tag:theconversation.com,2011:/uk/topics/uavs-2523/articlesUAVs – The Conversation2024-02-16T13:19:06Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2213972024-02-16T13:19:06Z2024-02-16T13:19:06ZCult of the drone: At the two-year mark, UAVs have changed the face of war in Ukraine – but not outcomes<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576091/original/file-20240215-26-prpedc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C7727%2C5148&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Small, cheap, explosives-laden drones have become ubiquitous in the war in Ukraine.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/serviceman-of-separate-14th-regiment-of-armed-forces-of-news-photo/1772255302">Vitalii Nosach/Global Images Ukraine via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Unmanned aerial vehicles, or <a href="https://whateveryoneneedstoknow.com/display/10.1093/wentk/9780190235345.001.0001/isbn-9780190235345">drones</a>, have been central to the war in Ukraine. Some analysts claim that <a href="https://www.economist.com/films/2023/07/04/how-the-conflict-in-ukraine-is-shaping-the-future-of-war">drones have reshaped war</a>, yielding not just tactical-level effects, but shaping operational and <a href="https://www.belfercenter.org/publication/lift-scaling-small-unmanned-aircraft-systems-and-autonomous-capabilities-us-department">strategic outcomes</a> as well.</p>
<p>It’s important to distinguish between these different levels of war. The tactical level of war refers to <a href="https://rdl.train.army.mil/catalog-ws/view/E5E76F31-897F-4E15-8531-3D0B1209DDA9-1533149400572/index.html">battlefield actions</a>, such as patrols or raids. The operational level of war characterizes a military’s <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/direction-of-war/1A168379FE39294F0C485954BD090A3D">synchronization of tactical actions</a> to achieve broader military objectives, such as destroying components of an adversary’s army. The strategic level of war relates to the way these military objectives <a href="https://global.oup.com/ukhe/product/modern-strategy-9780198782513">combine to secure political aims</a>, especially <a href="https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691049441/war-and-punishment">ending a war</a>. </p>
<p>In the war in Ukraine, what have drones accomplished at these three levels?</p>
<p>Mounting <a href="https://www.foreignaffairs.com/ukraine/ukraine-losing-drone-war-eric-schmidt">evidence</a>, including my own research as a military scholar who <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=DEIRUlIAAAAJ&view_op=list_works&sortby=pubdate">studies drone warfare</a>, suggests that drones have delivered some <a href="https://www.economist.com/interactive/science-and-technology/2024/02/05/cheap-racing-drones-offer-precision-warfare-at-scale">tactical and operational successes</a> for both <a href="https://theconversation.com/ukraine-war-drones-are-changing-the-conflict-both-on-the-frontline-and-beyond-211460">Ukraine</a> and <a href="https://warontherocks.com/2024/01/how-the-west-can-match-russia-in-drone-innovation/">Russia</a>. Yet they are <a href="https://www.foreignaffairs.com/ukraine/how-russia-stopped-ukraines-momentum">strategically ineffective</a>. Despite its increasing use of drones, Ukraine has not <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2024/01/us-congress-support-ukraine-war/677256/?gift=hVZeG3M9DnxL4CekrWGK367htDYafvnS2EPu7wS-8lA&%3Butm_source=copy-link&%3Butm_medium=social&%3Butm_campaign=share">dislodged Russia</a> from the <a href="https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/36a7f6a6f5a9448496de641cf64bd375">Donbas region</a>, and Russia has not <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/national-security/2024/01/26/ukraine-war-plan-biden-defense/">broken Ukraine’s will to resist</a>.</p>
<h2>Drone warfare in Ukraine</h2>
<p>The drone war in Ukraine is evolving in ways that differ from how other countries, especially the <a href="https://www.routledge.com/The-Legitimacy-of-Drone-Warfare-Evaluating-Public-Perceptions/Lushenko-Raman/p/book/9781032614281">United States</a>, use UAVs. </p>
<p>First, the U.S. uses drones globally, and often in conflict zones that are not recognized by the United Nations or do not have U.S. troops on the ground. Unlike this pattern of “<a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2021/09/21/what-happens-now-us-counterterrorism-efforts-afghanistan/">over-the-horizon</a>” strikes, Ukraine and Russia use drones during an internationally recognized conflict that is bounded by their borders. </p>
<p>Second, the U.S. operates <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Drones-and-the-Future-of-Air-Warfare-The-Evolution-of-Remotely-Piloted/Kreuzer/p/book/9781138187122">armed and networked drones</a>, such as the <a href="https://www.ga-asi.com/remotely-piloted-aircraft/mq-9a">Reaper</a>, the world’s most advanced drone. Ukraine and Russia have adopted a <a href="https://theconversation.com/lesson-from-a-year-at-war-in-contrast-to-the-russians-ukrainians-master-a-mix-of-high-and-low-end-technology-on-the-battlefield-197853">broader scope</a> of low- and mid-tier drones.</p>
<p>Ukraine’s “<a href="https://www.ukrainianworldcongress.org/united24/">army of drones</a>” consists of <a href="https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/odr/ukraine-failing-to-procure-enough-drones-russia-war-soldiers/">cheaper</a> and easily weaponized drones, such as the Chinese-manufactured <a href="https://store.dji.com/">DJI</a>. Ukraine has also operated Turkish-manufactured <a href="https://baykartech.com/en/uav/bayraktar-tb2/">TB-2 Bayraktar</a> drones – the “<a href="https://www.ft.com/content/948605a1-cf6c-40ea-b403-9a97d72be2cf">Toyota Corolla</a>” of drones. U.K.-based defense and security think tank Royal United Services Institute estimated that Ukraine <a href="https://rusi.org/news-and-comment/in-the-news/tanks-and-troops-out-open-ukraine-cant-go-10-minutes-without-being-spotted-and-fired-upon-ukrainian">loses 10,000 drones monthly</a> and within a year will have more drones than soldiers, implying it will <a href="https://www.foreignaffairs.com/ukraine/ukraine-losing-drone-war">acquire over 2 million drones</a>. To manage these capabilities, Ukraine recently <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/ukraines-zelenskiy-orders-creation-separate-military-force-drones-2024-02-06/">established a new branch</a> of the armed forces: the Unmanned Systems Forces. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576083/original/file-20240215-30-gawab6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="a pair of hands hold a small video monitor displaying an aerial view of a landscape" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576083/original/file-20240215-30-gawab6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576083/original/file-20240215-30-gawab6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576083/original/file-20240215-30-gawab6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576083/original/file-20240215-30-gawab6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576083/original/file-20240215-30-gawab6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576083/original/file-20240215-30-gawab6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576083/original/file-20240215-30-gawab6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A Ukrainian serviceman of the Adam tactical group operates a drone to spot Russian positions near the city of Bakhmut, Donetsk region, on April 16, 2023.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/smoke-clouds-rising-above-a-struck-target-are-seen-on-a-news-photo/1251900729">Sergey Shestak/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Russia has responded by <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/exclusive-iran-agrees-ship-missiles-more-drones-russia-defying-west-sources-2022-10-18/">importing</a> Iranian-manufactured <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidhambling/2023/09/27/iran-unveils-jet-powered-version-of-shahed-kamikaze-drone/?sh=63db47a95bdc">Shahed-136</a> attack <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/10/19/us/politics/ukraine-drones-iran-russia.html">drones</a>. It has also expanded the domestic production of drones, such as the <a href="https://www.newsweek.com/us-mq-9-reaper-drones-compared-russias-orion-uav-1787774">Orion-10</a>, used for surveillance, and the <a href="https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/technology/the-lancet-kamikaze-drone-is-russia-s-most-effective-weapon-and-it-is-getting-deadlier/ar-AA1hZuZ0">Lancet</a>, used for attacks. Russia intends by 2025 to <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/investigations/2023/08/17/russia-iran-drone-shahed-alabuga/">manufacture at least 6,000 drones</a> modeled after the Shahed-136 at a new factory that spans 14 football fields, or nearly a mile. This is on top of the 100,000 low-tier drones that Russia <a href="https://www.foreignaffairs.com/ukraine/ukraine-losing-drone-war">procures monthly</a>.</p>
<p>Third, the U.S. uses drones to strike what it designates as <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26351373">high-value targets</a>, including senior-level personnel in terrorist organizations. Ukraine and Russia use their drones for a broader set of tactical, operational and strategic purposes. Analysts often <a href="https://www.belfercenter.org/publication/lift-scaling-small-unmanned-aircraft-systems-and-autonomous-capabilities-us-department">conflate these three levels of war</a> to justify their <a href="https://www.foreignaffairs.com/ukraine/ukraine-losing-drone-war-eric-schmidt">claims that drones are reshaping conflict</a>, but the levels are distinct.</p>
<h2>Tactical effects</h2>
<p>Drones have had the <a href="https://www.warvector.com/p/11-reasons-fpvs-are-better-than-bombs?r=1n9gs4&utm_medium=ios&utm_campaign=post">biggest impact at the tactical level</a> of war, which characterizes battles between Ukrainian and Russian forces.</p>
<p>Famously, Ukraine’s Aerorozvidka Air Reconnaissance Unit used drones to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/mar/28/the-drone-operators-who-halted-the-russian-armoured-vehicles-heading-for-kyiv">interdict and block a massive Russian convoy</a> traveling from Chernobyl to Kyiv a month after Russia’s Feb. 24, 2022 invasion of Ukraine. It did so by <a href="https://foreignpolicy.com/2023/02/16/ukraine-russia-war-drone-warfare-china/">destroying slow-moving vehicles</a> that <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-64664944">stretched nearly 50 miles</a>, causing Russia to abandon its advance. </p>
<p>Both militaries have also adopted low-tier “<a href="https://www.cfr.org/article/how-drone-war-ukraine-transforming-conflict">first-person-view</a>” drones, such as the U.S.-manufactured <a href="https://www.avinc.com/lms/switchblade">Switchblade</a> or Russia’s Lancet, to attack tanks, armored personnel carriers and soldiers. Russian and Ukrainian forces are increasingly using these first-person–view drones, combined with other low-tier drones used for reconnaissance and targeting, to suppress opposing forces. Suppression – temporarily preventing an opposing force or weapon from carrying out its mission – is a role normally reserved for <a href="https://www.reuters.com/business/aerospace-defense/nato-signs-11-bln-euro-contract-155mm-artillery-ammunition-2024-01-23/">artillery</a>. For example, suppressive fire can force ground troops to shelter in trenches or bunkers and prevent them from advancing across open ground.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/BTgASmudYJw?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Ukrainian soldiers use first-person-view drones against Russian forces.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These gains have led Russia and Ukraine to develop ways of countering each other’s drones. For example, Russia has capitalized on its advanced electronic warfare capabilities to effectively <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/11/19/technology/russia-ukraine-electronic-warfare-drone-signals.html">jam the digital link</a> between Ukrainian operators and their drones. It also <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/a477d3f1-8c7e-4520-83b0-572ad674c28e">spoofs this link</a> by creating a false signal that disorients Ukrainian drones, causing them to crash. </p>
<p>As a result, Ukrainian drone operators are experimenting with <a href="https://www.kyivpost.com/post/26425">ways to overcome jamming and spoofing</a>. This includes going “back to the future” by <a href="https://www.foreignaffairs.com/ukraine/back-trenches-technology-warfare">adopting terrain-based navigation</a>, though this is less reliable than satellite-based navigation. </p>
<h2>Operational limitations</h2>
<p>Drones have been less successful at the operational level of war, which is designed to integrate battles into campaigns that achieve broader military objectives. </p>
<p>In spring 2022, Ukraine used a TB-2, along with other capabilities, to <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/04/14/briefing/russia-ukraine-war-flagship-mariupol.html">sink Russia’s flagship ship</a> — the Moskva — in the Black Sea. Since then, Ukrainian officials <a href="https://www.foreignaffairs.com/ukraine/ukraine-losing-drone-war">claim to have destroyed 15 additional Russian ships</a>, as well as damaged 12 more. </p>
<p>Ukraine also used sea drones – uncrewed water vessels – to <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2023/08/15/europe/ukraine-crimea-bridge-drone-strike-video-intl/index.html">damage the Kerch Bridge</a>, connecting Crimea to mainland Russia, as well as attack <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2024/01/21/fire-breaks-out-at-russias-novatek-terminal-on-baltic-sea.html">fuel depots in the Baltic Sea</a> and near <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-68046347">St. Petersburg</a>. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/CW6D3F9aBpg?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Footage appearing to show the damaged Russian warship Moskva emerges.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Though impressive, these and other operations have <a href="https://www.understandingwar.org/backgrounder/russian-offensive-campaign-assessment-january-23-2024">momentarily disrupted Russia’s use of the Black Sea</a> to <a href="https://www.reuters.com/markets/commodities/ukraines-september-grain-exports-down-51-ministry-says-2023-09-25/">blockade Ukraine’s grain shipments</a>, <a href="https://apnews.com/article/russia-ukraine-invasion-war-military-0fd6866d7ee2aec12e51daa1e7c5c881">launch missiles against Ukraine</a> and <a href="https://thehill.com/opinion/international/4414486-the-black-sea-is-now-the-center-of-gravity-for-the-ukraine-war/">resupply its soldiers</a>.</p>
<p>The problem is that Ukraine lacks air superiority, which has encouraged its use of an army of drones to execute missions typically reserved for bombers, jets, attack helicopters and high-end drones.</p>
<p>Though Denmark and the Netherlands have promised to <a href="https://www.voanews.com/a/will-f-16-fighter-jets-tip-war-in-ukraine-s-favor-/7234199.html">provide Ukraine with F-16 fighter jets</a>, thus replacing the country’s aging aircraft, they have not arrived. My <a href="https://www.brookings.edu/articles/americans-support-exporting-drones-to-ukraine-with-a-caveat/">research</a> also suggests that the U.S. will likely not sell its advanced Reaper drones to Ukraine, fearing crisis escalation with Russia. Further, these drones <a href="https://direct.mit.edu/isec/article/46/4/130/111172/W">are vulnerable</a> to Russia’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-game-of-numbers-how-air-defense-systems-work-and-why-ukraine-is-eager-for-more-protection-192487">integrated air defenses</a>. </p>
<p>Lack of air superiority exacerbates tactical challenges such as jamming and spoofing, while undermining Ukraine’s ability to <a href="https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/odr/ukraine-failing-to-procure-enough-drones-russia-war-soldiers/">deny freedom of maneuver</a> to Russia.</p>
<h2>Strategic myths</h2>
<p>Despite these tactical effects and limited operational gains, drones are <a href="https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/2015-05-25/futureproofing-drones">strategically ineffective</a>. </p>
<p>Drones have not, and are not likely to, <a href="https://www.cnas.org/publications/reports/evolution-not-revolution">shape the outcome of the war</a> in Ukraine. They have not allowed Ukraine to break its stalemate with Russia, nor have they encouraged Russia to end its occupation of Ukraine.</p>
<p>To the extent drones have been strategically consequential, the implications have been <a href="https://www.brookings.edu/articles/lessons-from-the-meme-war-in-ukraine/">psychological</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://apnews.com/article/russia-ukraine-war-drones-attack-bombardment-1e381d5e7fa71fb5549af354e3649681">Russia</a> and <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/russia-says-it-downs-33-ukraine-launched-drones-over-russian-regions-2023-12-17/">Ukraine</a> use drones to terrorize each other’s citizens as well as <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kFRLeL25HyU">generate propaganda</a> to stiffen their own citizens’ resolve. Russian and Ukrainian leaders also <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/09636412.2023.2225783">perceive</a> drones as providing advantages, encouraging them to invest in these capabilities and perpetuate what I call the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/14751798.2023.2178599">cult of the drone</a>.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/sqUi1RX97PQ?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A series of drone attacks hits Moscow.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The lesson from Ukraine is that while drones have some value at the tactical and operational levels of war, they are strategically inconsequential. They are not a <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidhambling/2020/11/10/the-magic-bullet-drones-behind--azerbaijans-victory-over-armenia/">magic bullet</a>, offering a <a href="https://www.brookings.edu/articles/rise-of-the-machines-drones-as-the-next-game-changer/">game-changing</a> capability to <a href="https://thebulletin.org/2020/12/we-need-a-new-international-accord-to-control-drone-proliferation/">decide the fate of nations</a>.</p>
<p>Instead, countries must rely on time-tested <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/evolution-of-strategy/236E4A66308C500151C59B6DC8F88C60">combined arms maneuver</a>, wherein they integrate personnel and weapons systems at a particular time and place to achieve a particular goal against an adversary. When these effects are aggregated over the course of a war, they expose vulnerabilities that militaries exploit, and often with the assistance of <a href="https://press.georgetown.edu/Book/Allies-That-Count">allies</a> and <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/coalitions-of-convenience-9780199753796?cc=us&lang=en&">partners</a>.</p>
<p>Only then can countries <a href="https://nymag.com/intelligencer/2023/08/how-ukraines-counteroffensive-might-end.html">achieve military objectives</a> that secure <a href="https://www.whathappensnextin6minutes.com/p/how-will-the-ukraine-war-end">political outcomes</a>, such as a negotiated settlement.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221397/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paul Lushenko does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Drones have dominated images of the war in Ukraine, but an expert on drone warfare casts doubt on many of the grand claims made for the weapons.Paul Lushenko, Assistant Professor and Director of Special Operations, US Army War CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2064982023-06-13T01:54:54Z2023-06-13T01:54:54ZWhat is a ‘toroidal propeller’ and could it change the future of drones? An expert explains<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530812/original/file-20230608-19-dgdz6q.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=48%2C0%2C1088%2C673&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.ll.mit.edu/news/six-lincoln-laboratory-inventions-win-rd-100-awards">Glen Cooper/MIT</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The basic configuration of traditional propellers has not fundamentally changed since the first powered flight <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Wright-brothers">by the Wright brothers in 1903</a>.</p>
<p>However, as engineers learn more about aerodynamics and attempt new experiments, propellers are evolving to more complex shapes. These feature multiple blades, high sweep angles, blade tip devices and other features to optimise performance in different conditions.</p>
<p>A recent advancement in propeller technology are “toroidal” propellers. These devices are ring-shaped, with the blades looping around each other. A few recent <a href="https://newatlas.com/aircraft/toroidal-quiet-propellers/">articles</a> and <a href="https://undecidedmf.com/why-is-this-propeller-getting-so-much-attention/">videos</a> have been hyping these – but how “revolutionary” are they, really?</p>
<h2>Refining the shape</h2>
<p>In 2017, researchers at <a href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US10836466B2/en?q=(Toroidal+Propeller)&oq=Toroidal+Propeller">MIT filed a patent</a> for toroidal propellers. Their patent claims the invention is more efficient than traditional propellers and is less noisy.</p>
<p>Coincidentally, already in 2012, US engineering company <a href="https://www.sharrowmarine.com/">Sharrow Marine</a> also developed a toroidal propeller for boats; they have demonstrated it to be more efficient and quieter than traditional marine propellers. </p>
<p>The reason toroidal propellers may be quieter is because of their complex shape – it minimises the strength of the vortex (a spiralling movement of air, water, or another fluid) that naturally happens over propeller blade tips.</p>
<p>This happens because there’s a high-pressure region under the blade, and low pressure above it. As high-pressure air from under the blade moves towards the low-pressure region above it, it travels in a spiral – a vortex.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531065/original/file-20230609-29-ovqfkz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A diagram showing low pressure above a plane wing and high pressure below it, with an arrow indicating air movement at the tip" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531065/original/file-20230609-29-ovqfkz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531065/original/file-20230609-29-ovqfkz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=542&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531065/original/file-20230609-29-ovqfkz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=542&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531065/original/file-20230609-29-ovqfkz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=542&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531065/original/file-20230609-29-ovqfkz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=681&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531065/original/file-20230609-29-ovqfkz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=681&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531065/original/file-20230609-29-ovqfkz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=681&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A tip vortex happens due to different pressures below and above the propeller blade or airplane wing.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">The Conversation</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This phenomenon is not unique to propeller blades, which are essentially rotating wings. The wing of a plane also experiences this phenomenon. Engineers have done much research on <a href="https://akademiabaru.com/submit/index.php/arfmts/article/view/2734">wingtip devices</a> that can minimise this.</p>
<p>The use of closed-loop structures – like in a toroidal propeller – is one way of reducing tip vortices.</p>
<p>Even though the basic propeller shape has remained the same since its invention, many propeller blade designs have been put forward. To test these, engineers need to perform design trade-off studies. Some of these approaches have been tested to try and make <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0376042112000644">helicopter blades</a> and <a href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/8400169/">drones</a> more efficient and less noisy.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530811/original/file-20230608-22-g3nm04.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530811/original/file-20230608-22-g3nm04.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1177&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530811/original/file-20230608-22-g3nm04.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1177&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530811/original/file-20230608-22-g3nm04.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1177&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530811/original/file-20230608-22-g3nm04.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1478&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530811/original/file-20230608-22-g3nm04.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1478&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530811/original/file-20230608-22-g3nm04.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1478&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Illustration from MIT’s 2017 patent, showing a regular propeller in 5a and a toroidal propeller in 5b.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US10836466B2/en?q=(Toroidal+Propeller)&oq=Toroidal+Propeller">US Patent US10836466B2</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>No magic propeller</h2>
<p>It’s important to understand propeller geometry must be optimised for a specific “operational envelope”. This means the properties of the fluid or air it operates in, rotation speed, forward speed, and other details. Outside that envelope, the propeller will perform poorly.</p>
<p>So far, nobody has achieved the magical propeller geometry that will achieve low noise and high efficiency for all operating conditions and scales. Toroidal propellers are no exception – from the sparse results available so far, their advantages are not yet fully quantified. </p>
<p>Comparing a well-designed toroidal propeller to a poorly designed traditional propeller will show a significant improvement, but is not a fair comparison.</p>
<p>Well-designed toroidal propellers may have advantages in specific operating conditions, such as dense fluids or a specific range of speeds. However, the question remains as to how a toroidal propeller compares to a <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Hanbo-Jiang/publication/362262696_Toward_high-efficiency_low-noise_propellers_A_numerical_and_experimental_study/links/62eb2cee88b83e7320a92a3b/Toward-high-efficiency-low-noise-propellers-A-numerical-and-experimental-study.pdf">well-designed traditional propeller</a> for the same conditions.</p>
<p>This is a challenge, since improvements are always relative to a benchmark – which may not be the most efficient design to start with.</p>
<p>Another aspect of a fair comparison that doesn’t seem to have been published for toroidal propellers is comparing different propellers at the same <a href="https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/beginners-guide-to-aeronautics/what-is-thrust/">thrust force</a>. Only then you can see the true advantages regarding noise reduction and energy required to spin the propeller.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/drones-to-deliver-incessant-buzzing-noise-and-packages-116257">Drones to deliver incessant buzzing noise, and packages</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Home experiments are not representative</h2>
<p>An <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E8L8I0dLh_o">MIT announcement</a> earlier this year about toroidal propellers winning one of MIT Lincoln Laboratory’s 2022 R&D 100 Awards generated significant excitement. There’s been <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C10XgojHu44">widespread experimentation</a> with 3D-printed toroidal propellers, but not all of these have delivered positive results.</p>
<p>This may be due to un-optimised geometry and poor scientific rigour by the general public conducting some of these experiments. This gives the scientific community a research opportunity – to truly assess and optimise toroidal <em>and</em> traditional propellers to enhance their performance. </p>
<p>Previous optimisation studies have been conducted, some of which even use <a href="https://www.rmit.edu.au/news/all-news/2021/mar/quiet-propellers">machine-learning</a> techniques to identify suitable geometries. Engineers are also trying to make propellers that sound less annoying, by considering how <a href="https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/10.2514/6.2021-0713">humans perceive sound</a>.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/E8L8I0dLh_o?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<h2>Expensive and hard to scale</h2>
<p>Toroidal propellers also have clear disadvantages. The main one is the difficulty to scale them to mass production due to their complex geometry, which leads to high production costs. </p>
<p>The complex structure also requires special care to avoid unwanted vibrations – a significant issue when rotating at high speeds. This also adds to higher manufacturing costs. </p>
<p>When it comes to using toroidal propellers for drones, their heavier weight will also have implications on the responsiveness and stability of the drone. This is critical when <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2504-446X/7/1/22">operating in windy and turbulent conditions</a> such as windy weather.</p>
<p>Overall, toroidal propellers are an exciting recent development in propeller design, at least in some cases. While they can be more quiet, they won’t completely replace traditional props just yet – there’s no single propeller design that will suit all situations.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/got-a-drone-for-christmas-know-the-law-before-taking-to-the-skies-70341">Got a drone for Christmas? Know the law before taking to the skies</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/206498/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Abdulghani Mohamed is a researcher at RMIT university who receives funding from a few companies for undertaking aerodynamic optimisation. </span></em></p>Can one invention revolutionise propellers, whose basic design has been around for over 100 years? Not so fast.Abdulghani Mohamed, Senior Lecturer in Aerospace Engineering, RMIT UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1976122023-02-23T13:14:51Z2023-02-23T13:14:51ZDrones over Ukraine: What the war means for the future of remotely piloted aircraft in combat<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511803/original/file-20230222-25-gdqlsc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5000%2C3323&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A Ukrainian soldier uses a commercial drone to monitor the front line in eastern Ukraine.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/ukrainian-soldier-operates-a-drone-from-a-house-on-the-news-photo/1246245227">Diego Herrera Carcedo/Anadolu Agency via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Over the past year, images from Ukraine have often portrayed a war resembling other conflicts from the past half-century. Russian forces deploy tanks, fighter planes, warships, amphibious vehicles and attack helicopters. Ukrainians fight back with anti-tank weapons, grenade launchers and anti-aircraft missiles. This is how much of the war appears on the ground.</p>
<p>But there’s another side to the conflict – a hypermodern battleground where drones play a crucial role in surveillance, reconnaissance and combat missions. These technologies may foreshadow a world in which armed conflicts are conducted largely by remote control – and perhaps someday, by artificial intelligence. </p>
<p>What lessons does the drone war in Ukraine hold for the future? </p>
<h2>Commercial and portable drones</h2>
<p>One lesson is that <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2014/07/the-democratization-of-drone-warfare/458184/">drones have been democratized</a>, accessible to anyone with a few hundred dollars and a bit of technical knowledge. In Ukraine, DIY hobbyists have <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/08/10/world/europe/ukraine-drones.html">modified and weaponized small, inexpensive commercial drones</a> by outfitting them with high-resolution cameras and explosives. </p>
<p>Ukraine’s <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/mar/28/the-drone-operators-who-halted-the-russian-armoured-vehicles-heading-for-kyiv">Aerorozvidka air reconnaissance unit</a> made headlines early in the war when its drones helped stop a Russian convoy headed for Kyiv. Aerorozvidka personnel use spiderlike hexacopters, octocopters and other remote-controlled devices as weapons.</p>
<p>These gadgets typically fly at low altitudes – less than 1.5 miles (2.4 kilometers) – and limited distances – less than 19 miles (31 kilometers). Russia’s fighter jets aren’t designed to prevent attacks from such small drones.</p>
<h2>‘Suicide’ drones</h2>
<p>Both sides in the war have also unleashed <a href="https://dronecenter.bard.edu/files/2017/02/CSD-Loitering-Munitions.pdf">loitering munitions</a> — sometimes called “suicide” drones. These self-destructing devices can circle around targets for hours before attacking. Ukraine’s arsenal includes U.S.-made <a href="https://www.politico.com/news/2022/04/21/mystery-drone-air-force-new-weapon-ukraine-00026970">Switchblade and Phoenix Ghost models</a>, while Russian forces use domestically manufactured <a href="https://www.military-today.com/aircraft/lancet.htm">Lancet-3 drones</a>. Some of these weapons are small enough to fit in a backpack. Ukrainian forces have also <a href="https://twitter.com/Osinttechnical/status/1617716493210497024">fashioned DIY loitering munitions</a> by attaching explosives to off-the-shelf quadcopters.</p>
<p>Russian troops have also used Iranian-made Shahed-136 drones, which <a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/how-russia-is-using-iranian-killer-drones-to-spread-terror-in-ukraine">recently terrorized Kyiv</a>. At about 11 feet (3.5 meters) long, these fixed wing drones resemble a small plane. Loitering munitions typically cost US$10,000-$20,000 each, and have a longer range – 932 miles (1,500 kilometers) or more – than cheap commercial drones. Most have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1109/ISPDS51347.2020.00041">swarming capability</a>, which allows multiple drones to attack a target and inflict greater damage. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511804/original/file-20230222-703-qo5l8z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="a small light gray delta wing aircraft against a clear blue sky" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511804/original/file-20230222-703-qo5l8z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511804/original/file-20230222-703-qo5l8z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511804/original/file-20230222-703-qo5l8z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511804/original/file-20230222-703-qo5l8z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511804/original/file-20230222-703-qo5l8z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511804/original/file-20230222-703-qo5l8z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511804/original/file-20230222-703-qo5l8z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An Iranian-made Shahed-136 suicide drone seconds before it hit buildings in Kyiv, Ukraine, on Oct. 17, 2022.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/RussiaUkraineWarIsraelsDilemma/2ae5098134ae4d73939da1f2585c47df/photo">AP Photo/Efrem Lukatsky</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the Ukraine war, it’s <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/oct/19/financial-toll-ukraine-downing-drones-vastly-exceeds-russia-costs">much more expensive to intercept loitering munitions than to deploy them</a>. Using MiG-29 jet fighters, C-300 cruise missiles and other Cold War-era weapons to stop these drones far exceeds the cost of the disposable robots. New high-tech battles of attrition could become a regular feature of future conflicts, with each side attempting to exhaust its enemy’s resources.</p>
<p>Loitering munitions hold another lesson. When used against civilians, low-altitude drones can unnerve an entire city. <a href="https://www.wired.com/story/russia-ukraine-drones-shahed-136-iran/">Russia’s October 2022 drone attacks on Kyiv</a> not only killed four people, but they terrorized thousands more. A <a href="https://law.stanford.edu/publications/living-under-drones-death-injury-and-trauma-to-civilians-from-us-drone-practices-in-pakistan/">Stanford-NYU research project</a> on the long-term impact of America’s drone war in Pakistan reveals that it has deeply traumatized civilian populations.</p>
<h2>Remotely piloted aircraft</h2>
<p>Another class of drones includes those capable of flying longer distances – 124 miles (200 kilometers) or more – and at higher altitudes – 2.5 to 5 miles (4 to 8 kilometers) – than those mentioned above. They can also be armed with laser-guided missiles, boosting their lethality. In the Ukraine war, these drones – essentially remotely piloted fighter planes – include the Turkish-produced <a href="https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2022/05/16/the-turkish-drone-that-changed-the-nature-of-warfare">Bayraktar TB2</a>. The Ukrainian military has acquired several dozen, at a cost of about $5 million each. </p>
<p>Some call it the “<a href="https://www.ft.com/content/948605a1-cf6c-40ea-b403-9a97d72be2cf">Toyota Corolla of drones</a>” because of its affordability and reliability. Among other things, the Bayraktar TB2 inspired a <a href="https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/medialse/2022/07/22/what-ukraines-viral-drone-song-says-about-modern-day-warfare-and-resistance/">Ukrainian rap song</a> that went viral, pointing to the potential propaganda value of new technologies.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511807/original/file-20230222-1774-rvumv7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="a small uncrewed aircraft flies just above a runway" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511807/original/file-20230222-1774-rvumv7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511807/original/file-20230222-1774-rvumv7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=373&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511807/original/file-20230222-1774-rvumv7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=373&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511807/original/file-20230222-1774-rvumv7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=373&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511807/original/file-20230222-1774-rvumv7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=469&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511807/original/file-20230222-1774-rvumv7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=469&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511807/original/file-20230222-1774-rvumv7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=469&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ukrainian forces have made extensive use of the Turkish-made Bayraktar TB2 drone.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/the-bayraktar-tb2-drone-is-pictured-flying-on-december-16-news-photo/1189007249">Birol Bebek/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>Russian forces have used comparable drones, most notably the domestically produced <a href="https://www.thedrive.com/the-war-zone/38446/russias-predator-style-drone-with-big-export-potential-has-launched-its-first-missiles">Orion series</a>. Other drones in this class (none of which have been used in Ukraine) include the Israeli <a href="https://www.airforce-technology.com/projects/hermes-multirole-high-performance-tactical-uas/">Hermes 450</a>, the American-made <a href="https://www.army-technology.com/projects/mq1c-gray-eagle-uas-us-army/">MQ-1C Gray Eagle</a>, China’s recently unveiled <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/chinese-drones-swarm-market-2017-11">Wing Loong 3</a> and dozens more. <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/1/24/how-china-became-the-worlds-leading-exporter-of-combat-drones">China now surpasses Israel</a> as the world’s biggest drone exporter. Drone proliferation is likely to accelerate their battlefield presence.</p>
<h2>High-end military drones</h2>
<p>High-end drones aren’t likely to be used in Ukraine anytime soon. It’s hard to imagine that the Rolls-Royce of drones, the U.S.-made <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/aircraft/GlobalHawk/performance.html">RQ-4 Global Hawk</a>, will ever be deployed in Ukraine, given its high cost. (The $200 million behemoth is, in fact, powered by a Rolls-Royce AE 3700 turbofan engine).</p>
<p>But it’s plausible that one day, the U.S. government might provide Ukraine with <a href="https://www.airforce-technology.com/projects/predator-uav/">RQ-9 Reapers</a>, which cost about $50 million apiece. And although China has so far been reluctant to send weapons to Russian forces, its state-of-the-art <a href="https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/china/ch-5.htm">CH-5 Rainbow</a> strike drones could dramatically alter the course of the war. This advanced aircraft would provide Russian troops with far greater firepower, endurance and range than its current drones.</p>
<h2>How drones are changing war</h2>
<p>Over the past 20 years, researchers have observed that drone warfare <a href="https://mitpress.mit.edu/9780262534413/drone/">simultaneously stretches and compresses the battlefield</a>. It does so both physically and psychologically by increasing the geographic distance between targeter and targeted. When American forces launch drone strikes in Afghanistan, Pakistan or Yemen, the attacks are secret, targeted assassinations, more like <a href="https://thenewpress.com/books/theory-of-drone">a form of hunting</a> than airstrikes on military targets. </p>
<p>But the ways in which drones are being used in Ukraine are strikingly different from how the U.S. has deployed them in the war on terror. In Ukraine, both sides use drones as a tactical technology for a range of missions, including battlefield surveillance, artillery spotting and attacking armored vehicles and missile launchers. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/dgrX8w9Adao?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">An interview in the field with Ukrainian drone pilots.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>One year on, missiles and drones dominate the air war over Ukraine, raising the question: <a href="https://www.npr.org/2023/02/02/1153438336/russia-and-ukraine-battle-daily-in-the-sky-so-where-are-the-pilots">Where are the pilots</a>? Future wars may incorporate yet more advanced drones — and <a href="https://dronecenter.bard.edu/projects/counter-drone-systems-project/counter-drone-systems-2nd-edition/">counter-drone systems</a> for jamming command or GPS signals, or intercepting drones before they strike. Russia’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/lesson-from-a-year-at-war-in-contrast-to-the-russians-ukrainians-master-a-mix-of-high-and-low-end-technology-on-the-battlefield-197853">failure to adequately use such systems</a> gave Ukrainian forces an edge in the early months of the war.</p>
<h2>Flying ‘killer robots’</h2>
<p>Perhaps the most troubling prospect is the possibility of a new global arms race in which the U.S., China, Russia, Iran, Israel, the European Union and others <a href="https://theconversation.com/war-in-ukraine-accelerates-global-drive-toward-killer-robots-198725">rush to develop fully autonomous drones</a>. The U.S. Air Force is already testing an <a href="https://arstechnica.com/cars/2023/02/the-us-air-force-successfully-tested-this-ai-controlled-jet-fighter/">AI-controlled fighter jet</a>.</p>
<p>Several factors are driving this process. As GPS and control signal jammers become more sophisticated, drones are likely to become less reliant on remote control and more autonomous, using <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/s16050666">systems that incorporate AI</a>, such as <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/engproc2021012067">simultaneous location and mapping</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/drones6080185">LiDAR technology</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/drones6080207">celestial navigation</a>. </p>
<p>Another factor propelling the long-term adoption of autonomous weapons is the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/04/15/us/drones-airstrikes-ptsd.html">psychological impact of remote-controlled warfare on drone pilots</a>, many of whom suffer from serious mental illnesses like post-traumatic stress disorder
after killing targeted people. To some observers, <a href="https://www.wired.com/2012/06/drone-pilot-ptsd/">autonomous drones might seem to offer a way of eliminating the psychological trauma of killing remotely</a>. Yet many rank-and-file soldiers and pilots are reluctant to use autonomous weapons because <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/15027570.2018.1481907">they don’t trust them</a>, something confirmed by <a href="https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520384767/war-virtually">my own research</a>.</p>
<p>Finally, there are ethical concerns: Autonomous weapons <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190905033.003.0008">tend to absolve humans of any responsibility for life-and-death decisions</a>. Who will be held accountable when an autonomous drone kills civilian noncombatants? </p>
<p>As the Ukraine war drags on — and as <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2022/nov/20/part-of-the-kill-chain-how-can-we-control-weaponised-robots">autonomous weapons research</a> <a href="https://theconversation.com/war-in-ukraine-accelerates-global-drive-toward-killer-robots-198725">surges forward</a> — the possibility of a <a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/drone-advances-amid-war-in-ukraine-could-bring-fighting-robots-to-front-lines">robot war</a> looms on the horizon.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/197612/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Roberto J. González does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The war in Ukraine has dramatically increased the use of drones in warfare, from repurposed consumer quadcopters to flying bombs to remotely piloted warplanes.Roberto J. González, Professor of Anthropology, San José State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1517302020-12-10T20:24:48Z2020-12-10T20:24:48ZExperts suggest US embassies were hit with high-power microwaves – here’s how the weapons work<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374276/original/file-20201210-24-1t13yaa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=7%2C0%2C1255%2C675&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Several countries are developing microwave weapons, like this U.S. Air Force system designed to knock down drones by frying their electronics.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.wpafb.af.mil/News/Article-Display/Article/1969142/enemy-drone-operators-may-soon-face-the-power-of-thor/">AFRL Directed Energy Directorate</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Some of the cases of the mystery ailment that has afflicted U.S. embassy staff and CIA officers off and on since 2016 in Cuba, China, Russia and other countries <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/national-security/2022/02/02/external-energy-source-may-explain-havana-syndrome-panel-finds-renewing-questions-about-possible-foreign-attack/">most likely were caused by pulsed electromagnetic energy</a>, according to <a href="https://www.dni.gov/index.php/newsroom/reports-publications/reports-publications-2022/item/2273-complementary-efforts-on-anomalous-health-incidents">a report by a panel of experts</a> convened by national intelligence agencies.</p>
<p>The report’s findings are similar to those of another <a href="https://www.nap.edu/catalog/25889/an-assessment-of-illness-in-us-government-employees-and-their-families-at-overseas-embassies">report released by the National Academies</a> in 2020. In that report, a committee of 19 experts in medicine and other fields concluded that directed, pulsed radiofrequency energy is the “most plausible mechanism” to explain the illness, dubbed “<a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/19/us/politics/diplomat-attacks-havana-syndrome.html">Havana syndrome</a>.”</p>
<p>Neither report is definitive, and their authors don’t address who targeted the embassies or why they were targeted. But the technology behind the suspected weapons is well understood and dates back to the Cold War arms race between the U.S. and the Soviet Union. High-power microwave weapons are generally designed to disable electronic equipment. But as the Havana syndrome reports show, these pulses of energy can harm people, as well.</p>
<p>As <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=DXWQnZYAAAAJ&hl=en">an electrical and computer engineer</a> who designs and builds sources of high-power microwaves, I have spent decades studying the physics of these sources, including work with the U.S. Department of Defense. Directed energy microwave weapons convert energy from a power source – a wall plug in a lab or the engine on a military vehicle – into radiated electromagnetic energy and focus it on a target. The directed high-power microwaves damage equipment, particularly electronics, without killing nearby people. </p>
<p>Two good examples are Boeing’s <a href="https://www.boeing.com/features/2012/10/bds-champ-10-22-12.page">Counter-electronics High-powered Microwave Advanced Missile Project</a> (CHAMP), which is a high-power microwave source mounted in a missile, and <a href="https://afresearchlab.com/technology/directed-energy/successstories/counter-swarm-high-power-weapon/">Tactical High-power Operational Responder</a> (THOR), which was recently developed by the Air Force Research Laboratory to knock out swarms of drones. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/Ogi_o8dszrk?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A news report about the U.S. Air Force’s high-power microwave anti-drone weapon THOR.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Cold War origins</h2>
<p>These types of directed energy microwave devices came on the scene in the late 1960s in the U.S. and the Soviet Union. They were enabled by the development of <a href="http://www.pulsedpower.eu/">pulsed power</a> in the 1960s. Pulsed power generates short electrical pulses that have very high electrical power, meaning both high voltage – up to a few megavolts – and large electrical currents – tens of kiloamps. That’s more voltage than the highest-voltage long-distance power transmission lines, and about the amount of current in a lightning bolt.</p>
<p>Plasma physicists at the time realized that if you could generate, for example, a 1-megavolt electron beam with 10-kiloamp current, the result would be a beam power of 10 billion watts, or gigawatts. Converting 10% of that beam power into microwaves using standard microwave tube technology that dates back to the 1940s generates 1 gigawatt of microwaves. For comparison, the output power of today’s typical microwave ovens is around a thousand watts – a million times smaller.</p>
<p>The development of this technology led to a subset of the U.S.-Soviet arms race – a microwave power derby. When the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, I and other American scientists gained access to Russian pulsed power accelerators, like the SINUS-6 that is still working in my lab. I had a fruitful decade of collaboration with my Russian colleagues, which swiftly ended following Vladimir Putin’s rise to power.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374243/original/file-20201210-16-1cqrvik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="a machine in a laboratory with a rectilinear funnel-shaped structure in the foreground and a long metal pipe receding into the background" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374243/original/file-20201210-16-1cqrvik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374243/original/file-20201210-16-1cqrvik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374243/original/file-20201210-16-1cqrvik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374243/original/file-20201210-16-1cqrvik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374243/original/file-20201210-16-1cqrvik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374243/original/file-20201210-16-1cqrvik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374243/original/file-20201210-16-1cqrvik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This high-power microwave generator built in the Soviet Union continues to operate in Edl Schamiloglu’s lab at the University of New Mexico.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Edl Schamiloglu, University of New Mexico</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Today, research in high-power microwaves continues in the U.S. and Russia but has exploded in China. I have visited labs in Russia since 1991 and labs in China since 2006, and the investment being made by China dwarfs activity in the U.S. and Russia. Dozens of countries now have active high-power microwave research programs. </p>
<h2>Lots of power, little heat</h2>
<p>Although these high-power microwave sources generate very high power levels, they tend to generate repeated short pulses. For example, the SINUS-6 in my lab produces an output pulse on the order of 10 nanoseconds, or billionths of a second. So even when generating 1 gigawatt of output power, a 10-nanosecond pulse has an energy content of only 10 joules. To put this in perspective, the average microwave oven in one second generates 1 kilojoule, or thousand joules of energy. It typically takes about 4 minutes to boil a cup of water, which corresponds to 240 kilojoules of energy. </p>
<p>This is why microwaves generated by these high-power microwave weapons don’t generate noticeable amounts of heat, let alone cause people to explode like baked potatoes in microwave ovens. </p>
<p>High power is important in these weapons because generating very high instantaneous power yields very high instantaneous electric fields, which scale as the square root of the power. It is these high electric fields that can disrupt electronics, which is why the Department of Defense is interested in these devices.</p>
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<h2>How it affects people</h2>
<p>The National Academies report links high-power microwaves to impacts on people through the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1962.17.4.689">Frey effect</a>. The human head acts as a receiving antenna for microwaves in the low gigahertz frequency range. Pulses of microwaves in these frequencies can cause people to hear sounds, which is one of the symptoms reported by the affected U.S. personnel. <a href="https://www.healthline.com/health-news/what-do-we-know-about-havana-syndrome#Strange-Sounds-and-Neurological-Symptoms">Other symptoms</a> Havana syndrome sufferers have reported include headaches, nausea, hearing loss, lightheadedness and cognitive issues.</p>
<p>The report notes that electronic devices were not disrupted during the attacks, suggesting that the power levels needed for the Frey effect are lower than would be required for an attack on electronics. This would be consistent with a high-power microwave weapon located at some distance from the targets. Power decreases dramatically with distance through the <a href="https://www.khanacademy.org/science/electrical-engineering/ee-electrostatics/ee-electric-force-and-electric-field/a/ee-inverse-square-law">inverse square law</a>, which means one of these devices could produce a power level at the target that would be too low to affect electronics but that could induce the Frey effect.</p>
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<p>The Russians and the Chinese certainly possess the capabilities of fielding high-power microwave sources like the ones that appear to have been used in Cuba and China. The truth of what actually happened to U.S. personnel in Cuba and China – and why – might remain a mystery, but the technology most likely involved comes from textbook physics, and the military powers of the world continue to develop and deploy it.</p>
<p><em>This is an updated version of an article originally published on December 10, 2020.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/151730/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Edl Schamiloglu receives funding from AFOSR, DARPA and ONR to perform basic research on the development of high power microwave sources. He also receives support from industry (Verus Research, General Atomics Electromagnetic System Division).
He serves as Chair of IEC SC77C, which develops civilian standards to protect equipment and infrastructure from IEMI.
Any opinions, findings and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the United States Air Force or the DOD.</span></em></p>High-power microwave weapons are useful for disabling electronics. A new report says they ‘plausibly explain’ some ailments suffered by US diplomats and CIA agents in Cuba, China and other countries.Edl Schamiloglu, Distinguished Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of New MexicoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1242492019-12-10T18:01:16Z2019-12-10T18:01:16ZWhat can drones do to protect civilians in armed conflict?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/305957/original/file-20191209-90592-jegcky.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=112%2C348%2C1135%2C479&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">U.N. technicians prepare an unarmed drone for flight over the Democratic Republic of Congo.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/monusco/11189522286/">MONUSCO/Sylvain Liechti/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Drones are usually in the news for bad reasons, like controversial <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/nov/15/targeted-killing-secrecy-drone-memos-excerpt">killings of suspected terrorists</a> in the Middle East, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/09/14/world/middleeast/saudi-arabia-refineries-drone-attack.html">bombings of Saudi oil facilities</a> or <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-45073385">an assassination attempt on Venezuelan President Nicolas Maduro</a>.</p>
<p>What many people may not know is that United Nations peacekeepers use drones to protect civilians from violence. These drones are different: They don’t carry weapons.</p>
<p>I have <a href="https://sciences.ucf.edu/politics/person/michael-yekple/">followed the U.N.’s use of drones</a> since its beginning in 2013 and have spoken with peacekeepers and U.N. officers who are familiar with their use. I believe drones have the potential to save lives. </p>
<p>But that doesn’t mean they necessarily will.</p>
<h2>Violence is common</h2>
<p>The U.N. is often called in to <a href="https://peacekeeping.un.org/en">help calm trouble spots</a> around the globe, sending soldiers, police and other officials from U.N. member countries to conflict zones to keep warring groups separate and reduce violence.</p>
<p>In countries with civil wars and sectarian conflict, civilians are often caught up in the violence, either by accident or targeted intentionally by armed fighters.</p>
<p>In July 2016, for instance, fighting between armed militias in Juba, the capital of South Sudan, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jul/10/south-sudan-capital-juba-violence-salva-kiir">pinned U.N. soldiers in their own base</a>, leaving them unable to help protect civilians. When more than two weeks of fighting ended, <a href="https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=20339&LangID=E">73 civilians were dead, 217 women and girls were sexually assaulted</a> and <a href="https://news.yahoo.com/sudan-violence-displaced-over-36-000-people-since-102212618.html">36,000 civilians fled into refugee camps</a>.</p>
<p>Just a year later, in 2017, in the Central African Republic, more brutalities against civilians under U.N. protection left <a href="https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/10/27/central-african-republic-civilians-targeted-violence-surges">188 dead, 25 women and girls raped, and many more displaced</a>, according to the Human Rights Watch advocacy group.</p>
<p>These types of incidents are common throughout the U.N.’s many decades of peacekeeping efforts, with civilians slaughtered, raped or displaced even while supposedly under U.N. protection.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/305962/original/file-20191209-90557-tu2blt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/305962/original/file-20191209-90557-tu2blt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/305962/original/file-20191209-90557-tu2blt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/305962/original/file-20191209-90557-tu2blt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/305962/original/file-20191209-90557-tu2blt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/305962/original/file-20191209-90557-tu2blt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=544&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/305962/original/file-20191209-90557-tu2blt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=544&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/305962/original/file-20191209-90557-tu2blt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=544&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">U.N. peacekeeping forces defend their base from a militia attack in Democratic Republic of Congo.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/monusco/7684325750/">MONUSCO/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Help may be in the air</h2>
<p>Since 2014, the U.N. has been using drones in the conflict zones of <a href="https://undocs.org/S/RES/2098(2013)">Democratic Republic of Congo</a> and more recently in <a href="https://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/april-2016/drones-are-effective-protecting-civilians">Mali and Central African Republic</a> to gather information, in hopes of directing peacekeepers to people and places under threat.</p>
<p>This sounds good in theory, but there are no known cases where drones have actually triggered troop movements that saved lives. At least not yet. </p>
<p>The U.N. has a history of trying new ways to protect civilians that <a href="https://theglobalobservatory.org/2019/09/twenty-years-on-time-for-accountability-system-protection-civilians/">end up not working out</a>. For instance, plans to protect civilians in <a href="https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/N1635591.pdf">South Sudan</a> <a href="https://www.un.org/sg/en/content/sg/note-correspondents/2018-01-24/note-correspondents-findings-central-african-republic">or Central African Republic</a> were not ultimately followed by the U.N. troops on the ground. So it’s not certain that new methods would, in fact, work better.</p>
<p>For one thing, getting drones in the right places can be complicated. In the Democratic Republic of Congo, there were <a href="http://drones.newamerica.org/primer/DronesAndAerialObservation.pdf#page=87">five drones to cover more than 900,000 square miles</a>, but there was money to <a href="http://drones.newamerica.org/primer/DronesAndAerialObservation.pdf#page=90">operate only one at a time</a>. On the ground, <a href="https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/2018-12-11/crisis-peacekeeping">there is one peacekeeper for each 50 square miles</a>. This is too small to guarantee a quick response to crises. </p>
<p>Even if drones are in key places, the information they gather has to get to peacekeeping soldiers quickly enough that a response can arrive and prevent violence. To be fast enough to save lives, drone pilots, intelligence analysts and the peacekeepers themselves have to coordinate closely. </p>
<p>The U.N.’s drones are unarmed, so the people who fly them by remote control have to <a href="http://drones.newamerica.org/primer/DronesAndAerialObservation.pdf#page=90">write reports and send data to intelligence units</a> to determine whether there are any threats to civilians, and, if so, what the peacekeepers should do about them. Most U.N. missions <a href="http://drones.newamerica.org/primer/">don’t have enough people or equipment</a> to analyze drone footage, so the process can take days or weeks.</p>
<p>The 15 U.N. intelligence officers working in the Democratic Republic of Congo, for instance, <a href="http://drones.newamerica.org/primer/">say they have enough work to occupy hundreds</a> more colleagues. <a href="https://www.ipinst.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/1608_Demystifying-Intelligence.pdf">However, the U.N. has historically avoided intelligence activity</a> because of its association with covert operations, which run counter to the organization’s intentions of operating openly and without deception.</p>
<p>Even if peacekeepers do get timely information, they may not respond quickly to prevent civilians from being harmed if they do not have enough soldiers or patrol vehicles or helicopters to respond. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/305961/original/file-20191209-90557-b6wb04.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/305961/original/file-20191209-90557-b6wb04.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/305961/original/file-20191209-90557-b6wb04.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/305961/original/file-20191209-90557-b6wb04.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/305961/original/file-20191209-90557-b6wb04.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/305961/original/file-20191209-90557-b6wb04.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/305961/original/file-20191209-90557-b6wb04.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/305961/original/file-20191209-90557-b6wb04.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">U.N. peacekeepers from Benin patrol in the Democratic Republic of Congo, on the lookout for local armed militia groups.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/monusco/24306912128/">MONUSCO/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Drones still have potential</h2>
<p>All these problems don’t mean drones are useless at protecting civilians. For instance, <a href="https://www.france24.com/en/20150409-un-drones-future-peacekeeping-democratic-republic-congo-fdlr-humanitarian-drc">U.N. drones discovered armed groups smuggling gold</a> believed to be providing funding for the armed groups and their activities. That was news to the U.N., and authorities stopped the smuggling. Drones also <a href="https://news.un.org/en/story/2014/05/467632-un-mission-helps-rescue-shipwrecked-passengers-eastern-dr-congo">helped save 14 people</a> in Democratic Republic of Congo after their boat capsized.</p>
<p>I believe these efforts and others aimed at preventing violence could be more effective with more support from U.N. member nations. In recent years, though, wealthy countries have <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-06-27/u-s-and-china-quietly-agree-on-un-cuts-as-they-feud-over-trade">slashed their contributions to the U.N. peacekeeping budget</a> and <a href="https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/2018-12-11/crisis-peacekeeping">reduced the number of soldiers</a> they’ll send on missions. That has left peacekeeping missions to do their work with <a href="https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/2018-12-11/crisis-peacekeeping">ill-equipped, poorly trained soldiers from poor nations</a>.</p>
<p>[<em>Like what you’ve read? Want more?</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=likethis">Sign up for The Conversation’s daily newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/124249/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Yekple does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Drones could help United Nations peacekeepers save civilians’ lives – but there are obstacles.Michael Yekple, Ph.D. Candidate in Security Studies, University of Central FloridaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1162572019-05-03T10:42:14Z2019-05-03T10:42:14ZDrones to deliver incessant buzzing noise, and packages<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/271856/original/file-20190430-136807-izn2za.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=156%2C131%2C5222%2C3544&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">It's going to get loud.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/young-man-closed-ears-119712346">Alexey Laputin/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A sister company of Google, Alphabet’s Wing Aviation, <a href="https://www.npr.org/2019/04/23/716360818/faa-certifies-googles-wing-drone-delivery-company-to-operate-as-an-airline">just got federal approval</a> to start using drones for commercial delivery. <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Amazon-Prime-Air/b">Amazon’s own drone-delivery program</a> is ready to launch as well. As drones take flight, the world is about to get a lot louder – as if neighborhoods were filled with <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/hearing_loss/what_noises_cause_hearing_loss.html">leaf blowers</a>, <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-11-09/noise-from-drone-delivery-service-divides-canberra-residents/10484044">lawn mowers</a> and <a href="https://www.pcmag.com/news/365635/noisy-wing-drones-are-being-quietly-redesigned">chainsaws</a>.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/SK5wNauZz80?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Are you ready for this?</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Small recreational drones are fairly loud. Serious commercial drones are much louder. They have eight or more propellers (<a href="https://www.npr.org/2019/04/23/716360818/faa-certifies-googles-wing-drone-delivery-company-to-operate-as-an-airline">Alphabet’s Wing has 14</a>; <a href="https://blog.aboutamazon.com/transportation/another-new-frontier-for-prime-air">Amazon’s Octocopter has eight</a> spinning at <a href="https://youtu.be/InjxuXm5CJg?start=513">thousands of revolutions per minute</a>, physically beating the air to generate lift and movement. The heavier the load, the harder they have to work, the more air gets beaten – and the louder the sound. </p>
<p>Drones also make higher pitched buzzing sounds than helicopters, which have much lower frequencies because their larger rotors don’t need to spin as fast to generate the necessary power. Now imagine tens or even hundreds of drones buzzing around your neighborhood, delivering packages to homes and businesses. Next, imagine the <a href="https://slate.com/business/2016/06/on-demand-delivery-by-companies-like-amazon-and-uber-could-produce-a-traffic-nightmare.html">round-the-clock hives of aerial</a> activity that warehouses and distribution centers will become, in addition to their <a href="https://www.citylab.com/transportation/2017/04/cities-seek-deliverance-from-the-e-commerce-boom/523671/">existing burden on local roads</a>; Amazon recently ordered <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/amazon-orders-20-000-mercedes-benz-vans-for-new-delivery-service-1536157804">20,000 new vans</a>.</p>
<p>As an <a href="http://acousticecologylab.org">acoustic ecologist</a>, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=KeNbtNgAAAAJ&hl=en">I</a> <a href="https://theconversation.com/listening-to-nature-how-sound-can-help-us-understand-environmental-change-105794">monitor the sound of our environment</a> and how it changes. I am concerned that drones are taking to the air without a lot of thought for the ears of people on the ground. </p>
<p>Will there be a weight limit on delivery-drone payloads? Who will monitor the sound levels, and how? Should there be a curfew on hours of operation? There must be a reason companies don’t include the sound of the drone in advertising materials – and it’s probably not because they sound so nice.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/MXo_d6tNWuY?wmode=transparent&start=51" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">In this ad, the drone seems silent.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Health and well-being</h2>
<p>Urban designers are often concerned about sound levels in neighborhoods. Wealthier suburbs, for instance, are always <a href="https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2003-40308">farther from big noise sources</a> like airports and highways. Existing noise-control laws are basically useless at <a href="http://ec.europa.eu/environment/integration/research/newsalert/pdf/air_noise_pollution_socioeconomic_status_links_IR13_en.pdf">protecting people’s well-being</a>, general health <a href="https://www.citylab.com/equity/2015/11/city-noise-mental-health-traffic-study/417276/">or mental health</a>. Some wealthy neighborhoods even consider planting trees not just for the added greenery but because the <a href="https://www.forestresearch.gov.uk/tools-and-resources/urban-regeneration-and-greenspace-partnership/greenspace-in-practice/benefits-of-greenspace/noise-abatement/">soft foliage absorbs sound</a>, making these communities even quieter and more peaceful.</p>
<p>Incessant mechanical buzzing doesn’t fit with anyone’s idea of a pleasant community. That’s what drones will bring, though. Even domestic drones can raise baseline sound pressure levels by <a href="https://youtu.be/V5DYre_EZKU?start=252">at least 20 decibels</a>; when each 6dB increase means <a href="http://www.sengpielaudio.com/calculator-levelchange.htm">loudness doubles</a>, that means a single drone can make an area 8 to 12 times louder than it is now.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/V5DYre_EZKU?wmode=transparent&start=283" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Drones turn a quiet day into something quite different.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It’s not just loudness. Drones have relatively small propellers, which don’t move much air, but they move it very rapidly. The amount of energy put into moving the air equates to its volume or loudness. The speed of the spinning equates to its pitch, or frequency. Refinements to propeller shapes can <a href="https://www.theverge.com/2017/11/1/16573820/dji-mavic-pro-platinum-drone-sound-noise">change the pitch</a>, but companies will only research noise reduction if their customers demand it.</p>
<p>Adding a payload to a drone means the propellers must put more energy into the air by spinning faster – making a louder and higher-pitched sound. The frequencies they generate are, in fact, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fletcher%E2%80%93Munson_curves">the very frequencies people are most sensitive to</a>. Turning, or even fighting gusts of wind to stay on course, also requires more propeller energy at higher speeds. A <a href="https://doi.org/10.2514/6.2017-4051">NASA study</a> found that people find the specific sounds drones make to be particularly annoying.</p>
<p><iframe id="SzpE2" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/SzpE2/4/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>The amount of time a person is exposed to different sound levels matters, too. The U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration says workers exposed to <a href="https://www.osha.gov/Publications/laboratory/OSHAfactsheet-laboratory-safety-noise.pdf">85 decibels or louder for eight hours or more</a> may suffer hearing damage or loss. The Federal Aviation Administration says that residential areas should not have <a href="https://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/policy_guidance/noise/history/">aircraft noise averaging above 65dB</a> in a 24-hour period.</p>
<h2>Ecological effects</h2>
<p>Without forethought, public outcry and regulation, the buzzing of drones may soon fill city and suburban skies – adding to the din in many places, and disturbing the peace of even those wealthy suburbs whose residents can afford the <a href="https://youtu.be/prhDrfUgpB0?t=130">convenience of rapid home delivery</a>. Even neighborhoods that have managed to avoid being under <a href="https://apnews.com/2c040a68d76a4ab5b7420c0681a860e8">airport flight paths</a> will find themselves <a href="https://www.canberratimes.com.au/story/5995059/a-noisy-nuisance-drones-slammed-in-submissions-to-new-inquiry/">surrounded by the buzz</a>.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/C5abCs5VHsE?wmode=transparent&start=119" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Coming to a community near you?</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Public parks, designed to provide places for recreation, community gatherings and quiet contemplation, may no longer provide any escape from <a href="https://youtu.be/prhDrfUgpB0?start=204">the hum of daily life</a>.</p>
<p>Don’t forget about the birds, either. You might not be able to enjoy birdsong in the <a href="https://soundcloud.com/garthpaine/organ-pipe-soundscape">morning with your coffee</a>, but even worse, the <a href="https://www.australiangeographic.com.au/topics/wildlife/2012/06/bird-calls-drowned-out-by-city-noise/">birds themselves might not be able to hear each other</a>, either. <a href="https://www.fastcompany.com/3057041/city-birds-are-changing-their-songs-because-of-urban-noise">Bird calls are key to species’ survival</a>, letting them warn each other of danger – and find mates. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/271854/original/file-20190430-136807-we2iza.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/271854/original/file-20190430-136807-we2iza.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/271854/original/file-20190430-136807-we2iza.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/271854/original/file-20190430-136807-we2iza.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/271854/original/file-20190430-136807-we2iza.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/271854/original/file-20190430-136807-we2iza.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/271854/original/file-20190430-136807-we2iza.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/271854/original/file-20190430-136807-we2iza.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Birds may feel like doing this to delivery drones – whether they’re trained birds or not.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/golden-eagle-aquila-chrysaetos-flying-white-728931613">Martin Mecnarowski/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Any home delivery service raises a great many questions about <a href="https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-consumption-production/">sustainability and the costs of consumption</a> in energy, material and human lives. Until now, though, those deliveries have been by car and truck over existing roads and are covered <a href="https://www.semasan.com/resources/exhaust-noise-laws-state">by ordinances on sound levels</a>. Adding drones will bring a third dimension to shipping – but also to the level of noise in the world.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/116257/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Garth Paine receives funding from ASU Herberger Institute for the Arts, the McDowell Sonoran Conservancy and from private foundations not related to the content of this article. </span></em></p>Commercial and recreational drones are taking to the air. They’re very noisy, and neighborhoods everywhere could become awfully loud.Garth Paine, Associate Professor of Digital Sound and Interactive Media, Arizona State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1147012019-04-11T10:42:07Z2019-04-11T10:42:07ZDon’t shoot! That drone overhead probably isn’t invading your privacy<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/267890/original/file-20190405-180017-jcyt63.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C135%2C4121%2C2603&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Is this drone a threat?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/drone-usage-private-property-protection-real-1109455850">ungvar/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The first commercial medical drones are taking flight in the U.S., <a href="https://www.technologyreview.com/the-download/613255/the-first-commercial-drone-delivery-scheme-in-the-us-is-already-flying/">delivering blood samples and other medical specimens</a> from a clinic to a lab in North Carolina. Right now, they’re just on one hospital campus and not flying over private homes or businesses. But that’s coming soon. </p>
<p>In <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=ov4kMJoAAAAJ&hl=en">our research</a> about <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=KLxkNFQAAAAJ&hl=en">consumer perceptions</a> of aircraft, we’ve found that in general, <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/stephenrice1/2019/02/04/eyes-in-the-sky-the-public-has-privacy-concerns-about-drones/#442295946984">people don’t want drones flying over their homes</a>. Helicopters and planes are less of a concern, because they’re usually so high and far away – and people who live near airports are <a href="https://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/apl/noise_emissions/airport_aircraft_noise_issues/">more worried about noise</a> than being spied on.</p>
<p>People see drones, however, as different. They often carry video equipment and are sometimes hard to detect due to their small size. In addition, they can hover for long periods of time, whereas manned aircraft tend to move along quickly. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1139/juvs-2015-0031">Most people we’ve surveyed express some fear about drones</a> – or their operators – violating their privacy by <a href="https://www.ksdk.com/article/news/investigations/peeping-drones-spying-on-people-in-st-louis/63-548590075">hovering nearby</a> and <a href="https://www.thedrive.com/aerial/18752/woman-confronted-by-peeping-drone-outside-bedroom-window">potentially videotaping them</a>. That has <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/columnist/2018/09/03/drone-gripes-mount-homeowners-complain-breached-privacy-annoyance/1117085002/">certainly</a> <a href="https://www.ajc.com/news/national/florida-peeping-tom-uses-drone-spy-women-high-rise-police-say/hDUjd4fP7QhwkQo6ReNlpO/">happened</a>.</p>
<p>We have found that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1139/juvs-2017-0011">women are generally more concerned than men</a>, particularly when they assume that the drone can take photos or videos. Some people have been so concerned about drones – especially when they lack clear indication of who owns them or are afraid the government is spying on them – that <a href="https://www.robertreeveslaw.com/blog/shoot-drones/">they’ve shot down drones flying over their yards</a>. There are even some <a href="https://motherboard.vice.com/en_us/article/nz7jj7/this-is-the-first-anti-drone-weapon-designed-for-use-in-the-united-states">companies developing anti-drone weapons</a> designed specifically for these situations.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/DdxgJqbF6Vs?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Not yet available for public use: DroneDefender.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>So far, shooting down a drone <a href="https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2017/04/man-takes-drone-out-for-a-sunset-flight-drone-gets-shot-down/">has not been punished as harshly</a> as shooting at a manned aircraft. The Federal Aviation Administration has tried to address some public concerns with <a href="https://www.uasjournal.org/sites/default/files/articles/UASJournal-Vol4-Issue1-ison-loffi-vance-wallace.pdf">rules governing personal drones</a> and <a href="https://www.faa.gov/news/fact_sheets/news_story.cfm?newsId=22615">commercial drone flights</a>. But if drone use is really ever going to take off – both privately and in businesses – the rules need to be a lot clearer for everyone. </p>
<h2>What are drones allowed to do?</h2>
<p>In most communities, there are not explicit rules on what drone operators are and aren’t allowed to do with their aircraft. The <a href="https://www.faa.gov/news/fact_sheets/news_story.cfm?newsId=22615">FAA’s general rules</a> ban drones from flying more than 400 feet above the ground, or over people, or above public events. Operators also have to keep their drones in sight at all times.</p>
<p>Drones that are flying for legitimate reasons are usually going to follow a logical path associated with their purpose, like following a pipeline route, surveying property boundaries or examining construction sites. They may hover from time to time, to let operators get a better view of something, but they probably aren’t spying on you – unless they clearly violate reasonable expectations, like following you around a neighborhood or hovering right outside a bedroom window or above a person sunbathing in the yard.</p>
<p>Not every drone flying near your home is feeding video to a peeping Tom. It’s worth remembering that there are, in fact, legitimate reasons drones might be flying around near your home.</p>
<h2>Do you hear sirens?</h2>
<p><a href="https://uavcoach.com/police-drones/">Police agencies around the country use drones</a> to assist with documenting crime scenes, help with event-security planning or <a href="https://www.roboticsbusinessreview.com/unmanned/drones-assist-with-police-standoff-crime-scene-mapping/">assist officers with a standoff</a>. Even though these drones are government-owned and usually equipped with cameras, most likely they’re not trying to invade your privacy.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/IJYxiJMYFuc?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Drones deliver lifesaving blood to patients in Rwanda.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Police, fire and medical services are very interested in using drones for rapid responses to emergencies. <a href="https://www.statnews.com/2019/01/18/drones-deliver-medical-supplies-united-states/">They can fly medicine and equipment</a> into areas where ambulances, and potentially even helicopters, cannot easily go. In <a href="http://fortune.com/2019/01/07/delivery-drones-rwanda/">Rwanda, drones can deliver a package of fresh blood</a> to anywhere in the western half of the country in less than an hour. </p>
<p>Drones can also <a href="https://theconversation.com/autonomous-drones-can-help-search-and-rescue-after-disasters-109760">help responders plan rescue efforts</a>, identifying areas hit hardest and finding victims in need of aid. People in the affected area can even communicate with drone operators by holding up signs for the cameras. </p>
<h2>Is a neighbor’s house for sale?</h2>
<p>When listing a home for sale, real estate agents typically arrange for a professional to photograph the home, which helps showcase it to potential buyers. Some agents – for some properties, like larger estates – may want to include aerial photos of the house and land. In the past, this was usually done from a helicopter, at the cost of several hundred dollars.</p>
<p>Now, though, it’s cheaper and faster to <a href="http://www.droneguru.net/using-drones-for-real-estate-photography/">fly a small drone above the property</a>. To get the best views, the drone may need to fly off to one side, potentially hovering over a property next door. But if used legitimately for real estate purposes, the cameras are pointed toward the house for sale – not toward the neighbor’s windows.</p>
<h2>Is there construction nearby?</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/267891/original/file-20190405-180010-5ekjmx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/267891/original/file-20190405-180010-5ekjmx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/267891/original/file-20190405-180010-5ekjmx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/267891/original/file-20190405-180010-5ekjmx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/267891/original/file-20190405-180010-5ekjmx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/267891/original/file-20190405-180010-5ekjmx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/267891/original/file-20190405-180010-5ekjmx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/267891/original/file-20190405-180010-5ekjmx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">At times, drones can visit high places on construction sites more easily than people.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/drone-operated-by-construction-worker-on-1038791134">Dmitry Kalinovsky/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://blog.dronedeploy.com/the-rise-of-drones-in-construction-5357b69942fa">Construction companies sometimes use drones</a> to make sure employees are working safely and using tools properly. Drones can also inspect work in high areas that are hard to reach, like roofing details. In some parts of the country, builders are putting up huge suburban developments and <a href="https://blog.dronedeploy.com/the-rise-of-drones-in-construction-5357b69942fa">keeping an eye on everything</a> with drones. When they fly from one building site to another, they might pass over finished homes that are already occupied, on their way to check out the work at neighboring properties.</p>
<h2>Do young kids live in your neighborhood?</h2>
<p>Parents may also want to remotely monitor their children at nearby properties like parks. Some parents who may have been reluctant to let their kids explore the neighborhood are finding comfort with <a href="https://www.csmonitor.com/The-Culture/Family/Modern-Parenthood/2012/1203/Helicopter-parent-Techy-dad-builds-drone-to-hover-over-kid">drones to help them keep watch</a>. Some schools are also using <a href="https://www.nfhs.org/articles/legal-issues-related-to-use-of-drones-in-high-school-sports/">drones to keep an eye on kids during recess and sports</a> activities.</p>
<h2>Are you expecting a package?</h2>
<p>Delivery drones aren’t yet common, though they’re being tested in various places around the world. <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/delivery-companies-embracing-drone-technology-2018-6">Many companies want to use them to deliver packages</a>, pizza, medications and other items. Within a few years, drones may be buzzing up and down local streets, ferrying all sorts of items to and from homes and businesses. This may be annoying at first, but every drone that goes by means one less car on the road – and less pollution, less traffic congestion and safer streets for cyclists, pedestrians and your children.</p>
<h2>One’s overhead right now – what to do?</h2>
<p>There are plenty of other perfectly innocent and legal reasons a drone might fly low over your home or yard. Recently, a man was <a href="https://newyork.cbslocal.com/2019/02/24/arrest-shooting-drone-missing-dog/">arrested for shooting down a drone</a> that was being used by members of a community group to search for a missing dog. </p>
<p>If you suspect someone is using a drone to spy on you, you should know that under federal law, it is <a href="https://www.popsci.com/it-is-federal-crime-to-shoot-down-drone-says-faa">illegal to grab a gun and shoot it down</a>, even if the drone’s operator is <a href="https://www.dorsey.com/newsresources/publications/client-alerts/2017/09/the-legality-of-downing-a-drone">violating state laws</a> about where and how they can fly. <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2504325">Some legal experts argue that self-defense</a> should be a legitimate reason, but this is a gray area. So before reaching for ammunition, think about staying out of trouble.</p>
<p>If you’re worried the drone might be invading your privacy, or about to do so, you should be able to spot the operator, because they have to be able to see their drone. If you can get a photo of the drone, the police should be able to track down the operator because most <a href="https://www.faa.gov/uas/recreational_fliers/">drones must be registered with the FAA</a> and clearly marked with their registration number.</p>
<p>And of course, if you feel under immediate threat, call 911.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/114701/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stephen Rice has received funding from the United States Air Force and the FAA. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mattie Milner does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Nobody has yet figured out what the rules are for drones or what constitutes ‘good manners’ for drone operators. But there are legitimate reasons a drone might be near your home.Stephen Rice, Associate Professor of Human Factors, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical UniversityMattie Milner, Ph.D. Candidate in Human Factors, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1097602019-03-05T11:38:06Z2019-03-05T11:38:06ZAutonomous drones can help search and rescue after disasters<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/261996/original/file-20190304-92298-ugrhzx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=564%2C225%2C4814%2C2790&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Are there people down there who need help?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/aerial-view-national-disaster-texas-small-710897161">Roschetzky Photography/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When disasters happen – whether a natural disaster like a flood or earthquake, or a human-caused one like a mass shooting or bombing – it can be extremely dangerous to send first responders in, even though there are people who badly need help. </p>
<p>Drones are useful, and are helping in the recovery <a href="https://abcnews.go.com/US/tornadoes-alabama-kill-23-figure-officials-expect-rise/story?id=61448219">after the deadly Alabama tornadoes</a>, but most require individual pilots, who fly the unmanned aircraft by remote control. That limits how quickly rescuers can view an entire affected area, and can delay actual aid from reaching victims.</p>
<p>Autonomous drones could cover more ground more quickly, but would only be more effective if they were able on their own to help rescuers identify people in need. At the <a href="https://www.udayton.edu/engineering/research/centers/vision_lab/index.php">University of Dayton Vision Lab</a>, we are working on developing systems that can help spot people or animals – especially ones who might be trapped by fallen debris. Our technology mimics the behavior of a human rescuer, looking briefly at wide areas and quickly choosing specific regions to focus in on, to examine more closely. </p>
<h2>Looking for an object in a chaotic scene</h2>
<p>Disaster areas are often cluttered with downed trees, collapsed buildings, torn-up roads and other disarray that can make spotting victims in need of rescue very difficult.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/261973/original/file-20190304-92310-v7zhtg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/261973/original/file-20190304-92310-v7zhtg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/261973/original/file-20190304-92310-v7zhtg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=326&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/261973/original/file-20190304-92310-v7zhtg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=326&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/261973/original/file-20190304-92310-v7zhtg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=326&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/261973/original/file-20190304-92310-v7zhtg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=410&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/261973/original/file-20190304-92310-v7zhtg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=410&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/261973/original/file-20190304-92310-v7zhtg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=410&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Our system can spot people amid busy surroundings.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">University of Dayton Vision Lab</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>My research team has developed an artificial neural network system that can run in a computer onboard a drone. This system can emulate some of the excellent ways human vision works. It analyzes images captured by the drone’s camera and communicates notable findings to human supervisors.</p>
<p>First, our system processes the images to <a href="https://www.udayton.edu/engineering/research/centers/vision_lab/research/wide_area_surveillance/visibility_improvements.php">improve their clarity</a>. Just as humans <a href="https://scienceline.ucsb.edu/getkey.php?key=2577">squint their eyes</a> to adjust their focus, our technologies take detailed estimates of darker regions in a scene and computationally lighten the images. When images are too hazy or foggy, the system <a href="https://www.udayton.edu/engineering/research/centers/vision_lab/research/wide_area_surveillance/visibility_improvements.php">recognizes they’re too bright</a> and reduces the whiteness of the image to see the actual scene more clearly.</p>
<p>In a rainy environment, human brains use a brilliant strategy to see clearly. By noticing <a href="https://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/203576/why-can-we-see-through-rain">the parts of a scene that don’t change</a> – and the ones that do, as the raindrops fall – people can see reasonably well despite rain. Our technology uses the same strategy, continuously investigating the contents of each location <a href="http://doi.org/10.1007/s11263-006-0028-6">in a sequence of images</a> to get <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11263-014-0759-8">clear information</a> about the objects in that location. </p>
<p>We also have developed technology that can make images from a drone-borne camera <a href="https://www.udayton.edu/engineering/research/centers/vision_lab/research/wide_area_surveillance/visibility_improvements.php">larger, brighter and clearer</a>. By <a href="https://www.udayton.edu/engineering/research/centers/vision_lab/research/video_preprocessing/super_resolution.php">expanding the size</a> of the image, both algorithms and people can see key features more clearly.</p>
<h2>Confirming objects of interest</h2>
<p>Our system can identify people in various positions, such as lying prone or curled in the fetal position, even from different viewing angles and in varying lighting conditions. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/261975/original/file-20190304-92280-l9wfb9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/261975/original/file-20190304-92280-l9wfb9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/261975/original/file-20190304-92280-l9wfb9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=345&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/261975/original/file-20190304-92280-l9wfb9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=345&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/261975/original/file-20190304-92280-l9wfb9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=345&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/261975/original/file-20190304-92280-l9wfb9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=434&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/261975/original/file-20190304-92280-l9wfb9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=434&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/261975/original/file-20190304-92280-l9wfb9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=434&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Confusing and dim lighting can make it hard to identify people.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">University of Dayton Vision Lab</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The human brain can look at one view of an object and <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2017-40276-001">envision how it would look from other angles</a>. When police issue an alert asking the public to look for someone, they often include a still photo – knowing that viewers’ minds will imagine three-dimensional views of how that person might look, and recognize them on the street, even if they don’t get the exact same view as the photo offered. We employ this strategy by computing three-dimensional models of people – either general human shapes or more detailed projections of specific people. Those models are used to match similarities <a href="https://www.udayton.edu/engineering/research/centers/vision_lab/research/human_identification/face_detection.php">when a person appears in a scene</a>.</p>
<p>We have also developed a way to detect parts of an object, without seeing the whole thing. Our system can be trained to detect and locate a leg sticking out from under rubble, a hand waving at a distance, or a head popping up above a pile of wooden blocks. It can tell a person or animal apart from a tree, bush or vehicle.</p>
<h2>Putting the pieces together</h2>
<p>During its initial scan of the landscape, our system mimics the approach of an airborne spotter, examining the ground to find possible objects of interest or regions worth further examination, and then looking more closely. For example, an aircraft pilot who is looking for a truck on the ground would typically pay less attention to lakes, ponds, farm fields and playgrounds – because trucks are less likely to be in those areas. Our autonomous technology employs the same strategy to focus the search area to the most significant regions in the scene.</p>
<p>Then our system investigates each selected region to obtain information about the shape, structure and texture of objects there. When it detects a set of features that matches a human being or part of a human, it flags that as a location of a victim. </p>
<p>The drone also collects GPS data about its location, and senses how far it is from other objects it’s photographing. That information lets the system calculate exactly the location of each person needing assistance, and alert rescuers.</p>
<p>All of this process – capturing an image, processing it for maximum visibility and analyzing it to identify people who might be trapped or concealed – takes about one-fifth of a second on the normal laptop computer that the drone carries, along with its high-resolution camera.</p>
<p>The U.S. military is interested in this technology. We have worked with the <a href="https://mrmc.amedd.army.mil/">U.S. Army Medical Research and Materiel Command</a> to find wounded individuals in a battlefield who need rescue. We have adapted this work to serve utility companies searching for <a href="https://www.udayton.edu/engineering/research/centers/vision_lab/research/scene_analysis_and_understanding/pipeline-intrusion-detection.php">intrusions on pipeline paths</a> by construction equipment or vehicles that may damage the pipelines. Utility companies are also interested in detecting any new constructions of buildings near the pipeline pathways. All of these groups – and many more – are interested in technology that can see as humans can see, especially in places humans can’t be.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/109760/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Vijayan Asari is affiliated with University of Dayton, Dayton, Ohio, USA.
Dr. Vijayan Asari is a Fellow of SPIE (Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers) and a Senior Member of IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers). He is a member of the IEEE Computational Intelligence Society (CIS), IEEE Internet of Things (IoT) Community, Society for Imaging Science and Technology (IS&T), and member of the Institute for Systems and Technologies of Information, Control and Communication (INSTICC). Dr. Asari is a co-organizer of several SPIE and IEEE conferences and workshops.
Dr. Asari advises graduate and undergraduate research students in Vision Lab at the University of Dayton.
Dr. Asari does not receive any funding for this specific research project. He uses internal funding for the human detection in complex environment research activity. Dr. Asari did receive funding from various organizations for several research activities that are linked to this research project. He received funding from the US Army Night Vision and Electronic Sensors Directorate (NVESD) for long range human detection in infrared imagery, from the US Army Medical Research and Materiel Command (USAMRMC) for detection of wounded individuals in war field (Research for Casualty Care and Management), from the Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL) for object detection and tracking in wide area motion imagery, from Pacific Gas & Electric Company (PG&E) for automatic building change detection in satellite imagery, and from the Pipeline Research Council International (PRCI) for intrusion detection on pipeline right-of-ways.
</span></em></p>Drones already help with search and rescue, but teaching machines to identify victims on their own could free up human rescuers to do other crucial work.Vijayan Asari, Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of DaytonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1091872018-12-21T13:47:58Z2018-12-21T13:47:58ZGatwick drone drama shows how even unarmed UAVs can cause economic chaos and risk to life<p>One of the amazing things about the recent drone incident at London Gatwick is that the appearance of two unmanned aerial vehicles <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-sussex-46623754">flying into operational runway space</a> prompted the closure of Britain’s second-busiest airport for more than a day. With <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-sussex-46623754">further sightings of drones</a>, Gatwick only reopened to limited service after a 36-hour interruption, and those responsible for operating the drone remain at large.</p>
<p>With <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-sussex-46623754">more than 110,000 passengers on 760 flights</a> due to depart Gatwick on just one of the affected days, these drone incursions have left a <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-sussex-46623754">trail of disruption</a> behind them.</p>
<p>This is by no means the first incident of drones causing problems at airports – there have been similar incidents in <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/calgary-man-drone-airport-criminal-charge-1.3413818">Canada</a>, <a href="https://www.arabianbusiness.com/content/375851-drone-costs-100000-minute-loss-to-uae-airports">Dubai</a>, <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-33605869">Poland</a> and <a href="https://www.scmp.com/news/china/society/article/2089974/drone-flights-disrupt-southwest-chinese-airport-third-time-recent">China</a>. But the event at Gatwick is unusual in both the length of its duration and the presence and repeated use of multiple drones.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.openbriefing.org/docs/Hostile-use-of-drones-report_open-briefing.pdf">growing availability and affordability</a> of consumer drones means that risks to airports, and other secure spaces will rise – and the <a href="http://dronecenter.bard.edu/publications/counter-drone-systems/">counter-measures</a> currently deployed against them leave room for improvement and need to be more widely adopted.</p>
<h2>Unclear motives</h2>
<p>A <a href="https://www.openbriefing.org/docs/Hostile-use-of-drones-report_open-briefing.pdf">study by the Remote Control Project</a> estimates that around 200,000 drones are being sold for civilian use around the world every month. Readily available from a range of <a href="https://www.argos.co.uk/browse/technology/drones/c:30277/">online and high-street outlets</a>, drones are becoming <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/dec/20/airports-drone-gatwick-chaos-threat">more commonplace</a> and more affordable for the hobbyist.</p>
<p>As they move from a <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/ywang/2016/05/12/chinas-flood-of-cheap-flying-cameras-is-little-threat-to-dajiang/#129dfb271869">niche product</a> to a more mainstream device, they have also caught the eye of growing number of hostile groups – and state militaries as well as terrorists and other non-state actors are increasingly deploying drones <a href="https://www.openbriefing.org/docs/Hostile-use-of-drones-report_open-briefing.pdf">on the battlefield</a>. </p>
<p>The Islamic State, for example, has used drones to <a href="https://www.defenseone.com/technology/2017/01/drones-isis/134542/">drop explosives</a>, to <a href="https://www.bellingcat.com/news/mena/2017/05/24/types-islamic-state-drone-bombs-find/">observe and direct fire for others</a>, and to <a href="https://ctc.usma.edu/app/uploads/2018/07/Islamic-State-and-Drones-Release-Version.pdf">capture footage for propaganda</a>. Elsewhere drones have been used to cause disruption at home, such as the drone “<a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-45073385">assassination attempt</a>” on the Venezuelan president, Nicolas Maduro, in August 2018.</p>
<p>The incident at Gatwick has not been labelled a “<a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-sussex-46623754">terrorist event</a>”, but whether “<a href="https://about.bgov.com/blog/careless-drone-use-worries-lawmakers/">criminal, careless, or clueless</a>” it demonstrates that even consumer drones can cause risk to life and economic activity, despite being unarmed.</p>
<h2>Deliberate disruption</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-sussex-46623754">Sussex Police</a> have referred to the at-large drone pilot’s actions as “deliberate disruption”. At a recent <a href="https://counteringdrones.iqpc.co.uk/">Countering Drones</a> conference I spoke precisely about how both consumer and DIY drones may be flown and modified to do this. Delegates at the conference debated, lamented and reflected on the potential responses to such deliberate disruptions, considering their potential effects on <a href="https://gizmodo.com/watch-a-rogue-drone-crash-into-an-mlb-crowd-1795473669">crowds</a>, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/15/us/white-house-drone-secret-service.html">sensitive infrastructure</a>, or at <a href="https://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2013/09/german-chancellors-drone-attack-shows-the-threat-of-weaponized-uavs/">political events</a>. </p>
<p>The presence of an unknown drone can both <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-switch/wp/2013/09/18/watch-the-pirate-party-fly-a-drone-in-front-of-germanys-chancellor/">unnerve</a> and cause <a href="https://ctc.usma.edu/app/uploads/2018/07/Islamic-State-and-Drones-Release-Version.pdf">panic</a> – and this could be further amplified, considering the potential for drones to be outfitted with <a href="https://www.digitaltrends.com/cool-tech/man-illegally-straps-handgun-to-a-drone/">weapons</a>, or means to disperse <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/japan/11556902/Drone-with-small-amounts-of-radioactive-material-lands-on-Japanese-PMs-helipad.html">hazardous materials</a>.</p>
<p>In seeking to future proof how we think about <a href="https://rhulgeopolitics.wordpress.com/2017/09/29/from-the-battlefield-to-the-homeland-the-changing-geographies-of-the-drone/">drones and their risks</a>, it is worth considering how drone technology and software is developing. There are now <a href="https://www.dji.com/intelligent-flight-modes">intelligent flight modes</a> that allow drones to track and follow designated individuals, <a href="https://ctc.usma.edu/app/uploads/2016/10/Drones-Report.pdf">basic swarming functionalities</a> that allow multiple drones to act in coordination, and the <a href="https://help.pscp.tv/customer/portal/articles/2421540-how-do-i-broadcast-from-my-dji-drone-">livestreaming of images to social media</a>, meaning that drones can potentially be used for live propaganda.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1075751476054687744"}"></div></p>
<h2>Countermeasures</h2>
<p>A question frequently asked is, for example at Gatwick, why don’t the police <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/live/2018/dec/20/gatwick-airport-drone-travel-chaos-disruption-live-updates">shoot down the drone</a>? While armed police were <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/live/2018/dec/20/gatwick-airport-drone-travel-chaos-disruption-live-updates">present</a> and joined by specialists from the armed forces, apprehending operators remains difficult because of their distance from their drone. It is dangerous to shoot down a drone due to the risks of falling objects and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/live/2018/dec/20/gatwick-airport-drone-travel-chaos-disruption-live-updates?page=with:block-5c1bbdf2e4b02fb91ff06bf8">stray bullets</a>, but due to their small size drones are also difficult to detect before they are close enough to become a problem.</p>
<p>There has been however a boom in the development of a <a href="https://theconversation.com/when-eagles-scare-there-are-other-ways-to-stop-a-rogue-drone-54296">range of countermeasures</a> designed to stop drones. A <a href="http://dronecenter.bard.edu/publications/counter-drone-systems/">recent report</a> by Arthur Holland Michel of the <a href="http://dronecenter.bard.edu/">Center for the Study of the Drone</a> profiled more than 230 products produced by 155 manufacturers designed to counter drones. </p>
<p>Among them are those which seek to <a href="https://www.droneshield.com">detect and alert</a> users of approaching drones, to impede and stall drones through <a href="https://www.battelle.org/government-offerings/national-security/aerospace-systems/counter-UAS-technologies/dronedefender">GPS</a> and <a href="http://www.blighter.com/news/press-releases/138-auds-counter-drone-system-first-to-achieve-trl-9-status-following-successful-deployment-with-us-forces.html">radio jamming</a> or the embedding of electronic tagging and <a href="https://www.dji.com/newsroom/news/dji-enhances-geofencing-flexibility-for-enterprise-drone-users">geo-fencing</a> software, which prevent drones from being used near sensitive locations such as airports, prisons or power stations. There are also ways to to intercept and capture the drones using <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-35070818">net-equipped</a> drones and guns. Dutch national police have even trained <a href="https://theconversation.com/when-eagles-scare-there-are-other-ways-to-stop-a-rogue-drone-54296">eagles</a> to intercept drones.</p>
<p>But counter-measures are inherently limited due to their <a href="https://twitter.com/RikeFranke/status/1075751474859311105">implementation cost</a> and <a href="https://twitter.com/RikeFranke/status/887924821853601792">cost-effectiveness</a> - as well as by legislation that governs the electromagnetic spectrum in which they function. Numerous reports have shown how preventative defences built into drones such as geo-fencing or altitude restrictions can be <a href="https://www.defenseone.com/technology/2015/08/chuck-schumer-no-fly-zone-drones/119389/?oref=DefenseOneTCO">tampered with</a>, <a href="https://www.popularmechanics.com/flight/drones/a19854/drone-flown-11000-feet/">overridden</a>, or even simply <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-36717538">switched off</a>.</p>
<p>So there remains a serious difficulty in enforcing drone use and apprehending those that act illegally, despite <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2018/oct/26/seven-jailed-over-plot-fly-drones-drugs-uk-prisons">recent convictions</a> of those using consumer drones to transport contraband into UK prisons. It’s not the <a href="https://metro.co.uk/2017/10/31/this-is-why-you-shouldnt-fly-a-drone-near-an-airport-7042121/?ito=cbshare">first time</a> Gatwick Airport has had to contend with an errant drone, but this occasion should be a wake-up call to the need for reliable and affordable counter-measures, and the need to think more creatively about the potential risks posed by (multiple) drones more widely.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/109187/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anna Jackman does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Cheap, powerful, and more widely used by greater numbers of people, drones are causing a headache at supposedly secure locations worldwide.Anna Jackman, Lecturer in Political Geography, Royal Holloway University of LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1069032018-11-20T11:53:35Z2018-11-20T11:53:35ZViral bear video shows how drones threaten wildlife – and what to do about it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/246233/original/file-20181119-76150-wf0qu1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Bear with me.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DjYH7D3sWFg">Dmitry Kedrov/Viral Hog/YouTube</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A recent online video took what seemed like an <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2018/11/drone-brown-bear-video-russia-wildlife-harrassment-news/">inspirational moment viral</a>. The video, shot by Dmitry Kedrov using a drone, shows a baby bear climbing up and falling down the side of a mountain near Russia’s Sea of Okhotsk. After repeated efforts, the cub finally reaches the top, joining his mother and winning the hearts of viewers around the world.</p>
<p>But after the initial enthusiasm for the video came some controversy when scientists <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/radio/asithappens/as-it-happens-the-wednesday-edition-1.4895585/drone-caused-bears-distress-in-viral-video-researchers-say-1.4895589">pointed out</a> that the incident may have been caused by the drone risking the cub’s life by interrupting its efforts to climb to safety. This prompted some online commenters <a href="https://www.facebook.com/natgeo/posts/10156019788708951?__xts__%5B0%5D=68.ARApm96iKbPXMDMrXE0SdxK4lOkCTe9OP9QxUWkCf4bofZPNjFRgrOB40lMYrBM7ZpEK6YKsLEYcOf0SXSAJFI4Pdp7kcWQTBCD8ODjxUm06VmvWQJiOhwOjRHgHKu3n573qgAfj3BVGmwyafC1x0eJ2tf9rFumuVtSAQoIdZHtoamE_cJNE5YUEZ6bcmc0V7orHQOEufp7-CUU1k2eI5QsdYeuEW64gvnzW5Wgo2wBqO1Lkz4oXSxl41pZj8EiDEQrpMf3sWkcbHUzi6HZshdyCMOcCHTeemNKVaOFmwvvZtLaugPkVjaoua0Yo5edqiDy2XD5I6Yr1xS4L8A&__tn__=-R">to call for</a> drones to be banned on grounds of environmental impact, while others defended the responsible use of this technology.</p>
<p>My colleagues and I have been researching the <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0178448">impact of drones on wildlife</a>, and found that they pose very similar kinds of threats as other disturbances such as <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/brv.12224">people</a>, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/292721889_Impalas_on_the_road_assessing_ungulate_behavioral_responses_to_the_heterogeneous_road-network_of_Kruger_National_Park">cars</a> and <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/0272-4332.212110">conventional aircraft</a>. This suggests that rules and guidelines that took animals into account would make a big difference to how much harm remotely and autonomously controlled aircraft could cause to wildlife through their noise and visual presence.</p>
<p>When animals come into contact with drones, they may experience physiological changes such as an increased heart rate, behavioural responses such as running or flying away, or even suffer stress that could disrupt their <a href="http://www.cb.iee.unibe.ch/unibe/portal/fak_naturwis/d_dbio/b_ioekev/abt_cb/content/e58878/e337393/e337410/e604441/e604459/Tablado_BioRev2015_eng.pdf">reproductive process</a>. If they decide to avoid specific areas as a result of frequent disturbing drone encounters, this could fragment and ultimately damage the whole population. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, there is no reliable indicator that can give us an idea of the extent to which these flights are affecting wildlife. But this does not mean that there is no need to worry, because drone use is expected to increase in coming years.</p>
<p>Exactly how serious the threat from drones is depends on how often and how intensely they disturb the animals. If they are frequently disturbed, the animals will likely abandon the area, but they could also eventually become used to the drones. At worst, if drones fly too close to animals, collisions or attacks can cause wounds or death. Also, not all animal species nor individuals react to drones in the same way, and they may be more vulnerable in certain moments, such as breeding season, or in areas without protection or escape routes.</p>
<p>With all this in mind, drone operators should try to minimise the impact they have on wildlife. To start with, they should consider why they want to fly into or near an animal’s habitat and whether they really need to. When scientific projects are planned, they have to be approved by ethical committees and the potential disturbance has to be justified by the interest of the project.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/246232/original/file-20181119-76134-1w9v6fx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/246232/original/file-20181119-76134-1w9v6fx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/246232/original/file-20181119-76134-1w9v6fx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/246232/original/file-20181119-76134-1w9v6fx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/246232/original/file-20181119-76134-1w9v6fx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/246232/original/file-20181119-76134-1w9v6fx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/246232/original/file-20181119-76134-1w9v6fx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Drone photography can be the least impactful way of studying animals.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/aerial-view-running-giraffes-giraffa-camelopardalis-277136816?src=evp51m73bvKactYocAB2Tw-1-5">Ecoprint/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Risking the life of an animal to create a popular online video is unacceptable. But if you are trying to gather data for a conservation project, a small disturbance to wildlife in order to protect it can be justified, and drones may be the least impactful way to do it. After all, any method of gathering animal data involves a certain degree of disturbance.</p>
<p>Cars and manned aircraft are substantially more noticeable and noisier than drones. Monitoring a bird breeding colony on foot causes <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4778440/">considerable chaos</a>. Trapping animals involves considerable risks and equipping them with sensors or GPS <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ece3.1744#support-information-section">can harm them</a>.</p>
<p>If using a drone is the best option, it’s best to minimise the risk of disturbance and accidents by using an experienced pilot and a reliable, small and low-noise drone that doesn’t resemble the shape of a predator. Missions should be as short and at the highest altitude possible, using a regular, back-and-forth flight pattern over the animals and not complicated manoeuvres directed towards them.</p>
<p>If it’s convenient, drones should take off and land at least 100 metres away from the animals and avoid disturbing them during breeding periods and at times of day when they may be most vulnerable. It’s also important to monitor the target animals during flight so you can check if they are being disturbed and abort the mission if necessary. You should also avoid protected areas, flying over sensitive species or abundant wildlife.</p>
<p>Flying drones around animals requires basic knowledge and respect for wildlife. But the reality is that drone users without a wildlife background may not be aware that they are flying into a raptor breeding territory or that the drone noise may disturb animals on the ground. We encourage drone manufacturers to help by including this kind of basic advice with the instructions that come with the drones. </p>
<p>But what about people who choose not to follow these kind of guidelines? I think we need a legal framework so that appropriate actions can be taken when wildlife is negatively affected by irresponsible drone operators. Then perhaps people won’t be so keen to risk disturbing animals for the sake of YouTube views.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/106903/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Margarita Mulero-Pazmany works as a Lecturer in UAV applications in Natural Sciences for Liverpool John Moores University. She received funding to work in drones' impact on wildlife from the Swiss Ornithological Institute, Switzerland, and Doñana Biological Station, CSIC, Spain.
</span></em></p>Drones can be the best way to study animals but only if used responsibly.Margarita Mulero Pazmany, Lecturer in UAV Applications, Liverpool John Moores UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1027362018-09-06T13:19:17Z2018-09-06T13:19:17ZAI has already been weaponised – and it shows why we should ban ‘killer robots’<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/235215/original/file-20180906-190636-aogrro.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/unmanned-air-uav-spy-above-enemy-26952160?src=-ZOKXFCzFXCQZUjYk5R16g-1-16">Oleg Yarko/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A dividing line is emerging in the debate over so-called killer robots. Many countries want to see new international law on autonomous weapon systems that can target and kill people without human intervention. But those countries already developing such weapons are instead trying to highlight their supposed benefits.</p>
<p>I witnessed this growing gulf at a recent UN meeting of more than 70 countries <a href="https://www.unog.ch/80256EE600585943/(httpPages)/7C335E71DFCB29D1C1258243003E8724?OpenDocument">in Geneva</a>, where those in favour of autonomous weapons, including the US, Australia and South Korea, were more vocal than ever. At the meeting, <a href="https://www.unog.ch/80256EDD006B8954/(httpAssets)/D1A2BA4B7B71D29FC12582F6004386EF/$file/2018_GGE+LAWS_August_Working+Paper_US.pdf">the US claimed</a> that such weapons could actually make it easier to follow international humanitarian law by making military action more precise.</p>
<p>Yet it’s highly speculative to say that “killer robots” will ever be able to follow humanitarian law at all. And while politicians continue to argue about this, the spread of autonomy and artificial intelligence in existing military technology is already effectively <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/review-of-international-studies/article/autonomous-weapons-systems-and-changing-norms-in-international-relations/8E8CC29419AF2EF403EA02ACACFCF223">setting undesirable standards</a> for its role in the use of force.</p>
<p>A series of <a href="https://futureoflife.org/open-letter-autonomous-weapons/">open letters</a> by prominent researchers speaking out against weaponising artificial intelligence have helped bring the debate about autonomous military systems to public attention. The problem is that the debate is framed as if this technology is something from the future. In fact, the questions it raises are effectively already being addressed by existing systems.</p>
<p>Most air defence systems <a href="https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2017-11/siprireport_mapping_the_development_of_autonomy_in_weapon_systems_1117_1.pdf">already have</a> significant autonomy in the targeting process, and military aircraft have highly automated features. This means “robots” are already involved in identifying and engaging targets.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/235217/original/file-20180906-190673-hk5e4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/235217/original/file-20180906-190673-hk5e4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/235217/original/file-20180906-190673-hk5e4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/235217/original/file-20180906-190673-hk5e4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/235217/original/file-20180906-190673-hk5e4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/235217/original/file-20180906-190673-hk5e4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/235217/original/file-20180906-190673-hk5e4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Humans still press the trigger, but for how long?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/female-military-drone-operator-wide-shot-539931541?src=eQqZybPxaHhkvow-YSqfIA-1-1">Burlingham/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Meanwhile, another important question raised by current technology is missing from the ongoing discussion. Remotely operated drones are currently used by several countries’ militaries to drop bombs on targets. But we know from incidents <a href="https://www.law.columbia.edu/sites/default/files/microsites/human-rights-institute/files/The%20Civilian%20Impact%20of%20Drones.pdf">in Afghanistan and elsewhere</a> that drone images aren’t enough to clearly distinguish between civilians and combatants. We also know that current AI technology can contain significant bias that effects its decision making, often with <a href="http://blogs.icrc.org/law-and-policy/2018/08/28/impact-gender-race-bias-ai/">harmful effects</a>. </p>
<p>As future fully autonomous aircraft are likely to be used in similar ways to drones, they will probably follow the practices laid out by drones. Yet states using existing autonomous technologies are excluding them from the wider debate by referring to them as “semi-autonomous” or so-called “legacy systems”. Again, this makes the issue of “killer robots” seem more futuristic than it really is. This also prevents the international community from taking a closer look at whether these systems are fundamentally appropriate under humanitarian law.</p>
<p>Several key principles of international humanitarian law require deliberate human judgements that machines <a href="https://thebulletin.org/landing_article/why-the-world-needs-to-regulate-autonomous-weapons-and-soon/">are incapable of</a>. For example, the legal definition of who is a civilian and who is a combatant isn’t written in a way that could be programmed into AI, and <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15027570.2010.537903">machines lack</a> the situational awareness and ability to infer things necessary to make this decision.</p>
<h2>Invisible decision making</h2>
<p>More profoundly, the more that targets are chosen and potentially attacked by machines, the less we know about how those decisions are made. Drones <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/the-lay-scientist/2016/feb/18/has-a-rampaging-ai-algorithm-really-killed-thousands-in-pakistan">already rely heavily</a> on intelligence data processed by “black box” algorithms that are very difficult to understand to choose their proposed targets. This <a href="http://blogs.icrc.org/law-and-policy/2018/08/29/im-possibility-meaningful-human-control-lethal-autonomous-weapon-systems/">makes it harder</a> for the human operators who actually press the trigger to question target proposals.</p>
<p>As the UN continues to debate this issue, it’s worth noting that most countries in favour of banning autonomous weapons are developing countries, which are typically <a href="http://www.article36.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/A36-Disarm-Dev-Marginalisation.pdf">less likely</a> to attend international disarmament talks. So the fact that they are willing to speak out strongly against autonomous weapons makes their doing so all the more significant. Their history of experiencing interventions and invasions from richer, more powerful countries (such as some of the ones in favour of autonomous weapons) also reminds us that they are most at risk from this technology.</p>
<p>Given what we know about existing autonomous systems, we should be very concerned that “killer robots” will make breaches of humanitarian law more, not less, likely. This threat can only be prevented by negotiating new international law curbing their use.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/102736/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ingvild Bode receives funding from the Joseph Rowntree Charitable Trust. </span></em></p>The debate on autonomous weapons isn’t paying enough attention to the technology already in use.Ingvild Bode, Senior Lecturer in International Relations, University of KentLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/905162018-01-24T23:47:15Z2018-01-24T23:47:15ZRobots to the rescue: Saving lives with unmanned vehicles<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/203262/original/file-20180124-107940-18djozo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A Westpac Little Ripper drone helped rescue two teens off the coast of Australia by dropping a flotation device to them.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Westpac Little Ripper</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Last week’s <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/18/world/australia/drone-rescue-swimmers.html">sea rescue of Australian swimmers by an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle</a> (UAV) is just the start of a robotics revolution.</p>
<p>On Jan. 18, an Australian lifeguard piloted a drone over the turbulent ocean off the far north coast of New South Wales to rescue two teens in distress. As thrilling as it was to watch a tiny drone drop a flotation device to the two struggling swimmers, the rescue was relatively easy, using proven robotic technology in an ideal, wide-open environment.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"953863845033885696"}"></div></p>
<p>Drones and UAVs have been used in search and rescue situations around the world for more than a decade. They have searched for victims inside collapsed buildings, collected disaster data, detected dangerous materials and conditions and deployed first aid kits. </p>
<p>But the unmanned robotic systems we use today operate under severe constraints: They need a human to remotely steer the device or a strong GPS signal and open spaces to allow auto-piloted manoeuvring.</p>
<h2>First on the scene</h2>
<p>These robots don’t need to be smaller, more powerful, heat- or collision-resistant, contain more sensors or have better user interfaces. The real challenge for robotics researchers is to develop unmanned rescue robots that are capable of making independent decisions and have the ability to work unsupervised in confined, chaotic spaces. </p>
<p>In the future, rescue drones will be the first on scene, scouring beneath collapsed buildings or looking for plane wreckage in the thick forest, seeking survivors that might otherwise take days to reach.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/203261/original/file-20180124-107956-1mlhebp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/203261/original/file-20180124-107956-1mlhebp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203261/original/file-20180124-107956-1mlhebp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203261/original/file-20180124-107956-1mlhebp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203261/original/file-20180124-107956-1mlhebp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203261/original/file-20180124-107956-1mlhebp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203261/original/file-20180124-107956-1mlhebp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A search and rescue team from Los Angeles County pulls a woman from the rubble following the catastrophic earthquake in Haiti in 2010.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.navy.mil/view_image.asp?id=80091">U.S. Navy</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The challenge for roboticists is to create unmanned vehicles that can adapt to unforeseen situations using previously acquired information and limited available resources. </p>
<p>We won’t see the widespread deployment of Search and Rescue (SAR) robots until researchers find ways to improve the robots’ ability to move in confined spaces and boost their self-awareness, giving them the tools to recognize the intent of any given mission in unforeseen conditions.</p>
<h2>Urban search and rescue</h2>
<p>As a professor at the University of Calgary’s <a href="http://people.ucalgary.ca/%7Earamirez/AR2S-Lab.html">Schulich School of Engineering</a> and the CEO of <a href="http://www.4frontrobotics.com">4Front Robotics</a>, I am developing technology and systems to enable and facilitate the use, deployment and further design of cost effective, highly manoeuvrable fast disaster response robotics.</p>
<p>A key focus of our research is to develop UAVs that can respond rapidly to urban disasters such as quickly locating victims in collapsed buildings following an earthquake.</p>
<p>Unmanned ground, submarine and aerial vehicles can save lives, respond to disasters faster and contain an emergency situation more quickly than traditional techniques and tools. </p>
<p>In August 2017, a <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2017/08/31/asia/mumbai-building-collapse/index.html">five-storey building collapsed in Mumbai</a>, India, killing 24 people. Rescue workers pulled 37 people from the building debris. </p>
<p>If UAVs and robots had been available to search the site, more people might have been saved. In a typical collapsed building incident, it takes rescuers an average of five to eight hours to inspect the site to make sure it is safe to look for victims. UAVs and robots could shorten the delay.</p>
<h2>Full of potential</h2>
<p>Robots were first used in urban SAR after the World Trade Center attacks in 2001. These devices had primarily been developed for the military or other applications, but several remote-controlled and tele-operated unmanned robotic systems bolstered the search and recovery efforts. </p>
<p>They searched for paths in the rubble that would make it faster for rescue workers to excavate, search for victims and assess the building’s structure.</p>
<p>Robots provided the needed quick response, and they were able to assess the site’s hazardous conditions that put the lives of rescuers, including the fire department, police and other personnel, at great risk. Despite this, the robots were not able to penetrate the depths of the building’s complex spaces, due to their limited mobility and the complexities of guiding them with a joystick.</p>
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<p>We’ve made <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0099111215300793">great advances in robotics</a> in the past 15 years. Drones can now be equipped with autopilot systems and vision systems that <a href="http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/4526559/">recognize people</a>. They can identify dangerous situations such as the presence of explosive gases, and carry sensors that pick up geometrical features and humidity levels. They can identify objects buried within the rubble.</p>
<p>The military is especially interested in developing highly manoeuvrable, flying UAVs with robotic arms that can navigate highly confined spaces and interact directly with their surroundings. </p>
<p>For example, traditional drone systems such as helicopters and quad-rotors cannot perform the pitch-hover manoeuvres that would allow them to take off from, or land on, sloped mountain surfaces or vessels in rough seas. </p>
<p>In the future, these vehicles will be able to interact with the environment, collecting samples, moving debris and providing medical assistance or victim assessment.</p>
<h2>Building a better future</h2>
<p>To be truly useful, these systems must gain some independence. They must be able to modify their operations as they gather new information, yet follow and cooperate with humans at all times. </p>
<p>We’ll need better artificial intelligence (AI) tools to get to that point. Only then will rescue robots learn to solve problems in the absence of data or human experience. Enhanced AI will enable robots to move themselves throughout their operating environment with minimal human assistance and to self-adapt in novel and groundbreaking ways. </p>
<p>We need robots that can adapt their locomotion style automatically. They must be able to walk, run, roll, crawl, climb, jump, fly or swim, in response to changing environmental conditions.</p>
<p>These tools will also ensure that autonomous robots can deal with unexpected situations or tasks that challenge their sensing, modelling, planning or movement capabilities.</p>
<p>In the future, robots will have to be able to change their shape, geometry and movements based on the perceived terrain or task. </p>
<p>Due to its design, the UAV that found the swimmers in Australia isn’t able to fly for more than 20 to 30 minutes or reach a distant location quickly — and still make it home. The limited battery power, small carrying capacity and a lack of adaptability in current SAR robotic devices severely limit their application. </p>
<p>We need disaster response robots that can hover like helicopters, rapidly transition to high speed flight and penetrate challenging environments. These, along with humanoid SAR robots that use tools (power drills, hydraulic spreaders and shears and pick axes), are currently under development and will be a game changer.</p>
<p>They will assist the responders and the victims, and reduce costs in ways we have yet to discover.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/90516/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alex Ramirez-Serrano receives funding from NSERC</span></em></p>Drones and unmanned aerial vehicles are already saving lives in search and rescue operations, but they still need improvements if they’re to be widely used in the most dangerous situations.Alex Ramirez-Serrano, Professor / Researcher in Robotics and Unmanned Vehicles, University of CalgaryLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/873692017-11-26T10:06:48Z2017-11-26T10:06:48ZDrones are taking to the skies above Africa to map land ownership<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/195451/original/file-20171120-18574-1h19dpo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">An aerial view, using drones, could make a big difference to mapping land across Africa.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Reuters/Adriane Ohanesian</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Mapping land boundaries is an important way to boost a country’s economic growth and development. It contributes towards better security of land ownership, allows land owners to get bank loans and helps governments to tax owners correctly. </p>
<p>Unfortunately in most African countries <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264837712001743">only about 30%</a> of the land boundaries have been mapped. Mapping is done to capture the land’s boundaries with a view to registering ownership. Once mapping is completed, <a href="https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0217/5891c1f2a75ea9b6ced79cc432de84577d96.pdf">usually using</a> techniques like Global Positioning Systems (GPS), authorities can issue a title deed or certificate of occupancy. This shows who holds rights to which pieces of land.</p>
<p>In Kenya during the 1960s photographs taken from airplanes were used to develop property maps. Kenyans were agitating for <a href="https://www.cabdirect.org/cabdirect/abstract/19681800083">their land rights</a> after the colonial British government had been unseated. The title deeds that were handed out as a result of those airplane photographs have formed <a href="https://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=532788">the basis</a> of Kenya’s property system for decades.</p>
<p>Today, aerial photographs from drones can be used for mapping property boundaries. In most parts of Africa, people demarcate their land using hedges. Ground land surveying techniques can be slow if the aim is to record all the parcels of land within a district or province.</p>
<p>But drones can be used to photograph hedges from the air. The maps developed from those photos are then linked to land ownership records to create formal land registers. This is an important way to record and keep track of land ownership in any given country.</p>
<p>I am involved in a project funded by the European Commission, <a href="https://its4land.com/">its4land</a>, that is testing the use of drones – or, as they’re properly called, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) – for land mapping and registration. The research is being carried out in three African countries; Kenya, Rwanda and Ethiopia. Our hope is that if the research yields positive results, the project can be rolled out elsewhere on the continent. As far as we’re aware, this is among the first internationally to test the use of drones for land registration. </p>
<h2>Putting the drones to work</h2>
<p>Different types of UAVs can be used for mapping. The two main types are the fixed wing UAVs and the quad-copter UAVs. In general, the fixed wing drones look like a normal airplane with two wings. </p>
<p>We’re testing a fixed wing drone, DT18; it is produced by Delairtech, a French company. This type of drone is suitable for covering long distances – which is necessary when you’re mapping large areas’ property boundaries.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/195071/original/file-20171116-18368-1b2qzam.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/195071/original/file-20171116-18368-1b2qzam.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=310&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195071/original/file-20171116-18368-1b2qzam.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=310&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195071/original/file-20171116-18368-1b2qzam.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=310&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195071/original/file-20171116-18368-1b2qzam.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195071/original/file-20171116-18368-1b2qzam.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195071/original/file-20171116-18368-1b2qzam.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Delairtech DT18 Fixed Wing Drone.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Two pilots per country were trained at Delairtech’s offices in Toulouse, France. I’m one of the Kenyan pilots; the other is a Master’s student also from my university. All of the pilots were drawn from the partner universities in Africa. We’ve learned how to control the drone; how to develop a flight path; how to fly safely and how to process the data that’s collected. </p>
<p>Flight paths are set up using waypoints or digital markers. The drone follows these from start to finish. The DT18 can map a distance of up to 20km at a time. It can be redirected or recalled mid-flight if the pilot detects a risk. The drone is fitted with a camera, when takes pictures as directed by the pilot – who is following the flight on a laptop screen from the ground. The pictures are sent back to the laptop and stored on the drone’s own on board memory card.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/195076/original/file-20171116-15410-141hke1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/195076/original/file-20171116-15410-141hke1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195076/original/file-20171116-15410-141hke1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195076/original/file-20171116-15410-141hke1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195076/original/file-20171116-15410-141hke1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195076/original/file-20171116-15410-141hke1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195076/original/file-20171116-15410-141hke1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Figure 2: Drone flight lines and way points as seen in laptop.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>No flying has happened yet: all the project teams are awaiting permission from the relevant authorities in their countries to send the drones skyward.</p>
<p>We have also brought residents into the project to get their support. In Kenya, our research is being carried out among the Maasai tribe in Kajiado county and among the Luo tribe in Kisumu county. We’ve visited a few sites in these counties and explained our research. These groups will receive feedback throughout the process.</p>
<h2>Challenges and opportunities</h2>
<p>Drones are not without their problems. They can be dangerous if flown without proper guidelines or permission, or by untrained people. Many countries in Africa have not passed any laws about the use of UAVs. Kenya is ahead in this regard; the civil aviation authority has developed and passed <a href="http://www.kcaa.or.ke/index.php/statutes-and-regulations/regulations/762-rpas-draft-regulations-2017">guidelines</a> about drones.</p>
<p>The process of obtaining permission to fly is very rigorous, which is important because drones can be a threat to normal airplanes and could even cause a collision. If this technology is rolled out for land mapping elsewhere in Africa, countries will need to first develop and adopt strict guidelines for flying.</p>
<p>Our hope is that this project will help countries across Africa to increase the number of land parcels that are mapped. It can also clarify the figures for different types of land ownership – private, public or community. This is an important driver for economic growth and development.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/87369/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Robert Wayumba does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Creating a reliable, up to date land register is important for African countries. Drones can help collect and record the necessary data.Robert Wayumba, Lecturer , Technical University of KenyaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/716332017-02-12T19:09:34Z2017-02-12T19:09:34ZHow drones can help fight the war on shark attacks<p>Following an <a href="https://taronga.org.au/conservation/conservation-science-research/australian-shark-attack-file">unprecedented series of shark attacks</a> off Australian beaches, the need to find practical solutions is intensifying. </p>
<p>Aerial drones could be an important tool for reducing risk of shark attacks on our beaches within the coming years. Here’s how it would work. Drones would fly autonomously over beaches continuously scanning for sharks with image recognition software. </p>
<p>If a shark is detected, real-time video will be instantly sent to beach authorities, such as lifeguards. If it is a dangerous shark, appropriate action can be taken to ensure public safety, such as sounding alarms and clearing people from the water.</p>
<p>Like other shark bite mitigation measures, this cannot completely eliminate the possibility of a shark attack. However, it could help to reduce the risk to an acceptable level for the majority of beach users.</p>
<p>Importantly, the drone-based approach to shark bite mitigation does not harm sharks or other marine wildlife, such as whales, dolphins, rays and sea turtles, unlike more controversial shark control measures such as mesh nets or baited drum lines.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Surfer has a close encounter with a great white shark as seen by a drone.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Testing drones</h2>
<p>As part of the NSW government’s A$16 million <a href="http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/fishing/sharks/shark-management">Shark Management Strategy</a>, researchers from the NSW Department of Primary Industries (NSW DPI) and Southern Cross University (SCU) have demonstrated that drones can reliably detect sharks off Australian beaches. </p>
<p>NSW DPI researchers have also compared the costs and benefits of marine wildlife sightings between drones and helicopters, as well as established environmental conditions suitable for drones to provide effective shark detection capabilities.</p>
<p>This summer, a team of SCU and DPI researchers completed an intensive <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NnWhF3D6OxI&feature=youtu.be">drone trial</a> on five important beaches in NSW to verify that drones will work in the long term. As part of the trial, drones performed six 20-minute patrols each morning on each beach for every day of the school holidays. </p>
<p>Researchers monitoring drone footage spotted great white, bull, whaler, mako and hammerhead sharks off NSW beaches. They also saw many dolphins, sea turtles and less dangerous shark species, such as shovel-nosed sharks.</p>
<p>These trials included experiments comparing “people versus machines” by evaluating the utility of automated flight paths and shark recognition software. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Drone captures a great white shark cruising the shallows of Northern NSW.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Automating the drone-based approach</h2>
<p>The overall objective of this research is to develop a fully automated drone-based shark surveillance system in the near future.</p>
<p>We envisage that a team of aerial drones could run continuous shark detection missions during the hours when most people are on our beaches.</p>
<p>When required, each drone will automatically take off, patrol for sharks, land itself and charge up again, ready for the next mission. If a drone detects a shark, to can alert beach authorities.</p>
<p>Their response will vary depending on the species of shark detected and its location. This will be immediately apparent from the live video feed and location data they receive. As well as tracking sharks, the drones will also be fitted with sirens and lights to contribute to any emergency actions.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Great white shark off a beach in Northern NSW.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Problems to solve</h2>
<p>There are still at least five major challenges to overcome before establishing a fully functional automated drone-based shark surveillance system. But these could be gradually overcome within the next few years.</p>
<p><strong>Civil aviation regulations</strong></p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/got-a-drone-for-christmas-know-the-law-before-taking-to-the-skies-70341">Aviation regulations</a> restrict the use of fully automated drones in most airspace. We could overcome this problem by modifying the law or establishing restricted zones over beaches where drones can fly.</p>
<p><strong>Public safety concerns</strong></p>
<p>We need to minimise the risk of injury as a result of drone failure, by making sure their flight components are failsafe and having flight paths clear of beachgoers. We also need airspace safety systems to ensure that drones are grounded when emergency and other aircraft are in the vicinity.</p>
<p><strong>Public privacy concerns</strong></p>
<p>A drone-based shark surveillance system would require public acceptance. For this, beachgoers need to be aware of the sorts of data being collected by the drones, and to rest assured that this does not breach privacy legislation.</p>
<p><strong>Reliable hardware</strong></p>
<p>Although aerial drones can already automatically take off, fly routes, land and charge themselves, it is not clear how reliably this technology will stand up to the Australian beach environment. To be effective, we will need drones that can reliably function under heavy workloads in coastal conditions. Similarly, data transfer platforms also need to be fast and reliable.</p>
<p><strong>Purpose-designed software</strong></p>
<p>Image analysis software needs to be further developed to automatically detect sharks with a high level of accuracy. Customised software will also need to be developed to coordinate the missions of a team of drones and to ensure seamless video streaming to the portable wireless devices of beach authorities and users.</p>
<p>In terms of the hardware and software challenges, there are a number of research groups racing towards solutions with the goal of commercialising their products. Once an automated drone-based technology for shark bite mitigation is in place, it should be possible to solve issues regarding legislation, safety and privacy.</p>
<p>Given the current rate of technological development and the falling costs of commercially available drones, fully automated drones could be reducing the risk of shark attacks on Australian beaches within five years. However, for many nervous beachgoers, this may not be soon enough.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/71633/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brendan Kelaher receives funding from the NSW Department Primary Industries for two PhD students working on shark projects. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew Colefax receives project funding for his PhD from the NSW Department of Primary Industries (NSW DPI). He also receives additional work from the NSW DPI.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paul Butcher works for NSW Department of Primary Industries. He receives funding from the NSW and Commonwealth Governments. He is an Adjunct Associate Professor at Southern Cross University.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Vic Peddemors receives funding from the NSW Government, the Australian Research Council and the Fisheries Research and Development Corporation (FRDC) on behalf of the Australian Government. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bob Creese does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>LIfeguards could potentially have a new ally in the fight to reduce shark incidents: drones that can spot when a shark swims nearby, and automatically alert authorities.Brendan Kelaher, Associate Professor of Marine Science and Management, Southern Cross UniversityAndrew Colefax, Phd candidate, Southern Cross UniversityBob Creese, Adjunct professor, Southern Cross UniversityPaul Butcher, Adjunct Professor, Southern Cross UniversityVic Peddemors, Shark Biology & Assessment, Sydney Institute of Marine ScienceLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/727692017-02-09T17:01:49Z2017-02-09T17:01:49ZRobot bees vs real bees – why tiny drones can’t compete with the real thing<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/156225/original/image-20170209-28716-ytyee2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dr. Eijiro Miyak</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The latest service to be revolutionised by drones might not be <a href="https://theconversation.com/amazon-delivery-drones-are-just-the-first-step-to-a-highway-in-the-sky-62918">package delivery</a> or <a href="https://theconversation.com/who-really-benefits-from-the-internet-space-race-43425">internet connections</a> but the far more valuable service of pollination. Researchers in Japan have been exploring the potential of using miniature drones covered with sticky hairs to act like robotic bees to counter the <a href="https://theconversation.com/deciphering-the-mysterious-decline-of-honey-bees-56648">decline of</a> natural pollinators.</p>
<p>Writing in a paper <a href="http://www.cell.com/chem/fulltext/S2451-9294(17)30032-3">in the journal Chem</a>, the team demonstrated their drone on an open bamboo lily (<em>Lilium japonicum</em>) flower. With a bit of practice, the device could pick up 41% of the pollen available within three landings and successfully pollinated the flower in 53 out of 100 attempts. It used a patch of hairs augmented with a non-toxic ionic liquid gel that used static electricity and stickiness to be able to “lift and stick” the pollen. Although the drone was manually operated in this study, the team stated that by adding artificial intelligence and GPS, it could learn to forage for and pollinate plants on its own.</p>
<p>But it takes more than just sticky hairs to be a good pollinator. As someone who studies pollinating insects, I think these drones have a lot of catching up to do to match our existing pollinators, which include bees, butterflies and <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/earth/story/20150514-extraordinary-pollinators">even some larger animals</a>, in all their diversity. But it is always good to see science learning from nature and these studies also help us to appreciate the wonders of what nature has already provided.</p>
<p>Pollination is complex task and should not be underrated. It involves finding flowers and deciding if they are suitable and haven’t already been visited. The pollinator then needs to successfully handle the flower, picking pollen up and putting it down in another plant, while co-ordinating with its team and <a href="http://chittkalab.sbcs.qmul.ac.uk/2010/Lihoreau_et_al_2010_AmNat.pdf">optimising its route</a> between flowers. In all of these tasks, our existing pollinators excel, their skills honed through millions of years of evolution. In some cases, our technology can match them and in others it has some way to go. </p>
<p>The three major factors that make insect pollinators <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17149583">such as bees</a> so good at what they do are their independent decision making, learning and teamwork. Each bee can decide what flowers are suitable, manage their energy usage and keep themselves clean of stale pollen.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/156201/original/image-20170209-8631-6yubqq.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/156201/original/image-20170209-8631-6yubqq.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/156201/original/image-20170209-8631-6yubqq.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/156201/original/image-20170209-8631-6yubqq.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/156201/original/image-20170209-8631-6yubqq.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/156201/original/image-20170209-8631-6yubqq.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/156201/original/image-20170209-8631-6yubqq.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sticky hairs.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dr. Eijiro Miyak</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Modern drones can already achieve this level of individual management. As they have the technology to track faces, they could track flowers as well. They could also plot routes via GPS and return to base for recharging on sensing a low battery. In the long run, they may even have a potential advantage over natural pollinators as pollination would be their sole function. Bees, on the other hand, are looking to feed themselves and their brood, and pollination happens as a by-product.</p>
<p>The areas where drones need development, however, are learning and teamwork. Flowers are also not always as open and simple as those of the bamboo lily and quite a few of our commercially pollinated food resources have much trickier flowers (such as beans) or need repeated visits (such as <a href="http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/281/1775/20132440">strawberry flowers</a>) to produce good fruit.</p>
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<p>To solve this, bees learn and specialise on a specific flower so they can handle them quickly and efficiently. They also learn the position of rewards to learn the best routes. With all individuals in the team doing this, they divide their labour and get a lot more done. To replicate this in drones would involve some serious programming and the ability of the drone to change its behaviour or shape to adjust to flowers, or having different drones for different jobs as we have different species of pollinator.</p>
<p>Having more than one drone requires co-ordination and preferably non-centralised control, whereby individual drones can make their own decisions based on information from their colleagues and a set of simple rules. Honeybees have the ability to recruit others to rich floral rewards using movements known as <a href="http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v435/n7039/full/nature03526.html">the waggle dance</a>. Bumblebees can tell if a flower has already been visited by the smell of the footprints left by previous visitors. All these adaptations make our pollinators very efficient at what they do. Similar skills would have to be developed into a team of pollinating drones in order for them to work as efficient pollinators.</p>
<p>Although I feel that these robots are a long way away from becoming the optimal pollinators, they may well have a place in our future. I could see these drones being used in the environments that are unsuitable for natural pollinators, such as a research lab where precision is needed in the crossing of plant breeds. Or even in a biodome on Mars where a swarm of honeybees may not be the safest solution. It will be interesting to see what else robotics can learn from our insect pollinators and what they can improve upon.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/72769/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elizabeth Franklin does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Collecting pollen takes a surprising amount of teamwork.Elizabeth Franklin, Demonstrator (Biosciences), Bournemouth UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/706332017-01-27T02:03:49Z2017-01-27T02:03:49ZWhat drones may come: The future of unmanned flight approaches<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/154120/original/image-20170124-16094-14zorwh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/camera-drone-flying-over-jungle-hills-494077246">Drone via shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The once-small community of drone hobbyists has transformed into a worldwide phenomenon. In 2016 especially, significant technology improvements and regulatory clarity have paved the way for even more dramatic changes in the coming years.</p>
<p>Among the biggest adopters of drones, and experimenters with them, have been <a href="http://business.time.com/2013/03/18/majoring-in-drones-higher-ed-embraces-unmanned-aircraft/">universities</a>. As the director of the University of California system’s <a href="http://ucop.edu/enterprise-risk-management/resources/centers-of-excellence/unmanned-aircraft-systems-safety.html">Center of Excellence on Unmanned Aircraft System Safety</a> – effectively the drone headquarters of our whole 10-campus system – I have an excellent view of the drone industry’s past, present and future.</p>
<p>The truly surprising details are about how wide and diverse a range of purposes drones are serving on our campuses – and what’s coming next. As we begin exploring what drones can do, and identifying what social and commercial uses they might serve, the work provides a glimpse into the future of drone flight across the country, and throughout our economy.</p>
<h2>Engineering research</h2>
<p>Drones have only recently reached the commercial mainstream. However, university engineering departments have been designing and building them for decades. For years, engineering students, for instance, have studied the advanced control algorithms that keep drones flying level and straight. Their work has helped bring us to the point where drones are even available for sale in <a href="http://www.toysrus.com/products/rc-drones.jsp">toy stores</a>. </p>
<p>It is no surprise that our engineers are still working on drones and related technology such as sensors, automation and innovative platforms. Some introductory engineering classes involve students building and flying drones; more advanced students learn about <a href="http://www.ucsd.edu/catalog/courses/MAE.html">flight dynamics and algorithms that help drones stay aloft</a>.</p>
<p>In recent years, though, our engineering departments are focusing less on building the aircraft and more on improving safety, navigation and ability to carry equipment that <a href="https://www.technologyreview.com/s/540391/license-plates-for-drones-could-make-rogue-operators-accountable/">allows drones to help with different tasks</a>.</p>
<p>For example, researchers <a href="https://ucrtoday.ucr.edu/40675">are developing navigation systems that don’t rely on GPS satellites</a>. This could help allow drones to navigate autonomously inside buildings, in deep canyons, underground or other places where GPS signals are unavailable or unreliable. Whether delivering packages to remote locations or handling emergency tasks in hazardous conditions, this type of capability could significantly expand drones’ usefulness.</p>
<p>Another research group is working on ways for <a href="http://www.ucmerced.edu/news/2016/nasa-uc-merced-successfully-test-miniature-methane-sensor">drones to help detect gas leaks</a> from oil pipelines. With millions of miles of pipelines across the country, that is a monumental task. Attaching methane-sniffing sensors to drones could make it much easier: Autonomous drones could fly the routes of every pipeline nearly constantly, registering the location and volume of leaks, and alerting repair and cleanup crews.</p>
<h2>Growth in agriculture and environmental work</h2>
<p>Our largest use of drones has been out in the fields. Two-thirds of the UC system’s drone flights, which encompass thousands of flights and hundreds of flight hours, have been for <a href="https://www.universityofcalifornia.edu/news/drones-aid-agriculture">agricultural and environmental research</a>. This suggests that those areas could provide breakout opportunities for drone uses.</p>
<p>Some scholars have found many ways drones can replace existing manned aircraft, like with <a href="http://www.northbaybusinessjournal.com/northbay/napacounty/5637688-181/yamaha-napa-first-crop-spray-drone">a pesticide-spraying helicopter</a> that could reduce time and costs and provide safer operations. But the biggest factor has been how easy drones make it to collect data that were extremely difficult, or even impossible, to collect before. </p>
<p>For example, drones with special thermal cameras are allowing researchers to investigate water consumption rates of several varieties of crops in the <a href="http://watermanagement.ucdavis.edu/research/cover-crop/">Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta</a>. The drones’ data collection is so detailed that the scholars can count individual melons, allowing much better estimates of crop yield. When farmers know much more precisely how big the harvest will be, they can better estimate how much money they’ll make – and can make better budget decisions with the information.</p>
<p>Drones are also proving themselves useful in <a href="https://scripps.ucsd.edu/news/scripps-science-responds-el-nino">high-resolution aerial coastal survey mapping</a>. In the past, researchers walked along the coast and took pictures to survey areas. This was difficult to do without disturbing wildlife. In addition, surveyors would take pictures from small planes to model and predict coastal erosion and flooding. With drones, they’re able to collect data more frequently with greater detail, and do a better job <a href="http://spatial.ucdavis.edu/teaching/">mapping and analyzing environmental data</a>. That helps improve our understanding of coastal ecology, and prepares local residents and communities for possible disasters because the drones are able to get closer to certain environments which scientists will be able extract more information from. </p>
<p>For instance, when monitoring giant sequoias, a team of five to seven people would have to map the area, which would take about a week. A drone flight has been able to replace that work with <a href="http://news.berkeley.edu/2016/12/07/drones-help-monitor-health-of-giant-sequoias/">a two-minute flight</a>. That makes it easier to track how the trees are growing and responding to changes in their environment.</p>
<h2>Beyond the academic realm</h2>
<p>To meet the demand from people with no experience in drone technology, we have developed special workshops for students, staff, faculty and UC research partners to learn about <a href="http://igis.ucanr.edu/IGISTraining/DroneTechUCB/">drone technology, regulations and flight instruction</a>.</p>
<p>Campus film and media departments regularly use drones to make sweeping images of our scenic campus locations for promotional videos and reports. Beyond that, though, university facilities workers have been using drones to monitor construction sites, inspect building areas that are hard to get to (like roofs) and keep an eye on the university’s sizable landholdings. All of these uses can significantly improve worker safety, productivity and cost savings.</p>
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<p>Students are also using drones recreationally, which has raised safety and privacy concerns on our campuses, just as it has <a href="https://theconversation.com/we-need-a-national-conversation-about-sensible-drone-laws-57172">off-campus</a>. With plenty of green spaces, many students want to fly their drones and other model aircraft on campus, even near dorms or other housing. We’ve addressed this need with respectful solutions like helping students <a href="https://uav.berkeley.edu/">form clubs</a> and organizing flying events, either on campus fields reserved for the day, or at off-campus parks. We are also seeing what may be the beginnings of a collegiate <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-might-drone-racing-drive-innovation-57933">Drone Racing League</a>.</p>
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<p>This sort of just-for-fun experimentation can make it challenging to regulate drone flights based on what the drone is doing. But universities are often test locations for new technologies. Our work – both formal and recreational – encourages creativity and can foster an entrepreneurial spirit. We can expect that at least some of these early uses for drones will eventually spill into the commercial and consumer markets.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/70633/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brandon Stark is the Director of the University of California Center of Excellence on Unmanned Aircraft System Safety.</span></em></p>Get a taste of a drone-enabled future by looking at innovations and explorations from researchers, students and employees at one of the nation’s largest university systems.Brandon Stark, Director of the University of California Center of Excellence on Unmanned Aircraft System Safety, University of California, MercedLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/711192017-01-12T11:50:07Z2017-01-12T11:50:07ZDrones delivering packages in cities won’t take off – here’s why<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/152302/original/image-20170110-29024-1ri1w1k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/pic-326291684/stock-photo-drone-delivers-the-goods-against-the-background-of-new-york.html?src=czklxhMby9ir5uQFl5KwNA-1-8">Who is Danny</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>You may have gasped with disbelief the first time you saw a photograph of a drone home-delivering a box from Amazon or cakes from a bakery or carrying a bag of crisps. Until recently, this was the stuff of science fiction. Your initial reaction was probably: “Amazing … but will it ever take off?”</p>
<p>Drones – or unmanned aerial vehicles, as we once called them – have now become capable of lifting and delivering on the back of continued research and technological ingenuity. Amazon has recently been trialling drones <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-05-17/australian-startup-flirtey-takes-on-google-in-drone-race/7416004">in Australia</a> and <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vNySOrI2Ny8">the UK</a>, but don’t get too excited: this is likely to be an exception rather than a norm. The practical reality of using drones in cities remains far away and is getting ever more distant. </p>
<p>There are already too many potential problems to let drones fly with sufficiently loose restrictions in cities to make a delivery business viable. One major issue is drones interfering with aircraft, thanks to surging numbers of <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-36734096">near-misses</a>. Drones are also <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-37152665">increasingly</a> being used to fly drugs and other contraband into prisons.</p>
<p>In the US, there have been <a href="http://www.latimes.com/opinion/editorials/la-ed-drones-paparazzi-20140820-story.html">fears about</a> camera-equipped drones stalking celebrities for paparazzi. There have also been stories about invasive drone surveillance, both on behalf of <a href="http://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2016/03/the-rapid-rise-of-federal-surveillance-drones-over-america/473136/">the state</a> and <a href="https://www.rt.com/usa/168164-daniel-saulmon-drone-camera/">private individuals</a>. </p>
<h2>Drone law</h2>
<p>The biggest backlog of legal cases in the US <a href="http://jrupprechtlaw.com/tag/part-48">is reportedly</a> drone claims over issues including safety, noise, damage, personal intrusion and privacy. The whole area is a growing business for lawyers, with <a href="http://dronelawjournal.com">drone law journals</a> springing up and fierce debates over whether, <a href="http://motherboard.vice.com/read/is-flying-a-drone-illegal-a-comprehensive-guide-to-americas-drone-laws">for example</a>, drones fall within the definition of aircraft for legal purposes. </p>
<p>New US flight rules introduced last August did lead some optimists to <a href="http://www.cnbc.com/2016/08/29/faas-new-drone-laws-go-into-effect-monday-allowing-us-companies-to-innovate.html">predict</a> a new business opportunity that could create 100,000 new jobs, but the reality is that the whole sector is in a mess. The US Federal Aviation Authority <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-36584515">has explicitly</a> said drone deliveries are off limits, at least pending further research into their consequences. </p>
<p>At the same time, technologies are emerging that are designed to down drones. Your initial reaction might be that these will never work either, but I’m not so sure. </p>
<p>A great recent <a href="http://openworksengineering.com">British engineering invention</a> is the SkyWall100. It looks like a bazooka gun and uses laser-guided targeting to fire a ball. This opens into a net that engulfs the drone and brings it to earth under a parachute. It went on sale late last year and is retailing at between £50,000 and £65,000 depending on the size of the order. So far, it has attracted a promising level of interest. </p>
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<p>The SkyWall100 is safer and less messy than shooting down drones with bullets, yet it opens up a cavern of legal ambiguities. In the UK, for example, it’s classed as a firearm so can only be owned by someone with the appropriate licence – restricting them mainly to the police or military. The US has looser firearm restrictions, of course, but firearms still generally can’t be discharged within city limits. However, the SkyWall100 is not classified as a firearm in the US, so it can be discharged anywhere. </p>
<p>Among <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X27-2WDIZR00">other techniques</a> for taking out drones, one is the Battelle DroneDefender, which is a large gun that fires a “cone of energy” at a device that disrupts GPS systems. So far, these are only in use by the military and not permitted for public sale. </p>
<h2>Going down …</h2>
<p>If the likes of the SkyWall100 are going to let people prevent drones from moving over their private property to avoid their nuisance, noise and frankly hazard of failure, a new sport of “drone downing” could easily become extremely popular in the coming years – at least in America. Drone-downing raises the alluring prospect of capturing free booty if it strays illegally into your property. So what constitutes illegal?</p>
<p>While I stress I am no lawyer, the US rules for protecting your drone from such potshots <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-36584515">would appear</a> to be <a href="http://www.mensjournal.com/gear/articles/the-laws-you-need-to-know-before-flying-your-drone-w210915">as follows</a>. It must weigh less than 25kg and can’t be out of your line of sight or higher than 400ft in the air. It can only be flown in daylight, and at dawn and dusk it needs special lights to make it visible. It also can’t be flown over groups of people or near stadiums or airports. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/152305/original/image-20170110-29024-1n24is3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/152305/original/image-20170110-29024-1n24is3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/152305/original/image-20170110-29024-1n24is3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=663&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/152305/original/image-20170110-29024-1n24is3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=663&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/152305/original/image-20170110-29024-1n24is3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=663&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/152305/original/image-20170110-29024-1n24is3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=833&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/152305/original/image-20170110-29024-1n24is3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=833&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/152305/original/image-20170110-29024-1n24is3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=833&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Mission: impossible?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/pic-512167573/stock-vector-drones-delivery-presents-vector-illustration-isolated.html?src=czklxhMby9ir5uQFl5KwNA-1-91">Alex Kee</a></span>
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<p>In the UK, <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/2016/04/18/drone-laws-in-the-uk--what-are-the-rules/">the rules</a> are similar, but with slightly tougher weight restrictions and additional requirements – it must be at least 150 metres from a building and 50 metres from a person or vehicle. If I was planning to build a shopping or pizza delivery business based on using drones that delivered to homes in cities, restrictions like these would make me more than a little jittery. </p>
<p>Put all this together and it’s virtually impossible to see drone deliveries becoming viable in cities. It might be a different story in remote locations where special deliveries may be deemed acceptable and welcomed, but otherwise I’m afraid this is one vision of the future that has no chance of coming to pass. It is an example of a clearly brilliant concept that is colliding badly with human nature and reality.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/71119/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Richard Andrew Williams does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Tremendous technology is on a collision course with reality.Richard Andrew Williams, Principal and Vice Chancellor, Heriot-Watt UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/703412016-12-25T20:41:48Z2016-12-25T20:41:48ZGot a drone for Christmas? Know the law before taking to the skies<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/150700/original/image-20161219-24303-n6pu7v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">It's all fun and games until someone cops a fine.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dmitry Kalinovsky/shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Whether a beginner, a serious aviation enthusiast, or just a fan of gadgets, many of you will have received drones as Christmas gifts. Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have surged in popularity and affordability in recent years, and there’s no doubt that recreational drone use is on the rise as a result.</p>
<p>But not all recreational drone users know the law – or if they do, they don’t appear to be following it. There has been a string of <a href="https://www.airproxboard.org.uk/Reports-and-analysis/Airprox-reports-2016/">near misses</a> between drones and other aircraft, and other cases of <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/nsw/drones-straying-too-far-raises-risk-for-pilots-firefighters-20151009-gk5l8u.html">irresponsible use</a>. </p>
<p>Only last month, a recreational drone user was <a href="http://www.theage.com.au/victoria/man-faces-9000-fine-for-using-a-drone-to-pick-up-a-bunnings-sausage-20161108-gsl3q2.html">investigated</a> by Australia’s <a href="https://www.casa.gov.au">Civil Aviation Safety Authority</a> (CASA) after evidently flying a drone over a crowded Bunnings carpark to pick up a sausage at a sausage sizzle. </p>
<p>In the runup to Christmas, UN aviation officials this month <a href="http://www.icao.int/Newsroom/Pages/icao-launches-unmanned-aircraft-systems-toolkit.aspx">warned</a> anyone getting a drone to make sure they learn how to operate it safely. So if Santa has brought you one, here’s what you need to know.</p>
<h2>Get on board</h2>
<p>In Australia, if you want to fly your drone for fun, you don’t need CASA’s approval – as long as you follow the authority’s simple safety rules. Recreational drone operators must comply with CASA’s rules (known as its <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/F2016C00889">standard operating conditions</a>).</p>
<p>You must only fly your drone within visual line of sight – that is, where you are able to see the drone with your own eyes, rather than with the help of binoculars or a telescope, for example. What’s more, you can only fly in visual meteorological conditions, which generally means no night flights. </p>
<p>In most Australian cities, you can only fly your drone up to a maximum altitude of 120 metres – most of this airspace is considered controlled airspace. To fly a recreational drone any higher, you must seek approval from CASA and adhere to any associated conditions.</p>
<p>During flight, you must keep your drone at least 30 metres from anyone who is not directly associated with its operation. The drone must also not be flown over populated areas (that is, areas that are sufficiently crowded that the drone would pose an unreasonable risk to the life, safety or property of someone present). This includes crowded beaches or parks, or sports ovals where a game is in progress.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/150699/original/image-20161219-24307-1u61g7r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/150699/original/image-20161219-24307-1u61g7r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/150699/original/image-20161219-24307-1u61g7r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/150699/original/image-20161219-24307-1u61g7r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/150699/original/image-20161219-24307-1u61g7r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/150699/original/image-20161219-24307-1u61g7r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/150699/original/image-20161219-24307-1u61g7r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/150699/original/image-20161219-24307-1u61g7r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Better check the rules before going for shots like this.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Gustavo Frazao/shutterstock.com</span></span>
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<p>There is a general prohibition on flying a drone in a way that creates a hazard to another aircraft, person or property. A “hazard” may be interpreted fairly broadly. To be safe, CASA recommends keeping your drone at least 5.5km away from any airfield. Operations within 5.5km of an airfield are allowed in some instances, as long as they are not on the approach and departure path, and would not otherwise get in the way of aircraft using the airfield. </p>
<p>Recreational drone users are also advised to respect personal privacy by not recording or taking photos of people without their consent. While privacy concerns are not within CASA’s <a href="https://www.casa.gov.au/aircraft/landing-page/flying-drones-australia">purview</a>, operators may find themselves in breach of state and territory privacy or trespass laws, depending on how and where the drone is flown, and whether audio, video or photographic footage is recorded.</p>
<h2>High flyers</h2>
<p>As a general rule, drones cannot be flown for money or economic reward without a specific licence. There are, however, two <a href="https://www.casa.gov.au/aircraft/standard-page/part-101-amendments-cutting-red-tape-remotely-piloted-aircraft">new</a> instances where such a certificate is not required: for commercial-like operations over your own land, and for commercial flights with very small drones (under 2kg) provided that the pilot notifies CASA at least five business days beforehand, and adheres to all the existing rules for recreational drone use. </p>
<p>Having considered all the rules, the Bunnings sausage sizzle incident starts to look less like a harmless jape and more like a multiple breach of the rules (although the video’s author has claimed that the video was an edited composite rather than all shot during a single flight). </p>
<p>The video appears to show several breaches of the rules, including: flying a drone out of visual line of sight (assuming that it is being piloted from the backyard hot tub depicted in the video); flying within 30m of people; and flying over a populated area. The operator is <a href="http://www.theage.com.au/victoria/man-faces-9000-fine-for-using-a-drone-to-pick-up-a-bunnings-sausage-20161108-gsl3q2.html">potentially facing</a> a fine of up to A$9,000.</p>
<p>If you’re worried your new drone might get you into similar hot water, CASA provides significant <a href="https://www.casa.gov.au/operations/standard-page/rpa-resources-and-links">guidance</a> to help operators avoid infringing the rules. That way, you can make sure your high-flying gift doesn’t end up ruining your Christmas cheer.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/70341/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rebecca Johnston does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>All over the country, novice drone pilots are launching their new Christmas presents skywards. But do they all know the rules? Here’s a primer.Rebecca Johnston, Faculty of Law, The University of Western AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/653852016-09-30T15:19:45Z2016-09-30T15:19:45ZHere’s how drones will change cities<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139310/original/image-20160926-31853-d0re4l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jag_cz/www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Amazon has been busy <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3777872/Pictured-Amazon-s-new-delivery-DRONE-seen-action-time-tested-secret-middle-countryside.html">testing out</a> its new <a href="https://www.amazon.com/b?node=8037720011">Prime Air</a> initiative at a secret location in the English countryside. The service’s promise of a 30-minute delivery by <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-design-decisions-behind-amazons-strange-looking-delivery-drone-51624">specially designed drones</a> may look like click-bait PR, but it’s an early sign of the significant changes coming to cities around the world. </p>
<p>For the moment, much of the hype around drones is full of caveats: safety is always the first priority, and nobody quite knows the full extent of what’s possible. There’s still uncertainty about how new services will weave their way through airspace – let alone the inevitable tangle of regulations. </p>
<p>Prime Air is likely to take four to five years to become a mainstream service, as public acceptance and demand evolves alongside the business model. But in the meantime, there is going to be a tidal wave of change in both the technology itself, and the public’s attitude towards it.</p>
<p>Civilian Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) are like the first motorised cars: they have started out as a toy – and sometimes a <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-cornwall-37042796">hazardous one at that</a>. But they will, with time, become normal and form the basis of a new way of living and working. </p>
<p>In response, the urban environment will need to adapt. Perhaps the scale of urban transformation not be as extreme as it was with cars – after all, drones don’t require large-scale infrastructure such as roads and bridges. But the changes will still be many and far-reaching. </p>
<h2>Clear skies</h2>
<p>For one thing, the need for airspace will lead to a push towards decluttering of features such as satellite dishes, and the removal of any unnecessary “sky furniture”, such as telecommunications, electricity wires and billboards. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139430/original/image-20160927-14625-1rv3e5w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139430/original/image-20160927-14625-1rv3e5w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=331&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139430/original/image-20160927-14625-1rv3e5w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=331&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139430/original/image-20160927-14625-1rv3e5w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=331&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139430/original/image-20160927-14625-1rv3e5w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139430/original/image-20160927-14625-1rv3e5w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139430/original/image-20160927-14625-1rv3e5w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sky clutter.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Engineers may also need to find ways to map out street lighting and transmitter masts, as well as keeping track of other drones, in order to simplify the vast quantity and variety of visual data the UAV’s sensors and pilots have to deal with. Networks of UAV landing pads, recharging hubs and <a href="https://www.technologyreview.com/s/539726/amazon-lays-out-its-vision-for-a-sky-thronging-with-delivery-drones/">air traffic control stations</a> will be created, sited on top of tall buildings. </p>
<p>“UAV-ready” features will become a standard part of homes: not just landing pads with guidance lights (which are <a href="http://www.dronesandquads.com/posts/helicopter-and-drone-landing-pad/">already on the market</a>), but also recharging docks and secure trapdoors, to allow for the storage of deliveries. Space for straightforward UAV access will provide a new selling point for property, though this could be an issue in areas where space is limited: for example, residents living in flats may need to rely on communal arrangements. </p>
<h2>Need for speed</h2>
<p>There are countless other applications for drones beyond delivery services. They can also be used to monitor structures such as wind turbines, or to keep a check on the environment – from riverbank and coastal erosion, to rising water levels and flood threats. Drones could even replace some roles and systems in our cities, such as traffic wardens, speed cameras and some forms of policing.</p>
<p>In <a href="https://sa.catapult.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/White-paper-UAVs-and-agriculture_Final2.pdf">agriculture</a>, drones are already being used to keep an eye on crops and spot any problems. They are also playing a role in <a href="https://www.cranfield.ac.uk/case-studies/research-case-studies/uavs-for-accident-investigation">investigating accidents</a> – and, of course, being deployed for security and <a href="https://theconversation.com/prepare-for-more-drones-and-less-all-out-war-18380">military uses</a>. </p>
<p>Drone racing is likely to be another new addition to city spaces. Just as the motor engine led very quickly to <a href="http://www.grandprixhistory.org/bennett1.htm">motor sports</a>, the availability of new technology and new skills will inevitably lead to competition. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/bR4Gq9qfpnM?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>Drone racing is already attracting international interest – there are a <a href="http://thedroneracingleague.com">number of competing leagues</a> and televised events and the future landscape could include UAV racing courses. Participants and audiences could be local, or – with the help of an internet connection – based anywhere in the world. </p>
<p>All of these rely on highly skilled UAV pilots – perhaps even people capable of operating multiple UAVs at a time. Linked to pilot training will be the need for formal, accredited education and skills in UAV services management. Being able to handle a UAV will become a useful life skill for members of the general public.</p>
<h2>Business opportunities</h2>
<p>There will be plenty of opportunities for businesses and services relating to UAV provision, maintenance, development and management, as well as communications and safety technologies to meet the need for ultra-reliable and more sophisticated tech such as “first-person” vision goggles to control UAVs at a distance – not to mention systems for testing and licensing pilots. </p>
<p>The local, national and international UAV infrastructure also has real scope to transform the operations for <a href="http://uk.reuters.com/article/us-humanitarian-summit-nepal-drones-idUKKCN0Y7003">overseas aid and development</a>. Equipped with cameras, UAVs could enable a greater understanding of changing situations and needs, and pinpoint the delivery of support and supplies. </p>
<p>We need high-profile trailblazers such as Prime Air for the technology to realise the drone market’s potential. The hard work, though, is going to be behind the scenes, creating the safety mechanisms for each stage of UAV use, and putting in place laws that get the balance right between protecting civilians from harm and allowing this technology the chance to grow.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/65385/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Antonios Tsourdos receives funding from RCUK, Innovate UK, EDA, MoD, H2020 and industry. He is a member of the Autonomous Systems National Technical Committee and the AIAA Unmanned System Programme Committee.</span></em></p>Over the next few years, drones are going to take to the skies en masse – and cities will need to accommodate them.Antonios Tsourdos, Professor of Autonomous Systems and Control Engineering, Cranfield UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/629182016-07-27T13:34:58Z2016-07-27T13:34:58ZAmazon delivery drones are just the first step to a highway in the sky<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/132188/original/image-20160727-21584-135cqu0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption"></span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Amazon <a href="http://money.cnn.com/2016/07/26/technology/amazon-delivery-drones-uk/">recently announced</a> plans to test a <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-design-decisions-behind-amazons-strange-looking-delivery-drone-51624">drone delivery system</a> in parts of the UK that are hard to access with conventional delivery methods. While <a href="http://www.cityam.com/246245/amazon-steps-up-tests-uk-drone-deliveries-really-catch">much attention</a> has focused on the service it would provide to Amazon customers, the really interesting story is what this agreement with the British government tries to achieve on a much broader level.</p>
<p>If successful, it will essentially create a high-altitude floating highway between 200 and 400 feet above the ground, within which a whole range of activities could be performed. As a result, everything from drone ambulances to drone police surveillance are on the cards for our future. So how ready are we for this transformation of air space? </p>
<p><a href="http://phx.corporate-ir.net/phoenix.zhtml?c=251199&p=irol-newsArticle&ID=2188094">Amazon’s announcement</a> reveals the plan focuses on three key aspects of drone technology that the UK’s Civil Aviation Authority has said it wants to see <a href="http://publicapps.caa.co.uk/docs/33/CAP%20722%20Sixth%20Edition%20March%202015.pdf">innovation in</a>.</p>
<p>The first of these is collision avoidance technology, the kind you already find in cars, where sensors detect how close the car is to another object or vehicle and prevents it from crashing. This is important because present rules ban users from flying their drones outside of their <a href="http://publicapps.caa.co.uk/docs/33/CAP%20722%20Sixth%20Edition%20March%202015.pdf">line of sight</a>, so they can always take control if there’s a problem. Collision avoidance does away with that need because the drone would be able to stop itself from causing accidents.</p>
<p>The second technology is fully autonomous systems, essentially intelligent flying machines that would require very little – if any – human control. Such devices could be capable of deciding where and when they fly, and could be mixed use systems. The same drones could conceivably be used to provide emergency support to patients in need of blood quickly, or for delivering a stove to campers who forgot to pack everything.</p>
<p>The third objective is to test out a system that would enable a single operator to fly multiple drones at the same time. This points to the possibility of fleets of flying objects that could undertake any number of operations, from police surveillance and crowd management, to disaster monitoring and rescue operations. For example, if a mountaineer is lost in the hills, a single operator could manage a number of drones to fly across a region and identify the site where the person is located. Together, the drones will share information to speed up the process and ensure support is provided as quickly as possible. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/132182/original/image-20160727-21595-1hlu0is.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/132182/original/image-20160727-21595-1hlu0is.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/132182/original/image-20160727-21595-1hlu0is.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/132182/original/image-20160727-21595-1hlu0is.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/132182/original/image-20160727-21595-1hlu0is.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=521&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/132182/original/image-20160727-21595-1hlu0is.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=521&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/132182/original/image-20160727-21595-1hlu0is.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=521&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ready for launch.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Amazon</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Cracking these technological challenges is a core priority for <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-delivery-drones-are-coming-so-rules-and-safety-standards-will-be-needed-fast-38753">drone regulators</a>, not least because it will open up drones for use in all kinds of other capacities. For instance, in the last two years, researchers have been developing a drone ambulance. This is essentially a <a href="http://www.medgadget.com/2014/11/ambulance-drone-delivers-defibrillator-by-air-video.html">flying defibrillator</a> that could be sent out to someone having a medical emergency and used by a bystander to provide <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-drones-can-improve-healthcare-delivery-in-developing-countries-49917">essential care</a> when no other alternative is available. We can expect to eventually see drones flying urgent medical products around the UK, helping to save lives and beat the current limitations of ground deliveries.</p>
<p>Amazon already has a remarkable delivery network and moving into drones at this early stage will ensure it dominates future airborne delivery systems, as well as adding to its brand image of being a technology innovator. So, it’s reasonable to assume that the British government is working with Amazon to enhance its capacity to pursue a range of other drone applications, from connecting drones to <a href="https://theconversation.com/three-big-challenges-for-smart-cities-and-how-to-solve-them-59191">smart city technology</a> to enabling <a href="https://theconversation.com/police-drones-can-we-trust-the-eyes-in-the-skies-53981">all kinds of surveillance</a>. After that, a wide variety of commercial interests will follow with any number of claims being made to occupy our low-level air space.</p>
<h2>Privacy concerns</h2>
<p>These prospects won’t sit well with everyone and there are already indications of how the public will resist such trends. In the US, for example, a project called <a href="https://www.noflyzone.org">“No Fly Zone”</a> allows people to register the air space around their homes as private and is calling on drone manufacturers to pre-program their machines to avoid it.</p>
<p>The proliferation of drones around us in the world also raises the questions of how they will all be organised. Will drones be flying around randomly, avoiding each other with their collision avoidance technology? There is a good chance that a drone highway will actually mirror our present-day road network. </p>
<p>The advantage of this would be that drones could count on an established configuration of routes that are mapped out around the world. This may not be the most direct flight path but it takes into account that drone highways, like our present road network, will become quickly congested. This kind of issue shows why we need some sensible rules to avoid catastrophic failure.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/62918/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andy Miah received funding from NESTA in 2014, to explore the creative potential of drones via a Digital R&D for the Arts programme, working with Marshmallow Laser Feast, and Abandon Normal Devices. </span></em></p>Here’s the technology Amazon needs to get right for drone deliveries – and what it will mean for everyone else.Andy Miah, Chair in Science Communication & Future Media, University of SalfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/579332016-06-10T10:09:48Z2016-06-10T10:09:48ZHow might drone racing drive innovation?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/125978/original/image-20160609-7083-yuvc0p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Racing drones in flight.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://thedroneracingleague.com/">The Drone Racing League</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Over the past 15 years, drones have progressed from laboratory demonstrations to widely available toys. Technological improvements have brought ever-smaller components required for flight stabilization and control, as well as significant improvements in battery technology. Capabilities once restricted to military vehicles are now found on toys that can be purchased at Wal-Mart. </p>
<p>Small cameras and transmitters mounted on a drone even allow real-time video to be sent back to the pilot. For a few hundred dollars, anyone can buy a “first person view” (FPV) system that puts the pilot of a small drone in a virtual cockpit. The result is an immersive experience: Flying an FPV drone is like Luke Skywalker or Princess Leia flying a speeder bike through the forests of Endor.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/4wSG3m4VNlo?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">First-person viewing puts you in the virtual cockpit of a drone, like flying a speeder on Endor.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Perhaps inevitably, hobbyists started racing drones soon after FPV rigs became available. Now several <a href="http://thedroneracingleague.com/">drone racing leagues</a> have begun, both <a href="http://dronenationals.com/">in the U.S.</a> <a href="http://droneworlds.com/">and internationally</a>. If, like auto racing, drone racing becomes a long-lasting sport <a href="http://www.worlddroneprix.com/award.php">yielding financial rewards</a> for backers of winning teams, might technologies developed in the new sport of drone racing find their way into commercial and consumer products?</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/0gYkZGOTdM0?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A drone race, as a spectator and on board the drones.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>An example from history</h2>
<p>Auto racing has a long history of <a href="http://fleetowner.com/blog/racing-world-s-impact-vehicle-development">developing and demonstrating new technologies</a> that find their way into passenger cars, buses and trucks. Formula 1 racing teams developed many innovations that are now standard in commercially available vehicles. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/125788/original/image-20160608-3513-hnmrtc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/125788/original/image-20160608-3513-hnmrtc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=287&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/125788/original/image-20160608-3513-hnmrtc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=287&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/125788/original/image-20160608-3513-hnmrtc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=287&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/125788/original/image-20160608-3513-hnmrtc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=361&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/125788/original/image-20160608-3513-hnmrtc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=361&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/125788/original/image-20160608-3513-hnmrtc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=361&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Racing for innovation: Formula 1 teams.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:2010_Malaysian_GP_opening_lap.jpg">Morio</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These include disk brakes, tire design and materials, electronic engine control and monitoring systems, the sequential gearbox and paddle shifters, <a href="http://www.f1-grandprix.com/?page_id=1742">active suspension systems</a> and traction control (so successful that both were banned from Formula 1 competition), and automotive use of composite materials such as <a href="http://www.nascar.com/en_us/sprint-cup-series/nascar-nation/nascar-edu/mobil1-technology-hub/nascar-carbon-fiber-hoods-mobil-1-tech-center1.html">carbon fiber reinforced plastics</a>.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/pZ0viMxYDA4?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A look inside the World Drone Prix.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Starting with the basics</h2>
<p>Aerodynamically, the multi-rotor drones that are used for racing are not sophisticated: A racing drone is essentially a brick (the battery and flight electronics) with four rotors attached. A rectangular block has a drag coefficient of roughly 1, while a carefully streamlined body with about the same proportions has a drag coefficient of about 0.05. Reducing the drag force means a drone needs less power to fly at high speed. That in turn allows a smaller battery to be carried, which means lighter weight and greater maneuverability. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/125976/original/image-20160609-7086-d052j1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/125976/original/image-20160609-7086-d052j1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/125976/original/image-20160609-7086-d052j1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/125976/original/image-20160609-7086-d052j1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/125976/original/image-20160609-7086-d052j1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/125976/original/image-20160609-7086-d052j1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/125976/original/image-20160609-7086-d052j1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A brick with rotors, ripe for aerodynamic improvement.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-426308953/stock-photo-drone-racing-fpv-quadrotors-in-black-color.html">Drone image via shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This is a case where technologies from aircraft and helicopter aerodynamics will find their way to the smaller vehicles. Commercial drone manufacturers have begun working on aerodynamic optimization, using techniques such as wind tunnel testing and computational fluid dynamics originally developed for analysis and design of full-scale aircraft and helicopters. </p>
<p>That may be able to enable longer flight times. If so, it would give drone operators more time to take money-making photos and video in flight. It could also boost drones’ ability to assist missions such as searching for lost hikers. If drone racing becomes a billion-dollar per year sport – <a href="http://edition.cnn.com/2013/07/30/sport/motorsport/f1-money-billion-dollar-business/">like auto racing</a> – teams will deploy well-funded research labs to eke out every last bit of performance. That additional incentive – and spending – could be poured into racing advances that will push drone technology farther and faster than might otherwise be the case. </p>
<p>Organized competition isn’t the only way to innovate, of course: Drone development has accelerated even without it. Today, the cheapest drones cost under US$50, though they can fly only indoors and have very limited flight capabilities. Hobby drones costing hundreds of dollars can perform stunning aerobatic feats in the hands of a skilled pilot. Drones capable of autonomous flight are also available, though they cost thousands of dollars and are used for more specialized purposes like scientific research, cinematography, law enforcement, and search and rescue.</p>
<h2>Advancing control and awareness</h2>
<p>The drones used in racing (and indeed, all current multi-rotor drones) contain hardware and software to improve stability. This is essentially a low-level autopilot responsible for “balancing” the vehicle. The human pilot controls the vehicle’s front/back and left/right tilt angles and the magnitude of the total thrust, as well as how fast the vehicle turns and changes direction.</p>
<p>There is no reason why this must be done via control sticks, as is currently common: Pilots could use a smartphone to control the drone instead. There is, in fact, no reason why drone control needs to be done using a physical interface: recently the University of Florida hosted a (very basic) drone race using <a href="http://www.braindronerace.com">brain-machine interfaces to control the drones</a>.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/U08ma8KNOnY?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Racing drones steered by brain signals.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Aside from flight control, situation awareness is a key problem in drone operations. It is all too easy to crash a remotely operated vehicle into a pillar on the left when the cameras are all pointed forwards. In addition, the pilot of the lead drone in a race has no way of knowing where the competitors are: They could all be a long way behind, or one could be in a position to pass.</p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/125787/original/image-20160608-3475-movs3h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/125787/original/image-20160608-3475-movs3h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=462&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/125787/original/image-20160608-3475-movs3h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=462&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/125787/original/image-20160608-3475-movs3h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=462&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/125787/original/image-20160608-3475-movs3h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=581&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/125787/original/image-20160608-3475-movs3h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=581&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/125787/original/image-20160608-3475-movs3h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=581&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Robots need multiple camera angles to see themselves and their surroundings, like this mosaic self-portrait of NASA’s Curiosity Rover on Mars.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA16763">NASA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Solving this problem could have payoffs for other telepresence robotics operations, such as remotely operated underwater vehicles and even planetary rovers. Vision systems consisting of several cameras and a computer to stitch together the different views could help, or a haptic system could vibrate to alert a pilot to the presence of a drone or other obstacle nearby. Those sorts of technologies to improve the pilot’s awareness during a race could also be used to assist a remote-control robot pilot operating a vehicle at an oil drilling platform or near a hydrothermal vent in the deep ocean.</p>
<p>This is of course still very speculative: Drone racing is a sport still in its infancy. It is not yet clear whether it will become a massively popular sport. If it does, we could see very exciting advances coming from drone racing into both the toys that we fly in our living rooms and parks and into the drones used by professional videographers, engineers and scientists.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/57933/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jack Langelaan receives funding from the National Science Foundation and the Office of Naval Research. He is an Associate Fellow of the American Institute of Aeronautic and Astronautics, a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers and a member of the American Helicopter Society.</span></em></p>If, like auto racing, drone racing becomes a long-lasting sport yielding financial rewards for backers of winning teams, might new technologies find their way into commercial and consumer products?Jack Langelaan, Associate Professor of Aerospace Engineering, Penn StateLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/570692016-05-23T19:35:21Z2016-05-23T19:35:21ZA guide to using drones to study wildlife: first, do no harm<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/122661/original/image-20160516-11105-1y8ouvo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A UAV's perspective of southern elephant seals (_Mirounga leonina_) on Australia's sub-Antarctic Macquarie Island.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">J. Hodgson</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Technological advances have provided many benefits for environmental research. Sensors on southern elephant seals have been used to <a href="http://www.nature.com/articles/sdata201428">map the Southern Ocean</a>, while tracking devices have given us a new view of <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.aaa2478">mass animal migrations</a>, from birds to zebras. </p>
<p>Miniaturisation of electronics and improvements in reliability and affordability mean that consumer drones (also known as unmanned aerial vehicles, or UAVs) are now <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-drones-can-improve-scientific-research-in-the-field-54696">improving scientific research</a> in a host of areas. And they are growing more popular for wildlife management, as well as research.</p>
<p>Wildlife drones can be used in many different ways, from small multi-rotor units that can <a href="https://theconversation.com/flying-scarecrows-and-caribou-counters-using-drones-for-conservation-36847">scare invasive birds away from crops</a>, to fixed-wing <a href="https://conservationdrones.org/">aircraft</a> that fly above rainforests to spot <a href="https://theconversation.com/conservation-drones-here-comes-the-animals-air-force-35220">orangutan nests</a>. UAVs have also been shown to provide <a href="http://www.nature.com/articles/srep22574">more precise data</a> than traditional ground-based techniques when it comes to monitoring seabird colonies. </p>
<p>Other industries, from mining to window-cleaning, are looking at using drone technology. Some forecasts <a href="http://www.pwc.pl/clarityfromabove">predict that the global market for commercial applications of UAVs will be valued at more than US$127 billion</a>. Given their usefulness in the biologist’s toolkit, the uptake of UAVs for environmental monitoring is likely to continue. </p>
<p>But this proliferation of drones raises questions about how best to regulate the use of these aircraft, and how to ensure that wildlife do not come to harm. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/122655/original/image-20160516-11119-1pfochk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/122655/original/image-20160516-11119-1pfochk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/122655/original/image-20160516-11119-1pfochk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=941&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/122655/original/image-20160516-11119-1pfochk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=941&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/122655/original/image-20160516-11119-1pfochk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=941&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/122655/original/image-20160516-11119-1pfochk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1182&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/122655/original/image-20160516-11119-1pfochk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1182&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/122655/original/image-20160516-11119-1pfochk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1182&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A UAV-mounted camera provides an aerial view of a Sumatran elephant (<em>Elephas maximus sumatranus</em>) in North Sumatra.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">L. P. Koh</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Wildlife disturbance</h2>
<p>Biologists carrying out field studies are typically interested in animals’ natural state, or how their behaviour changes when conditions are altered. So it is important to know whether the UAVs disturb the animals and, if so, exactly how. </p>
<p>Of course, different species in different environments are likely to have very different responses to the presence of a UAV. This will also depend on the type of UAV and how it is used. Our current understanding of wildlife responses is limited. </p>
<p>A team of French and South African biologists observed the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2014.0754">reaction of semi-captive and wild birds to UAVs</a>. They found that the approach angle had a significant impact on the birds’ reaction, but approach speed, UAV colour and flight repetition did not. </p>
<p>In polar regions, where UAVs may be particularly useful for sampling inaccessible areas, researchers found that <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00300-015-1838-1">Adélie penguins were more alert</a> when a UAV was in range, particularly at low altitudes. </p>
<p>These studies, and similar observational studies on other animals besides birds, provide an initial understanding of wildlife behaviour. But the animals’ behaviour is only one aspect of their response – we still need to know what happens to their physiology. </p>
<p>Cardiac bio-loggers fitted to a small number of free-roaming American black bears in northwestern Minnesota have shown that <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2015.07.024">UAV flights increased the bears’ heart rates</a> by as much as 123 beats per minute. Even an individual in its winter hibernation den showed stress responses to a UAV flying above. </p>
<p>Interestingly, the bears rarely showed any behavioural response to the drones. This shows that just because animals do not appear visually disturbed, that doesn’t necessarily mean they’re not stressed. </p>
<h2>A code of practice</h2>
<p>We have developed a code of best practice, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2016.04.001">published today in the journal Current Biology</a>, which seeks to mitigate or alleviate potential UAV disturbance to wildlife. It advocates the precautionary principle in lieu of sufficient evidence, encouraging researchers to recognise that wildlife responses are varied, can be hard to detect, and could have severe consequences. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/122659/original/image-20160516-11098-1b58kwp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/122659/original/image-20160516-11098-1b58kwp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/122659/original/image-20160516-11098-1b58kwp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/122659/original/image-20160516-11098-1b58kwp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/122659/original/image-20160516-11098-1b58kwp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/122659/original/image-20160516-11098-1b58kwp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/122659/original/image-20160516-11098-1b58kwp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/122659/original/image-20160516-11098-1b58kwp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Jarrod Hodgson launches a fixed-wing UAV on Macquarie Island.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">J. Hodgson</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It also provides practical recommendations. The code encourages the use of equipment that minimises the stimulus to wildlife. Using minimum-disturbance flight practices (such as avoiding threatening approach trajectories or sporadic flight movements) is advised. The code also recognises the importance of following civil aviation rules and effective maintenance and training schedules, and using animal ethics processes to provide oversight to UAV experiments. </p>
<p>The code isn’t just food for thought for biologists. It is relevant to all UAV users and regulators, from commercial aerial videographers to hobbyists. Unintentionally or otherwise, such users may find themselves piloting drones close to wildlife. </p>
<p>Our code urges the UAV community to be responsible operators. It encourages awareness of the results of flying in different environments and the use of flight practices that result in minimum wildlife disturbance. </p>
<h2>Low-impact conservation</h2>
<p>As researchers continue to develop and refine UAV wildlife monitoring techniques, research that quantifies disturbance should be prioritised. This research will need to be multi-faceted, because responses could vary between species or individuals, as well as over time and in different environments. Greater knowledge could help us to draw up species-specific guidelines for drone use, to minimise disturbance on a case-by-case basis. </p>
<p>UAVs are a useful wildlife monitoring tool. We need to proactively develop and implement low-impact monitoring techniques. Doing so will expand our technological arsenal in the battle to manage Earth’s precious and increasingly threatened wildlife.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/57069/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lian Pin Koh receives funding from the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jarrod Hodgson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Drones are useful tools for studying and protecting wildlife. But with their growing popularity comes a growing need to make sure they don’t harm the animals they’re trying to observe.Jarrod Hodgson, PhD Candidate, University of AdelaideLian Pin Koh, Associate Professor, University of AdelaideLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/571722016-04-07T09:50:54Z2016-04-07T09:50:54ZWe need a national conversation about sensible drone laws<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117545/original/image-20160405-29002-3m8xsr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Taking off in a yard near you?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Package_copter_microdrones_dhl.jpg">Frankhöffner</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Not long ago, most Americans could safely ignore congressional deliberations about Federal Aviation Administration authority, leaving the details to industry experts and lobbyists. But this time, we may need to fasten our seatbelts and actually read the card in the seat pocket. </p>
<p>A bill under discussion this week in <a href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/senate-bill/2658/text">Congress</a>, an otherwise routine reauthorization of federal spending on the FAA, also sets the stage for the widespread use of unmanned aircraft systems (aka drones) at very low altitudes across the United States. This legislation could affect privacy, property, local control and even America’s position as a leader in innovation.</p>
<p>Federal authorities have, since the passage of the <a href="http://libraryonline.erau.edu/online-full-text/books-online/aircommerceact1926.pdf">Air Commerce Act of 1926</a>, controlled the navigable airspace starting hundreds of feet above us. But the lowermost airspace – our backyards, neighborhoods, business properties and campuses – has <a href="http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674030824">historically</a> been the domain of the <a href="http://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-supreme-court/328/256.html">landowner</a> and local governments. </p>
<p>The promise of lucrative new drone technologies appears to be upending this tradition.</p>
<h2>Industry eyes lower-level airspace</h2>
<p>Aviation industry proponents view the quiet space just above our homes as the next frontier in commercial aviation, a “<a href="http://onpoint.wbur.org/2016/01/04/nasa-drone-highways">public highway</a>” for <a href="http://www.auvsi.org/auvsiresources/economicreport">a multi-billion-dollar industry</a>:</p>
<ul>
<li>Suggesting that drones could fly in an “unobstructed highway” not far above the trees and power lines, robotics innovator Helen Greiner <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jan/08/helen-greiner-roomba-co-inventor-drone-industry">told <em>The Guardian</em></a>, “You can solve a mobility problem easier because they don’t have to deal with all that stuff on the ground. It’s almost like you are cheating.”</li>
<li><a href="https://3dr.com/skyward-announces-first-commercial-drone-network-demonstration/">SkyWard</a>, a company building traffic management systems for unmanned aircraft, proclaims on its website that “The airspace is a great place to build a new highway.”</li>
<li>David Vos, the leader for Google’s Project Wing drone-delivery service, <a href="http://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-drones-alphabet-idUSKCN0SR20520151103">said</a>, “Our goal is to have commercial business up and running in 2017.”</li>
</ul>
<p>The FAA reauthorization now before Congress would lay the legal foundation for this. A section of the law would take federal control of all airspace, preempting state and local regulation of all aspects of unmanned aircraft flight, “including airspace, altitude, flight paths … [and] purpose of operations.” It might seem an innocuous clarification. </p>
<p>However, the FAA has recently started <a href="http://www.scribd.com/doc/204615520/FAA-FOIA-Response-2-4-14#page=5">asserting</a> that “Private landowners do not have any jurisdiction over the airspace above their property and cannot prohibit or allow aviation operations over their land” at any altitude, “<a href="https://www.faa.gov/news/updates/?newsId=76240">from the ground up</a>.” These “<a href="https://www.federalregister.gov/regulations/2120-AJ60/operation-and-certification-of-small-unmanned-aircraft-systems-suas-">aviation operations</a>” include Frisbee-sized drones and even toys. </p>
<p>These statements suggest the FAA intends to regulate drone flights much more tightly than it has handled model airplane and other low-altitude, lightweight aircraft flights in the past.</p>
<h2>Tightening restrictions?</h2>
<p><a href="https://motherboard.vice.com/read/the-faa-thinks-it-can-regulate-paper-planes-and-baseballs">Recent enforcement actions</a> are raising concerns:</p>
<ul>
<li>A federal administrative judge admonished the FAA for <a href="http://www.ntsb.gov/legal/alj/Documents/Pirker-CP-217.pdf#page=3">making</a> “the risible argument that a flight in the air of, e.g., a paper aircraft, or a toy balsa wood glider, could subject the ‘operator’” to FAA oversight. </li>
<li>In South Dakota, an FAA investigator <a href="http://www.today.com/news/feds-crack-down-shoot-drone-gatherings-target-practices-1D80069182">showed up at rural gun club</a> and ordered members to stop using home-built model airplanes for target practice like modern-day clay pigeons because they were flying drones as part of a business.</li>
<li>A man in California was <a href="http://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/news/2015/aug/19/man-jailed-beach-drone-confrontation/">briefly arrested</a> by local authorities for using a T-shirt to down a drone that was hovering close by.</li>
</ul>
<p>The federal penalty for “destruction of an aircraft,” <a href="http://dailycaller.com/2013/07/22/faa-responds-to-colorado-towns-drone-hunting-plans/">apparently even a small unmanned one</a>, is up to 20 years in prison.</p>
<h2>Moving to protect research and innovation</h2>
<p>Our nation’s colleges and universities have been hit particularly hard by these growing restrictions. U.S. researchers face severe limits on putting anything in the air, even a few feet above the ground on university property.</p>
<p>Getting permission to fly for scholarly purposes involves lots of paperwork and usually requires researchers to use specific commercial drones operated by a licensed pilot. With restrictions like that, is not surprising that <a href="http://www.aeriographer.com/surprise-dji-dominates-the-faas-list-of-exemptions-for-commercial-drone-use/">70 percent of the unmanned aircraft that the FAA has approved</a> for commercial use are engineered and manufactured in China.</p>
<p>To address this concern, U.S. senators Gary Peters (a Michigan Democrat) and Jerry Moran (a Kansas Republican) recently introduced the <a href="http://www.peters.senate.gov/newsroom/press-releases/peters-moran-introduce-legislation-to-support-educational-use-of-unmanned-aircraft-systems">Higher Education UAS Modernization Act</a>. Backed by nearly 30 U.S. universities and three higher-education associations, it would allow researchers to fly drones at low altitudes for research and educational purposes, while preventing academics from using drones to “survey, create a nuisance on, or overfly private property without the permission of the owner of the private property.”</p>
<p>In other words, if the bill passes – as it should – university drones will be free to educate our students and support cutting-edge research in fields as diverse as aeronautical engineering, archaeology and agriculture. But they won’t invade your backyard, photograph you on your patio, or disrupt your quiet afternoon.</p>
<p>This is a good first step. But we also need a broader national discussion about how commercial and recreational drones should operate near the ground – in the space where we live, work and play – while respecting landowners and maintaining a sensible balance between federal, state and local control.</p>
<p>These issues are simply too important to leave up in the air.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/57172/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paul Voss is an Associate Fellow in the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA). Smith College is one of the 30 colleges and universities endorsing the Higher Education UAS Modernization Act. Voss offered some comments on a draft of the bill.</span></em></p>A bill before Congress could pave the way for the opening of our backyards, neighborhoods, business properties and campuses to commercial drone traffic.Paul Voss, Associate Professor of Engineering, Smith CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/567702016-04-07T09:50:48Z2016-04-07T09:50:48ZAre drones really dangerous to airplanes?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117758/original/image-20160406-28940-1ldksel.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Birds are more dangerous to aircraft than drones.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/kvoloshin/17204675910/">kvoloshin/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Imagine boarding a plane. Economy class. There’s a kid behind you kicking the seat. You put on headphones and try to tune out the world. Immediately after takeoff, you feel a thud and hear an explosion over the sound of your music. The plane lurches. You look out the window at the plane’s engine and see fire and black smoke. Terrifying, right?</p>
<p>That’s the fear that animates the Federal Aviation Administration’s hostile approach to drone regulation. The agency, required by Congress to finalize permanent regulations of commercial drones under section 332 of the <a href="https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-112publ95/html/PLAW-112publ95.htm">FAA Modernization and Reform Act</a> by September 2015, has <a href="http://www.nbcnews.com/tech/innovation/faa-misses-deadline-creating-drone-regulations-n437016">missed that deadline</a>. So far, the agency’s only efforts appear to be issuing rules under a more restrictive part of that law, <a href="https://www.faa.gov/uas/legislative_programs/section_333/">section 333</a>, intended to be in effect temporarily – until the FAA finished the final ones. And it has imposed a requirement that people register noncommercial “<a href="https://www.faa.gov/news/updates/?newsId=84386">model aircraft</a>,” a move <a href="http://thehill.com/policy/transportation/263249-critics-assail-faa-drone-tax">criticized</a> as onerous, and <a href="http://www.dailydot.com/politics/faa-drone-registration-lawsuit/">currently facing a court challenge</a>.</p>
<p>But drones don’t pose much of a risk to traditional aviation. Though there is always a risk when you board a plane that an object will be ingested into an engine, our research shows that the problem is far more likely to be a bird than a drone. </p>
<h2>Colliding with aircraft</h2>
<p>There are on the order of 10 billion birds in U.S. airspace. Although efforts are made to keep them away from airports, where they pose the biggest threat, pilots, airlines, airports and others voluntarily reported 13,414 bird-aircraft collisions <a href="http://wildlife.faa.gov/">on the FAA’s dedicated wildlife strike website</a> in 2014, split about equally between passenger jets and other aircraft including helicopters and small planes. Rarely, these collisions are serious enough to <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L1jZvlFmqQU">take out a jet engine</a>. In 2014, birds were reported ingested into engines only 417 times, and only 112 of those reports indicated any damage to the aircraft.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/L1jZvlFmqQU?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A bird strike on an airliner causes engine failure.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Meanwhile, to date, no modern quadrocopter, commercial or otherwise, has ever collided with a manned aircraft in U.S. airspace. The FAA has raised the alarm about drones in the airspace, and now receives <a href="https://www.faa.gov/uas/law_enforcement/uas_sighting_reports/">over 100 reports of unmanned aircraft flying near other manned aircraft or airports per month</a>. However, as the <a href="http://www.modelaircraft.org/gov/docs/AMAAnalysis-Closer-Look-at-FAA-Drone-Data_091415.pdf">Academy of Model Aeronautics has noted</a>, many of these sightings do not reflect any danger to passengers. Analyzing 921 reported incidents, a <a href="http://dronecenter.bard.edu/files/2015/12/12-11-Drone-Sightings-and-Close-Encounters.pdf">study at Bard College</a> found that in only 158 of them did a drone come within 200 feet of a manned aircraft. In only 28 incidents did pilots even decide to take evasive action.</p>
<h2>Harming aircraft passengers</h2>
<p>My colleague Sam Hammond and I <a href="http://mercatus.org/sites/default/files/Dourado-Wildlife-Strikes-MOP-v2.pdf">extrapolate from wildlife strike data</a> to estimate the danger that drones pose to manned aircraft and the people aboard them. We estimated how often drones will strike manned planes by assuming that drones are roughly equivalent to birds – that they are of similar size, and that drone operators are at least as able to avoid aircraft as birds are.</p>
<p>There are vastly more birds than drones in the U.S., and birds spend far more of their time aloft than battery-powered drones, which need to recharge and are often left unused for days at a time. However, we could calculate a frequency of aircraft strikes per hour of bird flight. Assuming the rate is the same for a drone, we estimate that drones are likely to collide with manned aircraft once every 374,000 years of drone operation. </p>
<p>Not all collisions cause damage to the aircraft, much less harm to people flying in it. We focused on 2-kilogram birds, because this is the weight being discussed as a possible threshold for a lighter class of drone regulation. About one in every five aircraft that hit a bird weighing around two kilograms experienced at least minor damage. There was at least one person injured in the collision for every 500 aircraft struck by a 2-kilogram bird.</p>
<p>In other words, if there were a million 2-kilogram drones operating in the airspace 24/7 with as much awareness of human aviation as birds possess, there would be an injury to a human passenger onboard a manned aircraft once every 187 years.</p>
<h2>Teaching drone pilots to be responsible</h2>
<p>So drones are safe if their operators have at least as much cognitive capacity as birds. It’s true that the dumbest humans may deliberately fly drones in the path of airliners. Enforcing prohibitions on this is difficult. To keep airspace safe, the FAA needs a two-pronged strategy of operator education and technological solutions to manage a more crowded airspace.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117752/original/image-20160406-28950-1jyv5cc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117752/original/image-20160406-28950-1jyv5cc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117752/original/image-20160406-28950-1jyv5cc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=356&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117752/original/image-20160406-28950-1jyv5cc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=356&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117752/original/image-20160406-28950-1jyv5cc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=356&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117752/original/image-20160406-28950-1jyv5cc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117752/original/image-20160406-28950-1jyv5cc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117752/original/image-20160406-28950-1jyv5cc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An explanation of drone flight regulations from KnowBeforeYouFly.com.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.knowbeforeyoufly.org">FAA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The agency has undertaken some educational efforts. For example, it partnered with AUVSI, a trade organization, and the Academy of Model Aeronautics, a hobbyist association, to create a website called <a href="http://knowbeforeyoufly.org/">Know Before You Fly</a>, which provides accessible and easily comprehensible guidelines for safe and legal operation of drones.</p>
<p>The FAA also launched a dedicated smartphone app, <a href="https://www.faa.gov/uas/b4ufly/">B4UFLY</a>, that uses the phone’s geolocation feature to inform the user of the restrictions on and requirements for flying a drone in the area.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117755/original/image-20160406-28945-1c86d94.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117755/original/image-20160406-28945-1c86d94.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117755/original/image-20160406-28945-1c86d94.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=648&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117755/original/image-20160406-28945-1c86d94.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=648&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117755/original/image-20160406-28945-1c86d94.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=648&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117755/original/image-20160406-28945-1c86d94.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=814&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117755/original/image-20160406-28945-1c86d94.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=814&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117755/original/image-20160406-28945-1c86d94.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=814&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An alert from an FAA smartphone app for drone pilots.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">B4UFLY, Federal Aviation Administration</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Unfortunately, the app is laughably bad, currently receiving a 1-star rating on the iOS app store. The reviews complain of restrictions being erroneously reported for landing strips that have been out of service for years. Drone operators report being instructed to contact a control tower, but the app provides no phone number. Other times, users are told to contact completely unattended helipads.</p>
<p>The agency should prioritize giving operators accurate information about where they can and can’t fly, and it should provide users with a quality app experience so that they actually consult the app. The private sector has joined the effort. One such service compiling this type of information is <a href="https://www.airmap.com/">AirMap</a>, with a mobile-optimized website hobbyists can use to determine where they are not supposed to fly.</p>
<p>In addition to education, the agency should focus on short-run and long-run technological solutions to the problem of an increasingly crowded airspace. In the short run, a technology called “<a href="http://www.howtogeek.com/221077/htg-explains-what-geofencing-is-and-why-you-should-be-using-it/">geofencing</a>” is promising and has already been adopted by drone manufacturers such as DJI and 3D Robotics: drones are equipped with GPS and know to keep themselves out of places it is illegal for the drone to fly, such as near airports; in the Washington, D.C., area; in national parks; or near crowded stadiums.</p>
<h2>Advancing airspace interconnections</h2>
<p>In the longer run, the FAA should focus on modernizing airspace for the likelihood that even manned aviation will benefit from the technologies currently developing in the unmanned sector. While most “drones” are currently remote-controlled, the ultimate vision is that they will be autonomously piloted and communicate with each other to avoid collisions.</p>
<p>That same type of machine-to-machine communication and onboard computerized decision-making has the potential to greatly increase the safety of manned air transportation by eliminating pilot error.</p>
<p>To increase the safety of unmanned and manned aviation, as well as of the mixture of the two, the FAA should accelerate its plans to incorporate this new model of airspace management into the system. <a href="http://utm.arc.nasa.gov/index.shtml">Engineering and field testing done by NASA</a> is a great first step, but airspace modernization should be a central theme in the FAA’s approach to drone integration.</p>
<p>As our wildlife strike study shows, drones themselves aren’t the real threat. If the FAA wants to make American airspace safer and more conducive to innovation, it should leverage education and technology instead of outright prohibitions and unenforceable registration requirements.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/56770/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Eli Dourado does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Drones don’t pose much of a risk to traditional aviation. Our research shows that collisions with manned aircraft are far more likely to involve a bird.Eli Dourado, Director of Technology Policy Program and Research Fellow at Mercatus Center, George Mason UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/572012016-04-07T04:53:24Z2016-04-07T04:53:24ZNew relaxed drone regulations will help the industry take off<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117573/original/image-20160406-28945-uvilu3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">CASA makes it easier for low risk flying of drones.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/rthorek-photography/6798508919/">Flickr/Richard Thorek</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The Australian drone industry is set for a shake up following the announcement of a long-awaited relaxation of regulations on their operation. </p>
<p>Australia’s Civil Aviation Safety Authority (<a href="https://www.casa.gov.au/">CASA</a>) says the <a href="https://www.casa.gov.au/publications-and-resources/media-release/red-tape-cut-remotely-piloted-aircraft">amended regulations</a> will come into effect in late September 2016, and with them comes the introduction of new categories of what are known as remotely piloted aircraft systems (RPAS).</p>
<p>The regulations define new low-risk commercial RPAS operations, which will allow operators of <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/F2016L00400/Explanatory%20Statement/Text">sub-2kg craft</a> to fly without the need for an approval or licence. </p>
<p>A drone must be operated in daytime and within visual line of sight of the remote pilot to be classified as low risk. It must not be flown over populous areas and must be kept at least 30 metres from other people.</p>
<p>The drone cannot be flown greater than 130m above ground and it must not be flown within 5.5km of a controlled airport.</p>
<p>Commercial operators in this new category will have to register their operations with CASA on a yet-to-be live website.</p>
<p>Relaxed regulations will also apply to private owners of RPAS of up to 150kg. This is provided they only fly their drone over their private property and they do not operate their aircraft for direct commercial reward. </p>
<h2>Why the change?</h2>
<p>In 2002, CASA was the first in the world to <a href="https://www.casa.gov.au/standard-page/casr-part-101-unmanned-aircraft-and-rocket-operations">regulate the operation of drones</a>. </p>
<p>The regulations, contained in <a href="https://www.casa.gov.au/standard-page/casr-part-101-unmanned-aircraft-and-rocket-operations">Part 101</a> of the Civil Aviation Safety Regulation (CASR 1998), were long considered ground breaking. Much of the success of the Australian unmanned aircraft industry is owed to the flexible approach outlined in the regulations. </p>
<p>In 2007, there were fewer than 25 certified drone operators in Australia. By March 30, 2016, <a href="http://www.aviationbusiness.com.au/news/casa-issues-500th-uav-operator-certificate">this number had grown to 500</a>, with most operating small multi-rotor RPAS.</p>
<p>But with this rapid growth came the increasing need for regulatory reform. CASA recognised that the regulations needed to keep pace with increasingly capable technology, and the changing operational needs of the sector.</p>
<p>It also realised that processing an ever increasing number of regulatory applications was not sustainable.</p>
<h2>Welcome news</h2>
<p>The new changes <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-04-01/new-drone-regulations-to-benefit-farmers/7293392">will significantly reshape</a> the drone industry. </p>
<p>Operators already licensed by CASA are expected to face increased competition from the new sub-2kg RPAS operators. These new operators will be able to provide equivalent <a href="http://voices.nationalgeographic.com/2014/03/05/so-you-want-to-shoot-aerial-photography-using-drones/">aerial photography and inspection services</a> without the same regulatory overhead.</p>
<p>Similarly, there will be an <a href="http://fortune.com/2014/10/08/drone-nation-air-droid/">increase in the number of end-users</a> choosing to own and operate their own internal RPAS capability instead of contracting existing RPAS service providers. Examples include the use of small <a href="http://www.gizmag.com/drones-building-construction-industry/36306/">inspection drones on building sites</a> and the use of drones by <a href="http://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/queensland/queensland-police-recruit-drones-in-forensic-first-20150528-ghbi70.html">tactical police units</a> to assist them in hostage situations.</p>
<p>But it is not all doom and gloom for the current licensed RPAS operators. The standard operating conditions applicable to the new low-risk categories are restrictive.</p>
<p>Larger and more reliable drones will still be needed to carry bulky and more expensive payloads such as laser scanners, and hyper-spectral and cinema-quality cameras. These drones will still need to be operated by licensed operators.</p>
<p>Approval is still required for first person view (<a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-fpv-drone-racing-54047">FPV</a>) outdoor flying operations, where the remote pilot flies by means of a camera mounted on board the drone. </p>
<p>Similarly, <a href="https://theconversation.com/robots-in-the-skies-how-outback-joe-was-found-and-rescued-34234">autonomous drones</a>, which operate without any input from a pilot, also require CASA approval on a case-by-case basis.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117308/original/image-20160404-27125-18ijsxn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117308/original/image-20160404-27125-18ijsxn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117308/original/image-20160404-27125-18ijsxn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117308/original/image-20160404-27125-18ijsxn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117308/original/image-20160404-27125-18ijsxn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117308/original/image-20160404-27125-18ijsxn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117308/original/image-20160404-27125-18ijsxn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117308/original/image-20160404-27125-18ijsxn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A large drone that will still require licensed operators for commercial use.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Stefan Hrabar/CSIRO/UAV Challenge</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Research and educational institutions, such as universities, are also expected to benefit from the new categories, provided they operate their aircraft over their own property and in accordance with all other operational restrictions. </p>
<p>Previously, these institutions were subject to the same licensing requirements as commercial operators. </p>
<h2>Hobby users</h2>
<p>The amended regulations do not address concerns posed by the rapidly growing number of hobby drone users.</p>
<p>Regulations applicable to hobby or recreational users are contained in CASR 1998 Part 101.G, which is the subject of a separate CASA regulatory reform project.</p>
<p>There is growing concern over the risks hobby users pose to other aircraft and to members of the public. Some of these hobby users are not aware of the potential danger their drone may pose. </p>
<p>There have been numerous <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2016/feb/01/drone-near-miss-should-be-a-wake-up-call-for-review-says-shadow-minister">near misses of small drones with passenger aircraft</a> in recent years. As the rate of these incidents increases, there is real concern that a drone will eventually be ingested into an aircraft engine causing catastrophic damage – or worse, an airline crash.</p>
<p>Others are well aware of the dangers their drones may pose to the public but they <a href="http://www.digitaltrends.com/cool-tech/10-dumb-uses-of-drones-that-ruin-drones-for-everyone/">are deliberately mischievous anyway</a>.</p>
<p>Education remains the only effective tool, with CASA leading a campaign <a href="https://www.casa.gov.au/sites/g/files/net351/f/_assets/main/lib100071/flying_with_control_model.pdf">to educate hobby users on the safe operation</a> of their aircraft and the regulations that apply to them. </p>
<p>Without doubt, the release of the amended regulations will mark a significant milestone in the history of the Australian drone industry. They will help to sustain the safe and viable growth of the sector.</p>
<p>But the devil may still lie in the detail, of course, with the accompanying manual of standards yet to be released by CASA. The manual will contain more detailed requirements including those for remote pilot licences, flights in controlled airspace, and flights beyond visual line of sight of the pilot.</p>
<p>CASA’s exact interpretation of “Aerial Work” and “Commercial Reward” also remain unclear.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/57201/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr Reece Clothier's primary area of research is the safety and regulation of unmanned aircraft systems (UAS) for which he has previously received research funding from CASA. Dr Clothier is the President of the Australian Association for Unmanned Systems and former Industry Co-chair of the CASA Standards Consultative Committee, UAS Sub-Committee. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jonathan Roberts is the co-founder of the UAV Challenge, an international competition that sees teams develop robot aircraft to demonstrate their use for saving people lost or in need of medical assistance. The UAV Challenge has been co-sponsored in the past by CASA. Jonathan is an academic and researcher with QUT's Australian Research Centre for Aerospace Automation (ARCAA).</span></em></p>Long awaited changes to the regulations on some drone flights in Australia are set to give the industry a shake up.Reece Clothier, Senior Lecturer, RMIT UniversityJonathan Roberts, Professor in Robotics, Queensland University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.