ceri Breeze/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The truth is that most people are not opposed to 20mph speed limits, but a sizeable minority are. Welsh government commissioned <a href="https://www.gov.wales/20mph-public-attitudes-research">research</a> suggests 80% were either slightly or strongly in favour of 20mph limits in 2021, but that this fell to <a href="https://www.gov.wales/sites/default/files/publications/2022-11/20mph-public-attitudes-survey-further-research.pdf">63% in 2022</a>. </p>
<p>This is not uncommon, however, as people’s support for change tends to <a href="https://www.gartner.co.uk/en/methodologies/gartner-hype-cycle">grow initially</a> but then falls off the closer it gets to implementation. Eventually, people may come around to the idea. </p>
<p>But it needs a government willing to stand its ground when negative public opinion emerges just before implementation, as we are seeing now.</p>
<p>It is time we stopped accepting death and injury in the name of freedom of mobility. Default 20mph speed limits are a good start but they must be accompanied by driver education programmes and police enforcement to be effective. And, of course, non-motoring road users still need more pavements, cycle lanes, safe crossing points and efficient and affordable public transport options.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/210989/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Charles Musselwhite receives funding from Health and Care Research Wales.
Charles Musselwhite is Board Member of the Transport and Health Science Group (THSG)</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter Merriman has received funding for past research from the ESRC, AHRC, British Academy, and European Regional Development Fund. </span></em></p>The Welsh government wants to make residential roads safer and quieter but not everybody agrees with dropping the speed limit from 30mph to 20mph.Charles Musselwhite, Professor of Psychology, Aberystwyth UniversityPeter Merriman, Professor of Human Geography, Aberystwyth UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2063822023-08-02T12:31:43Z2023-08-02T12:31:43ZEver-larger cars and trucks are causing a safety crisis on US streets – here’s how communities can fight back<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540254/original/file-20230731-20-oaaqhv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=33%2C0%2C5501%2C3684&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Retractable bollards can be used to signal priority areas on streets for smaller vehicles, cyclists and pedestrians.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/automatic-cylindrical-barriers-on-the-pedestrian-royalty-free-image/1185641332">Eugene Nekrasov/Getty images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Deadly traffic incidents have <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/11/27/upshot/road-deaths-pedestrians-cyclists.html">declined in most developed countries</a> in recent years. But in the U.S. they’re becoming more common. Deaths in motor vehicle crashes <a href="https://injuryfacts.nsc.org/motor-vehicle/historical-fatality-trends/deaths-and-rates/#">rose more than 33%</a> from 2011 to 2021. Since 2010, pedestrian deaths nationwide <a href="https://www.ghsa.org/sites/default/files/2023-06/GHSA%20-%20Pedestrian%20Traffic%20Fatalities%20by%20State%2C%202022%20Preliminary%20Data%20%28January-December%29.pdf">have climbed a shocking 77%</a>, compared with a 25% increase in all other types of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/15389588.2020.1829917">traffic fatalities</a>.</p>
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<p>Light trucks injure pedestrians <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0001-4575(03)00007-1">more severely than passenger cars in crashes</a>, and the size of <a href="https://www.carsized.com/en/">cars</a> and trucks sold in the U.S. <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/cars/2019/12/27/suvs-gm-ford-toyota-chevrolet/4408728002/">continues to swell</a>. Some current models, such as the Toyota Rav4, are one-third larger than they were 15 years ago. </p>
<p>Based on my experience researching <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=lfb0Tu4AAAAJ&hl=en">urban planning and street design</a> for the past three decades, I know that U.S. cities are primarily vehicle-centered rather than human-centered. Rules established in the 1920s govern how people use vehicles in public streets, and other governmental controls tell manufacturers how big those vehicles can be. </p>
<p>Today, these sets of rules have created public spaces where it is <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-us-cities-are-becoming-more-dangerous-for-cyclists-and-pedestrians-111713">safer to be inside a vehicle than outside</a>.</p>
<p>The U.S. has not moved as quickly as other countries to prioritize the safety of people outside of cars, especially as cars have grown larger and heavier. As a consequence, Americans are paying the price in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0361198120933636">lives lost</a>, skyrocketing public health costs and reduced mobility.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Large SUVs and trucks increase the risk of ‘frontover’ accidents, in which drivers strike someone in the vehicle’s large front blind zone.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Larger, heavier and deadlier</h2>
<p>Data clearly shows that <a href="https://www.bts.gov/content/new-and-used-passenger-car-sales-and-leases-thousands-vehicles">since 2008</a>, cars and trucks sold in the U.S. have been continually <a href="https://www.epa.gov/system/files/documents/2022-12/420s22001.pdf">getting bigger</a>. The Department of Transportation’s corporate average fuel economy standards have constrained overall gasoline consumption but have also <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/ezra-klein/post/cafe-loophole-could-lead-to-bigger-cars/2011/12/14/gIQA3bGLuO_blog.html">led to an increase in vehicle size</a>. </p>
<p>That’s because these standards have two sets of rules: one for cars and a looser set for light trucks. As a result, automakers have built more sport utility vehicles and light trucks, as well as cars designed to meet light truck standards, like the Subaru Outback. For almost a decade, they have increasingly moved away from producing small cars and sedans. </p>
<p>Modern auto showrooms are dominated by sport utility vehicles, minivans and pickup trucks. According to 2022 data from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, three-quarters of new vehicles produced in the U.S. <a href="https://www.epa.gov/system/files/documents/2022-12/420s22001.pdf">are light trucks</a>. </p>
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<p>Those large vehicles create severe safety hazards on neighborhood city streets for children or adults who might be walking or cycling. Because these vehicles are taller, they are more likely to strike people at higher points and produce <a href="https://www.iihs.org/news/detail/higher-point-of-impact-makes-suv-crashes-more-dangerous-for-cyclists">head or neck injuries</a> rather than leg injuries. Their larger frames worsen visibility for drivers, <a href="https://www.iihs.org/news/detail/suvs-other-large-vehicles-often-hit-pedestrians-while-turning">especially when a vehicle is turning</a>. </p>
<p>As a result, <a href="https://www.nsc.org/getmedia/6375cae2-00ca-4a6c-a205-b98a2ad6a8fd/future-mobility-full-report.pdf">transport agencies</a>, <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2021/11/deadly-myth-human-error-causes-most-car-crashes/620808/">journalists</a> and public safety advocates are increasingly identifying <a href="https://www.iihs.org/topics/bibliography/ref/2249">large vehicles</a> as a significant <a href="https://data.bikeleague.org/new-nhtsa-data-vehicle-data-shows-popular-pickup-trucks-are-most-common-vehicles-in-pedestrian-and-bicyclist-deaths/">impediment</a> to creating communities with <a href="https://www.iihs.org/news/detail/suvs-other-large-vehicles-often-hit-pedestrians-while-turning">safer streets</a>. </p>
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<h2>A slow federal response</h2>
<p>Until now, the U.S. has not enacted regulations that require car manufacturers to <a href="https://www.governing.com/now/can-american-cars-be-made-safer-for-pedestrians">consider the safety of anyone outside of cars</a>. Now, however, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration is proposing to add information to its crash test ratings measuring how well cars <a href="https://www.nhtsa.gov/press-releases/nhtsa-proposes-new-crashworthiness-pedestrian-protection-testing-program">protect pedestrians in crashes</a>. For example, bumpers and hoods could be redesigned to bend more easily and absorb more energy if a vehicle strikes a person.</p>
<p>But as currently proposed, pedestrian safety would not be factored into the overall five-star safety rating. A vehicle could receive a failing grade for protecting pedestrians yet still earn a five-star safety rating overall. </p>
<p>People deserve to safely travel on public streets and in parking lots. In my view, the quickest and most effective way to tackle car bloat is to transform social expectations for the shape and size of vehicles. Several European cities show how this kind of shift can happen.</p>
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<h2>A time for local action</h2>
<p>Amsterdam and Copenhagen are widely viewed as models for using public space in ways that prioritize people – but they weren’t always that way. Starting in the 1970s, grassroots movements in <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2015/may/05/amsterdam-bicycle-capital-world-transport-cycling-kindermoord">both</a> <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2012-04-25/why-the-streets-of-copenhagen-and-amsterdam-look-so-different-from-ours">cities</a> pressed officials to reduce the dominance of cars and make streets safer for the public. These movements initially were slow to catch on but <a href="https://theconversation.com/return-of-the-child-friendly-city-how-social-movements-are-changing-european-urban-areas-203343">gained support</a> over time.</p>
<p>Today, similar initiatives are moving forward in cities across <a href="https://www.urban.org/urban-wire/us-traffic-fatalities-rising-what-would-it-take-save-lives">France</a> and Germany. Even traditionally car-centric European cities, such as Brussels and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/jan/20/how-a-belgian-port-city-inspired-birminghams-car-free-ambitions">Ghent</a>, are increasingly adopting human-focused policies by designating where cars, especially large cars, can and cannot travel. </p>
<p>As a <a href="https://www.dutchnews.nl/2015/04/dutch-university-appoints-american-as-its-professor-of-cycling/">visiting professor in the Netherlands</a>, a Fulbright scholar to Italy and a lecturer across Germany and Poland, I have seen the benefits of these initiatives close at hand. I’ve also learned that it will require public action to create support for such changes in the U.S. </p>
<p>The goal is to modify the design of neighborhood streets and parking areas in ways that prioritize pedestrians, bicycles and new forms of personal transport like <a href="https://nimbusev.com/">microcars</a>. Federal survey data shows that nearly half of trips that Americans drive are <a href="https://nhts.ornl.gov/vehicle-trips">shorter than four miles</a> (6.5 kilometers). Ideally, people can be discouraged from using large passenger vehicles for most of this type of travel. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/pcVGqtmd2wM?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The 38,000 residents of Peachtree City, Ga., can drive registered golf carts on an alternative network of car-free paths around their community.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What communities can do</h2>
<p>Streets and roads are local public spaces. Therefore, local officials and citizens have important roles to play in mitigating escalating car size in their community. </p>
<p>Some policymakers are proposing to rein in large vehicles through tax policies, such as <a href="https://www.curbed.com/2023/06/new-york-suv-trucks-weight-based-fee.html">weight-based registration fees</a>. But measures like this won’t avert the emerging safety crisis in the near term. Rather, I believe this kind of broad cultural shift requires collective action, starting at the local level with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2020.100199">street design reform</a>. </p>
<p>In my view, communities seeking to discourage the predominance of oversize vehicles and encourage use of smaller, lighter and slower vehicles could consider taking such steps as:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Creating prioritized parking spaces closer to stores for all forms of mobility that are narrow or <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-09-17/how-cities-could-push-back-on-pickups-and-suvs?sref=Hjm5biAW">less than 8 feet (2.5 meters) long</a>. </p></li>
<li><p>Using <a href="https://www.sociallifeproject.org/the-little-bollard-that-could-do-a-lot/">posts or bollards</a>, which can be removable, to limit vehicle access to commercial areas and neighborhoods where pedestrians, bikes and smaller cars get priority. </p></li>
<li><p>Radically <a href="https://www.strongtowns.org/journal/2015/10/12/nine-foot-travel-lanes-in-practice">narrowing travel lanes on streets</a> to force traffic to slow down and free up space for wider sidewalks and bike lanes. </p></li>
<li><p>Limiting or ending vehicle access to <a href="https://momentummag.com/school-streets-programs/">streets near schools</a> and economically vibrant commercial districts, either permanently or at high-use times of day. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>How would such steps make people safer? Ask communities around Boston, which have cut several accident-prone <a href="https://www.memorialdrivealliance.org/faq">four-lane roads down to two lanes each</a>, reducing traffic speeds <a href="https://safercircleblvd.files.wordpress.com/2019/10/2017-12-29-evaluation-of-road-diets-in-massachusetts-in-2017-002.pdf">and crashes</a> and creating more green space. Or those in the Atlanta suburb of Peachtree City, which has used parking lots and street space to augment a network of more than 100 miles (160 kilometers) of paved paths for <a href="https://peachtree-city.org/216/Paths-Golf-Carts">walkers, bikers and registered golf carts</a>. </p>
<p>Repurposing space in streets and parking areas requires city governments and residents to emphasize the public right of way and view street space as a place to devise solutions. There is ample evidence that doing so will make U.S. communities safer.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/206382/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kevin J. Krizek does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Cars are getting bigger on US roads, and that’s increasing pedestrian and cyclist deaths. A transport scholar identifies community-level strategies for making streets safer.Kevin J. Krizek, Professor of Environmental Design, University of Colorado BoulderLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2093832023-07-26T14:56:09Z2023-07-26T14:56:09ZPedestrians in Ghana are risking their lives – we studied what’s distracting them while walking<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537613/original/file-20230716-117608-g3zaz0.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Walking is a popular mode of transportation in Ghana</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons/Linda Fletcher Dabo</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Walking has health and environmental benefits – but it’s not always a person’s choice for getting around. And it does come with hazards. <a href="https://www.who.int/news/item/02-05-2013-more-than-270-000-pedestrians-killed-on-roads-each-year">One fifth</a> of the people killed on the roads globally are pedestrians. </p>
<p>In Ghana, like other developing countries, walking is the main mode of travel. A 2012 survey found that <a href="https://www2.statsghana.gov.gh/docfiles/publications/Second%20National%20Household%20Transport%20Survey%20Report%202012.pdf#page=iv">64.4%</a> of the workforce went to work on foot. </p>
<p>Ghana’s <a href="https://www.ghana.gov.gh/mdas/3c5160e416/">National Road Safety Authority</a> <a href="https://myjoyonline.com/road-accidents-claimed-2924-lives-in-2021/">reported</a> 2,930 pedestrians were knocked down in 2021 and 831 died. </p>
<p>Pedestrians are vulnerable for several reasons. The design of road infrastructure is one. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259715300_Urban_Infrastructure_Design_and_Pedestrian_Safety_in_the_Kumasi_Central_Business_District_Ghana">Research</a> has shown that the absence of sidewalks forces pedestrians into the road, exposing them to motorised transport that heightens the risk of traffic crashes and injuries. </p>
<p>Risky in-traffic pedestrian walking behaviour is also a factor. Consuming alcohol, chatting with others, and using a mobile phone all heighten the risk of injuries. </p>
<p>As transport geographers we set out to discover what distracts pedestrians in Accra’s main business district. Our <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/21650020.2023.2220574">study</a> discovered that the use of mobile devices, poorly designed infrastructure and advanced age all played a role. We suggest the city needs pedestrian friendly infrastructure and local laws to regulate walking behaviour.</p>
<h2>Digital devices distract pedestrians</h2>
<p>We chose to study the central business district of the capital, Accra, since it <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/21650020.2023.2220574">accounts</a> for 57.6% of pedestrian accidents within the <a href="https://www.ama.gov.gh/">Accra Metropolitan Assembly</a>. It also records high foot traffic, being a major economic hub in Ghana. </p>
<p>The study engaged 400 commuters. We asked respondents to rank various activities they commonly engaged in while walking. A five-point scale indicated the extent of their engagement in these activities. </p>
<p>The respondents’ top four distracting activities involved using digital devices like mobile phones. Listening to music on a mobile phone emerged as the major distraction: 79% of respondents ranked it as their most common distractive activity. Making or receiving phone calls and conversing with other people while walking (2nd and 3rd) followed. Browsing the internet on mobile phones ranked 4th, and was widespread among those aged 9-24 and 27-42. </p>
<h2>Who is distracted?</h2>
<p>The study also indicated that sex, age, level of education, occupation, reasons for walking and weekly time spent walking were significant predictors of distractions. </p>
<p>Male pedestrians were more than twice as likely to engage in distractive activities. This is consistent with the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ssqu.13079">expectations</a> of some behaviour experts. </p>
<p>On age, the data revealed a significant association between commuters aged 49-59 and distracted walking. A growing body of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/131608">literature</a> has identified older people as engaging in distracted walking since they are less likely to estimate their walking environment accurately. Even looking at signage or objects of interest, buying items, or conversing with other pedestrians may increase their risk of injury. </p>
<p>Respondents with senior high school education (nine years of basic education) were also more prone to distraction. Evidence shows that <a href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1243880.pdf*page=1">most</a> Ghanaians end their education at this level. Working in the informal economy as hawkers or in other businesses encroaching on sidewalks, people are likely to compete with pedestrians for space or run after moving cars to sell their wares. </p>
<p>Relative to respondents who walked only for short trips, respondents who walked as part of their job recorded a far higher likelihood of engaging in distractive behaviour. Most of their day is spent walking, engaged in activities like sales or marketing, providing a courier service, or hawking. </p>
<p>Finally, time allocated to walking made a difference to behaviour. Whether weekly or daily, respondents who dedicated more time to walking in the CBD were more likely to walk in a distracted way.</p>
<h2>Safety plans</h2>
<p>Accra already has a <a href="https://www.ama.gov.gh/documents/Pedestrian-Safety-Action-Plan-FOR-PRINT-INDIVIDUAL-PAGES.PDF.pdf">pedestrian safety action plan</a>, but it focuses on the built environment rather than on behaviour. This study suggested the plan should include a policy statement on pedestrian walking behaviour.</p>
<p>The Accra Metropolitan Assembly (the administrative authority) can enact laws restricting pedestrians from listening to music with headphones, making phone calls while crossing roads or engaging in unwarranted conversations. </p>
<p>Additionally, the National Road Safety Authority and Ghana Police Service should collaborate on educational outreach programmes on all media platforms. They should focus on the dangers and causes of distractive walking. </p>
<p>Interventions like these offer the chance to reduce pedestrian injuries in Accra.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/209383/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The city of Accra has no plan to tackle pedestrians’ behaviour.Prince Kwame Odame, Lecturer, Geography Education, University of Education, WinnebaEnoch F Sam, Head of Department , Department of Geography Education, University of Education, WinnebaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2069212023-07-26T12:15:57Z2023-07-26T12:15:57ZTo reclaim downtowns from traffic, require developers to offer strategies for cutting car use<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539081/original/file-20230724-15-y16i04.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=16%2C0%2C5326%2C3468&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Parking consumes 20% or more of prime locations in many U.S. downtowns.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/downtown-parking-structure-is-viewed-on-may-20-in-austin-news-photo/1399453450">George Rose/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The U.S. has a <a href="https://us.macmillan.com/books/9780230102194/carjackedthecultureoftheautomobileanditseffectonourlives">car-centric culture</a> that is inseparable from the way its communities are built. One striking example is the presence of parking lots and garages. Across the country, parking takes up an estimated <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Akm7ik-H_7U">30% of space in cities</a>. Nationwide, there are eight parking spots for every car. </p>
<p>The dominance of parking has <a href="https://vimeo.com/97196446">devastated once-vibrant downtowns</a> by turning large areas into uninviting paved spaces that contribute to <a href="https://www.epa.gov/green-infrastructure/reduce-urban-heat-island-effect">urban heating</a> and <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sourcewaterprotection/urbanization-and-stormwater-runoff">stormwater runoff</a>. It has <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10511482.2016.1205647">driven up housing costs</a>, since developers pass on the cost of providing parking to tenants and homebuyers. And it has perpetuated people’s <a href="https://doi.org/10.3141/2543-19">reliance on driving</a> by making walking, biking and public transit far less attractive, even for the shortest trips. </p>
<p>Why, then, does the U.S. have so much of it? </p>
<p>For decades, cities have required developers to provide a set number of parking spaces for their tenants or customers. And while many people still rely on parking, the amount required is typically <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0965-8564(99)00007-5">far more than most buildings need</a>.</p>
<p>Columbus, Ohio, pioneered this strategy 100 years ago, and by the middle of the 20th century minimum parking requirements were <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/0144164032000080485">the norm nationwide</a>. The thinking was straightforward: As driving became more common, buildings without enough parking would clog up the streets and wreak havoc on surrounding communities. </p>
<p>Today, however, more urban planners and policymakers acknowledge that this policy is <a href="https://www.planning.org/planning/2022/spring/a-business-case-for-dropping-parking-minimums/">narrowly focused and shortsighted</a>. As a data scientist who studies urban transportation, I focused my <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=ZLNCPe4AAAAJ">earliest research</a> on this topic, and it shaped how I think about cities and towns today. </p>
<p>It’s encouraging to see cities rethinking minimum parking requirements – but while this is an important reform, urban leaders can do even more to loosen parking’s grip on our downtowns.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/IgA4FJWIjI8?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">From the 1970s through the early 2000s, ample downtown parking was widely viewed as essential for urban growth.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Eliminating parking requirements</h2>
<p>Despite research and guidance from the <a href="https://iteparkgen.org/">Institute of Transportation Engineers</a>, it is extremely <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0965-8564(99)00007-5">difficult to predict parking demand</a>, especially in downtown areas. As a result, for years many cities set the highest possible targets. This led to excess parking that is <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/5/3/034001">vastly underused</a>, even in areas with <a href="https://doi.org/10.3141/2537-19">perceived shortages</a>. </p>
<p>In 2017, Buffalo, New York, became the first large U.S. city to eliminate its minimum parking requirement as part of its first <a href="https://www.buffalogreencode.com/">major overhaul of zoning laws</a> in more than 60 years. This shift has <a href="https://theconversation.com/parking-reform-could-reenergize-downtowns-heres-what-happened-when-buffalo-changed-its-zoning-rules-159683">breathed new life into downtown Buffalo</a> by spurring redevelopment of vacant lots and storefronts. Researchers estimate that more than two-thirds of newly built homes there <a href="https://www.sightline.org/2023/04/13/parking-reform-legalized-most-of-the-new-homes-in-buffalo-and-seattle/">would have been illegal before the policy change</a> because they would not have met the earlier standards.</p>
<p>In the same year, Hartford, Connecticut, followed Buffalo’s lead and eliminated mandatory parking minimums citywide. Communities including <a href="https://www.naiop.org/research-and-publications/magazine/2023/Summer-2023/development-ownership/as-more-cities-eliminate-parking-minimums-what-happens-next/">Minneapolis; Raleigh, North Carolina; and San Jose, California</a>, have since taken similar steps.</p>
<p>Tony Jordan, president of the nonprofit <a href="https://parkingreform.org/">Parking Reform Network</a>, has argued that once cities stop mandating specific levels of private parking, leaders need to be more thoughtful about how they <a href="https://www.strongtowns.org/journal/2022/11/22/what-comes-next-after-abolishing-parking-mandates">manage public curbside parking and spend the revenues</a> that it generates. Some communities have implemented <a href="https://www.mapc.org/resource-library/maximum-parking-allowances/">maximum parking allowances</a> to ensure that developers and their investors don’t add to the glut.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539087/original/file-20230724-23-iwcwot.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Map with areas used for parking colored" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539087/original/file-20230724-23-iwcwot.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539087/original/file-20230724-23-iwcwot.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=329&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539087/original/file-20230724-23-iwcwot.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=329&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539087/original/file-20230724-23-iwcwot.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=329&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539087/original/file-20230724-23-iwcwot.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=413&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539087/original/file-20230724-23-iwcwot.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=413&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539087/original/file-20230724-23-iwcwot.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=413&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In Tampa, Fla., 30% of the city’s central business district is devoted to parking (shown in red). As of July 2023, the city had not implemented parking reforms.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://parkingreform.org/resources/parking-lot-map/">Parking Reform Network</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Reducing reliance on cars</h2>
<p>Parking mandates aren’t the only lever that city officials can use to make their downtowns less car-centric. Some local governments are now asking developers to help reduce overall traffic levels by investing in improvements like sidewalks, bike storage and transit passes. </p>
<p>This approach is typically called <a href="https://ops.fhwa.dot.gov/plan4ops/trans_demand.htm">transportation demand management</a>, or modern mitigation. It still leverages private investment to serve the public good but without a singular focus on parking.</p>
<p>And unlike parking requirements, this strategy helps connect buildings to their surrounding communities. As <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=KSv7KvMAAAAJ&hl=en">urban planning scholar Kristina Currans</a> explained to me in an interview, traditional parking requirements ask developers to fend for themselves. In contrast, transportation demand management policies require them to consider the surrounding context, integrate their projects into it and help cities function more efficiently. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539169/original/file-20230725-25-dvfcwg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Graphic showing that traditional development consumes more land to accommodate drivers, while transportation demand management reduces the need for parking and space for cars." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539169/original/file-20230725-25-dvfcwg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539169/original/file-20230725-25-dvfcwg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=267&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539169/original/file-20230725-25-dvfcwg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=267&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539169/original/file-20230725-25-dvfcwg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=267&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539169/original/file-20230725-25-dvfcwg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539169/original/file-20230725-25-dvfcwg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539169/original/file-20230725-25-dvfcwg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Traditional development leads to more parking and more traffic, which consumes more space, while transportation demand management encourages less traffic and has a smaller footprint.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.cityofmadison.com/transportation/initiatives/transportation-demand-management">City of Madison, adapted by Chris McCahill</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This approach dates back at least to 1998, when Cambridge, Massachusetts, introduced a policy requiring developers to produce a transportation demand management plan <a href="https://www.cambridgema.gov/cdd/transportation/fordevelopers/ptdm">whenever they add new parking</a>. That policy has now outlived the city’s minimum parking requirements, which Cambridge <a href="https://www.thecrimson.com/article/2022/10/25/cambridge-parking/">eliminated for all residential uses</a> in 2022.</p>
<p>Newer policies tend to incorporate point systems or calculators that link different strategies directly to their potential impact on car use. These tools are common in cities across California, where state law now requires city planners to evaluate <a href="https://www.sb743.org/">how much new car use each new development will generate</a> and take steps to limit the impact. Policies such as charging users directly for parking spots or offering employees cash in exchange for giving up their spot are <a href="https://doi.org/10.17226/23415">among the most effective</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539088/original/file-20230724-17-igz132.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A woman enters metal enclosure to lock her bicycle." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539088/original/file-20230724-17-igz132.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539088/original/file-20230724-17-igz132.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539088/original/file-20230724-17-igz132.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539088/original/file-20230724-17-igz132.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539088/original/file-20230724-17-igz132.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539088/original/file-20230724-17-igz132.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539088/original/file-20230724-17-igz132.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Denver offers 10 Bike-n-Ride shelters where commuters can store bikes and connect to the city’s mass transit system. Users access the shelters with key cards.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.rtd-denver.com/rider-info/bike-n-ride">Denver Regional Transportation District</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Lessons from Madison</h2>
<p>The University of Wisconsin-Madison’s <a href="https://ssti.us/">State Smart Transportation Initiative</a>, which I direct, along with UW’s <a href="https://mayorsinnovation.org/">Mayors Innovation Project</a>, has outlined policies like these in <a href="https://ssti.us/modernizing-mitigation/">a guide</a> based on our earlier work with the city of Los Angeles. We recently collaborated on <a href="https://www.cityofmadison.com/transportation/initiatives/transportation-demand-management">a new transportation demand management program</a> in Madison.</p>
<p>This program initially faced some <a href="https://madison.com/news/local/govt-and-politics/less-parking-fewer-cars-madison-city-council-to-weigh-traffic-rules-for-new-developments/article_f95271dc-7303-5b3c-b1b5-1a1f12871a21.html">pushback from developers</a>, but their input ultimately made it better. It passed the city’s Common Council unanimously in December 2022.</p>
<p>For their projects to be approved, developers now must earn a certain number of traffic mitigation points based on how large their project is and how many parking stalls they propose to include with it. For example, providing information to visitors and tenants about different travel options earns one point; providing secure bike storage earns two points; offering on-site child care earns four points; and charging market-rate parking fees is worth 10 points. Scaling back planned parking can reduce the number of points they need to earn in the first place.</p>
<p>While parking is no longer required in many parts of Madison, this new policy adds a layer of accountability to ensure that developers provide access to multiple transportation options in environmentally responsible ways. As urban leaders look for meaningful opportunities to <a href="https://www.surveyofmayors.com/files/2023/01/2022-Menino-Survey-Climate-Report.pdf">reduce their cities’ contributions to climate change</a>, we may soon see other cities following suit.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/206921/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chris McCahill is the managing director of the State Smart Transportation Initative at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. He is affiliated with Smart Growth America, the Wisconsin chapter of the Congress for the New Urbanism, and the Parking Reform Network. He also serves on the Transportation Commission and the Plan Commission for the City of Madison.</span></em></p>US cities are starting to reform laws that required developers to provide minimum amounts of parking. But there’s more they can do to loosen the auto’s grip on downtowns.Chris McCahill, Managing Director, State Smart Transportation Initiative, University of Wisconsin-MadisonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2077792023-06-29T12:17:01Z2023-06-29T12:17:01ZBridge collapses, road repairs, evacuations: How transportation agencies plan for large-scale traffic disruptions<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534649/original/file-20230628-25-kwrynw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=2%2C0%2C1914%2C1080&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A structural crack on the I-40 Hernando de Soto Bridge in Memphis, Tenn., required an emergency repair in 2021.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/in-this-undated-handout-provided-by-the-tennessee-news-photo/1232891438">Tennessee DOT via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Twelve days after <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/transportation/2023/06/11/bridge-collapse-philadelphia-interstate-95/">a portion of Interstate 95 collapsed</a> in north Philadelphia during a truck fire, officials <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2023/06/23/i-95-bridge-reopening-friday/70349844007/">opened a temporary six-lane roadway</a> to serve motorists while a permanent overpass is rebuilt. This was a major success after the June 11, 2023, disaster was predicted to snarl traffic for months.</em> </p>
<p><em>U.S. cities often face similar challenges when <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/memphis-cracked-i-40-bridge-creates-headache-traffic-shipping-n1267187">routine wear and tear</a> or <a href="https://abc7news.com/loma-prieta-quake-earthquake-when-was-magnitude/5605965/">natural disasters</a> damage roads and bridges. Transportation engineer <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=RxdHmbMAAAAJ&hl=en">Lee D. Han</a> explains how planners, transit agencies and city governments anticipate and manage these disruptions.</em></p>
<h2>How do agencies plan for disruptions like this?</h2>
<p>Planning is a central mission for state and metropolitan transportation agencies. </p>
<p>Traditional long-term planning focuses on anticipating and preparing for growing and shifting transportation demand patterns. These changes are driven by regional and national economic and population trends. </p>
<p>Shorter-term planning is about ensuring mobility and safety during service disruptions. These events can include construction, major scheduled events like <a href="https://www.wkrn.com/news/local-news/bonnaroo-traffic-tdot-prepares-for-traffic-in-manchester/">music festivals</a>, traffic incidents such as crashes and hazardous material spills, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9488(2007)133:1(3)">emergency evacuations</a>, and events like the I-95 bridge collapse in Philadelphia.</p>
<p>Agencies have limited resources, so they typically set priorities based on how likely a given scenario is, its potential adverse effects and the countermeasures that officials have available. </p>
<p>For bridges, the <a href="https://highways.dot.gov/">Federal Highway Administration</a> sets standards and requires states to carry out periodic inspections. In addition, agencies develop a detouring plan for each bridge in case of a structural failure or service disruption. </p>
<p>Major bridges, such as those at Mississippi River crossings, are crucial to the nation’s economy and security. They require significant planning, commitment and coordination between multiple agencies. There usually are multiple contingency plans in place to deal with immediate traffic control, incident response and field operations during longer-term bridge repair or reconstruction projects. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/RYeTRa8GJ-8?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">This time-lapse video shows crews working around the clock to build a temporary roadway at the site of a collapsed overpass on Interstate 95 in north Philadelphia.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What are some major challenges of rerouting traffic?</h2>
<p>Bridges are potential choke points in highway networks. When a bridge fails, traffic immediately stops and begins to flow elsewhere, even without a formal detouring plan. Transportation agencies need to build or find excess capacity before a bridge fails, so that the disrupted traffic has alternative routes. </p>
<p>This is usually manageable in major urban areas that have many parallel routes and bridges and built-in redundancy in their road networks. But for rural areas, failure of a major bridge can mean extra hours or even days of travel. </p>
<p>When traffic has to be rerouted off an interstate highway, it can cause safety and access problems. If large trucks are diverted to local streets that were not designed for such vehicles, they may get stuck on railroad tracks or in spaces too small for them to turn around. Heavy trucks can damage roads and bridges with low weight limits, and tall trucks may be too large to fit through low-clearance underpasses.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534648/original/file-20230628-27-pb6uyu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A police officer stands by traffic cones waving cars away from a smoky road." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534648/original/file-20230628-27-pb6uyu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534648/original/file-20230628-27-pb6uyu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=291&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534648/original/file-20230628-27-pb6uyu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=291&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534648/original/file-20230628-27-pb6uyu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=291&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534648/original/file-20230628-27-pb6uyu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534648/original/file-20230628-27-pb6uyu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534648/original/file-20230628-27-pb6uyu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A police officer directs traffic away from a closed road as fast-moving wildfires force evacuations on Dec. 30, 2021, in Louisville, Colorado.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/louisville-police-officer-directs-traffic-away-from-a-news-photo/1237478100">Marc Piscotty/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Successful rerouting requires a lot of coordination between agencies and jurisdictions. They may have to adjust road signal timing to deal with extra cars and changed traffic patterns. Local drivers may need to be directed away from these alternative routes to prevent major congestion. </p>
<p>It’s also important to communicate with navigation apps like <a href="https://www.google.com/maps/about/#!/">Google Maps</a> and <a href="https://www.waze.com/apps/">Waze</a>, which every driver has access to. Route choices that speed up individual trips may cause serious congestion if everyone decides to take the same alternate route and it doesn’t have enough capacity to handle the extra traffic.</p>
<h2>Can these events permanently change commuting and traffic patterns?</h2>
<p>In some cases, yes. Some repairs take months, such as the 2022 <a href="https://www.ualrpublicradio.org/local-regional-news/2022-02-21/how-authorities-missed-the-flaw-that-nearly-brought-down-the-i-40-bridge">I-40 Hernando De Soto Bridge crack</a> across the Mississippi River in Memphis, Tennessee. Others can stretch over years, such as the 2007 collapse of the <a href="https://www.lrl.mn.gov/guides/guides?issue=bridges">I-35W bridge</a> in Minneapolis. Some structures are rebuilt elsewhere, like the <a href="https://highways.dot.gov/public-roads/marchapril-1998/replacing-oaklands-cypress-freeway">I-880 Cypress Street viaduct</a> in Oakland, California, which collapsed during the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. </p>
<p>While traffic is disrupted, motorists change their commute patterns or may even switch to other modes, such as buses or commuter rail. But after repairs are completed, even if some commuters don’t return to their old routes, new traffic soon will take advantage of the restored capacity. In the end, it’s hard to tell just by looking at usage whether commuters have changed their travel patterns permanently.</p>
<h2>Will money from the 2021 infrastructure bill reduce the risk of these kinds of events?</h2>
<p>Unfortunately, things do fall apart. U.S. infrastructure has been <a href="https://infrastructurereportcard.org/">deteriorating for decades</a>. The American Road & Transportation Builders Association estimated that <a href="https://artbabridgereport.org/">1 in 3 U.S. bridges need repair</a>. </p>
<p>At the current rate, we are unlikely to catch up to a state of good repair any time soon. But strategic investments like the 2021 infrastructure bill can likely help repair and address critical deterioration concerns for some high-risk bridges, roads, dams and other structures. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1668012003317669889"}"></div></p>
<h2>Can public transit fill part of the gap?</h2>
<p>Public transit may be able to fill the gap in several ways when key roadway links are destroyed or damaged.</p>
<p>Fixed-route rail transit services, such as Washington, D.C.’s Metro and commuter rail services in Chicago, typically have exclusive rights of way, which let them travel at higher speed than buses on surface streets. They also have high capacity that can be increased by adding more cars to each train or running trains more frequently. </p>
<p>If those systems’ routes are not disrupted due to something like a bridge collapse, they may be able to operate above their normal loads. Drivers can shift to transit as long as their trip origins and destinations are conveniently located near transit stations.</p>
<p>Bus transit services don’t usually have exclusive rights of way or means to add extra carrying capacity per vehicle. But they have more flexibility to extend the service areas that they cover and connect otherwise non-walkable locales.</p>
<p>Coordinating use of various transit services and creatively adjusting bus lines could address some local travel needs, such as daily commutes and school and shopping trips. But local public transit services struggle to fill longer-distance gaps that extend beyond their service areas.</p>
<p>In major urban areas like Philadelphia that have large populations and have invested a lot in their transit systems, public transit could carry as much as 25% of daily commute trips. But for disruptions outside of major cities, such as a bridge collapse on an interstate highway in a rural area, public transit probably won’t have much of a role.</p>
<p>It’s also important to note that public transit services are for moving people. Freight shipments, which rely on trucks and other specialized vehicles, also need to get through or around disrupted zones. This often requires large commercial trucks either to use nearby local streets that weren’t designed for such big, heavy vehicles, or to make long-distance detours. That increases delays, pollution, safety risks and transportation costs that will eventually be passed on to consumers.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207779/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lee D. Han receives funding from National Science Foundation and the Department of Transportation. </span></em></p>When a major roadway or bridge needs fixing, all that traffic has to go somewhere.Lee D. Han, Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of TennesseeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2064322023-06-23T14:49:09Z2023-06-23T14:49:09ZAre low-traffic neighbourhoods greenwashing? Here’s what the evidence says<p>Since the pandemic, a <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2023/jun/12/low-traffic-neighbourhoods-ltn-may-lead-people-drive-less-london">series of low-traffic neighbourhoods</a> (LTNs) have been installed across the UK. LTNs are designed to curtail car use in residential streets and promote active modes of travel such as walking, cycling and travelling by wheelchair. They aim to create a more pleasant environment for pedestrians and cyclists by using cameras, planting boxes or bollards to restrict motor vehicle traffic.</p>
<p>The initiative aims to address <a href="https://psyarxiv.com/egnmj/">three public health issues</a> directly associated with rampant car use in urban areas: air pollution, road deaths and physical inactivity. Human-made air pollution – which is worse in congested cities – is linked to between <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/air-pollution-applying-all-our-health/air-pollution-applying-all-our-health#:%7E:text=The%20annual%20mortality%20of%20human,and%2036%2C000%20deaths%20every%20year.">28,000 and 36,000 deaths</a> in the UK each year. </p>
<p>The concept of LTNs in the UK can be traced back to the 1970s when a <a href="http://hackneycyclist.blogspot.com/2015/10/the-history-behind-filtered.html">similar scheme</a> (although not referred to as an LTN at the time) was introduced in the London borough of Hackney. Many of the UK’s more recent LTNs are concentrated in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0966692321002477?via%3Dihub">deprived areas of London</a>, with low rates of car ownership. </p>
<p>By contrast, similar schemes have been more widely adopted <a href="https://journals.open.tudelft.nl/ejtir/article/view/3000/3187">in the Netherlands</a>, where active travel has been separated from car traffic consistently since the 1970s.</p>
<p>But LTNs have become controversial in the UK. Critics have even gone as far as <a href="https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/low-traffic-zones-just-greenwashing-says-lobby-group-jvck33c69">accusing the government</a> of greenwashing. They <a href="https://freedomfordrivers.blog/2023/02/23/new-petition-remove-ltns-and-greenwash-traffic-schemes/">argue that</a> LTNs cause more congestion and air pollution on boundary roads (usually larger roads around the perimeter of an LTN), longer emergency response times and increased travel times for disabled people or carers. </p>
<p>Since most LTNs are relatively recent and have been predominantly installed in London, there is limited information on their long-term effects and impacts beyond the capital. </p>
<p>Yet the existing evidence still offers a clearer understanding of how LTNs can positively impact various aspects of urban life. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A queue of traffic." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533704/original/file-20230623-25-llyph0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533704/original/file-20230623-25-llyph0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533704/original/file-20230623-25-llyph0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533704/original/file-20230623-25-llyph0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533704/original/file-20230623-25-llyph0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533704/original/file-20230623-25-llyph0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533704/original/file-20230623-25-llyph0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Critics argue that LTNs cause congestion on surrounding roads.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/blackfriars-london-uk-11th-june-2014-597895856">Lenscap Photography/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Fewer cars, more active travel</h2>
<p>Some studies suggest that LTNs are effective in reducing car usage. <a href="https://findingspress.org/article/75470-the-impact-of-2020-low-traffic-neighbourhoods-on-levels-of-car-van-driving-among-residents-findings-from-lambeth-london-uk">Recent research</a> on four LTNs in the south London borough of Lambeth that was co-authored by one of us (Jamie Furlong), found that the annual distance residents within these LTNs drove decreased by 6% compared to control areas.</p>
<p>This finding supports <a href="https://docs.google.com/document/d/13Nsm_GFdH6CpIpPpOZ7hbhLZScgqCAP7ZGI0xi4qDqA/edit">previous research</a> commissioned by climate action charity, Possible, that examined traffic data from 46 LTNs across 11 London boroughs. The analysis revealed a substantial reduction in motor traffic within LTNs compared to the expected background changes. Importantly, there was no evidence of traffic being systematically displaced onto boundary roads. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4133090">separate study</a> by researchers from Imperial College London on three LTNs in the London borough of Islington showed notable improvements in air quality after their installation. On average, levels of nitrogen dioxide (a harmful car exhaust pollutant) decreased by 5.7% within the LTNs and 8.9% on boundary roads. </p>
<p>LTNs have demonstrated several other benefits beyond reduced car usage. In London, they have even been associated with decreased car ownership and <a href="https://findingspress.org/article/25633-impacts-of-2020-low-traffic-neighbourhoods-in-london-on-road-traffic-injuries">improved road safety</a>. Between 2015 and 2019, rates of car ownership in outer London LTNs <a href="https://findingspress.org/article/18200-the-impact-of-low-traffic-neighbourhoods-and-other-active-travel-interventions-on-vehicle-ownership-findings-from-the-outer-london-mini-holland-progr">reduced by 6%</a> relative to control areas.</p>
<p>Evidence on the shift to active travel prompted by LTNs is more limited. However, a <a href="https://findingspress.org/article/21390-the-impact-of-low-traffic-neighbourhoods-on-active-travel-car-use-and-perceptions-of-local-environment-during-the-covid-19-pandemic">study funded by Transport for London</a> on LTNs that pre-dated COVID in London’s Waltham Forest, found a 1-2 hour increase per person in weekly active travel compared to the control area. </p>
<h2>What about the concerns?</h2>
<p>One criticism of LTNs relates to the <a href="https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/traffic-calming-zones-london-delay-fire-crews-xmplwxp38">potential delays</a> they can cause for emergency services. Videos have surfaced online showing fire engines and ambulances unable to get past bollards or planting boxes. </p>
<p>However, the <a href="https://findingspress.org/article/18198-the-impact-of-introducing-a-low-traffic-neighbourhood-on-fire-service-emergency-response-times-in-waltham-forest-london">only published academic study</a> on the topic, which examined the impact of LTNs on fire service emergency response times in Waltham Forest, found no negative effects. In fact, response times even improved slightly on some boundary roads. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A fire engine driving down a road." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533694/original/file-20230623-29-lpm05q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533694/original/file-20230623-29-lpm05q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533694/original/file-20230623-29-lpm05q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533694/original/file-20230623-29-lpm05q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533694/original/file-20230623-29-lpm05q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=521&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533694/original/file-20230623-29-lpm05q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=521&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533694/original/file-20230623-29-lpm05q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=521&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Concerns have been raised about the delays LTNs cause to emergency services.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/london-uk-september-30-2019-emergency-1519146149">olesea vetrila/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Learning from Barcelona</h2>
<p>How residents feel about LTNs and their streets is crucial to the success of these schemes. In both <a href="https://www.lbc.co.uk/news/london-council-scraps-seven-low-traffic-neighbourhoods-after-public-backlash/">Ealing</a> (a district of west London) and <a href="https://www.warringtonguardian.co.uk/news/23600038.low-traffic-neighbourhood-westy-will-removed/">Warrington</a> (a town in northern England), councils removed LTNs after the objection of residents.</p>
<p>The fact that relatively few of the UK’s more recent LTNs have <a href="https://twitter.com/hackneycouncil/status/1554765517843570689">altered street layouts</a> to encourage new uses by, for example, widening pavements and turning car parking spaces into public seating may be part of the issue. If LTNs were implemented with a stronger focus on urban design and physical changes to the streetscape, they could have a potentially transformative effect on how people feel about and use residential streets.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://ajuntament.barcelona.cat/superilles/en/">“superblocks”</a> initiative (city blocks where pedestrians and cyclists are prioritised over motorised vehicles) in Barcelona is a good example of such an approach. Following the implementation of the city’s Sant Antoni superblock, <a href="https://bcnroc.ajuntament.barcelona.cat/jspui/handle/11703/129164">research</a> found a 33% reduction in nitrogen dioxide emissions, an 82% reduction in traffic within the superblock and a 28% increase in public space to walk and play in. </p>
<p>During trial phases, various features were incorporated into Barcelona’s neighbourhoods, including coloured pavements, mobile tree planters and pop-up playgrounds. In the <a href="https://ajuntament.barcelona.cat/superilles/ca/content/poblenou">Poblenou superblock</a>, the final design of street changes resulted from two weeks of <a href="https://bcnroc.ajuntament.barcelona.cat/jspui/handle/11703/129164">laboratories and debates</a> involving residents, council officers, political representatives and more than 200 students and teachers from different schools of architecture.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A low-traffic neighbourhood with curbside seating and colourful decoration." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533121/original/file-20230621-16-9mq8gq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533121/original/file-20230621-16-9mq8gq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533121/original/file-20230621-16-9mq8gq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533121/original/file-20230621-16-9mq8gq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533121/original/file-20230621-16-9mq8gq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533121/original/file-20230621-16-9mq8gq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533121/original/file-20230621-16-9mq8gq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Sant Antoni superblock, Barcelona.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jamie Furlong</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the UK, the future of LTNs hangs in the balance due to a <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/politics/2023/05/19/low-traffic-neighbourhoods-no-government-money/">shaky funding base</a>. But this development is accompanied by a climate emergency that demands swift and decisive action. </p>
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<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><strong><em>Don’t have time to read about climate change as much as you’d like?</em></strong>
<br><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/imagine-57?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=Imagine&utm_content=DontHaveTimeTop">Get a weekly roundup in your inbox instead.</a> Every Wednesday, The Conversation’s environment editor writes Imagine, a short email that goes a little deeper into just one climate issue. <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/imagine-57?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=Imagine&utm_content=DontHaveTimeBottom">Join the 20,000+ readers who’ve subscribed so far.</a></em></p>
<hr><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/206432/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr Jamie Furlong receives funding from TfL for a related project analysing behaviour change and Low Traffic Neighbourhoods. He also receives funding, as part of a team at Westminster University, from the National Institute for Health and Care Research for a project examining the effects of Low Traffic Neighbourhoods in London.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ersilia Verlinghieri, as part of a team at Westminster University, receives funding from the National Institute for Health and Care Research for a project examining the effects of Low Traffic Neighbourhoods in London.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Harrie Larrington-Spencer, as part of a team at Westminster University, receives funding from the National Institute for Health and Care Research for a project examining the effects of Low Traffic Neighbourhoods in London.</span></em></p>LTNs were introduced to UK cities to create a more pleasant environment for pedestrians and cyclists - but they’ve become controversial.Jamie Furlong, Research Fellow in Active Travel Interventions, University of WestminsterErsilia Verlinghieri, Senior Research Fellow at the Active Travel Academy, University of WestminsterHarrie Larrington-Spencer, Research Fellow in the Active Travel Academy, University of WestminsterLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1965842023-06-01T14:38:50Z2023-06-01T14:38:50ZCycling could be a boon for Lagos – but people fear for their safety on bikes<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529420/original/file-20230531-29-8f7ght.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A cyclist participates in World Car Free Day in Lagos.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Adekunle Ajayi/NurPhoto via Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>With an estimated <a href="https://www.macrotrends.net/cities/22007/lagos/population">16 million residents</a>, Lagos is the most densely populated state in Nigeria. It’s under <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1361920922000360">immense pressure</a> to transport its huge population. According to a global ranking of mobility in cities, <a href="https://theconversation.com/lagoss-chequered-history-how-it-came-to-be-the-megacity-it-is-today-124306">Lagos</a> was ranked <a href="https://www.oliverwymanforum.com/mobility/urban-mobility-readiness-index/ranking.html">worst</a> out of 60 cities across the world in 2022. Famous for its <a href="https://businessday.ng/the-bridge/article/businesses-commuters-suffer-as-lagos-traffic-worsens/#:%7E:text=Businesses%20and%20commuters%20in%20Lagos,by%20heavy%20rains%20and%20flooding.">traffic jams</a>, Lagos has <a href="https://www.internetgeography.net/topics/traffic-congestion-in-lagos/">40%</a> of all the cars registered in Nigeria.</p>
<p>Transport service quality is known to drive the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2212571X20301633">public attitude to and image of a city</a>, which is important to the <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-a-failed-johannesburg-project-tells-us-about-mega-cities-in-africa-112420">marketing</a> of a city as a destination or place for <a href="https://theconversation.com/africas-free-trade-area-offers-promise-for-cities-but-only-if-theres-investment-187177">investment</a>. Cycling is one of the cheapest modes of transport. It can ease traffic gridlock and its associated pollution and <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/23800127.2020.1723385">environmental impacts</a>, making the city more attractive as a destination. </p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-challenges-of-governing-lagos-the-city-that-keeps-growing-175753">The challenges of governing Lagos, the city that keeps growing</a>
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<p>Yet cycling continues to be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1108/S2044-9941(2012)0000001010">marginalised</a> in developing countries. This has stimulated <a href="https://www.google.co.za/books/edition/The_Politics_of_Cycling_Infrastructure/iZ_LDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0">academic research</a> to understand the adoption of cycling infrastructure. But how well can cycling work in a highly urbanised state like Lagos? </p>
<p>As an <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/emmanuel-mogaji-1217677">academic researcher</a> with a focus on transport, education and financial services, I teach the marketing and advertising of these services. To market cycling as a sustainable mode of transport, I need to understand the challenges, opportunities and prospects facing consumers. </p>
<p>As <a href="https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/JSM-04-2022-0145/full/html">part</a> of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/cb.2089">my</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2022.103206">ongoing</a> <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1361920921002807">research</a>, I set about <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2022.100608">studying</a> the attitudes of cyclists and non-cyclists in Lagos to understand why cycling is a challenging mode of transport despite its obvious benefits. </p>
<p>I found that numerous fears and social pressures are holding back the uptake of cycling – yet even so there are growing groups of Lagosians championing the bicycle.</p>
<h2>The study</h2>
<p>My <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2022.100608">research</a> involved ethnographic fieldwork, observations and interviews with cyclists and non-cyclists in Lagos. </p>
<p>I interviewed 28 members of cycling clubs and 67 non-cycling participants. The research also collected photographic evidence of transport infrastructure, various activities organised to encourage cycling, and the business operations of cycling clubs and start-ups. </p>
<p>Thematic analysis of the data revealed three key challenges for establishing a culture of cycling in Lagos.</p>
<h2>Three key findings</h2>
<p><strong>Personal fears:</strong> This is about the ability and willingness to cycle. I found that many adults don’t know how to ride a bike and can’t imagine themselves cycling in Lagos. Some were very reluctant to learn and many felt it was unsafe and wouldn’t even encourage their children to cycle. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2022.103506">Gender discrimination</a> was a significant concern – women are often harassed and unfairly treated on the road. Road users in Lagos can be very impatient, putting cyclists at risk.</p>
<p><strong>Social issues:</strong> These are broader challenges that hinder the adoption of cycling. A lack of awareness of the benefits of cycling is compounded by societal marginalisation – many people still feel rich people drive and poor people cycle. Cyclists may have no place to shower or to safely store their bicycles. However, it’s important to recognise the growing numbers of cycling clubs in Lagos that provide a safe cycling environment and network and schedule group rides for budding cyclists. <a href="https://www.facebook.com/CityCyclersNG/">City Cyclers</a>, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IGsSoaZpcpE">Bikaholics</a>, <a href="https://www.facebook.com/people/Green-House-Bikers-Club/100083076435187/?paipv=0&eav=AfYFVJ8MypRavdI3jspDkI8h0ibJfnp-EmG1u2nEs3MiTVDVdCgWQLV5eeRAHFNCE30&_rdr">Greenhouse Bikers</a>, <a href="https://www.cycology.com.ng/">Cycology</a> and <a href="https://cyclotron.com.ng/">Cyclotron</a> are some of the bigger cycling clubs in the state. There are also charities, foundations and initiatives – like <a href="https://ludi.org.ng/girl-bike-club-lagos-island/">Girls Bike Club</a> – supporting the growth of cycling.</p>
<p><strong>Structural limitations:</strong> These challenges most often place responsibilities on government to support cycling infrastructure. The security of cyclists in Lagos is put at risk because of a lack of cycle lanes, parking and routes.</p>
<h2>Why cycling matters</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0838.2011.01299.x">health benefits</a> of cycling have been well recognised. Lagos needs to promote cycling as a contributor for better population health. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529515/original/file-20230601-23207-w5p0c2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A group of people chat, on or next to their bicycles, wearing cycling gear and helmets." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529515/original/file-20230601-23207-w5p0c2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529515/original/file-20230601-23207-w5p0c2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529515/original/file-20230601-23207-w5p0c2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529515/original/file-20230601-23207-w5p0c2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529515/original/file-20230601-23207-w5p0c2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529515/original/file-20230601-23207-w5p0c2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529515/original/file-20230601-23207-w5p0c2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Bicycle riders gather during World Car Free Day in Lagos.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Adekunle Ajayi/NurPhoto via Getty Images</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Then there are the economic benefits of cycling in a congested state like Lagos. According to the former permanent secretary of the Lagos State Ministry of Transport, Lagos is set to <a href="https://www.premiumtimesng.com/regional/ssouth-west/549418-traffic-congestion-lagos-to-lose-21-billion-monthly-by-2030-expert.html?tztc=1">lose US$21 billion monthly by 2030</a> due to time spent stuck in traffic. Fewer cars on the roads would allow people to be more productive. </p>
<p>Finally, cycling benefits the environment. Road transport in Lagos – with the abundance of old vehicles and high sulphur content in imported fuels – is a significant contributor to air pollution. The World Bank <a href="https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2022/06/03/afw-making-lagos-a-pollution-free-city-solving-the-threat-one-solution-at-a-time#:%7E:text=It%20is%20estimated%20that%20at%20least%2030%2C000%20people,die%20every%20year%20in%20Lagos%20due%20to%20pollution.">estimates</a> that at least 30,000 people die every year in Lagos due to pollution – <a href="https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/980031575616020127/the-cost-of-air-pollution-in-lagos">11,200</a> of them premature deaths.</p>
<p>People are increasingly conscious of how their environment affects their wellbeing. With Lagos excluded from the comprehensive <a href="https://cityratings.peopleforbikes.org/">world ranking</a> of bike-friendly cities, it needs to improve its brand positioning. The mega city could help change its image as a place where people struggle to move around by investing in sustainable modes of transportation. </p>
<h2>What should be done</h2>
<p>Awareness of cycling should be promoted, alongside increased availability of bicycles for people to use. With rental services like <a href="https://awabike.com">Awa Bike</a> providing bike sharing across educational campuses and <a href="https://www.facebook.com/p/ThinkBikes-Limited-100086658639617/">Thinkbikes</a> offering electric bicycles, there are business opportunities for increasing the number of bicycles in Lagos. State government can also consider financial support for those who may want to buy their own bicycles, like the <a href="https://www.bike2workscheme.co.uk/">Bike2Work Scheme</a> in the UK.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/johannesburgs-bike-lanes-are-not-well-used-heres-why-75068">Johannesburg's bike lanes are not well used. Here's why</a>
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<p>Road users should be made aware of the rights of cyclists on the roads. Ensuring that streets have safe, continuous space for pedestrian movement and dedicated cycle tracks is an essential component of a complete cycle network.</p>
<p>By increasing cycling uptake and reducing the use of motorised vehicles, the Lagos brand could help attract more visitors who are keen to explore the state.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/196584/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Emmanuel Mogaji is affiliated with Centre for Multidisciplinary Research and Innovation (CEMRI), Abuja, Nigeria. This is a non-government organisation in Nigeria. <a href="http://www.cemri.org">www.cemri.org</a></span></em></p>Lagos is famous for its congested traffic. Cycling could help change this image.Emmanuel Mogaji, Associate Professor in Marketing, Keele UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1981792023-01-31T18:50:54Z2023-01-31T18:50:54ZAccra is congested, but relocating Ghana’s capital is not the only option<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505824/original/file-20230123-22-yykqto.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Accra's population has doubled over the past decade</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Muntaka Chasant/Wikimedia Commons</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Capital cities play an important role in the socio-economic development of every country. People generally move to cities where there are opportunities. </p>
<p>Accra, Ghana’s capital, demonstrates this pull effect – and the problems it can create, like <a href="https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Over-population-of-Accra-putting-pressure-on-resources-GSS-1364164">congestion</a> and development planning issues. </p>
<p>One of the consequences has been regular <a href="https://www.mwh.gov.gh/addressing-the-increasing-risk-of-perennial-flooding-across-the-country-a-shared-responsibility/">flooding</a>, which has claimed lives and property. Over the years, the city authorities have tried to decongest Accra, without success. The city is now <a href="https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Demolish-illegal-structures-on-waterways-Akufo-Addo-1546295">demolishing illegal structures</a>, especially those close to waterways. </p>
<p>Some people have suggested that Accra’s congestion problem could be solved if the capital were to be <a href="https://www.modernghana.com/news/1072846/relocate-ghanas-capital-from-accra-omanhene.html">moved</a> to another city. Others <a href="https://www.pulse.com.gh/news/local/moving-ghanas-capital-away-from-accra-will-be-expensive-minister/ps8jx0l">disagree</a>. </p>
<p>Our position in this ongoing debate is informed by a six-year-old <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/19376812.2015.1134335">study</a> one of us conducted comparing Accra with Nigeria’s capital, Abuja. Nigeria moved its administrative capital out of Lagos to Abuja <a href="https://bscholarly.com/why-the-capital-of-nigeria-was-moved-from-lagos-to-abuja/">in 1991</a>. </p>
<p>The goal of the research was to make recommendations for the effective functioning of capital cities. We believe the findings are still relevant.</p>
<p>The study found that Accra was congested because too many facilities and services were concentrated in the city. We conclude that, instead of relocating the capital from Accra, its various roles could be shared among various regional capitals. Accra could keep its political role, but some of its facilities and services should be distributed around the country. </p>
<h2>Accra’s many functions</h2>
<p>Ghana’s capital city has multiple functions: educational, commercial, entertainment and administrative.</p>
<p>As an <a href="https://www.4icu.org/gh/greater-accra/a-z/">educational centre</a>, Accra has about 40 tertiary institutions. The seat of government, parliament house and the supreme court of Ghana are also in Accra, giving it an administrative and political role. The major sporting activities in Ghana are soccer, athletics and boxing. The country’s only boxing arenas are in Accra. The city also has the Ohene Gyan Sports Stadium and the Olympic Stadium (under construction). </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/506053/original/file-20230124-13-ieb3gv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/506053/original/file-20230124-13-ieb3gv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506053/original/file-20230124-13-ieb3gv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506053/original/file-20230124-13-ieb3gv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506053/original/file-20230124-13-ieb3gv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506053/original/file-20230124-13-ieb3gv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506053/original/file-20230124-13-ieb3gv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Ghana’s population by region.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Authors</span></span>
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<p>Reputable research institutes such as Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research are located in Accra. The headquarters of major religious organisations – such as the Christian Council of Ghana and the Office of the National Chief Imam – are also located here. </p>
<p>Some facilities that could have been located in other cities are all concentrated in Accra. Overall, the city serves as the country’s commercial, manufacturing and communication centre. </p>
<p>This has attracted major private companies to locate their headquarters in the capital. Ghana Stock Exchange, the country’s principal facilitator of the development of the capital market, also has its headquarters in Accra. </p>
<p>The combination of its political role and all the other facilities and services in the city has attracted people from all parts of the country. According to the 2021 Population and Housing Census, the Greater Accra Region is the most populous region in Ghana, with a population of over <a href="https://allafrica.com/stories/202109230279.html">5 million people</a>. The region, with a population density of 1,200 people per square kilometer, is also the <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/1275577/population-density-by-region-in-ghana/">most densely populated</a> region in Ghana. </p>
<p>This density has led to traffic congestion and overcrowding. On average, traffic across the major highways in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area <a href="http://mlgrd.gov.gh/images/Ghana_Urban_Forum/er.pdf">grew</a> from 2.5% to 14.8% per annum. </p>
<p>The multi-functional nature of Accra has led to pressure on land resources which has also resulted in encroachment of green areas and wetlands. The result is that parts of the city are unsafe to live in. The perennial floods which claim human lives and destroy properties have been attributed to the city’s <a href="https://www.mwh.gov.gh/addressing-the-increasing-risk-of-perennial-flooding-across-the-country-a-shared-responsibility/">development and spatial planning problems</a>. </p>
<h2>Solutions</h2>
<p>Relocating capital cities does not necessarily solve the problem of congestion in the long term if the fundamental causes of the congestion are not addressed. For example, the relocation of Nigerian’s capital city to Abuja did not solve congestion in Lagos.</p>
<p>We argue that a more feasible option for Accra is to change the role of the city from a multi-functional role to a political role. </p>
<p>National policies should focus on de-concentration by relocating some of the facilities and services that are currently in the capital but do not require direct access to the executive. These may include the headquarters of some government institutions, nongovernmental organisations, universities and research institutes, religious organisations and private companies. </p>
<p>The relocation of the headquarters of the Ghana Cocoa Board from Accra, for example, could be taken into consideration as Accra is not a cocoa producing region. Such an institution could be moved to a place where cocoa is produced. </p>
<p>The headquarters of Ghana National Petroleum Corporation could be moved to the western region of Ghana, where oil is drilled. Universities located in Accra could be encouraged to establish branches in other parts of the country, thus reducing the number of students on the Accra campuses. This would help promote spatial equity in Ghana in terms of geographic access to university education. </p>
<p>There could be incentive packages for institutions to establish their headquarters outside the capital. Those in the capital could be charged a special congestion levy. Finally, there should be a conscious effort to give functional roles to all the 16 regional capitals in Ghana. The functional roles can include commercial capital, defence capital, entertainment capital and sports capital. The decentralisation of facilities and services would help distribute opportunities – and people – across the country.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/198179/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Accra could keep its political role while some of its other functions are distributed around the country.Stephen Appiah Takyi, Senior Lecturer, Department of Planning, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST)Owusu Amponsah, Senior Lecturer, Department of Planning, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST)Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1934372022-11-29T13:33:58Z2022-11-29T13:33:58ZStill recovering from COVID-19, US public transit tries to get back on track<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/492863/original/file-20221101-25191-x6w1v8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C8%2C5615%2C3724&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Ridership on public transit had been declining even before the spread of the virus.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/elevated-subway-train-and-new-york-city-skyline-royalty-free-image/1216197405?phrase=new%20york%20city%20subway%20train&adppopup=true">Leo Patrizi/E+ via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>U.S. commuters take approximately <a href="https://www.apta.com/news-publications/public-transportation-facts/">10 billion trips on public transit every year</a>. SciLine asked <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=gkID6ccAAAAJ&hl=en">Kari Watkins</a>, an associate professor of civil and environmental engineering at the University of California, Davis, what cities can do to increase public transportation ridership and how people can make better use of this environmentally friendly mode of transportation.</em></p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Kari Watkins discusses why public transit matters to communities throughout the United States.</span></figcaption>
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<p><em>Below are some highlights from the discussion. Answers have been edited for brevity and clarity.</em></p>
<p><strong>Why is transit a sustainable mode of transportation?</strong></p>
<p><strong>Kari Watkins:</strong> Economically, it’s <a href="https://www.vtpi.org/tranben.pdf">easier on people’s pocketbooks</a>. Environmentally, transit has <a href="https://www.transit.dot.gov/regulations-and-programs/environmental-programs/transit-and-sustainability">less emissions per trip</a>. </p>
<p>From an equity point of view, transit is more sustainable than other modes because you’re <a href="https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/26264/racial-equity-addendum-to-critical-issues-in-transportation">more able to serve all people</a>. This service is out there – you don’t have to afford a vehicle in order to be able to take it.</p>
<p><strong>How does public transit affect traffic congestion?</strong></p>
<p><strong>Kari Watkins:</strong> We save about 24% of our congestion levels <a href="https://static.tti.tamu.edu/tti.tamu.edu/documents/umr/archive/mobility-report-2012.pdf">by having transit in our 15 largest cities</a>. </p>
<p><strong>What has research shown us about transit’s safety?</strong></p>
<p><strong>Kari Watkins:</strong> Transit is the <a href="https://www.apta.com/news-publications/public-transportation-facts/">safest mode of transportation</a> because of the professional drivers and because of the nature of how the services are provided. They’re often in their own corridors with really, really high factors of safety in how those corridors are designed. </p>
<p>When we look at cities where more people take transit as opposed to driving themselves, we always have lower crash rates, both internationally and across the U.S.</p>
<p><strong>What are some trends of ridership on public transit systems in recent years?</strong></p>
<p><strong>Kari Watkins:</strong> Over the past approximately five years before COVID, we were <a href="https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/26320/recent-decline-in-public-transportation-ridership-analysis-causes-and-responses">seeing declines in both bus and rail</a> in ways that we had not seen before and could not be attributed to things like population decreases or lower employment rates. We saw declines that could be largely attributed to the rideshare companies. Uber and Lyft were <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2022.04.006">taking a pretty heavy toll on transit ridership</a>. </p>
<p>In addition to this, before COVID, low <a href="https://www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/hist/LeafHandler.ashx?n=pet&s=emm_epm0_pte_nus_dpg&f=m">gas prices were a factor</a>. When gas prices go down, transit ridership is going to go down. And a little bit of increases in fares on transit systems was also hitting transit ridership. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.apta.com/wp-content/uploads/APTA-POLICY-BRIEF-Transit-Ridership-09.28.2022.pdf">And then COVID hit</a>. </p>
<p>What happened during COVID was a lot of the people who rely on transit on a day-to-day basis – those critical workers, folks who were keeping our society going during the early parts of COVID – they still had to get to work. And many of those folks are bus riders as opposed to rail riders, because of the way we’ve set up these systems. And so we saw bus ridership decline, but it was still at significant portions of what it was before COVID. </p>
<p>Rail, <a href="https://www.urban.org/urban-wire/transit-ridership-dropped-heavy-rail-stations-during-covid-19-pandemic-ridership-change-depended-neighborhood-characteristics">on the other hand, was decimated</a>, especially commuter rail. </p>
<p>Most commuter rail agencies are even still today nowhere close to what they were pre-COVID. In the early days of the pandemic, they were at 10% <a href="https://www.apta.com/wp-content/uploads/APTA-POLICY-BRIEF-Transit-Ridership-09.28.2022.pdf">of the ridership levels that they once were</a>. </p>
<p>We’re seeing some agencies, like Los Angeles Metro, where they’re predicting that in the next year or two, they’re going to be back up to the levels that they were pre-COVID. But there’s a lot of cities that have been permanently hit, <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-09-23/la-looks-to-beat-new-york-back-to-pre-pandemic-transit-ridership#xj4y7vzkg">such as San Francisco and New York</a>. </p>
<p><strong>Why are some transit agencies facing a ‘fiscal cliff’?</strong></p>
<p><strong>Kari Watkins:</strong> What happened during COVID was that many of these agencies were rescued through government programs where <a href="https://www.cbo.gov/publication/57636">they got extra operating funds</a> because the federal government and state governments knew that these agencies were going to be facing such dramatic declines in ridership that they wouldn’t be able to provide their services without some sort of extra support. </p>
<p>But all of that extra operating funding is disappearing over time. And with some agencies, they expect it’ll last another year, maybe two, but they’re not sure if their ridership is projected to be back at the same levels that it once was.</p>
<p><strong>How could transit become more environmentally friendly?</strong></p>
<p><strong>Kari Watkins:</strong> There’s actually a lot that can be done to our system <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/03/five-transit-policies-cities-should-prioritize-to-become-more-sustainable/">if we electrify transit further</a>. For decades, we’ve had transit lines that had overhead systems to power it, or a third rail system, where it’s powered from underneath, like our subway systems. </p>
<p>All of those are really expensive to build. But battery technology that is <a href="https://www.cnet.com/roadshow/news/the-new-batteries-that-will-make-you-an-electric-car-believer/">coming around for our passenger vehicles</a> is also coming around and <a href="https://www.reliableplant.com/Read/27709/Electric-bus-of-future">improving greatly for larger-scale vehicles</a>, such as trucks and buses. This gives us the ability to start to electrify routes that are running on pavement in streets. The hang-up is simply that we have to run these routes for an entire day and the window to charge them is just a small window overnight.</p>
<p><em>Watch the <a href="https://sciline.org/social-sciences/public-transit/">full interview</a> to hear more about public transit.</em></p>
<p><em><a href="https://www.sciline.org/">SciLine</a> is a free service based at the nonprofit American Association for the Advancement of Science that helps journalists include scientific evidence and experts in their news stories.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/193437/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kari Edison Watkins is an Associate Professor for the University of California at Davis and has received funding from the US Department of Transportation, the Transportation Research Board, the National Science Foundation, and multiple state and local agencies. </span></em></p>Public buses, subways and trains are relatively safe, fast and cheap. But competition from rideshares and concerns over COVID-19 will soon see some local agencies short of funds.Kari Edison Watkins, Associate Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, DavisLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1875872022-10-17T12:30:58Z2022-10-17T12:30:58ZHow many Amazon packages get delivered each year?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/488155/original/file-20221004-26-jifr73.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=26%2C6%2C4365%2C2916&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Amazon workers sort packages for delivery on East 14th Street in New York City, July 12, 2022.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/amazon-workers-sort-packages-for-delivery-on-e-14th-street-news-photo/1408261737">Michael M. Santiago/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-left ">
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<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/curious-kids-us-74795">Curious Kids</a> is a series for children of all ages. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">curiouskidsus@theconversation.com</a>.</em></p>
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<blockquote>
<p><strong>How many Amazon packages get delivered each year? – Aya K., age 9, Illinois</strong></p>
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<p>It’s incredibly convenient to buy something online, right from your computer or phone. Whether it’s a high-end telescope or a resupply of toothpaste, the goods appear right at your doorstep. This kind of shopping is called “e-commerce” and it’s becoming more popular each year. In the U.S., it has grown from a mere 7% of retail purchases in 2012 to <a href="https://www.census.gov/library/stories/2022/04/ecommerce-sales-surged-during-pandemic.html">19.6% of retail and US$791.7 billion in sales in 2020</a>. </p>
<h2>Amazon’s growing reach</h2>
<p>For Amazon, the biggest player in e-commerce, this means delivering lots of packages. In 2021 the company shipped an <a href="https://www.mwpvl.com/html/amazon_com.html">estimated</a> 7.7 billion packages globally, based on its nearly <a href="https://ir.aboutamazon.com/quarterly-results/default.aspx">$470 billion in sales</a>. </p>
<p>If each of these packages were a 1-foot square box and they were stacked on top of one another, the pile would be six times higher than the distance from the Earth to the Moon. Laid end to end, they would wrap around the Earth 62 times. </p>
<p>Back in the early 2010s, most things bought from Amazon.com were shipped using a third-party carrier like <a href="https://www.fedex.com/global/choose-location.html">FedEx</a> or <a href="https://www.ups.com/ship/guided/origin?tx=16615836120951417&loc=en_US">UPS</a>. In 2014, however, Amazon began delivering packages itself with a service called “Fulfilled by Amazon.” That’s when those <a href="https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2019/09/amazon-delivery-contractors-operates-with-little-oversight-report-finds/">signature blue delivery vans</a> started appearing on local streets.</p>
<p>Since then, Amazon’s logistics arm has grown from relying entirely on other carriers to shipping <a href="https://news.pb.com/article_display.cfm?article_id=6046">22% of all packages</a> in the U.S. in 2021. This is greater than FedEx’s 19% market share and within striking distance of UPS’s 24%. Amazon’s <a href="https://sell.amazon.com/fulfillment-by-amazon/fba-multi-channel">multichannel fulfillment service</a> allows other websites to use its warehousing and shipping services. So your order from Etsy or eBay could also be packed and shipped by Amazon.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/3K2RaQ63w28?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Amazon came to dominate online shopping by offering free two-day shipping to Amazon Prime members.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>The supply chain</h2>
<p>To handle that many packages, shipping companies need an extensive network of manufacturers, vehicles and warehouses that can coordinate together. This is called the <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-your-local-store-keeps-running-out-of-flour-toilet-paper-and-prescription-drugs-135786">supply chain</a>. If you’ve ever used a tracking number to follow a package, you’ve seen it in action. </p>
<p>People who make decisions about where to send vehicles and how to route packages are constantly trying to keep costs down while still getting packages to customers on time. The supply chain can do this very effectively, but it also has downsides. </p>
<p>More delivery vehicles on the road produce more <a href="https://www.epa.gov/transportation-air-pollution-and-climate-change/carbon-pollution-transportation">greenhouse gas emissions that contribute to climate change</a>, along with pollutants like <a href="https://www.epa.gov/transportation-air-pollution-and-climate-change/smog-soot-and-other-air-pollution-transportation">nitrogen oxides and particulate matter that are hazardous to breathe</a>. <a href="https://www.governing.com/archive/gov-delivery-trucks-traffic.html">Traffic congestion</a> is also a major concern in cities as delivery drivers try to find parking on busy streets.</p>
<h2>Urban freight solutions</h2>
<p>Are there ways to balance the increasing number of deliveries while making freight safe, sustainable and fast? At the University of Washington’s <a href="https://www.supply-chain-transportation.uw.edu/about/sctl-center">Supply Chain Transportation and Logistics Center</a>, we work with companies like Amazon and UPS and others in the shipping, transportation and real estate sectors to answer questions like this. Here are some solutions for what we and our colleagues call the “last mile” – the last leg of a package’s long journey to your doorstep. </p>
<p>– Electrification: Transitioning from gasoline and diesel vehicles to fleets of electric or other zero-emission vehicles reduces pollution from delivery trucks. Tax credits and local policies, such as creating so-called <a href="https://depts.washington.edu/sctlctr/sites/default/files/research_pub_files/Urban_Delivery_Company_Needs_and_Preferences_for_GLZ.pdf">green loading zones</a> and zero-emission zones for clean vehicles, create incentives for companies to make the switch. </p>
<p>– Common carrier lockers: Buildings can install <a href="https://depts.washington.edu/sctlctr/sites/default/files/research_pub_files/Final-50-Feet-Common-Carrier-Locker-Pilot-Report.pdf">lockers</a> at central locations, such as busy transit stops, so that drivers can drop off packages without going all the way to your doorstep. When you’re ready to pick up your items, you just stop by at a time that’s convenient for you. This reduces both delivery truck mileage and the risk of packages being stolen off of porches.</p>
<p>– Cargo bicycles: Companies can take the delivery truck out of the equation and use <a href="http://depts.washington.edu/sctlctr/sites/default/files/research_pub_files/Cargo-E-Bike-Delivery-Report.pdf">electric cargo bicycles</a> to drop off smaller packages. In addition to being zero-emission, cargo bicycles are relatively inexpensive and easy to park, and they provide a healthier alternative for delivery workers. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1570100146246934537"}"></div></p>
<p>To learn more about supply chains and delivery logistics, check with your town or city’s transportation department to see if they are testing or already have goods delivery programs or policies, like those in <a href="https://www.nyc.gov/html/dot/downloads/pdf/ssi10-offhour.pdf">New York</a> and <a href="https://www.seattleneighborhoodhub.com/">Seattle</a>. And the next time you order something for delivery, consider your options for receiving it, such as walking or biking to a package locker or pickup point, or consolidating your items into a single delivery.</p>
<p>Package delivery can be both convenient and sustainable if companies keep evolving their supply chains, and everyone thinks about how they want delivery to work in their neighborhoods.</p>
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<p><em>Hello, curious kids! Do you have a question you’d like an expert to answer? Ask an adult to send your question to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">CuriousKidsUS@theconversation.com</a>. Please tell us your name, age and the city where you live.</em></p>
<p><em>And since curiosity has no age limit – adults, let us know what you’re wondering, too. We won’t be able to answer every question, but we will do our best.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/187587/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The University of Washington's Supply Chain Transportation and Logistics Center receives support from Amazon, UPS and other companies in the transportation, logistics, vehicle manufacture and real estate industries, and from the cities of Seattle and Bellevue.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rishi Verma does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The rise of e-commerce means billions of packages are delivered in the US each year. That creates traffic and pollution, but urban freight researchers are finding better way to get goods to customers.Anne Goodchild, Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Director, Supply Chain Transportation and Logistics Center, University of WashingtonRishi Verma, PhD Student in Industrial Engineering and Research Assistant, Urban Freight Lab, University of WashingtonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1793592022-08-01T12:26:33Z2022-08-01T12:26:33ZIf all the vehicles in the world were to convert to electric, would it be quieter?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/476721/original/file-20220729-16-tw2mnu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=53%2C0%2C5936%2C3936&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Apartment buildings in New York City abut the Cross Bronx Expressway.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/cars-and-trucks-move-along-the-cross-bronx-expressway-a-news-photo/1353690656">Spencer Platt/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/curious-kids-us-74795">Curious Kids</a> is a series for children of all ages. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">curiouskidsus@theconversation.com</a>.</em></p>
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<blockquote>
<p><strong>If all of the vehicles in the world were to convert to electric, would it be quieter? – Joseph, age 10, Chatham, New Jersey</strong></p>
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<p>If everyone everywhere received a free electric vehicle at the same time – and owners were required to travel at really slow speeds across well-maintained roads – the world would sound different. </p>
<p>But that doesn’t mean it would be quieter. </p>
<p>People can have different feelings about the same sound. As the founder of <a href="https://communitynoiselab.org/">Community Noise Lab</a> at Brown University’s School of Public Health, I am particularly interested in how we, as humans, decide what is a sound and what is a noise – which is what we call unwanted sounds. We perceive the sounds that we experience in our daily lives in many ways, from quiet to loud. And they can make us feel happy, angry or many things in between. </p>
<p>These feelings can affect our health by relaxing or stressing us. Studies also show that chronic exposure to noise can affect your sleep and hearing and contribute to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1307272">health problems like heart disease</a>.</p>
<h2>How loud are cars?</h2>
<p>We know that gasoline-powered cars make a lot of noise, especially on highways where they can travel at high speeds. In 1981, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency estimated that nearly 100 million people nationwide were exposed to traffic noise every year that was <a href="https://tinyurl.com/97ru8dcs">loud enough to be harmful to their health</a>. At the time, this was about 50% of the U.S. population.</p>
<p>Many factors influence how loud a car is on the road, including its design, how fast it travels and physical road conditions. On average, cars moving at around 30 mph on local roads will produce sound levels ranging from 33 to 69 decibels. That’s the range between a quiet library and a loud dishwasher.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">This video compares the decibel levels produced by loud, moderate and quiet dishwashers.</span></figcaption>
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<p>For cars traveling at typical speeds on the interstate, which is around 70 mph, sound levels range up to 89 decibels. That’s equivalent to two people shouting their conversation at each other.</p>
<p>Electric and hybrid gas/electric cars emit very low sounds at low speeds because they don’t have internal combustion engines producing noise and vibrations. To ensure that pedestrians will hear electric and hybrid vehicles coming, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration <a href="https://www.transportation.gov/briefing-room/nhtsa-sets-%E2%80%9Cquiet-car%E2%80%9D-safety-standard-protect-pedestrians">requires these vehicles to emit sounds</a> ranging from 43 to 64 decibels when they are moving at less than 18.6 mph. Each manufacturer uses its own warning sounds. </p>
<p>At high speeds, there may not be much difference between gas-powered cars and EVs or hybrids. That’s because other factors like tire and wind noise become louder as cars move faster. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Urban noise is a serious health threat worldwide, and the main source is motor vehicles.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Quieter streets for everyone</h2>
<p>Infrastructure also contributes to street noise. Cracks, depressions and holes in roads can increase sound levels as cars travel across them. </p>
<p>Lower-income communities <a href="https://www.pothole.info/2016/02/poor-pavement-hits-lower-income-americans-hard/">tend to have poorer-quality streets</a> and <a href="https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-22-104578">highways</a>. So <a href="https://www.marketplace.org/2019/05/15/one-way-oakland-is-fighting-racial-inequality-by-fixing-potholes/">failing to fix roads</a> could drown out any improvements in a community’s soundscape from EVs, quite literally. </p>
<p>Another way to reduce traffic noise would be to build more bike lanes and paths in less-wealthy communities, which <a href="https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/news/hsph-in-the-news/biking-low-income-neighborhoods/">often lack them</a>, and encourage people to substitute this cheaper, healthier, cleaner and quieter mode of transportation when they can.</p>
<p>Electric vehicles are still out of reach for many people because most models cost more than gas-powered cars. So in reality, the benefits of switching to electric-powered vehicles – such as lower fuel costs, cleaner air and somewhat quieter streets – are going now mainly to people who live in wealthier communities and can afford EVs. </p>
<p>That inequitable distribution of benefits is what the EPA calls an <a href="https://www.epa.gov/environmentaljustice">environmental injustice</a>: a situation in which everyone doesn’t have the same degree of protection from environmental and health hazards. To share those benefits more equally, electric vehicles will have to become as affordable as gas-powered versions. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1553055337141440515"}"></div></p>
<p>Many people think of noise as a nuisance that’s <a href="https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/opinion/worlds-cities-must-take-cacophony-noise-pollution">less urgent</a> than other, more pressing environmental issues like air and water pollution. As a result, governments fail to plan for noise, measure it, mitigate it or regulate it in any meaningful way. </p>
<p>In fact, noise is a significant environmental stressor that negatively affects everyone’s health and well-being, especially those who are most vulnerable. At Community Noise Lab, we aim to shed light on the public health implications of noise, argue for more holistic measurements of sound, and study noise together with other environmental pollutants like water and air pollution, working alongside vulnerable communities across the United States.</p>
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<p><em>Hello, curious kids! Do you have a question you’d like an expert to answer? Ask an adult to send your question to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">CuriousKidsUS@theconversation.com</a>. Please tell us your name, age and the city where you live.</em></p>
<p><em>And since curiosity has no age limit – adults, let us know what you’re wondering, too. We won’t be able to answer every question, but we will do our best.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/179359/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Erica D Walker receives funding from the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation.</span></em></p>Noise pollution is a serious problem, and cars make a lot of it. But roads are also a factor.Erica D. Walker, Assistant Professor of Epidemiology, Brown UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1876412022-07-28T15:22:51Z2022-07-28T15:22:51ZWhy England’s port chaos could get worse – and why technology alone isn’t the answer<p>Recent scenes of bumper-to-bumper <a href="https://inews.co.uk/inews-lifestyle/travel/dover-port-traffic-chaos-critical-incident-queues-hour-passport-control-1759672">traffic and queues</a> of lorries along the roads leading to the English ports of Dover and Folkstone could become a fixture of UK travel reports without the right technological and diplomatic solutions. </p>
<p>The port of Dover was forced to declare a <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/uk/uks-dover-says-long-delays-holidaymakers-are-critical-incident-2022-07-22/">critical incident</a> as people waiting to board ferries faced up to 11-hour wait times on Friday 22 July, the start of the busiest weekend for UK travel. The time to clear passport control was down to <a href="https://inews.co.uk/inews-lifestyle/travel/dover-port-traffic-chaos-critical-incident-queues-hour-passport-control-175967">an hour</a> by the following Sunday, but port authorities and ferry companies are anticipating <a href="https://www.connexionfrance.com/article/French-news/Dover-traffic-backlog-now-cleared-but-warnings-of-future-delays">another busy weekend ahead</a>. </p>
<p>With summer holidaymakers eager to make up for lost time during the pandemic and <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/port-freight-quarterly-statistics-january-to-march-2022">freight traffic</a> also increasing again post-COVID, the chance of continued congestion in and around UK transport hubs will be high for some time. At stake is not just missed connections and ruined holidays, but travellers stuck in traffic for hours without food and water and access to toilets. This is also a major <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-61053402">challenge for freight</a> moving from the UK to EU to export items including fresh produce that is at risk of spoiling if delayed.</p>
<p>Of course such scenes have become an increasingly familiar site on UK screens and front pages in recent years. The Brexit travel arrangements and cross border checks came into effect after the transition period ended in December 2020. </p>
<p>But this change was really only felt by the freight industry – and to an extent passenger transportation sector – in January 2022 as increased post-pandemic travel coincided with school holidays. P&O Ferries’ decision to <a href="https://inews.co.uk/news/easter-travel-drivers-stuck-dover-queues-treatment-no-food-water-toilets-1564847">suspend services</a> following mass redundancies last Easter also had a similar effect. </p>
<p>If this was simply an operational issue it could be addressed with better resourcing and management, but there are also indications that it’s a structural and political issue resulting from Brexit. In this case, a combination of solutions will be needed to address the problem and reduce the risk of disruption for UK holidaymakers and freight transport.</p>
<h2>Disruption theories</h2>
<p>There are several theories about why this disruption is happening. Resourcing is clearly an issue. UK passport-holders now require a stamp and a check on the reason for travel to EU and this requires extra time with passport officials. </p>
<p>Further, UK reports claim France provided only six <a href="https://www.itv.com/news/2022-07-25/what-are-your-rights-if-you-are-caught-up-in-eurotunnel-delays-and-dover-queue">border control officials</a> for the 12 available booths at the Dover checkpoint, while French authorities cited a travel incident in the Channel Tunnel that delayed their inspectors. Ongoing discussions over <a href="https://www.thelondoneconomic.com/politics/the-british-government-rejected-a-33m-proposal-to-double-passport-booths-at-dover-in-2020-330342/">who should pay</a> what for <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/2a6662a0-975e-4bcd-9f5b-e241256db4df">staffing passport controls</a> have not helped the situation.</p>
<p>Brexit also features quite highly as a major reason for the travel disruption, but the exact reasoning depends on political views. In the UK, <a href="https://inews.co.uk/news/liz-truss-jacob-rees-mogg-blame-france-for-dover-delays-but-french-say-brexit-checks-reason-for-chaos-1758925">Brexiteers</a> blame French government not providing the appropriate support, while remainers – and <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2022/07/23/uk/uk-france-dover-delays-brexit-gbr-intl/index.html">French officials</a> – point to this as another reason why the UK should not have left the EU.</p>
<h2>Easing future travel</h2>
<p>Any solution to this travel disruption will involve addressing the twin challenges of resourcing and post-Brexit UK-European relations. More French resources at the UK border will help handle the increase in paperwork processing needed as a result of Brexit. But this will require a political solution, both in terms of mutual collaboration and appropriate financing. </p>
<p>And even as we accept this new normal in terms of movement, weather challenges on the channel could cause further havoc. In 2019, Storm Gareth caused a seven mile-long <a href="https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/storm-gareth-7-mile-ferry-14131523">queue of lorries</a> as channel crossings were stopping due to the weather conditions. Tackling this issue will require both governments to improve infrastructure around their ports to hold passenger and freight traffic when ferries have been cancelled or delayed due to bad weather</p>
<p>Technology will also play a key role in easing some of the processing delays. Digital apps for <a href="https://www.telecomtv.com/content/iot/new-app-flux-makes-freight-traffic-smoother-and-safer-in-ports-and-on-international-roads-34841/">congestion monitoring</a> and the ability to book document processing windows may also help. But </p>
<p>The UK government’s <a href="https://www.gov.uk/guidance/register-for-the-goods-vehicle-movement-service">goods vehicle movement service</a> (GVMS) is a portal for freight transportation that provides a wallet for all the paperwork required for customs. This will help, but it is not the same as free movement and it will still entail processing delays compared to pre-Brexit. Small and medium companies may also need support and training to use of these digital tools for both import and export of goods between UK and EU. </p>
<p>From September, an EU requirement for <a href="https://www.schengenvisainfo.com/news/eu-to-launch-biometric-entry-exit-system-in-a-few-months/">biometric processing</a> of all visitors to the EU from the UK (freight and passenger) will come into effect. This could cause processing delays for cars or lorry drivers at ferry or train terminals as it may require people to <a href="https://www.biometricupdate.com/202111/post-brexit-biometric-border-checks-could-bring-chaos-to-cross-channel-travel">leave their vehicles</a> for checks. The introduction of the <a href="https://www.etias.info/visa-requirements/uk-citizens/">EU’s UK Visa waiver programme</a> (ETIAS) in 2023 may offset some of this increase in border processing times, however.</p>
<p>While there are plenty of technical solutions that can address these ongoing issues for UK freight and tourist travel, such efforts must be underpinned by greater cross-border collaboration. Politicians on both sides of the Channel must work together to identify solutions to alleviate further travel chaos.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/187641/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Samir Dani receives funding for research from UKRI (EPSRC, ESRC, InnovateUK). He is affiliated with the Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport. </span></em></p>With authorities expecting further congestion at UK ports, a range of solutions will be needed to minimise queuing for travellersSamir Dani, Professor of Operations Management, Interim Director of Keele Business School, Keele UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1854022022-06-29T19:55:40Z2022-06-29T19:55:40ZWhen driving near a cycle lane, do you speed up or slow down? Where you’re from may influence your answer<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/469725/original/file-20220620-20-nvsrpo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4904%2C3257&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>There are clear <a href="https://theconversation.com/dont-believe-the-backlash-the-benefits-of-nz-investing-more-in-cycling-will-far-outweigh-the-costs-181053">economic</a>, <a href="https://academic.oup.com/eurpub/article/21/6/738/493197?login=true">environmental</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/road-safety-switch-to-cycling-to-keep-others-safe-131964">safety</a> and <a href="https://www.bmj.com/content/357/bmj.j1456">health benefits</a> to getting people cycling more, but <a href="https://theconversation.com/3-in-4-people-want-to-ride-a-bike-but-are-put-off-by-lack-of-safe-lanes-172868">research</a> shows would-be cyclists are reluctant to start without good cycle paths.</p>
<p>The problem for planners and policymakers is many Australians oppose cycle lanes, believing they’ll only force drivers to drive more slowly and extend travel times. </p>
<p>But our new <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0001457522001580">study</a>, published in the journal Accident Analysis and Prevention, suggests not everyone around the world sees cycle lanes this way.</p>
<p>We found people in the United Kingdom and Australia typically misunderstand the impact cycle lanes have on speed limits – wrongly believing the addition of a cycle lane means cars would inevitably need to go more slowly.</p>
<p>To be clear, nobody is suggesting you should hit the accelerator and drive aggressively fast near cyclists. But if there is a safe cycle path that affords good distance between cars and bikes, there’s no reason the addition of a cycle path should necessarily slow down traffic. </p>
<p>Misunderstanding around this issue may be fuelling avoidable opposition to cycling infrastructure.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/470157/original/file-20220622-17-6gz9m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Aerial view of pedestarians crossing roaad and a bike lane next to pedestrian crossing" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/470157/original/file-20220622-17-6gz9m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/470157/original/file-20220622-17-6gz9m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/470157/original/file-20220622-17-6gz9m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/470157/original/file-20220622-17-6gz9m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/470157/original/file-20220622-17-6gz9m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/470157/original/file-20220622-17-6gz9m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/470157/original/file-20220622-17-6gz9m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Misunderstanding around speed limits may be fuelling avoidable opposition to cycling infrastructure.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/melbourne-vicaustraliaapril-4th-2018-pedestrians-walking-1061752019">Shutterstock</a></span>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/3-in-4-people-want-to-ride-a-bike-but-are-put-off-by-lack-of-safe-lanes-172868">3 in 4 people want to ride a bike but are put off by lack of safe lanes</a>
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<h2>Speed limits: a matter of perception</h2>
<p>Our study involved 1,591 participants in the Netherlands, the UK and Australia. These three countries have similar speed limits in urban areas (50km/h), but the Netherlands has lower speed limits of 30km/h in residential areas.</p>
<p>First, we showed the study participants 15 pictures of streets without cycle lanes and asked them to estimate what the speed limit would be in these streets. </p>
<p>Interestingly, participants from the Netherlands always estimated much lower speeds for these pictures than their UK or Australian counterparts did.</p>
<p>This is important because <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0386111218300876">previous research</a> has shown that the higher speed limits are perceived, the faster drivers intend to drive. And higher speeds are the <a href="https://roadsafety.transport.nsw.gov.au/downloads/road_safety_strategy.pdf">main contributor</a> to road accidents (even more than drugs and fatigue). </p>
<p>Previous research has <a href="https://barrosdool.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/ACRS-journal-Vol28.3-e-edition-extract.pdf">also shown</a> 30km/h speed limits on local residential streets could reduce the Australian road death toll by 13%.</p>
<p>So, for our study, it was significant the Dutch participants always estimated the speed limit would be lower than the UK and Australian respondents did. It suggests Dutch drivers already view roads in a way that is safer for other road users (including cyclists).</p>
<h2>What about when cycle lanes are added into the picture?</h2>
<p>We then showed the participants pictures of the very same streets but after cycle lanes had been built on them (but showed them in a way that meant our participants wouldn’t realise these were the same streets). </p>
<p>In other words, we first showed them the streets <em>without</em> the cycle lanes and then the same street <em>with</em> cycle lanes (some of the cycle lanes were separated lanes, featuring a physical barrier dividing cyclists from cars; others were painted-on bike lanes with no physical barrier).</p>
<p>As we showed these new pictures, we asked the participants again to estimate the speed limit in these streets.</p>
<p>Study participants from Australia and the UK tended to believe cycle lanes would necessitate lower speed limits for drivers. In other words; they saw cycle lanes are a symbol of a slow commute, which would presumably therefore drive down support from drivers. </p>
<p>On the other hand, respondents in the Netherlands (where cycling is more common) perceived cycle lanes would not necessitate lower speed limits for drivers. </p>
<p>In fact, these participants tended to think cycle lanes might even suggest traffic could go faster because the cyclists are in a separate lane (and not mixed in with car traffic).</p>
<p>In short, our research found cycle lanes are usually misinterpreted as meaning “drivers, slow down!” in places where they are not common.</p>
<h2>Where to from here?</h2>
<p>Lower speed limits and cycle lanes are contested issues. Opposition usually comes from drivers who believe lower speed limits will significantly increase their journey times.</p>
<p>But this isn’t always the case. One <a href="https://trid.trb.org/view/1485212">2017 study</a> found “the generic impact of introducing 30km/h in urban residential streets is almost negligible in terms of travel time, ie. 48 seconds for a 27-minute trip, or less than 3%”.</p>
<p>In short, lower speed limits and cycle lanes will not necessarily make your driving time longer. Our study shows that people’s support of cycle lanes is influenced by familiarity with cycle lanes and perceptions of how driver speed limits will be affected by cycling infrastructure.</p>
<p>Australia can <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-australia-can-learn-from-bicycle-friendly-cities-overseas-144283">learn from other cities</a>. Support for the implementation of lower speed limits and cycle lanes will make travelling safer, faster and more sustainable.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/cycle-lanes-blamed-for-urban-congestion-heres-the-reality-173388">Cycle lanes blamed for urban congestion – here's the reality</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/185402/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>We found people from the UK and Australia usually misunderstand the impact cycle lanes have on speed limits – wrongly believing addition of a cycle lane means cars would inevitably need to go slower.Miguel Loyola, PhD Candidate on the Implementation of Sustainable Policies, ITLS, University of SydneyJohn Nelson, Professor of Public Transport, ITLS, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1855512022-06-28T15:05:27Z2022-06-28T15:05:27ZThe art of bribery: a closeup look at how traffic officers operate on Kenya’s roads<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/470320/original/file-20220622-17-w9xvh5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">General Service Unit officers, part of Kenya's police service, stop a commercial vehicle at a checkpoint.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Tony Karumba//AFP via Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>A first-time driver on Kenyan roads is likely to think that commercial and passenger service vehicles are highly regulated. Drivers are frequently stopped by police officers, who are ubiquitous along Kenya’s highways. </p>
<p>Is this evidence that the police are keeping road users safe? </p>
<p>Not necessarily. As <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/358547663_The_art_of_bribery_Analysis_of_police_corruption_at_traffic_checkpoints_and_roadblocks_in_Kenya">my research</a> on police corruption at traffic checkpoints and roadblocks in Kenya shows, other factors are at play. One of them is securing bribes.</p>
<p>A number of reports on <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321952837_Police_corruption_and_the_security_challenge_in_Kenya">police corruption</a> in Kenya have been drawn up. However, first-hand data on corrupt transactions at police checkpoints and roadblocks are not easy to come by. </p>
<p>I examined the techniques, rationales and legal gaps that allow for corrupt practices and policing misconduct on Kenyan roads. </p>
<p>My research describes how corruption’s logic, practices and coded languages are developed, how actors are recruited and regulated, the inventing and concealing of evidence, establishment of players or networks, and the forming of norms and normalising of corrupt practices.</p>
<p>I call this process the art of bribery.</p>
<p>My findings into how government institutions work can provide insights into implementing policies that address corruption. </p>
<h2>Partners in crime</h2>
<p>In Kenya’s traffic stops, bribery is a means to cope and fit within the elaborate network in the police hierarchy. It is an outcome of indoctrination by older timers. There are set rules of the game, some of which are not clearly defined or are loosely regulated. </p>
<p>Motorists pay bribes to circumvent traffic regulations, while the police maximise illicit incomes for personal and institutional gains. Dissidence is rare and may come at a great cost, especially within the police service. But even if dissent occurs in the form of whistleblowing, no significant punishment is meted out on the culprits.</p>
<p>Even though this state of affairs paints a grim image of the police, motorists are equal partners in this corruption racket, especially when they fail to comply with traffic regulations on issues like vehicle loads or speed limits.</p>
<p>Kenya’s unstructured public transport sector and confusing traffic regulations exacerbate bribery at checkpoints, creating a corruption complex that draws in the police and motorists. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/boda-bodas-are-critical-to-kenyas-transport-system-but-theyve-gone-rogue-179234">Boda bodas are critical to Kenya's transport system. But they've gone rogue</a>
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<p>My research was based on an ethnographic study involving police officers and operatives of passenger service vehicles (called matatus) on selected busy routes: Nairobi-Nakuru, Nakuru-Kisumu and Kisumu-Migori. A documentary analysis of secondary data, like <a href="https://www.afrobarometer.org/countries/kenya/">Afrobarometer</a> survey findings and statutory and media reports, complemented the primary data. </p>
<p>When asked how bribes are distributed or divided among the police, one police respondent stated: <em>“Hiyo inaenda mbali na hukuliwa na watu wengi, hata wakubwa.”</em> Translated, this means that collected bribes move along the hierarchy to high-ranking beneficiaries at police headquarters. </p>
<p>This suggests that police corruption in Kenya flows within personal and corporate networks that uniquely bring together lower cadre and major players in the police service. These networks are loosely latched onto a well-established and institutionalised culture of corruption. </p>
<p>In interviews, one officer painted a hopeless picture regarding the application of oversight mechanisms in Kenya’s capital, Nairobi, when he mentioned that they sometimes ‘eat’ (share bribes) with some <a href="https://eacc.go.ke/default/">Ethics and Anti-Corruption Commission</a> officials. </p>
<p>Additionally, seasoned players indoctrinate newcomers. As in most conventional corruption situations, unequal power relations and coercion are the primary drivers. </p>
<p>There are also police officers, mainly base commanders, on retainer payments. Here, owners of vehicle fleets pay bribes in exchange for ‘protection’ or to maintain good relations. The bribery network also involves court officials and magistrates. This turns court corridors into corruption negotiation spaces. </p>
<h2>The rules of the game</h2>
<p>The rules are clear: don’t involve oversight institutions or lawyers when dealing with the police. Police officers are averse to matatu owners and operatives who think they’re connected and know the law. </p>
<p>The same applies to acts of dissent within the service. The police officers I interviewed mentioned professional witchhunts and victimisation as outcomes of whistleblowing. </p>
<p>For motorists, the legal landscape is too time-consuming and costly to effect their agency against police corruption. Matatu owners reported that their vehicles were targeted or their drivers frustrated after a court process, resulting in a difficult, if not impossible, environment to run a business. </p>
<p>Police recruits are advised or socialised on ‘how things are done here’. In this way, institutional structures and culture reinforce corrupt practices. </p>
<p>When a motorist stopped at a roadblock, a lot could happen. The police officer may decide to impound the vehicle and confine it to a station. This is a route many motorists detest because it shifts the grounds of negotiation in favour of the police. </p>
<p>This is because, first, the police are in custody of the vehicle. Second, it involves a bigger fish, such as a base commander, and the issue could end up in court. Third, one’s offences may change or take a different dimension by the time the case gets to court. </p>
<p>Considering the punitive nature of Kenya’s traffic legislation, many motorists make the choice to bribe at the roadblock. </p>
<p>Essentially, bribery incomes have become a source of livelihood for many police officers. As one police respondent in my research stated: </p>
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<p>Ukiangalia vile tunaishi (If you consider how we live), we live in shacks around here. There is no water sometimes and the rooms are suffocating … to make it worse, the salary is not adequate given the Kenya of today. What do you expect me to do? </p>
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<h2>The way forward</h2>
<p>My research found that corrupt exchanges are regulated by the taken-for-granted rules of the game. These legitimise police misconduct, curtail detection and define the scales of bribery. </p>
<p>Likewise, there are socialisation and rationalisation processes among motorists and police officers that lead to non-responsiveness in reporting police misconduct. Furthermore, stricter traffic laws and costly penalties could perpetuate rather than reduce police corruption. </p>
<p>Tackling police corruption, therefore, lies in addressing the broader deficits that hamper the rule of law in Kenya. Corruption is a function of a lack of adequate legislation, and poor quality of police service personnel and public leadership. </p>
<p>The professionalisation of the police should begin by recruiting and attracting highly qualified and educated individuals. This will change the <a href="https://www.pulselive.co.ke/news/local/police-respond-to-senator-malala-after-claiming-the-nps-comprises-school-dropouts/xhnye5p">current narrative</a> that portrays the police service as a den of academic underperformers only known for <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270706657_The_Achilles'_Heel_of_Police_Reforms_in_Kenya">dispensing brute force</a> on the citizenry as in colonial days. </p>
<p>Raising the academic competency of the service will steer it toward becoming an intelligent organisation and transform its image. It will also be able to address current political neglect in the forms of under-remuneration and poor living conditions for police officers. </p>
<p>Finally, professionalising the force will create an enabling environment for the <a href="https://theconversation.com/kenya-has-tried-to-reform-its-police-force-but-its-left-gaps-for-abuse-176044">ongoing police reforms</a>, which seek to improve the institution’s effectiveness. </p>
<p>The government must ensure intensive training of the police on the rule of law and citizen rights, conduct public awareness campaigns, and create a less costly and burdensome justice system. This calls for effective collaboration and coordination among state agencies, including oversight agencies and the judiciary.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/185551/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gedion Onyango does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Police checkpoints liberally dot Kenya’s highways, but they’re not just about keeping road users safe.Gedion Onyango, Senior Lecturer, University of NairobiLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1853162022-06-22T11:30:15Z2022-06-22T11:30:15ZHow to get cars out of cities – podcast<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/469492/original/file-20220617-23-xn5wz2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=86%2C86%2C5665%2C3742&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/traffic-jam-hamburg-1098825941">Canetti/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>This episode of The Conversation’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/in-depth-out-loud-podcast-46082">In Depth Out Loud podcast</a> explains the 12 best ways to get cars out of cities, based on new research. </p>
<iframe src="https://embed.acast.com/5e29c8205aa745a456af58c8/62b1cd46ab73180012ae5c29" frameborder="0" width="100%" height="190px"></iframe>
<p><iframe id="tc-infographic-563" class="tc-infographic" height="100" src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/infographics/563/073b078b1fc9085013377310bc6db3368fb84a13/site/index.html" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>Kimberly Nicholas, an associate professor of sustainability science at Lund University, says that congestion charging and creating car-free streets and separated bike lanes are some of the best ways to reduce car use in cities. You can read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/12-best-ways-to-get-cars-out-of-cities-ranked-by-new-research-180642">text version of her original article here</a>. </p>
<p>The audio version of this article is read by Adrienne Walker in partnership with Noa, News Over Audio. Listen to more articles from The Conversation, for free, on the <a href="https://newsoveraudio.com/publishers/103?mpId=17937807d4095-03ef8e1781bb1c8-445466-1fa400-17937807d41112&embedPubName=The%20Conversation&embedPubId=103">Noa app</a>. </p>
<p>This story came out of a project at The Conversation called Insights, which generates long-form journalism and is working with academics from different backgrounds who have been engaged in projects to tackle societal and scientific challenges. You can read <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/insights-series-71218">more stories in the series here</a>.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/313478/original/file-20200204-41481-1n8vco4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/313478/original/file-20200204-41481-1n8vco4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=112&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313478/original/file-20200204-41481-1n8vco4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=112&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313478/original/file-20200204-41481-1n8vco4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=112&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313478/original/file-20200204-41481-1n8vco4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313478/original/file-20200204-41481-1n8vco4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313478/original/file-20200204-41481-1n8vco4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><em>The music in In Depth Out Loud is Night Caves, by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dvwbOVMlp3o">Lee Rosevere</a>. In Depth Out Loud is produced by Gemma Ware.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/185316/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kimberly Nicholas was funded for this work by the Swedish Research Council Formas, grant 2019-02051.</span></em></p>The audio version of an in-depth article on the 12 best ways to get cars out of cities.Kimberly Nicholas, Associate Professor of Sustainability Science, Lund UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1827352022-05-31T12:10:25Z2022-05-31T12:10:25ZDeaths and injuries in road crashes are a ‘silent epidemic on wheels’<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465585/original/file-20220526-20-xx46kf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C10%2C6699%2C4456&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Pedestrians pass the aftermath of a crash in Gaza City in the Gaza Strip on Oct. 11, 2021.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/palestinians-walk-next-to-a-car-that-was-involved-in-a-news-photo/1235821622">Majdi Fathi/NurPhoto via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The COVID-19 pandemic has generated mind-numbing statistics over the past two years: half a billion cases, 6 million deaths, 1 million in the U.S. alone. But another, less-publicized global scourge preceded it and is likely to outlast it: traffic deaths and injuries. </p>
<p>Around <a href="https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/indicators/indicator-details/GHO/estimated-number-of-road-traffic-deaths">1.35 million people die each year</a> on the world’s roads, and another 20 million to 50 million are seriously injured. Half of these deaths and many of the injuries involve pedestrians, cyclists and motorcyclists – the most vulnerable users of roads and streets. </p>
<p>Around the world, someone dies from a road accident every 25 seconds. The head of the United Nations Road Safety Fund has called road deaths and injuries <a href="https://genevasolutions.news/global-news/road-accidents-are-a-silent-epidemic-on-wheels-says-un-road-safety-fund-boss">a “silent epidemic on wheels</a>”.</p>
<p>I have <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=oMPNYhQAAAAJ&hl=en">studied cities and urban policy</a> for many years, including <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-is-the-u-s-unwilling-to-pay-for-good-public-transportation-56788">transportation</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-us-cities-are-becoming-more-dangerous-for-cyclists-and-pedestrians-111713">road safety</a>. In my view, making <a href="https://www.iii.org/insuranceindustryblog/reducing-traffic-fatalities-and-injuries-through-vision-zero/">transportation systems safer</a> is <a href="https://www.un.org/en/un-chronicle/role-united-nations-system-improving-road-safety-save-lives-and-advance-sustainable">feasible</a> and isn’t rocket science. The key is for governments to prioritize safer roads, speeds and vehicles, and to promote policies such as <a href="https://www.ite.org/technical-resources/traffic-calming/traffic-calming-measures/">traffic calming</a> that are known to reduce the risk of crashes. </p>
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<h2>The costs</h2>
<p>It may seem like hyperbole to talk about road deaths as equivalent to pandemic diseases, but the numbers make the case. Road fatalities are now the <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/the-top-10-causes-of-death">top cause of death</a> for children and young adults worldwide between the ages of 5 and 29, and the <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/the-top-10-causes-of-death">seventh-leading cause of death</a> overall in low-income countries. </p>
<p>Crashes cause serious economic harm to victims and their families, as well as to the broader society. A 2019 study estimated that between 2015 and 2030, road injuries will cost the global economy almost <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(19)30170-6">$1.8 trillion</a>. </p>
<p>Because death and injury rates are highest in low- and middle-income countries, dangerous roads add to the costs of being poor and are a <a href="https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2018/01/09/road-deaths-and-injuries-hold-back-economic-growth-in-developing-countries">major inhibitor of economic growth</a>. That is why one of the U.N.’s Sustainable Development Goals is to <a href="https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/themes/topics/sdg-target-3_6-road-traffic-injuries#cms">halve the number of global deaths and injuries</a> from traffic incidents by 2030. </p>
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<h2>More deaths in lower-income countries</h2>
<p>There is <a href="https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/indicators/indicator-details/GHO/estimated-number-of-road-traffic-deaths">considerable variation in traffic fatality rates worldwide</a>. Road traffic death rates range from 27 per 100,000 population in Africa to only 7 per 100,000 in Europe. </p>
<p>Richer nations have had mass automobile traffic longer than lower-income countries, so they have had more time to develop strategies and tactics to reduce accidents and fatalities. For example, in 1937 – in an era when traffic death in the streets of cities like New York was considered a <a href="http://cup.columbia.edu/book/down-the-asphalt-path/9780231083911">routine part of metropolitan life</a> – the U.S. road death rate was <a href="https://injuryfacts.nsc.org/motor-vehicle/historical-fatality-trends/deaths-and-rates/">31 per 100,000</a>. That’s about the same as today’s rate in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. </p>
<p>Lower-income countries tend to have vehicles that are less safe; poorer roads; more vulnerable road users, such as pedestrians and cyclists, sharing urban space with vehicles; and poorer medical care, which means injury can more easily lead to death. These nations also have less ability to introduce or enforce traffic laws. </p>
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<span class="caption">Traffic in Manila, Philippines.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">John Rennie Short</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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<p>Traffic incidents in higher-income counties often only involve one or two people. In lower-income countries, incidents tend to involve multiple passengers. </p>
<p>For example, in 2021 in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, a fuel truck collided with a crowded bus 110 miles outside the capital of Kinshasa, <a href="https://www.trtworld.com/africa/deadly-crash-between-bus-and-fuel-truck-leaves-dozens-dead-in-drc-48866">killing 33 people</a>. Deadly road incidents are frequent in the DRC, where the roads are poor, there are many unsafe older vehicles, many drivers are not properly trained and drinking and driving is common. </p>
<p>For many <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iatssr.2020.12.006">middle-income countries</a>, the challenge is a very rapid increase in vehicular traffic as the population becomes more urban and more people earn enough money to buy motorcycles and cars. This quick rise can overwhelm the carrying capacity of urban roads. </p>
<h2>In the US, less regulation and more deaths</h2>
<p>There also are differences among richer countries. In 1994, Europe and the United States had the same traffic death rates, but by 2020 Americans were over <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/transportation/2022/05/21/road-deaths-fatalities-safety/">three times more likely to die on the road</a> than Europeans. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Traffic deaths in the U.S. rose by more than 10% from 2020 to 2021.</span></figcaption>
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<p>Today, 12 people are killed in traffic per 100,000 annually in the U.S., compared to 4 per 100,000 in the Netherlands and Germany, and only 2 per 100,000 in Norway. The difference reflects more aggressive programs across Europe to reduce speeds, greater investment in mass transit and stricter drunk driving enforcement. </p>
<p>The U.S. doesn’t just <a href="https://www.vox.com/the-big-idea/2016/11/30/13784520/roads-deaths-increase-safety-traffic-us">lag behind</a> other rich countries in promoting road safety. In recent years, traffic deaths in the U.S. have increased. After a gradual reduction over 50 years, fatalities soared to a 16-year high in 2021 when almost 43,000 people died. Pedestrian deaths hit a 40-year high at 7,500. </p>
<p>What caused this <a href="https://www.latimes.com/world-nation/story/2021-12-08/traffic-deaths-surged-during-covid-19-pandemic-heres-why">surge in deaths</a>? Roads were less busy during COVID-19 lockdowns, but proportionately more people engaged in riskier behaviors, including <a href="https://newsroom.aaa.com/2022/02/solving-a-puzzle-with-fewer-drivers-on-the-road-during-covid-why-the-spike-in-fatalities/">speeding, drinking and driving, distracted driving and not using seat belts</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/why-us-cities-are-becoming-more-dangerous-for-cyclists-and-pedestrians-111713">Cyclist and pedestrian traffic deaths</a> were rising even before the pandemic, as cities encouraged walking and biking without providing adequate infrastructure. Painting a white line on a busy street is not a substitute for providing a fully protected, designated bicycle lane. </p>
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<h2>Two harmful narratives about traffic safety</h2>
<p>Two narratives often cloud discussions of traffic fatalities. First, calling these events “accidents” normalizes what I view as a slaughter of innocents. It is part of the cult of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2018.10.008">automobility</a> and the primacy that the U.S. affords to fast-moving vehicular traffic. </p>
<p>Automobility has created a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/17450101.2021.1981118">special form of space</a> – roads and highways – where deaths and injuries are considered “accidents.” In my view, this is an extreme form of environmental injustice. Historically disadvantaged groups and poorer communities are <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26622434?seq=1">overrepresented in traffic deaths and injuries</a>.</p>
<p>The second misleading narrative holds that nearly all road deaths and injuries <a href="https://usa.streetsblog.org/2020/10/14/the-94-solution-we-need-to-understand-the-causes-of-crashes/">are caused by human error</a>. Public officials regularly blame poor drivers, distracted pedestrians and aggressive bicyclists for street deaths. </p>
<p>People do take too many risks. In recent years, AAA’s annual traffic safety culture survey has found that a majority of drivers view unsafe driving behaviors, such as texting while driving or speeding on highways, as extremely or very dangerous. But significant numbers of drivers report <a href="https://aaafoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/2020-Traffic-Safety-Culture-Index-October-2021.pdf">engaging in those behaviors anyway</a>. </p>
<p>But as urban studies expert <a href="https://www.davidzipper.com/">David Zipper</a> has pointed out, a <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2021/11/deadly-myth-human-error-causes-most-car-crashes/620808/">persistent myth</a> often cited by government agencies and the media asserts that 94% of accidents in the U.S. are caused by individual drivers. This bloated figure has successfully shifted responsibility away from other factors such as <a href="https://www.iihs.org/news/detail/suvs-other-large-vehicles-often-hit-pedestrians-while-turning">car design</a>, <a href="https://smartgrowthamerica.org/dange;%20rous-by-design/">traffic infrastructure</a> and the need for <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3893966/">more effective public policies</a>. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Former New York City transportation commissioner Janette Sadik-Khan visits a street in Queens that was closed to cars during the COVID-19 pandemic. Advocates are campaigning to make the closure permanent.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Governments have the tools</h2>
<p>As I see it, road traffic deaths and injuries are not accidents. They are incidents that can be <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/road-traffic-injuries">prevented and reduced</a>. Doing that will require governments and urban planners to reimagine transportation systems not just for speed and efficiency, but also for safety and livability. </p>
<p>That will mean protecting motorcyclists, bicyclists and pedestrians from vehicular traffic and reducing traffic speed on urban roads. It also will require <a href="https://www.pps.org/article/livememtraffic">better road design</a>, <a href="https://extranet.who.int/roadsafety/death-on-the-roads/#speed">enforcement of traffic laws</a> that make the roads safer, and more effective and enforceable measures that promote safety devices like seat belts, child restraints, and helmets for bikers and motorcyclists. </p>
<p>Unlike the COVID-19 pandemic, making streets safer doesn’t require designing new solutions in laboratories. What’s needed is the will to apply tools that have been shown to work.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/182735/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>John Rennie Short does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Traffic crashes kill and injure millions worldwide every year and are a major drain on economic development. Improving road safety would produce huge payoffs, especially in lower-income countries.John Rennie Short, Professor, School of Public Policy, University of Maryland, Baltimore CountyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1793782022-03-24T19:03:41Z2022-03-24T19:03:41ZWhat’s the best way to parallel park your car? Engineers have the answer<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/454043/original/file-20220324-19-9phgz1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=130%2C0%2C7737%2C5237&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>You’re driving slowly along a street, looking for a place to park. You come across a long stretch of parallel parking. But to your frustration, the spaces left by other people’s parking efforts are not quite long enough for you to fit. The search continues. </p>
<p>Drawn from our own frustrating experiences with parking, we decided to answer the question once and for all - what’s the best way to parallel park your car? Our <a href="https://findingspress.org/article/33123-parallel-parking-vehicle-alignment-strategies">research</a> has found a simple answer. </p>
<p>You should always park at one end of a parking space, leaving as big a space as possible at the other end. It doesn’t matter which end – just remember to leave yourself room to get out. While this might sound obvious, a quick look at the street outside your home will show many drivers think parking in the middle of the space is best – or just don’t give it much thought at all.</p>
<p>Optimising how we park our cars in cities matters, because free parking spaces are, by their nature, a limited resource. We’ve taken to our cars with a vengeance as the world slowly reemerges from lockdowns. <a href="https://covid19.apple.com/mobility">Mobility data</a> shows our cities are coming back to life, with our travel behaviours changing in turn. </p>
<p>Even though many of us are still <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0965856421003219">working from home</a>, those of us commuting are reluctant to <a href="https://ses.library.usyd.edu.au/handle/2123/27578">return to public transport</a>. You’ll have already noticed the result based on traffic. The number of cars on the roads of Australian cities has already met or gone past pre-COVID numbers, and so too the parking demand.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/452652/original/file-20220317-8425-umnc2g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Apple Mobility data for Sydney" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/452652/original/file-20220317-8425-umnc2g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/452652/original/file-20220317-8425-umnc2g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452652/original/file-20220317-8425-umnc2g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452652/original/file-20220317-8425-umnc2g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452652/original/file-20220317-8425-umnc2g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452652/original/file-20220317-8425-umnc2g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452652/original/file-20220317-8425-umnc2g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Apple Mobility data shows activity has resumed in Sydney, with driving recovering more strongly than public transit or walking.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source"> covid19.apple.com/mobility</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How can we all park better?</h2>
<p>Everyone is familiar with marked spaces, where painted lines show you where to park. These help manage our frustrations with unreliable parking, but they are bad for density because every space needs to be able to accommodate a large car. </p>
<p>In our research, we focused on unmarked parallel parking, such as that found on most residential streets. That’s because here we can control exactly where we position our cars. </p>
<p>We tested four strategies drivers can follow in these types of parks: </p>
<ol>
<li>always park as far back as possible</li>
<li>park at either end of the space</li>
<li>park in the middle of the space </li>
<li>randomly park anywhere in the available space. </li>
</ol>
<p>We simulated what would happen in the common situation where demand exceeds supply, in which there is always a car waiting to park, with a driver who is prepared to wait until someone else leaves.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/454047/original/file-20220324-21-ld876z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="car looking for park" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/454047/original/file-20220324-21-ld876z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/454047/original/file-20220324-21-ld876z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454047/original/file-20220324-21-ld876z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454047/original/file-20220324-21-ld876z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454047/original/file-20220324-21-ld876z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454047/original/file-20220324-21-ld876z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454047/original/file-20220324-21-ld876z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hunting for a car park can be a frustrating experience.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The worst strategy for maximising car parks? Parking in the middle of the space. You might find this useful if, say, you wanted to discourage people from parking directly outside your house. Parking in the middle of the available space makes it harder to cram more cars in. </p>
<p>We found parking randomly in a space can produce slightly better outcomes. Many drivers use this strategy subconsciously. </p>
<p>But overall, the best strategy for fitting as many cars into scarce street parking is to park at either end of the space. It doesn’t matter which end you park at, and it doesn’t even matter if you choose the same end as your neighbours. Under this scenario, we could fit the most cars onto any street.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/452655/original/file-20220317-8201-15difh5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="The four parking strategies" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/452655/original/file-20220317-8201-15difh5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/452655/original/file-20220317-8201-15difh5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452655/original/file-20220317-8201-15difh5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452655/original/file-20220317-8201-15difh5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452655/original/file-20220317-8201-15difh5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452655/original/file-20220317-8201-15difh5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/452655/original/file-20220317-8201-15difh5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The four parking strategies we tested. Time progresses from bottom to top, with cars leaving and being replaced. Cars are represented by coloured rectangles, with the width of the rectangle the length of the car, and the height of the rectangle how long it was parked for. White represents a gap along the kerb.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We also analysed what happens when there’s only a small distance between driveways or intersections. If you live in a street with shorter kerbs, parking at either end of the spot becomes even more beneficial. </p>
<p>How significant is this technique? In many residential areas, you can almost double the number of cars able to fit on the road by parking at the front or back of the available spaces. </p>
<h2>Issues with parking</h2>
<p>Parking is a scarce resource that we need to manage carefully to encourage other modes of transport, such as public and active transport. Storing cars on valuable land is also a <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/48646186?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents">poor use of real estate</a>. If autonomous cars arrive, we might see a future in which cars drive themselves off to remote car parks and free up all of the highly accessible land currently used for street parking.</p>
<p>If we wanted to reduce the demand for parking, we would have to encourage more people to return to public transport through measures such as lowering fares, or increasing the cost of parking or <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-petrol-excise-and-why-does-australia-have-it-anyway-179373">fuel</a>. We could also build extra car parks next to train stations or bus bays. </p>
<p>But given these measures are <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/still-looking-for-a-car-park-2019-election-promises-stalled-20220215-p59wk8.html">unlikely to happen</a> in the near future, we need to make the most of the parking we have. </p>
<p>Until then, the management of on-street parking will remain a vexed issue, particularly in our most congested cities. In Sydney, for instance, <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/barangaroo-public-parking-cut-as-residential-parking-increases-in-latest-proposed-changes-20150326-1m891g.html">local residents and commuters</a> vie with <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/barangaroo-public-parking-cut-as-residential-parking-increases-in-latest-proposed-changes-20150326-1m891g.html">visitors</a> for the right to park in a given street. </p>
<p>As the amount of on-street parking is more or less fixed, we should make the most of the space we’ve got. Next time you come across an unmarked parallel park, try parking at the front or back of the space.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/179378/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>On-street parking is an increasingly scarce resource as we take to our cars post-lockdowns. Here’s how to make the most of it.Benjy Marks, Lecturer in Geomechanics, University of SydneyEmily Moylan, Lecturer, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1739152022-02-16T00:22:20Z2022-02-16T00:22:20ZTailgating is stressful and dangerous. Our research examines ways it might be stopped<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446406/original/file-20220215-140003-sacbul.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>We’ve all been there (and perhaps even done it): a quick glance in the rear-view mirror shows the car behind is too close to our bumper, an aggression designed to make us drive faster or move over. </p>
<p>It is not only unpleasant, but highly dangerous. A Queensland study found being tailgated is one of the most <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2018.03.009">stressful driving experiences</a>. This is no surprise considering tailgating is among the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2013.02.002">top five complaints</a> of road users. </p>
<p>So, what is being done to prevent this behaviour on our roads? </p>
<p>Based on the statistics, one could assume current countermeasures are not effective in preventing tailgating behaviours. For example, over <a href="https://crashstats.nhtsa.dot.gov/Api/Public/ViewPublication/812384">500,000 motor-vehicle collisions and injuries</a> globally have been attributed to not maintaining a safe following distance. </p>
<p>In Queensland, Australia, over 7,000 injuries and fatalities were <a href="https://www.tmr.qld.gov.au/">attributed to tailgating</a> between 2019 and 2020. However, only 3,120 drivers received an <a href="https://www.tmr.qld.gov.au/">infringement notice</a> for the behaviour in this period. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/road-rage-why-normal-people-become-harmful-on-the-roads-60845">Road rage: why normal people become harmful on the roads</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How can tailgating be stopped?</h2>
<p><a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/26338076211065208">Our research</a> applied three deterrence-based theories used in road safety to examine whether current countermeasures are effective in preventing tailgating. </p>
<p>A total of 887 Queensland licensed drivers completed an online survey (55% male and an average age of 49 years). An alarming 98% of participants reported having tailgated at some point, highlighting how common the behaviour is on Queensland roads. Consistent with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2020.105626">previous research</a>, males and younger drivers reported the highest levels of tailgating.</p>
<p>Our research made the following findings (based on three deterrence-based theories):</p>
<ul>
<li><p>drivers who believe the consequences for tailgating (that is, the fine and demerit points) are high, are less likely to engage in the behaviour </p></li>
<li><p>drivers who frequently tailgate (but are not caught) are more likely to continue the behaviour</p></li>
<li><p>those who know of family or friends who have been caught for tailgating are less likely to engage in the behaviour</p></li>
<li><p>those who think tailgating increases their risk of injury are less likely to engage in the behaviour</p></li>
<li><p>drivers who feel guilty for tailgating are less likely to engage in the behaviour</p></li>
<li><p>those who believe the chances of being caught for tailgating are low are more likely to continue engaging in the behaviour. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>So, some current countermeasures for tailgating can be effective. Of particular interest is the finding that individuals who know of someone receiving a fine for tailgating are less likely to tailgate. </p>
<p>And information can spread widely, so someone being fined for tailgating may also deter friends and family from doing it. </p>
<p>However, some findings highlight that there is certainly room for improvement. These findings include:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>drivers believe there is a low chance of being caught for tailgating</p></li>
<li><p>people frequently avoid detection.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Importantly, the findings suggest that legal sanctions can be improved by increasing drivers’ perceptions that they will be caught for tailgating. </p>
<p>Our findings also suggest that increasing the penalties (fines and demerit points) for tailgating may not necessarily improve the deterrent effect, as the current penalty is already considered effective. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/speeding-drivers-keep-breaking-the-law-even-after-fines-and-crashes-new-research-161672">Speeding drivers keep breaking the law even after fines and crashes: new research</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Where to now?</h2>
<p>There are two main actions that could increase drivers’ perceptions of the likelihood of being caught for tailgating. These include the use of cameras that can capture this behaviour, and additional police operations to detect the practice.</p>
<p>In the UK, there are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0022018319875527">police operations to detect phone use while driving</a> that use larger vehicles to see what other drivers are doing more easily. UK police also encourage drivers to send in dash-cam footage of drivers violating road rules. Such measures may also be useful for capturing tailgating. </p>
<p>The findings also identify that the risk of injury and sense of guilt associated with tailgating are associated with less frequent engagement in this behaviour. So, those who tailgate frequently likely do not feel much guilt about doing so and do not think about the risk of injury associated with crashing. Therefore, campaigns that target these factors is another area to consider for preventing tailgating. </p>
<p>Taken together, the research findings highlight that tailgating remains a pervasive problem. Both legal and non-legal factors need to be part of efforts to counter this behaviour. </p>
<p>Tailgating may seem minor, but it is stressful for other drivers and dangerous. We must look at ways to curb this behaviour.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/173915/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michelle Nicolls receives funding from the Motor Accident Insurance Commission (MAIC).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>This research was funded by the Motor Accident Insurance Commission. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>This research was partially supported by the Motor Accident Commission (MAIC) Queensland. The views expressed herein are those of the authors and are not necessarily those of the MAIC. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Verity Truelove receives funding from the Motor Accident Insurance Commission (MAIC). </span></em></p>We need to do more to curb tailgating, one of the most stressful and dangerous driving behaviours.Michelle Nicolls, PhD Candidate, University of the Sunshine CoastKayla Stefanidis, Research Fellow, University of the Sunshine CoastNatalie Watson-Brown, Research Associate, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), Centre for Accident Research and Road Safety (CARRS-Q)Verity Truelove, Senior Research Fellow in Road Safety Research, University of the Sunshine CoastLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1755562022-02-14T12:34:52Z2022-02-14T12:34:52ZTime for the UK to say goodbye to drive-throughs: for the sake of our environment, our health – and our culture<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/drive-throughs-are-busier-than-ever-during-the-pandemic-but-theyre-hotspots-for-air-pollution-148031">Drive-throughs</a> – services that let people order and collect food and drink without needing to leave their cars – are designed with convenience in mind. Whether it’s oppressively hot, uncomfortably cold, or we’re just in a hurry, drive-throughs have become very appealing in an era characterised by a desire for <a href="https://callahan.agency/lessons-from-chobani-greek-yogurt-about-the-era-of-immediacy/">immediacy</a>.</p>
<p>In the UK, where there are around <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2021/jul/10/meals-by-wheels-uk-drive-through-booms-as-brands-invest-in-new-sites">2,000 drive-throughs</a>, it’s not unusual to see snaking queues of vehicles whose drivers are waiting for their turn to make, pay for, and collect their orders. </p>
<p>In fact, drive-throughs are on an upward trajectory in the UK. There was a <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/business/bunfight-to-buy-drivethrus-as-pandemic-sparks-customer-demand-b1882292.html">41% increase</a> in the number of drive-throughs between 2015 and 2020, and <a href="https://www.npd.com/news/press-releases/2021/delivery-click-collect-deals-drive-thru-treating-and-vegan-how-covid-19-has-changed-eating-out-over-the-last-12-months-in-the-uk/">12% of sales</a> at fast food restaurants and coffee chains were made through their drive-through sites in the year to March 2021: jumping 50% from pre-COVID figures.</p>
<p>This service has become indispensable for many. Drive-throughs provide benefits for people with mobility challenges as well as those with intensely busy schedules or people wrangling small children. In the US, even some banks and pharmacies offer drive-through options. And by helping customers avoid indoor dining, drive-throughs may have also helped limit the spread of COVID-19. But drive-throughs come at a cost.</p>
<p>First, drive-throughs require excessive idling, something that is <a href="https://www.dudley.gov.uk/business/environmental-health/pollution-control/air-quality/idling-vehicles-contribute-to-air-pollution/">banned</a> on public roads in the UK but regularly and casually done in drive-through queues. In addition to increasing emissions, <a href="http://www.energysavingtrust.org.uk/sites/default/files/Drive_smart_and_safe_this_winter_Jan2014%20(1).pdf">wasting fuel</a> and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0301421509001633">damaging engines</a>, exhaust pipe emissions associated with idling create <a href="https://www.rcplondon.ac.uk/projects/outputs/every-breath-we-take-lifelong-impact-air-pollution">local air pollution</a> with serious environmental and health consequences.</p>
<p>Poor air quality is already a widespread problem in the UK where more than two-thirds of local authorities <a href="https://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/library/annualreport/viewonline?year=2019_issue_1#report_pdf">breach</a> air quality targets. Even if we were to meet these targets, the <a href="https://www.rcplondon.ac.uk/projects/outputs/every-breath-we-take-lifelong-impact-air-pollution">Royal College of Physicians</a> has warned that only a fraction of incidences of air quality-related illnesses – <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/health-matters-air-pollution/health-matters-air-pollution">including</a> lung cancer, asthma attacks, and overall lower life expectancy – would be prevented. Currently, air pollution leads to <a href="https://www.rcplondon.ac.uk/projects/outputs/every-breath-we-take-lifelong-impact-air-pollution">40,000 deaths</a> per year in the UK, with annual costs to the NHS of more than £20 billion. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A queue of cars with a sign reading 'No drive thru access'" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446245/original/file-20220214-17-1agf5s8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446245/original/file-20220214-17-1agf5s8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=305&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446245/original/file-20220214-17-1agf5s8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=305&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446245/original/file-20220214-17-1agf5s8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=305&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446245/original/file-20220214-17-1agf5s8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=384&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446245/original/file-20220214-17-1agf5s8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=384&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446245/original/file-20220214-17-1agf5s8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=384&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Idling in drive-through queues is bad for people and the planet.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/prayitnophotography/50944999527">Prayitnophotography/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In light of the ongoing <a href="https://www.theccc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/The-UKs-transition-to-electric-vehicles.pdf">transition</a> towards electric vehicles, the environmental concerns of idling will diminish. The UK’s plan to <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/government-takes-historic-step-towards-net-zero-with-end-of-sale-of-new-petrol-and-diesel-cars-by-2030">phase out</a> sales of internal combustion engines will also reduce <a href="https://www.local.gov.uk/case-electric-vehicles">exhaust pipe emissions</a> as we head towards 2050. </p>
<p>Yet even so, emissions from brake wear and tyre wear are respectively responsible for <a href="https://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/bitstream/JRC89231/jrc89231-online%20final%20version%202.pdf">16-55%</a> and <a href="https://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/bitstream/JRC89231/jrc89231-online%20final%20version%202.pdf">5-30%</a> of non-exhaust emissions in UK towns and cities. That means air pollution and its associated health effects will not be completely resolved by the switch to electric cars.</p>
<h2>The bottom line</h2>
<p>Around the world, cities have begun to crack down on the drive-through, despite <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2021/jul/10/meals-by-wheels-uk-drive-through-booms-as-brands-invest-in-new-sites">renewed investment</a> following the pandemic. Some regions in <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12889-018-5061-1">Canada</a> and the <a href="https://www.planning.org/planning/2020/apr/is-fast-food-through-with-drive-thrus/">United States</a> have already banned or restricted new drive-throughs, while cities such as <a href="https://www.glasgowworld.com/lifestyle/food-and-drink/glasgow-could-ban-drive-thru-restaurants-3379113">Glasgow</a> are beginning to consider following suit. As the UK tries to <a href="https://www.am-online.com/news/market-insight/2021/12/10/uk-must-move-away-from-car-ownership-says-transport-minister">reduce car ownership</a> and use, drive-throughs will also inevitably be discouraged.</p>
<p>Curbing the expansion of drive-throughs now will not severely affect UK restaurants’ revenue: especially given their relatively low market share when you consider that <a href="https://www.planning.org/planning/2020/apr/is-fast-food-through-with-drive-thrus/">70%</a> of fast food sales in the United States are made via drive-throughs. However, the negative implications of “drive-through culture” have deeper roots.</p>
<p>Car-centric transport planning has dominated UK urban development since the <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/324161/14-808-urban-form-and-infrastructure-1.pdf">second world war</a>. It has increased congestion and contributed to public health problems such as the effects of poor air quality and the <a href="https://www.cmaj.ca/content/186/4/258">growing incidence of obesity</a>, while cutting the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/statistical-data-sets/tsgb01-modal-comparisons">share of trips</a> taken via more environmentally friendly options such as <a href="https://todresources.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/tran_health.pdf">public transport</a>, <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40207254">cycling</a> and <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/757756/Cycling_and_walking_for_individual_and_population_health_benefits.pdf">walking</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An almost empty car park" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446247/original/file-20220214-113586-zs4gdr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446247/original/file-20220214-113586-zs4gdr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446247/original/file-20220214-113586-zs4gdr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446247/original/file-20220214-113586-zs4gdr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446247/original/file-20220214-113586-zs4gdr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446247/original/file-20220214-113586-zs4gdr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446247/original/file-20220214-113586-zs4gdr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In many countries, the huge amount of space reserved for cars could be used to improve health and wellbeing.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/acarlos1000/4418575836">Antonio Silveira/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Urban development that prioritises cars is also inconsistent with UK government goals to improve <a href="https://ecosystemsknowledge.net/sites/default/files/wp-content/uploads/2014/2/RIBA%20City%20Health%20Check-1.pdf">wellbeing</a>, <a href="https://www.nationalfoodstrategy.org/">food systems</a> and <a href="https://news.motors.co.uk/over-half-of-britons-admit-to-eating-junk-food-behind-the-wheel/">public health</a>. Instead, building cities with wider pavements, segregated bicycle paths and widespread public transport – where we can reduce our <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/324161/14-808-urban-form-and-infrastructure-1.pdf">reliance</a> on cars and fast food – represents the healthy urban future that <a href="https://ecosystemsknowledge.net/sites/default/files/wp-content/uploads/2014/2/RIBA%20City%20Health%20Check-1.pdf">experts</a> suggest we should <a href="https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/cities/">try to create</a>. </p>
<p>And for those with mobility or childcare issues, the growth of smartphone apps enabling <a href="https://customerservices.mcdonalds.co.uk/hc/en-gb/categories/360003597977-Click-Serve-is-here-">restaurant-to-car delivery</a> outside of drive-throughs allows people to conveniently and safely collect food without needing to queue. Food <a href="https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/technology-media-and-telecommunications/our-insights/ordering-in-the-rapid-evolution-of-food-delivery">delivery apps</a> whose riders use bicycles can also help reduce car trips while maintaining convenience.</p>
<p>Collectively, we need to reflect on the profoundly negative effects of living in a society that has become so <a href="https://employeebenefits.co.uk/52-uk-staff-do-not-have-good-work-life-balance/">pressed for time</a> that we cannot afford to get out of our cars to collect food, let alone to <a href="https://leasecar.uk/blog/fast-food-on-the-move-uks-most-food-friendly-car-revealed/">eat it</a>. </p>
<p>Fundamentally, drive-throughs are symptomatic of a mode of living from which we need to move away – for the sake of our planet. Limiting them in the UK would be a sign of progress not just for the environment but for our society too.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/175556/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sybil Derrible receives funding from the US National Science Foundation and the Illinois Department of Transportation.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Eugene Mohareb does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Drive-throughs not only increase air pollution and emissions, but also contribute to a car-centred culture that we need to avoid.Eugene Mohareb, Lecturer in Sustainable Urban Systems, University of ReadingSybil Derrible, Associate Professor of Urban Engineering, University of Illinois ChicagoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1738192022-01-28T13:28:59Z2022-01-28T13:28:59ZDriverless cars won’t be good for the environment if they lead to more auto use<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/442036/original/file-20220121-15-vbuwo5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=24%2C16%2C5431%2C3615&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Self-driving cars could lead to increased traffic and pollution if they spur more travel by car.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/electric-car-concept-running-on-the-road-royalty-free-image/1331123162">Witthaya Prasongsin via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>For years, self-driving car technology has remained tantalizingly just beyond the horizon. <a href="https://www.autoblog.com/2019/04/22/elon-musk-tesla-driverless-taxis-self-driving-chip/">Bold predictions notwithstanding</a>, fully automated vehicles still haven’t appeared in showrooms. But the technology appears poised for a leap forward in 2022. </p>
<p>Companies including <a href="https://insideevs.com/news/553659/mercedes-level3-autonomous-driving-2022/">Mercedes-Benz</a>, <a href="https://www.forbes.com/wheels/features/bmw-7-series-level-3-autonomy/">BMW</a> and <a href="https://www.kbb.com/car-advice/self-driving-cars/">Honda</a> are bringing so-called Level 3 AVs to market that will let drivers take their hands off the wheel under specific conditions, and virtually every major auto manufacturer is testing self-driving systems. </p>
<p>Automated vehicles hold tremendous promise. Cars that <a href="https://www.jdpower.com/cars/shopping-guides/levels-of-autonomous-driving-explained">handle most or all of the driving tasks</a> could be safer than human drivers, operate more efficiently and open up new opportunities for seniors, people with disabilities and others who can’t drive themselves. But while attention has understandably <a href="https://theconversation.com/after-tempe-fatality-self-driving-car-developers-must-engage-with-public-now-or-risk-rejection-93681">focused on safety</a>, the potential environmental impacts of automated vehicles have largely taken a back seat.</p>
<p>We study <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=1LqIMYwAAAAJ&hl=en">automated vehicle technologies</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=8Xi0fvEAAAAJ&hl=en">how consumers are likely to use them</a>. In two recent studies, our research teams found two creative ways to assess the real-life impacts that automated vehicles could have on the environment. </p>
<p>By analyzing drivers’ use of partially automated vehicles and simulating the expected impact of future driverless vehicles, we found that both automated vehicle types will encourage a lot more driving. This will increase transportation-related pollution and traffic congestion, unless regulators take steps to make car travel less appealing.</p>
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<h2>More miles, more carbon emissions</h2>
<p>Research has previously suggested that automated vehicles could cause people to drive more than they currently do, leading to <a href="https://escholarship.org/uc/item/9g12v6r0">more congestion, energy consumption and pollution</a>. Riding in a car as a passenger is much less stressful than driving, so people might be willing to sit through longer trips and battle more traffic if they can relax and do other things during the journey. The promise of a relaxed, comfortable commute to work could even make some people move farther away from their workplaces and accelerate suburban sprawl trends.</p>
<p>People would also have the ability to send their cars on “zero-occupancy” trips, or errands without passengers. For example, if you don’t want to pay for parking downtown, at some point you may be able to send your car back home while you’re at work and summon it when you need it. Convenient, but also twice the driving.</p>
<p>This could be a big problem. The transportation sector is already <a href="https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/sources-greenhouse-gas-emissions">the leading contributor to U.S. greenhouse gas emissions</a>. States like California with aggressive plans to combat climate change have recognized that <a href="https://ww2.arb.ca.gov/resources/documents/carb-2017-scoping-plan-identified-vmt-reductions-and-relationship-state-climate">reducing the number of vehicles miles that people travel</a> is a critical strategy. What if automated vehicle technology makes it harder to achieve these goals?</p>
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<h2>The real-world environmental impacts of automated cars</h2>
<p>While we and other researchers have <a href="https://ncst.ucdavis.edu/project/emission-impacts-connected-and-automated-vehicle-deployment-california">predicted these outcomes through modeling</a>, no one has been able to verify them because fully automated vehicles aren’t commercially available yet. We found two innovative ways to use currently available technologies to study the real-world impacts of automated vehicles.</p>
<p>In a study published in mid-2021, we surveyed 940 <a href="https://doi.org/10.7922/G2XK8CVB">people who drive partially automated vehicles</a>. Systems like <a href="https://www.tesla.com/en_AE/support/autopilot-and-full-self-driving-capability">Tesla’s Autopilot</a> can assist with driving tasks and reduce the burden of driving, although to a lesser degree than fully automated vehicles will. </p>
<p>We found that drivers who used Autopilot drove an average of <a href="https://itspubs.ucdavis.edu/publication_detail.php?id=3408">nearly 5,000 more miles per year than those who didn’t</a>. In interviews with 36 drivers of partially automated vehicles, they generally said they were more willing to sit in traffic and took more long-distance trips, all because of the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2021.102884">increased comfort and reduced stress</a> provided by semi-automated systems.</p>
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<p>In a separate study conducted in late 2019 and early 2020, we simulated the function of a fully automated vehicle by providing 43 households in Sacramento, California, with a chauffeur service to take over the family driving duties and tracking how they used it. These households <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/03611981211052543">increased their vehicle miles traveled by 60%</a> over their pre-chauffeur travel, and dramatically reduced their use of transit, bicycling and walking. More than half of the increase in vehicle travel involved sending chauffeurs on zero-occupancy trips without a household member in the car.</p>
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<h2>Limiting pollution from automated car use</h2>
<p>These findings show that automated vehicles will encourage a lot more driving in the future and that partially automated vehicles are doing so now. Is there any way to reap its benefits without making climate change, air quality, and congestion worse? </p>
<p>Requiring future automated vehicles to use zero-emission technology, <a href="https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billTextClient.xhtml?bill_id=202120220SB500">as California is doing</a>, can be a big help. But until the U.S. develops a <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/12/08/fact-sheet-president-biden-signs-executive-order-catalyzing-americas-clean-energy-economy-through-federal-sustainability/">100% carbon-free electricity system</a>, even electric cars will produce some upstream emissions from power generation. And all car travel causes <a href="https://ncst.ucdavis.edu/project/what-california-gains-reducing-car-dependence">other harmful impacts</a>, such as water and air pollution from brake and tire wear, collisions with wildlife and traffic congestion.</p>
<p>To prevent an explosion in driving and associated harms, regulators and communities need to send signals that driving isn’t free. They could do this by putting a price on car travel – particularly on zero-occupancy trips. </p>
<p>The main policies that have this effect today are <a href="https://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.php?id=10&t=5">federal and state fuel taxes</a>, which currently average around 49 cents per gallon for gasoline and 55 cents per gallon for diesel fuel. But the impact of fuel taxes on drivers’ behavior will decline with the adoption and spread of electric vehicles. This means that the transportation sector will need to develop new funding mechanisms for ongoing costs like maintaining roads. </p>
<p>In place of fuel taxes, state and federal governments could adopt user fees or charges for the number of vehicle miles that drivers travel. Correctly pricing the cost of private vehicle travel could encourage travelers to consider cheaper and more efficient modes, such as public transit, walking and bicycling.</p>
<p>These fees could be adjusted based on location – for example, charging more to drive into dense city centers – or other factors such as time of day, traffic congestion levels, vehicle occupancy and vehicle type. Modern communication technologies can enable such policies by tracking where and when cars are on the roads.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/442063/original/file-20220122-19-bku97e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A car approaches an overhead billboard displaying time of day and prices for cars and trucks to enter the regulated zone." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/442063/original/file-20220122-19-bku97e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/442063/original/file-20220122-19-bku97e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442063/original/file-20220122-19-bku97e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442063/original/file-20220122-19-bku97e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442063/original/file-20220122-19-bku97e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442063/original/file-20220122-19-bku97e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442063/original/file-20220122-19-bku97e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Singapore uses electronic road pricing to reduce congestion and regulate traffic flow in the city. The cost to enter the restricted zone varies with location and timing.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/photo/singapore-electronic-road-pricing-royalty-free-image/1005214292">Calvin Chan Wai Meng via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Another option would be to promote shared fleets of automated vehicles rather than privately owned ones. We envision these as commercial companies, similar to Uber, Lyft and other ride-sharing providers. Having a car available when needed could make it possible to forgo car ownership and could serve travel demand much more efficiently by essentially acting as on-demand transit. These networks could also help riders reach fixed-route public transportation services that operate on main transportation corridors.</p>
<p>All of these policies will be most effective if they are adopted now, before automated vehicles are widespread. A transportation future that is automated, electric and shared could be environmentally sustainable – but in our view, it’s unlikely to evolve that way on its own.</p>
<p>[<em>Understand new developments in science, health and technology, each week.</em> <a href="https://memberservices.theconversation.com/newsletters/?nl=science&source=inline-science-understand">Subscribe to The Conversation’s science newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/173819/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Giovanni Circella receives funding from the California Air Resources Board, the Southern California Association of Governments, the Bay Area Rapid Transit, the BMW Group, Ford, and the US Department of Transportation and the California Department of Transportation through the National Center for Sustainable Transportation. He directs the 3 Revolutions Future Mobility Program at the University of California, Davis, which is funded through a consortium of research sponsors (<a href="https://3rev.ucdavis.edu/researchsponsors">https://3rev.ucdavis.edu/researchsponsors</a>), including some of the automakers mentioned in this article. He is the Chair of the AEP35 Standing Committee of the Transportation Research Board and an elected member of the International Association for Travel Behaviour Research (IATBR). He is also affiliated with the Georgia Institute of Technology, where he is a senior research engineer in the School of Civil and Environmental Engineering. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Scott Hardman receives funding from the California Air Resources Board, the California Department of Transportation and the U.S. Department of Transportation.</span></em></p>Studies show that when people can ride in a car without having to operate it, they increase their car use. That could increase traffic and pollution, unless government puts a price on car travel.Giovanni Circella, Director, 3 Revolutions Future Mobility Program, University of California, DavisScott Hardman, Professional Researcher, Plug-in Hybrid & Electric Vehicle Research Center, University of California, DavisLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1710762021-11-08T11:10:45Z2021-11-08T11:10:45ZIndia’s terrible roads: how to build a world-class network and still reach net zero<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/430258/original/file-20211104-13-fz0409.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/87244355@N00/376781013/in/photolist-zi6Sn-2i3qNh2-vFEgzX-xJaRYh-35FbqK-e967m-LCSFJ-u85AP-e66Y1-xggde-7FMdGK-khk7k-hZ55Mn-4kQ68q-BTkLg-9MRmA-5bm5MP-27oS3RZ-g5xaR-2mtRd4g-R74R4o-bATEd5-xYytn-q2KP7y-56q4ng-A46y5-4rN9tQ-CXkpY-7e1FHi-9tQ5HC-7sn8Gd-8gPxTr-zAger-yr2fz-ycVBjG-2g2QNin-2kwEQ9K-7gtrhG-4oTUnB-78Rbq4-5KL11v-4vrNau-J1Lz3-at8aCZ-5j35gm-2gXv1m5-2k81QMK-4cUmBp-2gk6rK7-MvbHYq">Alex Graves</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>One of the keys to China’s economic renaissance over the past couple of decades is often overlooked. Namely, it has built a lot of roads. </p>
<p>China’s highways have more or less tripled from around <a href="https://voxeu.org/article/unbridled-transport-infrastructure-growth-china">50,000km in 2000</a> to <a href="https://www.ceicdata.com/en/china/highway-industry-overview/cn-highway-length-of-highway-expressway">around 160,000km</a> by the end of 2020. This means that in just two decades, China has added highways that are 20% longer than the entire US interstate highway system, and these make up about 40% of all roads in the country. </p>
<p>India, too, <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/729992/india-length-of-national-highways/">has tripled</a> its highways over the same duration, but the network is <a href="https://centaur.reading.ac.uk/100079/">far less impressive</a>. They are lower quality, narrower, less well maintained and only make up a very small part of the total system of roads in the country. </p>
<p>This is arguably one of the reasons why its economy has substantially underperformed China’s over the past 20 years: <a href="https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=CN">China’s GDP grew</a> 12-fold to be worth US$14.7 trillion (£10.8 trillion) by 2020, <a href="https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?locations=IN">while India’s</a> grew six-fold to be worth US$2.6 trillion over the same period. </p>
<p><strong>China vs India GDP growth (2000-2020)</strong></p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/430208/original/file-20211104-13-17bnw8a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Graph comparing growth in India and China" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/430208/original/file-20211104-13-17bnw8a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/430208/original/file-20211104-13-17bnw8a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=354&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/430208/original/file-20211104-13-17bnw8a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=354&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/430208/original/file-20211104-13-17bnw8a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=354&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/430208/original/file-20211104-13-17bnw8a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=445&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/430208/original/file-20211104-13-17bnw8a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=445&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/430208/original/file-20211104-13-17bnw8a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=445&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?end=2020&locations=CN-IN&start=2000">World Bank</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>So why has India been much poorer at building roads? And with Prime Minister Modi having <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/nov/01/narendra-modi-pledges-india-will-reach-net-zero-emissions-by-2070">just committed</a> to reaching net zero emissions by 2070, is it possible to build roads and decarbonise at the same time?</p>
<h2>India’s road problem</h2>
<p>China’s massive road-building programme is immediately visible to visitors. The pace of investment in the network has accelerated since 2011 – the chart below <a href="https://www.itf-oecd.org/stable-inland-transport-infrastructure-investment-share-gdp-oecd">shows progress</a> over the past decade. Not only that, the <a href="https://asia.nikkei.com/Economy/China-to-expand-highway-network-nearly-50-by-2035">Chinese are planning</a> to increase their highway network by another 50% by 2035. </p>
<p><strong>Transport investment in China vs OECD countries (2008-18)</strong></p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/430067/original/file-20211103-17-28odhn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Chart showing volume of investment in inland transport infrastructure in China vs OECD countries." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/430067/original/file-20211103-17-28odhn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/430067/original/file-20211103-17-28odhn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=219&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/430067/original/file-20211103-17-28odhn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=219&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/430067/original/file-20211103-17-28odhn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=219&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/430067/original/file-20211103-17-28odhn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=275&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/430067/original/file-20211103-17-28odhn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=275&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/430067/original/file-20211103-17-28odhn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=275&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Volume of investment in inland transport infrastructure in China (solid blue) vs OECD-30 countries (blue dashes).</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.itf-oecd.org/stable-inland-transport-infrastructure-investment-share-gdp-oecd">OECD</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>On paper, it looks as though India’s road infrastructure is better. The cumulative road network is <a href="https://www.ibef.org/industry/roads-india.aspx">5.9 million kms</a>, which is longer than China (4.6 million kms), though slightly smaller than the US (6.7 million kms). The density of India’s road network, at 1.62km of roads per square kilometre of land, is much higher than the US (0.68) or China (0.49) – though this is not surprising when you reflect that both these rivals are geographically three times larger than India. </p>
<p><a href="https://morth.nic.in/sites/default/files/BRS_Final.pdf">However</a>, the quality of India’s road infrastructure is very poor: only 3% of these roads are national highways, and 75% of highways are only two-lane. Roads <a href="https://www.news18.com/news/india/the-single-statistic-that-shows-why-indian-roads-are-getting-more-congested-each-passing-month-2031835.html">are congested</a> and road maintenance is under-funded. At the same time, 40% of the roads are dirt roads, and over 30% of villages have no access to all-weather roads. </p>
<p>Many explanations have been given for India’s inadequate road investment, including <a href="https://www.kearney.com/infrastructure/article/?/a/harnessing-the-opportunities-in-india-s-transportation-infrastructure">lack of funds</a> and poor project management. An <a href="https://www.economist.com/asia/2017/07/27/indias-once-shoddy-transport-infrastructure-is-getting-much-better">Economist article</a> from 2017 blamed a litigious system that makes it hard for the government to requisition land, as well many public-private partnerships stalling.</p>
<p>We recently published <a href="https://centaur.reading.ac.uk/100079/">a paper</a> arguing that India’s political system is another factor. Road-building is jointly the responsibility of the central government and each state. The central government rewards states which are politically aligned with the ruling party, particularly the core supporters.</p>
<p>In addition, road building requires coordination between states and central government to get around obstacles like land acquisition, planning permission and vetting of tenders – all of which can delay projects and lead to huge cost overruns. The need for green transport infrastructure is another issue. All this requires the central government to cooperate with states from across the political spectrum. </p>
<h2>Opportunities and threats</h2>
<p>Investing in road infrastructure can catalyse growth in two ways. Like all <a href="https://www.investopedia.com/terms/k/keynesianeconomics.asp">Keynesian investments</a>, it increases employment, incomes and therefore demand throughout an economy. For a country like India with relatively low incomes and an excess supply of labour, road-building can unlock growth quickly – particularly as a way of recovering from the COVID collapse. As John Maynard Keynes <a href="https://econ.economicshelp.org/2008/07/john-maynard-keynes-great-economists.html#:%7E:text=%22The%20government%20should%20pay%20people,and%20then%20fill%20them%20up.%22&text=The%20point%20is%20it%20doesn,a%20new%20style%20of%20Economist.">famously said</a> of the importance of governments increasing spending during difficult times: “The government should pay people to dig holes in the ground and then fill them up.”</p>
<p>Roads also make economies more productive. They make it easier for people to get to work, for supply chains to function, and for companies to bring goods to market. Roads bring down transport costs, make everyone more confident that things will move from A to B, and reduce the need for companies to store costly inventory to avoid running out of supplies. According to a 2014 <a href="https://microdata.worldbank.org/index.php/catalog/2225">World Bank survey</a>, one in ten Indian firms thought inadequate transportation infrastructure was a major obstacle to their growth.</p>
<p>It is worth pointing out that improvements to India’s roads have already increased productivity for companies over the past two decades – despite the poor quality of the network as a whole. We <a href="https://centaur.reading.ac.uk/100079/">found that</a> a 1% increase in road density raised productivity by about 0.25%. This gives a sense of what could be achieved with greater investment. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/430257/original/file-20211104-21-1gy1hr9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Taxi driver looking in rear mirror in traffic" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/430257/original/file-20211104-21-1gy1hr9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/430257/original/file-20211104-21-1gy1hr9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/430257/original/file-20211104-21-1gy1hr9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/430257/original/file-20211104-21-1gy1hr9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/430257/original/file-20211104-21-1gy1hr9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/430257/original/file-20211104-21-1gy1hr9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/430257/original/file-20211104-21-1gy1hr9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">‘We’ll get there yet.’</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/Itoke5teLE4">Francesco Benvenuto/Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Indeed, India is <a href="https://www.fdi.finance/sectors/roads-and-highways">now investing</a> more in its road network for exactly these reasons – though <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-04-15/the-coming-battle-over-building-better-highways">the US</a> and <a href="https://www.globaltimes.cn/page/202103/1219328.shtml">China</a> are too. India is planning to construct 40km of highways every day in the current financial year, and intends to increase its highways by a third in the next few years. Given a large pool of unemployed labour, the conditions are ideal to do this. But the worry is that the same old obstacles get in the way: <a href="https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/opinion/investment-in-road-infrastructure-is-a-ticket-for-speedy-recovery-of-india/article34043295.ece">a report</a> earlier this year by a parliamentary standing committee suggested that more than 800 road projects had been delayed, for instance. </p>
<p>Then there are carbon emissions, which have the potential to significantly increase both from road-building and increased traffic. Modi’s announcement at COP26 that India would not aim for net zero until 2070 signals that, in the short run, growth is likely to come first – and it is obviously difficult for wealthier nations to argue that India should not have a world-class road network. </p>
<p>Having said that, road-building has to go hand in hand with investing in technology to reduce emissions, including more electric and hybrid vehicles and a charging network to make electric cars viable. This needs to not only be an investment priority for India but for players like the US who have <a href="https://www.indiaspend.com/climate-change/new-india-us-partnership-could-lead-to-more-equitable-climate-action-774560">been working</a> to assist developing countries to decarbonise. </p>
<p>If India is to tap the potential of infrastructure development to stimulate growth, it needs to both make the green transition part of the programme and to look at the obstacles to making road-building succeed. With a state-of-the-art road network, India could achieve so much more.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/171076/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>China has given itself a major advantage over India by constructing a massive road network in the past two decades.Uma S Kambhampati, Professor of Economics; Head of School, University of ReadingSubham Kailthya, Teaching Fellow in Economics, University of WarwickLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1701642021-11-02T14:41:31Z2021-11-02T14:41:31ZNairobi’s new expressway may ease traffic woes – but mostly for the wealthy<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/429089/original/file-20211028-15-ledweg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A section of the construction site of the Nairobi Expressway Project along the Uhuru highway in Nairobi, Kenya.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">EPA-EFE/Daniel Irungu</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>An expressway, currently being constructed through Kenya’s capital, Nairobi, is <a href="https://www.the-star.co.ke/counties/nairobi/2021-09-29-nairobi-expressway-to-be-completed-in-six-months-cs-macharia/">nearing</a> completion. The Chinese-financed toll road starts near Jomo Kenyatta International Airport in the east and ends on the western edge of the city. Urban planning expert Laji Adoyo provides insights into the role this road will play and whether it addresses the city’s challenges.</em></p>
<h2>Why is the new expressway being built?</h2>
<p>The government of Kenya is constructing the Nairobi Expressway road project. Once completed, the four-lane dual <a href="https://www.the-star.co.ke/news/2019-10-31-state-revises-design-for-nairobi-expressway-to-leave-out-uhuru-park/">carriageway will run over 27km</a>, linking Mlolongo town in Machakos county and Jomo Kenyatta International Airport to the Nairobi-Nakuru highway. The expressway is part of the northern corridor that <a href="https://kenha.co.ke/2021/09/nairobi-expressway-2/">provides passage to 85%</a> of the cargo destined for neighbouring landlocked countries, such as Uganda, Rwanda, the Democratic Republic of Congo and South Sudan. </p>
<p>The benefits that are expected from this expressway include improved connectivity for the transport of goods, services and people between Nairobi and the entire northern corridor. It’s also expected to ease the flow of traffic through the city, reducing congestion along Mombasa road, Uhuru highway and Waiyaki way in Nairobi city. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1451100668710772737"}"></div></p>
<p>Better traffic flow would reduce travel time through the city, enhancing Nairobi’s economic vitality. This in turn is expected to improve Kenya’s competitiveness in the East Africa region and entrench Nairobi’s position as a business hub. </p>
<h2>How will it operate?</h2>
<p>The project is a partnership between the government of Kenya and China Roads and Bridge Corporation, one of China’s state-owned companies. </p>
<p>The government of Kenya’s key functions have to do with land acquisition, relocation of services, and oversight. It is estimated that the government of Kenya spent more than <a href="https://allafrica.com/stories/202106150409.html">Ksh 2 billion</a> (about US$18 million) on land acquisition for the project. The China Roads and Bridge Corporation is expected to construct the road in three years. After this, the corporation will operate and maintain it for <a href="https://allafrica.com/stories/202109090651.html">27 years</a>. During this time it will charge and collect toll fees from vehicles using the road. </p>
<p>It is proposed that each driver would be required to pay a fee of <a href="https://www.businessdailyafrica.com/bd/opinion-analysis/editorials/get-the-toll-charges-on-nairobi-expressway-right-3247684">between</a> 100ksh and 1,550ksh (about US$1 and US$15), depending on the size of the car and distance travelled. </p>
<p>The idea is that the corporation will recoup its investment and make a profit before handing it over to the government of Kenya <a href="https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/ktnnews/video/2000178601/the-expressway-to-be-handed-to-kenya-in-2049-after-minting-sh-102-billion-the-big-story">by 2049</a>. It’s expected that the toll charges <a href="https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/nairobi/article/2001398914/revealed-what-you-will-pay-to-use-nairobi-expressway">will fluctuate</a> to cushion the Chinese operator from exchange rate losses. </p>
<p>Some have argued that it is entirely a government project since it is a partnership between the governments of Kenya – through the Kenya National Highways Authority (KENHA) – and China, through the China Roads and Bridge Corporation state corporation. </p>
<h2>To what extent does it address the city’s transport challenges?</h2>
<p>It will free up one of the city’s main arteries, the A8 road (Mombasa road, Uhuru highway and Waiyaki way). This road has had traffic congestion for years. </p>
<p>The economic cost of Nairobi’s traffic congestion is <a href="https://www.idiap.ch/%7Egatica/publications/Santani-mobilehci15.pdf">estimated</a> to be in the billions of Kenya shillings. It has been <a href="https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/nairobi/article/2001398914/revealed-what-you-will-pay-to-use-nairobi-expressway">observed</a> that at peak hours, it takes motorists two hours to commute from Mlolongo to Waiyaki way, a distance of about 27km. It’s expected that the expressway will drastically reduce rush-hour travel time <a href="https://uzalendonews.co.ke/expressway-nairobi-to-save-ksh-18b-in-losses-from-traffic-jams/">from</a> two hours to about 15 minutes. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://constructionreviewonline.com/news/kenya/kenya-construction-of-bus-rapid-transit-brt-system-to-begin-next-month/">planned dedication</a> of a lane on the expressway to the Bus Rapid Transport will contribute to decongestion. The expressway is also expected to significantly reduce response time to emergencies as it will have <a href="https://www.kenyanews.go.ke/residents-laud-kenhas-move-to-re-open-sections-of-msa-road/">dedicated emergency lanes</a> on either side.</p>
<p>But it’s <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-11-11/why-a-new-expressway-in-nairobi-is-a-bad-idea">been flagged</a> that the expressway is not a serious attempt to deal with congestion. This is because it’s a road for those who “are able to afford it”, a public subsidy for the rich, so to speak. </p>
<p>Walking is the dominant <a href="https://openjicareport.jica.go.jp/pdf/12307658_01.pdf">mode of transport</a> in Nairobi, accounting for 45.6% of commuters, compared to 40.7% by bus, 13.5% by private vehicle, and 0.2% by rail. These residents of the city walk because they cannot afford to pay the fare charges. </p>
<p>There are concerns, and justifiably so, that the tolls could prevent some drivers from being able to use the road. For instance, the <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-55995229">anticipation</a> that matatus will use the expressway and pay the toll charges is speculative. It should also be noted that <a href="https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/business/sci-tech/article/2001406387/brt-system-begins-to-take-shape-on-superhighway">only</a> high-capacity express buses will be allowed to use the dedicated bus lanes. Matatus are minibuses – the most widely used buses – do not qualify as high-capacity buses.</p>
<p>This, coupled with the fact that the existing A8 road will stay as a free alternative to the expressway, means that motorists who cannot afford toll fees would continue using the traffic-laden A8 road. The expressway will be accessible to only a small percentage of Kenyans that use their personal vehicles or for trucks while the rest struggle with limited options. </p>
<p>This will not only worsen the city’s traffic problems, but also fuel socioeconomic divides.</p>
<h2>What else can be done to improve the city’s transport problems?</h2>
<p>Experience from <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-11-11/why-a-new-expressway-in-nairobi-is-a-bad-idea">around the world</a> shows that building more and wider roads does not necessarily translate to reduced traffic congestion. This is likely to be the fate of the Nairobi expressway. </p>
<p>While the government has continued to focus on building wider roads to serve the <a href="https://africa.itdp.org/finding-real-solutions-to-nairobis-transport-challenges/">growing number</a> of vehicles, most commuters in Nairobi rely on walking or public transport. </p>
<p>The government also should ensure that a reliable, safe, efficient and comfortable public transport system is set in place. In addition, there must be a dedicated public transport lanes on roads. This will reduce the number of private cars on the road and decongest the existing roads network. </p>
<p>There seems to be <a href="http://www.vref.se/download/18.c4e3c7c158f45148dc61855/1481703427369/AKanyama-GCars">a lack of political will</a> to improve public transport in Nairobi city. When it comes to mobility in the city, the government seems to prioritise the needs of the wealthiest residents above all else. </p>
<p>Moreover, a few influential people often exploit the prevailing situation to make money. For instance, big stakeholders such as matatu cartels take advantage of the chaotic transport system to make money. They charge <a href="https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/counties/article/2001310701/after-michuki-rules-focus-now-turns-to-matatu-fares">exorbitant fares</a> on the various routes within Nairobi. In routes like Nairobi’s Ongata Rongai, commuters pay up to between KSH100 and KSH300 (between US$1 and US$3) for a 20km trip, yet, a trip from Nairobi to Nakuru, some 150km away, costs roughly KSH300. </p>
<p>At times, <a href="https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/counties/article/2001310701/after-michuki-rules-focus-now-turns-to-matatu-fares">fares are hiked</a> on reasons as flimsy as a change in weather, forcing commuters to spend more than what they intended to. Because of this, <a href="https://www.the-star.co.ke/business/kenya/2020-09-28-matatu-investors-fear-brt-will-throw-them-out-of-business/">they resist</a> any form of improvement of the public transport system. </p>
<p>Individual rather than public interest reigns supreme in Kenya.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/170164/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Laji Adoyo does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>While the government continues to focus on building wider roads, most commuters in Nairobi rely on walking or public transport.Laji Adoyo, Lecturer, Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Kenyatta UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.