tag:theconversation.com,2011:/uk/topics/urban-resilience-28401/articlesUrban resilience – The Conversation2022-09-27T04:02:23Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1901452022-09-27T04:02:23Z2022-09-27T04:02:23ZHow we accidentally planned the desertion of our cities<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483717/original/file-20220909-15-rcuw4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C48%2C754%2C515&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Shops, offices, gyms and apartments dominate Brisbane's 'mixed use' zone.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Rachel Gallagher</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>COVID-19 may have kick-started the <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-covid-all-but-killed-the-australian-cbd-147848">decline of the Australian CBD</a>, but our <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08111146.2022.2122427">newly published research</a> shows how planning decisions had already created cities that lacked resilience. </p>
<p>The changes in our work preferences have highlighted how vulnerable our cities are to economic shocks. Moves to entice (or compel) workers <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/bring-workers-back-three-days-a-week-to-ensure-cbd-survives-productivity-head-20220830-p5bdwi.html">back to the office</a> may be just a short-term fix for precincts now struggling with low levels of foot traffic.</p>
<p>Historic zoning practices created separate areas of residential, commercial and industrial activity in our cities. This practice created whole precincts like the CBD and residential suburbs dedicated to a single use.</p>
<p>The lack of diversity arising from this pattern of development ultimately reduces resilience when conditions change. It is arguably one of urban planning’s greatest failures.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483427/original/file-20220908-22-aa9n2g.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483427/original/file-20220908-22-aa9n2g.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483427/original/file-20220908-22-aa9n2g.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483427/original/file-20220908-22-aa9n2g.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483427/original/file-20220908-22-aa9n2g.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483427/original/file-20220908-22-aa9n2g.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=757&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483427/original/file-20220908-22-aa9n2g.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=757&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483427/original/file-20220908-22-aa9n2g.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=757&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Proposed zoning in 1952, dividing Brisbane into residential, commercial, industrial and recreation zones.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Brisbane City Council</span></span>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-covid-all-but-killed-the-australian-cbd-147848">How COVID all but killed the Australian CBD</a>
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<p>The <a href="https://www.monash.edu/mada/research/navigating-economic-uncertainty-in-post-covid-cities">most resilient places</a> during COVID-19 lockdowns were those that had a diverse industrial employment mix. It meant they did not rely on a single sector for jobs – and the lockdown impacts varied from sector to sector. </p>
<p>For example, Melbourne’s last remaining inner-city industrial zone, Port Melbourne, provides a diverse mix of production as well as commercial services. It was among the <a href="https://www.monash.edu/mada/research/navigating-economic-uncertainty-in-post-covid-cities">most resilient places of employment</a> in Australia to COVID impacts. This example offers valuable insight into a truly “mixed use” precinct.</p>
<p>Areas with diverse land uses became the goal of <a href="https://theconversation.com/density-sprawl-growth-how-australian-cities-have-changed-in-the-last-30-years-65870">new planning policies</a> that emerged in the 1980s. By introducing zoning changes, policymakers hoped to replicate the <a href="https://theconversation.com/no-need-to-give-up-on-crowded-cities-we-can-make-density-so-much-better-131304">vibrant, dense and localised environments</a> of older cities that predated the rise of cars.</p>
<p>However, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08111146.2022.2122427">our research</a> shows policies that aimed to increase land-use mix do the opposite in practice.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483422/original/file-20220908-9455-sy41jl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483422/original/file-20220908-9455-sy41jl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483422/original/file-20220908-9455-sy41jl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483422/original/file-20220908-9455-sy41jl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483422/original/file-20220908-9455-sy41jl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483422/original/file-20220908-9455-sy41jl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483422/original/file-20220908-9455-sy41jl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Streets of Amsterdam in the Netherlands.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">vonderauvisuals/flickr</span></span>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/no-need-to-give-up-on-crowded-cities-we-can-make-density-so-much-better-131304">No need to give up on crowded cities – we can make density so much better</a>
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<h2>What does the research show?</h2>
<p>Our research tracked changes in land use and zoning for over 10,000 parcels of land in Brisbane from 1951 to 2021. We selected six precincts 1-10km from the city centre. These precincts are now zoned as <a href="https://www.brisbane.qld.gov.au/planning-and-building/planning-guidelines-and-tools/brisbane-city-plan-2014/supporting-information/centre-mixed-use-and-specialised-centre-zones">mixed-use</a> and high-density, with more diverse land use as the goal. </p>
<p>We created a comprehensive data set by digitising historic land use (1951) and zoning maps (1952 and 1987) and integrating this with data from 2021. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483414/original/file-20220908-4832-28oq74.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483414/original/file-20220908-4832-28oq74.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=387&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483414/original/file-20220908-4832-28oq74.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=387&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483414/original/file-20220908-4832-28oq74.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=387&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483414/original/file-20220908-4832-28oq74.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=486&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483414/original/file-20220908-4832-28oq74.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=486&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483414/original/file-20220908-4832-28oq74.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=486&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Brisbane City Council’s 1951 Land Use Survey.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Brisbane City Council</span></span>
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<p>Our research found a large increase in commercially zoned land across all study areas. Rezoning former industrial precincts accounted for most of this increase. While residential use remained the dominant land use across all study areas, commercial use grew from 2.3% of combined land area in 1951 to 28.9% in 2021. </p>
<p>As a result, by 2021, commercial services provided almost all the jobs in these areas. Most of the land zoned as mixed use, which allows <a href="https://dsdmipprd.blob.core.windows.net/general/planning-zone-cards-16-low-impact-industry-zone.pdf">low-impact industry</a> (such as vehicle repairers, shop fitters and printers), was used for housing, shops, gyms or offices. </p>
<p>By allowing open competition between commercial, residential and industrial uses, policy aiming to diversify land uses has the opposite effect of sidelining industrial use. One reason is that centrally located industrial sites are often <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S026483771931083X">large and under single ownership</a>, which makes them a prime target for developers.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/three-ways-to-fix-the-problems-caused-by-rezoning-inner-city-industrial-land-for-mixed-use-apartments-121566">Three ways to fix the problems caused by rezoning inner-city industrial land for mixed-use apartments</a>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483418/original/file-20220908-9395-my4w14.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483418/original/file-20220908-9395-my4w14.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483418/original/file-20220908-9395-my4w14.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483418/original/file-20220908-9395-my4w14.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483418/original/file-20220908-9395-my4w14.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483418/original/file-20220908-9395-my4w14.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483418/original/file-20220908-9395-my4w14.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">A riverfront milk factory in Brisbane, one of the last inner-city manufacturers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Rachel Gallagher</span></span>
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<p>Policymakers have sought to minimise the connection between industrial decline and an economic growth model centred on property development. Instead, they often attribute this decline to globalisation or the changing economy. </p>
<p>Yet our research shows industrial zoning does protect industrial land. Areas that were zoned for heavier industrial uses in 1987 retain some kind of industrial use in 2021. </p>
<h2>What sort of industry are we talking about?</h2>
<p>Industry today, particularly manufacturing, is no longer characterised by large-scale industrial production with heavy machinery. Most Australian manufacturers <a href="https://ro.uow.edu.au/sspapers/3179/">are small businesses</a>, ranging from micro breweries to clothing and textile producers and custom bike shops. </p>
<p>And inner-city locations <a href="https://theconversation.com/can-our-cities-thriving-creative-precincts-be-saved-from-renewal-83042">attract manufacturers for the same reasons</a> they attract services sector firms. These areas offer access to large markets, skilled labour and specialised suppliers.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483432/original/file-20220908-9198-ei73cq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483432/original/file-20220908-9198-ei73cq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483432/original/file-20220908-9198-ei73cq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483432/original/file-20220908-9198-ei73cq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483432/original/file-20220908-9198-ei73cq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483432/original/file-20220908-9198-ei73cq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483432/original/file-20220908-9198-ei73cq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">A local manufacturer in Brisbane’s West End.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Rachel Gallagher</span></span>
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<p>Yet the remaining centrally located, industrially zoned sites, suitable for industrial equipment and containing loading docks and other supporting infrastructure, <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-06-17/brisbane-city-council-support-new-suburb-renewal-precinct-policy/101156752">are vulnerable to displacement</a> by residential and commercial development. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/can-our-cities-thriving-creative-precincts-be-saved-from-renewal-83042">Can our cities' thriving creative precincts be saved from ‘renewal’?</a>
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<h2>How do we improve resilience?</h2>
<p>The loss of revenue for businesses that rely on commuters has led to <a href="https://www.propertycouncil.com.au/Web/Content/Media_Release/QLD/2021/Subdued_Office_Occupancy_Underpins_Need_To_Support_CBD.aspx">lobbying for government action</a> to get workers back to the office. However, <a href="https://theconversation.com/flexibility-makes-us-happier-with-3-clear-trends-emerging-in-post-pandemic-hybrid-work-180310">greater flexibility makes workers happier</a>, and hopes of a return to pre-pandemic practices <a href="https://www.theage.com.au/politics/federal/more-than-a-third-of-australians-will-hunt-for-a-new-job-if-they-can-t-work-from-home-20220918-p5bixx.html">look increasingly unrealistic</a>. </p>
<p>The idea that land should be put to its “highest and best use”, in an economy that values residential and commercial development above all else, undermines the city’s resilience.</p>
<p>If the role of planning authorities is to regulate land use in the community’s interest, it is questionable whether simply giving priority to its most lucrative use does that. Policymakers should reconsider planning that creates open competition between industrial and residential or commercial uses. </p>
<p>Our research contributes to the growing evidence that zoning can be used to protect diverse land use, rather than simply enable land-use conversions. <a href="https://theconversation.com/three-ways-to-fix-the-problems-caused-by-rezoning-inner-city-industrial-land-for-mixed-use-apartments-121566">More active planning</a> is required to deliver the goals of truly mixed-use urban precincts.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/190145/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rachel Gallagher has worked as a Senior Planner in Queensland's Department of State Development, Infrastructure, Local Government and Planning.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Thomas Sigler and Yan Liu do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The zoning policies that planners introduced to create vibrant and resilient mixed-use neighbourhoods have had the opposite effect, as services and residential developments crowd out light industry.Rachel Gallagher, PhD Candidate, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, The University of QueenslandThomas Sigler, Senior Lecturer in Human Geography, The University of QueenslandYan Liu, Associate Professor, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1622712021-06-16T14:53:15Z2021-06-16T14:53:15ZAmsterdam is laying down a model for what tourism should look like after COVID<p>When COVID hit the Netherlands in 2020, Amsterdam emptied of visitors overnight. Long-term residents, inured to the permanent noise and litter and tourists peeing in the streets, welcomed the newfound tranquillity. The pandemic, they told <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/travel/2020/05/06/city-is-ours-again-how-pandemic-relieved-amsterdam-overtourism/">the Washington Post</a>, was “a blessing in disguise”. </p>
<p>COVID has offered a rare, if not unique chance to address tourism’s enduring problems. From how people reach destinations to how tourism is managed within the cities it floods, not to mention the way its benefits and costs are distributed to local communities, the burden of <a href="https://theconversation.com/overtourism-a-growing-global-problem-100029">overtourism</a> has long been a concern.</p>
<p>Amsterdammers aren’t the only city dwellers to perceive the current pause as a <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/19/travel/coronavirus-travel-restrictions-tourist-attractions.html">much needed relief</a>. From <a href="https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/economics/article/3110066/coronavirus-keeps-chinese-tourists-out-japan-kyoto-sees-silver">Kyoto</a> to <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/02/travel/venice-coronavirus-tourism.html">Venice</a>, residents see a return to pre-pandemic tourist numbers as <a href="https://theconversation.com/tourism-desperately-wants-a-return-to-the-old-normal-but-that-would-be-a-disaster-154182">a threat</a>, not a promise.</p>
<p>For years, we’ve been told that tourism needs to be sustainable, without much consensus on what <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Tourism-Development-and-the-Environment-Beyond-Sustainability/Sharpley/p/book/9781844077335">sustainable tourism</a> looks like. COVID, meanwhile, has seen the term “resilience” become a go-to for industry insiders and policymakers. But what exactly is resilient tourism? And can it make our cities any more socially and environmentally responsible? Can it make them any better to live in?</p>
<h2>The resilience trope</h2>
<p>Broadly conceived as the ability to manage adversity, resilience is touted as an <a href="https://images.arcadis.com/media/E/9/3/%7BE9349B41-ECBD-402A-8110-FDD3A3829AB2%7DThe_business_case_for_resilience-2019_003.pdf?_ga=2.239071496.945822055.1593596140-213561550.1563977490">essential quality</a> for coping with uncertainty and change, stress and shock. As trends go, resilience isn’t new. It was Time Magazine’s <a href="https://science.time.com/2013/01/08/adapt-or-die-why-the-environmental-buzzword-of-2013-will-be-resilience/">environmental buzzword of the year</a> in 2013. It has since become one of the <a href="https://rgs-ibg.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/area.12118">dominant tropes</a> in contemporary debate on everything from <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325692633_Islands_of_relationality_and_resilience_The_shifting_stakes_of_the_Anthropocene">island studies</a> and <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09503150701728186">child psychology</a> to <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0956247813518684">urban disaster risk reduction</a>.</p>
<p>The pandemic has of course brought global tourism to a virtual standstill. <a href="https://blogs.worldbank.org/voices/tourism-post-covid-world-three-steps-build-better-forward">In 2020</a>, 1 billion fewer international trips were made to tourist destinations than in 2019. Up to 120 million jobs were threatened. So thinking about how this industry, which previously supported <a href="https://www.unwto.org/tourism-and-covid-19-unprecedented-economic-impacts">one in ten</a> jobs worldwide, might cope with the stress and shock of COVID is no bad thing.</p>
<p>However, <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/gec3.12154">critical geographers</a> and <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/21693293.2013.765741">political sociologists</a> alike have warned that the concept of resilience is in danger of becoming <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0309132513518834">as empty a notion</a> as sustainability. It has its roots in ecological and engineering thinking, wherein it refers to the ability to return to normal - to a state of equilibrium – after a period of adversity. Critics argue though that, in the social world, we deal not with equilibrium structures, but constant flux. </p>
<p>In a city, there is no normal state to return to. And those affected by <a href="https://theconversation.com/preserving-cultural-and-historic-treasures-in-a-changing-climate-may-mean-transforming-them-145214">natural hazards</a> – a coastal mega-city prone to flooding, say – were vulnerable to begin with. Returning to an original state is therefore as undesirable as it is impossible. Instead, cities adapt.</p>
<h2>The problem with bouncing back</h2>
<p>More broadly, resilience thinking is deemed <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0309132513498837">inherently conservative</a>. With the emphasis it places on bouncing back, it is underscores reactive and short-term solutions. These distract from the need to address the root causes of major challenges such as climate change. </p>
<p>It is also not as harmless a theory as it may seem. When politicians insist that investing in a more resilient city is plain common sense, they <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/gec3.12154?casa_token=NS6ei5mhNMgAAAAA:lNL9QPuc2pWnJ5-1cpDGzOQAxPr1_oI3hCUQiN5wpO5fVly68FBfahrjWh1k9yQSAYzIZnykCAo4">often downplay</a> issues of power and inequality. New Orleans is a case in point. Rebuilding after hurricane Katrina in 2005 came at <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281169839_Limitations_Legacies_and_Lessons_Post-Katrina_Rebuilding_in_Retrospect_and_Prospect">enormous social cost</a>, when the city privileged economic gain over the needs of marginalised communities. </p>
<p>Resilience is nonetheless an elastic concept, and it is increasingly associated not only with the ability to bounce back after a setback, but also to <a href="https://www.oecd.org/coronavirus/policy-responses/a-systemic-resilience-approach-to-dealing-with-covid-19and-future-shocks-36a5bdfb/">bounce forward</a> – to a new and better state. The UK government’s slogan “<a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/build-back-better-our-plan-for-growth">Build Back Better</a>”, has become the mantra for a myriad post-COVID ambitions, particularly with regard <a href="https://www.unwto.org/covid-19-oneplanet-responsible-recovery-initiatives/sustainable-hospitality-alliance">to tourism</a>. </p>
<p>That said, as travel restrictions are lifted and the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jun/05/angry-protests-in-venice-at-shock-return-of-cruise-ships">cruise ships return</a> to Venice’s St Mark’s Square, mere weeks after the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/mar/25/cruise-ships-kept-away-st-marks-square-venice">Italian government promised</a> they wouldn’t, it looks like this golden opportunity to rethink tourism has been lost. </p>
<p>Governments generally seem more interested in a return to business as usual than in thinking about <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/10.1080/09669582.2019.1601732">how much tourism</a> we can actually afford. <a href="https://undisciplinedenvironments.org/2020/04/16/tourism-degrowth-and-the-covid-19-crisis/">Calls to</a> come up with <a href="https://theconversation.com/can-tourism-really-have-conservation-benefits-1337">a fairer</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-carbon-footprint-of-tourism-revealed-its-bigger-than-we-thought-96200">less exploitative</a> model have, at best, been met with a muted political response. Governments <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/our-plan-to-rebuild-the-uk-governments-covid-19-recovery-strategy/the-next-chapter-in-our-plan-to-rebuild-the-uk-governments-covid-19-recovery-strategy--2">appear loath</a> to discourage business trips, despite <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-03649-8">climate scientists</a> advocating for less air travel, because they bring in money.</p>
<h2>Complex resilience</h2>
<p>Any attempt to make tourism truly resilient, however, has to go further than short-term economic recovery. It has to address the tourism sector’s <a href="https://sustainabletravel.org/issues/carbon-footprint-tourism/">carbon footprint</a> and its <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Justice-and-Ethics-in-Tourism/Jamal/p/book/9781138060715">injustices and ethical quandaries</a>. </p>
<p>In this respect, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/31/travel/amsterdam-tourism-post-pandemic.html">Amsterdam presents</a> an interesting model. COVID has accelerated the implementation of several measures under consideration well before the pandemic took hold. The city has adopted ordinances that variously prevent souvenir shops from displacing local businesses, developers from turning residential spaces into holiday lets, and new hotels from being built. </p>
<p>Elsewhere, it has hiked up the tax tourists pay for overnight stays and introduced measures to reduce the so-called incivilities (littering, public urination) they unthinkingly leave behind. </p>
<p>More broadly, it has become the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/08/amsterdam-doughnut-model-mend-post-coronavirus-economy?">first city ever</a> to embrace British economist Kate Raworth’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/stay-in-the-doughnut-not-the-hole-how-to-get-out-of-the-crisis-with-both-our-economy-and-environment-intact-151917">doughnut economics model</a> for sustainable development. This theory centres on the environment and the basic needs of its citizens as opposed to economic growth. The council has pledged to use it as a guideline for all future policies that <a href="https://time.com/5930093/amsterdam-doughnut-economics/">govern urban life</a> – from emissions regulations to fixing the city’s housing crisis. </p>
<p>It is still too early to say whether these efforts will pay off. Without a similarly bold rethink, though, more residents will <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/19/opinion/sunday/the-revolt-against-tourism.html">likely rebel</a> against the touristification of their communities. If, on the other hand, more cities follow the Dutch capital’s example (as <a href="https://doughnuteconomics.org/news/4">Copenhagen</a>, <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2021/03/25/amsterdam-brussels-bet-on-doughnut-economics-amid-covid-crisis.html">Brussels</a>, <a href="https://globalshakers.com/dunedin-becomes-latest-city-to-back-regenerative-doughnut-economics/">Dunedin</a> in New Zealand and <a href="https://www.nanaimobulletin.com/news/nanaimo-council-decides-city-will-be-guided-by-doughnut-economic-model/">Nanaimo</a> in Canada are reportedly doing), the idea of a real bounce forward might indeed apply.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/162271/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Johannes Novy does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>When the pandemic put tourism on hold, many residents heaved a sigh of relief. Will hasty economic recovery plans scupper our chance for a rethink?Johannes Novy, Senior Lecturer in Urban Planning, School of Architecture and Cities, University of WestminsterLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1526212021-02-21T19:05:41Z2021-02-21T19:05:41ZYou need all 6 pieces of the puzzle to build urban resilience, but too often it’s politics that leaves a gap<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/385160/original/file-20210218-22-14d79hx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=734%2C0%2C4553%2C2991&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/aerial-panorama-luxury-suburb-on-gold-1330531067">Greg Brave/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>With most of the world’s people now living in urban areas, the coronavirus pandemic has highlighted the importance of urban resilience. It’s just as important for adapting to climate change.</p>
<p>Put simply, resilience is the ability of a system, in this case a city, to cope with a disruption. This involves either avoiding, resisting, accommodating or recovering from its impacts.</p>
<p><a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17535069.2020.1846771">Our research</a>, recently published in the journal Urban Research and Practice, examined two coastal Australian cities, the Gold Coast and Sunshine Coast. Our aim was to identify ways to improve urban resilience to coastal climate hazards. We found the political aspect of resilience is often overlooked but is critically important.</p>
<p>Contrary to popular belief, building cities that are resilient to the impacts of climate change is not just about infrastructure. Urban resilience also has ecological, social, economic, institutional and, most importantly, political dimensions.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/i-lived-through-hurricane-katrina-and-helped-design-the-rebuild-floods-will-always-come-but-we-can-build-better-to-prepare-153452">I lived through Hurricane Katrina and helped design the rebuild – floods will always come, but we can build better to prepare</a>
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<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="View of Lake Cressbrook which supplies Toowoomba" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/385164/original/file-20210218-18-b50hrq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/385164/original/file-20210218-18-b50hrq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385164/original/file-20210218-18-b50hrq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385164/original/file-20210218-18-b50hrq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385164/original/file-20210218-18-b50hrq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385164/original/file-20210218-18-b50hrq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385164/original/file-20210218-18-b50hrq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Toowoomba residents voted against recycled water at the height of the Millennium Drought, a reminder of the critical role of politics in urban resilience.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/allanhenderson/2351100815/in/photolist-4zL1mX-nQkp38-NyMorG-o7Mtex-fEdSCh-uobZDu-nQj4n6-29iZvnt-uEkpLu-nQigjL-2DCCqp-o5K1aQ-o7JmbY-aDPpEZ-aDPpLV-hVGUAt-o7GcMY-hvcFhN-hvcdT7-hvdEeH-nQiamA-nMBXnf-pYkYa-fEdQK7-o7ESdb">Allan Henderson/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
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</figure>
<h2>Why it is hard to create truly resilient cities</h2>
<p>Urban resilience has recently become a topic for strategic planning and policy. However, many local governments are struggling to implement the necessary changes. The reasons include: </p>
<ol>
<li><p>a precise and universal <a href="http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol21/iss2/art27/">definition of resilience remains elusive</a>, making the idea difficult to implement in policies and plans</p></li>
<li><p>cities are complex systems, with interlinked physical, natural, social, cultural, political and economic dimensions. </p></li>
</ol>
<p>Some definitions interpret resilience as building back exactly what was lost. Others suggest it requires adjusting or even completely transforming urban systems. </p>
<p>Consider what these two approaches mean when planning for urban floods, for example. One way uses a reactive approach to focus on repairing buildings and infrastructure. Or we can proactively transform all elements of urban systems to <a href="https://theconversation.com/design-for-flooding-how-cities-can-make-room-for-water-105844">shift from “fighting water” to “living with water”</a>. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/design-for-flooding-how-cities-can-make-room-for-water-105844">Design for flooding: how cities can make room for water</a>
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<p>We argue this second proactive approach to resilience is better. So how do we achieve this transformation?</p>
<h2>The 6 dimensions of urban resilience</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0264275116309088">Transformative resilience</a> requires decision-makers to take an integrative, innovative and long-term view. They need to consider all the elements of urban systems at once. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2210670718322935">Previous research</a> identified five main dimensions of urban resilience: infrastructure, ecological, economic, institutional and social. <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17535069.2020.1846771">Our research</a> revealed a so-far-neglected but critically important sixth dimension: political resilience. </p>
<p>In all resilience and adaptation efforts, planners and communities should consider these six dimensions at the same time. Failure to do so can mean resources and time are wasted without achieving the necessary results.</p>
<p><strong>Infrastructural resilience</strong> is the capacity of engineering systems such as pipelines, energy networks and power grids to avoid or resist the impacts of disruptions. <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09640568.2019.1708709">Our research on adaptation strategies for sea-level rise</a> shows cities globally rely heavily on engineering structures to manage the impacts of coastal flooding and sea-level rise in already developed low-lying areas. The Gold Coast’s seawall is an example.</p>
<p><strong>Ecological resilience</strong> is the ability of a city to use ecological systems to resist and accommodate the impacts of disturbances. Retaining mangroves and green space, for example, can reduce flood risks. Political and economic pressures to develop land and clear mangroves run counter to this approach.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/385163/original/file-20210218-20-120tbb8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="aerial view of mangrove-lined creek running through suburbs" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/385163/original/file-20210218-20-120tbb8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/385163/original/file-20210218-20-120tbb8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385163/original/file-20210218-20-120tbb8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385163/original/file-20210218-20-120tbb8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385163/original/file-20210218-20-120tbb8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=553&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385163/original/file-20210218-20-120tbb8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=553&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385163/original/file-20210218-20-120tbb8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=553&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cities that preserve areas of mangroves can reduce their flood risks.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/redcliffe-queensland-australia-cabbage-tree-creek-1418250752">Ecopix/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p><strong>Economic resilience</strong> includes strategies that allow individuals and communities to recover from the loss and damage caused by a disruption. Climate-related disasters have big financial impacts due to damage to homes, businesses, community facilities and infrastructure. Increasing resilience is expensive, however, and financial institutions’ investment and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2019/feb/20/townsville-homes-may-become-uninsurable-due-to-flooding-from-climate-change">insurance decisions</a> are critical in determining the patterns of development.</p>
<p><strong>Institutional resilience</strong> focuses on the capacity of government and non-government organisations to support preparation, response and recovery efforts. Unfortunately, at least in the Australian context, <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118451694.ch13">our research</a> shows state and national institutions and policies have not provided a clear and consistent direction for local governments.</p>
<p><strong>Social resilience</strong> is the ability of the community and its networks to accommodate and recover from disturbances. This depends on effective, meaningful and timely community engagement. Residents are then empowered to build their own resilience. An informed and active community can also drive political change, which is a crucial element of transformation.</p>
<p><strong>Political resilience</strong> deals with the capacity of the political system, and the commitment of key policymakers, to drive transformational change. A positive example is the leadership of the Lockyer Valley Regional Council in relocating and <a href="https://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/national/queensland/grantham-reborn-meet-the-little-queensland-town-that-moved-20200227-p5450g.html">rebuilding the town of Grantham</a> after the 2011 floods. A negative example is the decision by the Queensland Newman government (2012-15) to <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-12-09/seeney-removes-climate-change-references-from-council-plan/5954914">stop local councils</a> taking sea-level rise into account in their local plans.</p>
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<img alt="Soldier crouches among the rubble of a house destroyed by flooding" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/385161/original/file-20210218-18-14ix0ht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/385161/original/file-20210218-18-14ix0ht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385161/original/file-20210218-18-14ix0ht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385161/original/file-20210218-18-14ix0ht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385161/original/file-20210218-18-14ix0ht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385161/original/file-20210218-18-14ix0ht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385161/original/file-20210218-18-14ix0ht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">After the devastating floods of 2011, the town of Grantham was rebuilt on higher ground.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/aus_defence_force/5353937696/in/photolist-8Hs6pr-9a7k9C-9a4ikF-9aNsHd-9aNt21-9aNtwh-9a4brB-9a7k6y-9a7jVS-9a7kcy-9a4bhZ-9a4bkP-9a7k3j">Australian Department of Defence/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/you-cant-talk-about-disaster-risk-reduction-without-talking-about-inequality-153189">You can't talk about disaster risk reduction without talking about inequality</a>
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<h2>The politics can be the biggest challenge</h2>
<p>Of all the six dimensions of urban resilience, the political one often proves to be the most problematic when trying to develop and implement climate change policies or plans. A good example is Toowoomba residents’ <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/toowoomba-says-no-to-recycled-water-20060731-gdo2hm.html">rejection of recycled water</a> during the Millennium Drought. It is not enough to have the best technical and economic responses; you need to be able to navigate the hazards of highly partisan and often irrational politics. </p>
<p>A bipartisan approach to climate change adaptation would go some way to overcoming the major reversals that we have seen in both <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14693062.2020.1819766">adaptation</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/carbon-tax-repealed-experts-respond-29154">mitigation</a> policies. Is this asking too much of our political leaders? The united response to the coronavirus pandemic, with co-operation bridging party-political divides and federal-state rivalries, suggests it is not completely beyond the realms of possibility. </p>
<hr>
<p><em>This article is part of a series The Conversation is running on the nexus between disaster, disadvantage and resilience. It is supported by a philanthropic grant from the Paul Ramsay foundation. You can read the rest of the series <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/disaster-and-resilience-series-97537">here</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/152621/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Aysin Dedekorkut-Howes previously received funding from Queensland Centre for Social Science Innovation, Queensland Urban Utilities, and Griffith University. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Howes has received funding from the National Climate Change Adaptation Research Facility, the Commonwealth government, the Queensland government, Queensland Urban Utilities, and Griffith University.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elnaz Torabi does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Infrastructure is often seen as the main way to reduce the impacts of climate-related disasters like floods and drought. But cities are complex systems with many factors affecting their resilience.Aysin Dedekorkut-Howes, Senior Lecturer, School of Environment and Science, Griffith UniversityElnaz Torabi, Adjunct Research Fellow at the Cities Research Institute, Griffith UniversityMichael Howes, Associate Professor, Griffith UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1534522021-02-02T19:05:42Z2021-02-02T19:05:42ZI lived through Hurricane Katrina and helped design the rebuild – floods will always come, but we can build better to prepare<p>As the climate changes, floods and extreme rainfall events will become <a href="http://www.bom.gov.au/state-of-the-climate/australias-changing-climate.shtml">more intense</a>. In many cases, the <a href="https://ideas.repec.org/a/spr/nathaz/v101y2020i3d10.1007_s11069-020-03887-z.html">most disadvantaged people are at highest risk from floods</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/caravan-communities-older-underinsured-and-overexposed-to-cyclones-storms-and-disasters-151840">least able to bounce back</a> when their homes and businesses are inundated. </p>
<p>I saw that dynamic first-hand when <a href="https://www.asla.org/contentdetail.aspx?id=33855">I lived through Hurricane Katrina</a> in New Orleans. Much of my work in its aftermath focused on finding new ways to allow the city to better absorb water, reducing flood risk and easing pressure on drainage systems. </p>
<p>How? By designing parks, open space and public infrastructure to hold excess water when flood strikes. That means better control of where floodwater ends up, reducing the risk to lives and property.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/disaster-season-is-here-do-you-have-a-resilience-action-plan-heres-how-the-small-town-of-tarnagulla-built-theirs-151570">Disaster season is here — do you have a Resilience Action Plan? Here's how the small town of Tarnagulla built theirs</a>
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<h2>A different way of looking at disasters</h2>
<p>Hurricane Katrina left me with a very different way of looking at disasters; increasingly, I focused on where the disaster actually sits. For instance, the disaster was not Hurricane Katrina itself but the catastrophic failure of the New Orleans levee system. </p>
<p>When southeast Queensland and northern NSW floods, the problem isn’t just the greater frequency and intensity of storms. It’s that floodwater ends up in people’s houses and neighbourhoods because of changes we have made to drainage catchments. </p>
<p>So why is that happening — and what can we do to reduce it?</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381274/original/file-20210129-23-1yhahik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=7%2C0%2C4737%2C3158&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Floodwaters collect in a Brisbane suburb." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381274/original/file-20210129-23-1yhahik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=7%2C0%2C4737%2C3158&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381274/original/file-20210129-23-1yhahik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381274/original/file-20210129-23-1yhahik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381274/original/file-20210129-23-1yhahik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381274/original/file-20210129-23-1yhahik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381274/original/file-20210129-23-1yhahik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381274/original/file-20210129-23-1yhahik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">When a surface is hard or impermeable, water cannot be absorbed; it runs off quickly and collects in large quantities in inconvenient places.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Slow rain, fast rain</h2>
<p>In an undeveloped, naturally vegetated area, rain moves slowly; canopies and the naturally porous ground surface deflect and absorb the water.</p>
<p>When the surface is hard or impermeable, however, water cannot be absorbed; it runs off quickly and collects in large quantities downstream. That’s how water ends up in people’s homes and streets. It’s what happens when you clear and develop river and stream catchments and cover land with buildings, footpaths and concrete. </p>
<p>Our traditional approach has been to collect rainwater in gutters and move it quickly and efficiently downstream. But this deprives plants, animals and soil of much-needed water that would otherwise be absorbed. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381628/original/file-20210201-21-1nwrkg9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Rain inundates cars." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381628/original/file-20210201-21-1nwrkg9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381628/original/file-20210201-21-1nwrkg9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=520&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381628/original/file-20210201-21-1nwrkg9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=520&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381628/original/file-20210201-21-1nwrkg9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=520&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381628/original/file-20210201-21-1nwrkg9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=653&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381628/original/file-20210201-21-1nwrkg9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=653&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381628/original/file-20210201-21-1nwrkg9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=653&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">When flooding overwhelms the system, the consequences can be dangerous and costly.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It also raises the question: how do we dispose of large volumes of water when they collect in inconvenient places?</p>
<p>As these problems compound, we have to design larger and larger systems to try to dispose of the water. And when flooding overwhelms the system, the consequences can be deadly.</p>
<p>Traditionally, we have tried to armour rivers and waterfronts with levees, barriers and sea walls to keep all floodwaters out. Increasingly, however, planners, designers and engineers are looking to new approaches.</p>
<p>Instead of trying to keep all floodwaters out, we can design landscapes to accommodate the water without damaging cities or farmland.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/design-for-flooding-how-cities-can-make-room-for-water-105844">Design for flooding: how cities can make room for water</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Making room for rivers</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www.dutchwatersector.com/news/room-for-the-river-programme#:%7E:text=In%202007%20the%20Dutch%20Government,the%20construction%20of%20flood%20bypasses.">Room for the River Project in the Netherlands</a> began in 2006 after serious flooding threatened the Rhine delta at the end of the 20th century. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/slmkG93SH3Q?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>The project (which encompasses the Rhine, the Meuse, the Waal and the IJssel) redesigns the river and floodplain by moving dikes further out and lowering floodplains and groynes. It creates “green rivers” (channels that allow floodwater to branch off from the main river) and removes obstacles from the channel so recurring floodwaters can spread out without causing damage. </p>
<p>A similar approach has been adopted in other places, such as the US state of <a href="https://floodtraining.vermont.gov/">Vermont</a>.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/ZvKzfQsrzKc?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<h2>Designing water into cities</h2>
<p>Using a similar approach at a smaller scale, we can design cities to accommodate floods. When the Victoria Park neighbourhood in the Sydney suburb of Zetland was developed in the late 1990s, all its public spaces, streets and open space were <a href="https://architectureau.com/articles/watering-sydney/">designed with an integrated water management system in mind</a>.</p>
<p>All park spaces were lowered to hold water after storms. Special vegetated channels called swales were constructed to slow down and absorb water.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381571/original/file-20210201-19-1b7q1li.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381571/original/file-20210201-19-1b7q1li.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381571/original/file-20210201-19-1b7q1li.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=344&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381571/original/file-20210201-19-1b7q1li.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=344&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381571/original/file-20210201-19-1b7q1li.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=344&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381571/original/file-20210201-19-1b7q1li.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=432&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381571/original/file-20210201-19-1b7q1li.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=432&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381571/original/file-20210201-19-1b7q1li.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=432&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Special vegetated channels called swales can be constructed next to roads to slow and absorb water.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=4756030">Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) – US Department of Agriculture</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Under the area’s central park (Joynton Park) is a <a href="https://architectureau.com/articles/watering-sydney/">water storage basin</a>. Rainwater flowing into this underground basin has been filtered through the plants and soil of the swales, and is then re-used in <a href="https://www.cityartsydney.com.au/artwork/storm-waters/">local water features</a> and for irrigation.</p>
<p>All these adjustments mean the area can flood in a way that causes minor inconvenience rather than disruption. By controlling where floodwater collects, we can reduce the damage.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/higher-density-in-a-flood-zone-heres-a-way-to-do-it-and-reduce-the-risks-86608">Higher density in a flood zone? Here's a way to do it and reduce the risks</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Clever design to slow the flow</h2>
<p>There are many examples around the world of buildings and landscapes where flooding is “designed in”. Here are three examples I know well, through the involvement of my firm Spackman Mossop Michaels. </p>
<p>For Sydney’s <a href="http://spackmanmossopmichaels.com/project/moore-park-bus-interchange/">Moore Park Bus Interchange</a>, we suggested large areas of paving be designed to let water through into a massive gravel bed underneath, where rainwater is stored before percolating into the area’s groundwater. This allows floodwater to be directed into and absorbed by the earth, rather than simply rushed into stormwater systems that can overflow.</p>
<p>In New Orleans, where land subsidence left the city below sea level and unable to drain naturally, the <a href="https://www.architectmagazine.com/project-gallery/rosa-f-keller-library-community-center-966">Rosa Keller Library</a> was severely flooded when levees broke after Hurricane Katrina. Its redevelopment included a <a href="https://www.groundwater.org/action/home/raingardens.html">rain garden</a> of native irises to store and hold stormwater before releasing it slowly into the stormwater system.</p>
<p>The New Orleans Redevelopment Authority has also built “<a href="https://www.groundwater.org/action/home/raingardens.html">rain gardens</a>” on <a href="http://spackmanmossopmichaels.com/project/nora-rain-gardens/">many of its vacant lots</a> to store and filter stormwater. </p>
<p>Through clever design interventions like these, we can keep stormwater out of the drainage system for as long as possible, effectively increasing its capacity.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-pm-wants-to-fast-track-mega-projects-for-pandemic-recovery-heres-why-thats-a-bad-idea-136838">The PM wants to fast-track mega-projects for pandemic recovery. Here's why that’s a bad idea</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><em>This story is part of a series The Conversation is running on the nexus between disaster, disadvantage and resilience. It is supported by a philanthropic grant from the Paul Ramsay foundation. You can read the rest of the stories <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/disaster-and-resilience-series-97537">here</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/153452/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elizabeth Mossop is a founding director of Spackman Mossop Michaels landscape architects in Australia and the USA.</span></em></p>We can design parks, open space and public infrastructure to hold excess water when flood strikes. That means better control of where floodwater ends up, reducing the risk to lives and property.Elizabeth Mossop, Dean of Design, Architecture and Building, University of Technology SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1315602020-04-27T01:47:06Z2020-04-27T01:47:06ZDrought, fire and flood: how outer urban areas can manage the emergency while reducing future risks<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/323512/original/file-20200327-146705-lqf7o2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=920%2C597%2C2074%2C1396&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">paintings/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>First the drought, then bushfires and then flash floods: a chain of extreme events hit Australia hard in recent months. The coronavirus pandemic has only temporarily shifted our attention towards a new emergency, adding yet another risk. </p>
<p>We knew from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (<a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/sixth-assessment-report-cycle/">IPCC</a>) that the risk of extreme events was rising. What we perhaps didn’t realise was the high probability of <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2019/feb/10/floods-fire-and-drought-australia-a-country-in-the-grip-of-extreme-weather-bingo">different extreme events hitting one after the other</a> in the same regions. Especially in the fringes of Australian cities, residents are facing new levels of environmental risk, especially from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/146284/extreme-rain-douses-fires-causes-floods-in-australia">bushfires and floods</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/some-say-weve-seen-bushfires-worse-than-this-before-but-theyre-ignoring-a-few-key-facts-129391">Some say we've seen bushfires worse than this before. But they're ignoring a few key facts</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>But this cycle of devastation is not inevitable if we understand the connections between events and do something about them. </p>
<p>Measures to slow climate change are in the hands of policymakers. But, at the adaptation level, we can still do many things to reduce the impacts of extreme events on our cities. </p>
<p>We can start by increasing our capacity to see these phenomena as one problem to be tackled locally, rather than distinct problems to be addressed centrally. Solutions should be holistic, community-centred and focused on people’s practices and shared responsibilities.</p>
<h2>Respond to emergency</h2>
<p>We can draw lessons from humanitarian responses to large disasters, including both national and international cases. A recent <a href="https://goodpracticereview.org/12/">review of disaster responses</a> in urban areas found several factors are critical for more successful recovery. </p>
<p>One is to prioritise the needs of people themselves. This requires genuine, collaborative engagement. People who have been through a bushfire or flood are not “helpless victims”. They are survivors who need to be supported and listened to, not dictated to, in terms of what they may or may not need. </p>
<p>Another lesson is to link recovery efforts, rather than have individual agencies provide services separately. For instance, an organisation focusing on housing recovery needs to work closely with organisations that are providing water or sanitation. A coordinated approach is more efficient, less wearying on those needing help, and better reflects the interconnected reality of everyday life. </p>
<p>In the aid world this is known as an “area-based” approach. It prioritises efforts that are driven by people demand rather than by the supply available. </p>
<p>A third lesson is give people money, not goods. Money allows people to decide what they really need, rather than rely on the assumptions of others. </p>
<p>As the bushfires have shown, donations of secondhand goods and clothes often turn into piles of unwanted goods. Disposal then becomes a problem in its own right. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-donate-to-australian-bushfire-relief-give-money-watch-for-scams-and-think-long-term-129445">How to donate to Australian bushfire relief: give money, watch for scams and think long term</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Combining local knowledge and engagement</h2>
<p>Planning approaches in outer urban areas should be realigned with our current understanding of bushfire and flood risk. This situation is challenging planners to engage with residents in new ways to ensure local needs are met, especially in relation to disaster resilience. </p>
<p>In areas of high bushfire risk, planning needs to connect equally with the full range of locals. Landscape and biodiversity experts, including <a href="https://blog.csiro.au/cultural-burning-australia/">Indigenous land managers</a>, and emergency managers should work in association with planning processes that welcome input from residents. This approach is highly likely to reduce risks.</p>
<p>Planners have a vital job to create platforms that enable the <a href="https://www.dora.lib4ri.ch/wsl/islandora/object/wsl:16373">interplay of ideas, local values and traditional knowledge</a>. Authentic engagement can increase residents’ awareness of environmental hazards. It can also pave the way for specific actions by authorities to reduce risks, such as those undertaken by Country Fire Service <a href="https://www.cfs.sa.gov.au/site/prepare_for_a_fire/community_programs.jsp">community engagement units</a> in South Australia. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/rebuilding-from-the-ashes-of-disaster-this-is-what-australia-can-learn-from-india-130385">Rebuilding from the ashes of disaster: this is what Australia can learn from India</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Managing water to build bushfire resilience</h2>
<p>Regenerating ecosystems by responding to flood risk can be crucial to increase urban and peri-urban resilience while reducing future drought and bushfire impacts. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13574809.2018.1511972">Research on flood management</a> suggests rainwater must be always seen as a resource, even in the case of extreme events. Sustainable water management through harvesting, retention and reuse can have long-term positive effects in regenerating micro-climates. It is at the base of any action aimed at comprehensively increasing resilience. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/design-for-flooding-how-cities-can-make-room-for-water-105844">Design for flooding: how cities can make room for water</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>In this sense, approaches based on decentralised systems are more effective at countering the risks of drought, fire and flood locally. They consist of small-scale <a href="https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/29988/Compendium_NBS.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">nature-based solutions</a> able to absorb and retain water to reduce flooding. Distributed off-grid systems support water harvesting in rainy seasons and prevent fires during drought by maintaining soil moisture. </p>
<p>Decentralisation also creates opportunities for innovation in the management of urban ecosystems, with responsibility shared among many. Mobile technologies can help communities play an active role in minimising flood impacts at the small scale. Information platforms can also help raise awareness of the links between risks and actions and lead to practical solutions that are within everybody’s reach.</p>
<h2>Tailor responses to people and ecosystems</h2>
<p>Disrupted ecosystems can make the local impacts of drought, fire and flood worse, but can also play a role in global failures, such as the recent <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-04-11/jane-goodall-says-disregard-for-nature-has-brought-coronavirus/12142246">pandemic</a>. It is urgent to define and implement mechanisms to reverse this trend. </p>
<p>Lessons from disaster responses point towards the need to tailor solutions to community needs and local environmental conditions. A few key strategies are emerging:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>foster networks and coordinated approaches that operate across silos</p></li>
<li><p>support local and traditional landscape knowledge </p></li>
<li><p>use information platforms to help people work together to manage risks</p></li>
<li><p>manage water locally with the support of populations to prevent drought and bushfire.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Recent environmental crises are showing us the way to finally change direction. Safe cities and landscapes can be achieved only by regenerating urban ecosystems while responding to increasing environmental risks through integrated, people-centred actions.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/131560/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The disasters have come one after another. While they may not be entirely preventable, we can take many practical steps tailored to local needs and conditions to reduce the impacts on our cities.Elisa Palazzo, Urbanist and landscape planner - Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Built Environment, UNSW SydneyAnnette Bardsley, Researcher, Department of Geography, Environment and Population, University of AdelaideDavid Sanderson, Professor and Inaugural Judith Neilson Chair in Architecture, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1167342019-06-06T04:06:52Z2019-06-06T04:06:52ZWhat next after 100 Resilient Cities funding ends?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/278077/original/file-20190605-40727-1kgcyj1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">One of the successful outcomes of being part of 100 Resilient Cities is Living Melbourne: our metropolitan urban forest, a newly released strategy to increase vegetation cover in the city.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/cityscape-skyline-view-melbourne-australia-402472060?src=JQfGgTw2KIrotGIkL16q3Q-1-7&studio=1">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It was no April fool’s joke when the <a href="https://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/">Rockefeller Foundation</a> announced it will phase out funding for the <a href="https://www.100resilientcities.org/">100 Resilient Cities</a> network. The foundation’s <a href="https://www.100resilientcities.org/update-from-100rc/">message</a> was a <a href="https://www.citylab.com/environment/2019/04/rockefeller-100-resilient-cities-climate-philanthropy-end/586522/">surprise for many participating cities</a>, including Melbourne and Sydney, and for its partnering non-governmental organisations, businesses and academics.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fk6B8PJAB4M">100 Resilient Cities</a> is a global network designed to increase urban resilience, <a href="http://www.100resilientcities.org/resources/">defined</a> as:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>the capacity of individuals, communities, institutions, businesses, and systems within a city to survive, adapt, and grow no matter what kinds of chronic stresses and acute shocks they experience.</p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/pacific-island-cities-call-for-a-rethink-of-climate-resilience-for-the-most-vulnerable-113473">Pacific island cities call for a rethink of climate resilience for the most vulnerable</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Since 2013, the Rockefeller Foundation has invested more than US$150 million in 100 Resilient Cities to support cities in tackling environmental, social and economic challenges.</p>
<p>Each city receives funding for a <a href="http://100resilientcities.org/what-a-chief-resilience-officer-does/">chief resilience officer</a>, a position located in councils to lead the city’s resilience efforts, and for drafting a <a href="https://www.100resilientcities.org/strategies/">resilience strategy</a>. Member cities also gain access to knowledge and expertise through a network of <a href="http://www.100resilientcities.org/partners/">partners</a> from private, public and non-governmental sectors.</p>
<h2>Where are these resilient cities?</h2>
<p><a href="https://resilient.chicago.gov/assets/img/rc/cities-world-rings-names.jpg">The network</a> has grown to <a href="http://www.100resilientcities.org/cities/">97 cities</a>, including cities from the <a href="https://www.citylab.com/environment/2019/04/rockefeller-100-resilient-cities-climate-philanthropy-end/586522/">Global North and South</a>. Prominent members include <a href="https://www.100resilientcities.org/cities/new-york-city/">New York City</a>, <a href="https://www.100resilientcities.org/cities/rio-de-janeiro/">Rio de Janeiro</a>, <a href="https://www.100resilientcities.org/cities/singapore/">Singapore</a> and <a href="https://www.100resilientcities.org/cities/london/">London</a>. In Australia, <a href="https://www.100resilientcities.org/cities/melbourne/">Melbourne</a> and <a href="https://www.100resilientcities.org/cities/sydney/">Sydney</a> were among the first two groups of cities that joined in 2013 and 2014 respectively.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/278065/original/file-20190605-40723-1lmp443.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/278065/original/file-20190605-40723-1lmp443.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/278065/original/file-20190605-40723-1lmp443.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278065/original/file-20190605-40723-1lmp443.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278065/original/file-20190605-40723-1lmp443.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278065/original/file-20190605-40723-1lmp443.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278065/original/file-20190605-40723-1lmp443.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278065/original/file-20190605-40723-1lmp443.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The 100 Resilient Cities network.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://resilient.chicago.gov/urban-resilience">Resilient Chicago</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Even though the growing number of member cities is a success, representatives of 100 Resilient Cities made clear that the “<a href="https://www.100resilientcities.org/update-from-100rc/">task is far from complete</a>”. Almost half (47) of the 97 cities are still developing their <a href="https://www.100resilientcities.org/strategies/">resilience strategies</a>.</p>
<p>When the program stops in July, it is unclear what will happen to the knowledge gained through city strategy processes, the many positions created in local governments to support the program, and thousands of resilience actions started by cities under this banner.</p>
<h2>How has Melbourne benefited?</h2>
<p>Melbourne joined on the agreement that it would include all 32 of its metropolitan councils to challenge the divide between inner and outer urban areas. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/rapid-growth-is-widening-melbournes-social-and-economic-divide-117244">Rapid growth is widening Melbourne's social and economic divide</a>
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</em>
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<hr>
<p>In 2016, <a href="https://resilientmelbourne.com.au/">Resilient Melbourne</a> released Australia’s first <a href="https://resilientmelbourne.com.au/strategy/">resilience strategy</a>. It identified shocks and stresses, and outlined <a href="https://resilientmelbourne.com.au/resilience-in-action/">strategies</a> in fields such as urban greening, emergency management, transport, housing, social inequality and energy.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276673/original/file-20190528-193527-gkvbna.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276673/original/file-20190528-193527-gkvbna.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=304&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276673/original/file-20190528-193527-gkvbna.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=304&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276673/original/file-20190528-193527-gkvbna.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=304&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276673/original/file-20190528-193527-gkvbna.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276673/original/file-20190528-193527-gkvbna.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276673/original/file-20190528-193527-gkvbna.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Shocks and stresses acknowledged in the Resilient Melbourne Strategy.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sebastian Fastenrath</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>One of these is <a href="https://resilientmelbourne.com.au/living-melbourne/">Living Melbourne: our metropolitan urban forest</a>, a newly released strategy to increase vegetation cover in the city. This action links and extends existing urban greening initiatives. The core goals are: increased biodiversity; better air, soil and water quality; heat reduction; and improved physical and mental health. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-melbournes-west-was-greened-84700">How Melbourne's west was greened</a>
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<p><a href="https://www.natureaustralia.org.au/what-we-do/our-priorities/build-healthy-cities/cities-stories/australia--china-or-usa---which-is-more-urbanised-/">The Nature Conservancy</a>, a non-profit environmental organisation and partner of 100 Resilient Cities, helps to develop this action, particularly with technical expertise.</p>
<p>Living Melbourne showcases how to bring together stakeholders from all levels of government, business, civil society and academia. Our <a href="https://sustainable.unimelb.edu.au/research/research-projects/urban-resilience-in-action">research project</a> found many stakeholders see Resilient Melbourne as a new platform for knowledge exchange and urban innovation.</p>
<p>These findings resonate with an <a href="https://www.urban.org">Urban Institute</a> <a href="http://www.100resilientcities.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/100RC-2018-Urban-Institute-Midterm-Report.pdf">study</a> on the early achievements of 100 Resilient Cities. The study found many cities, after joining the network, show a stronger interest in collaboration across government agencies and between public and private sectors. </p>
<p>It also found ongoing challenges, including a lack of transparency and community participation. These aspects need closer attention in future resilience-building initiatives and city networks.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/has-the-100-resilient-cities-challenge-benefited-melbourne-60307">Has the 100 Resilient Cities Challenge benefited Melbourne?</a>
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</em>
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<h2>What now?</h2>
<p>Actions such as Living Melbourne are the result of collaboration and learning processes within and between cities. It shows that <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/11/3/693/htm">resilience actions must be implemented as ongoing and inclusive experiments</a> that test new ways of urban development.</p>
<p>However, it is too early to review the success of the initiative in total. This applies particularly to the impacts of actions aimed at driving institutional and social change that might only become visible in 10 or 20 years.</p>
<p>The immediate value of these networked efforts, as Resilient Melbourne has proven, is to connect local experiences to international agendas, learn from other cities’ experiences, and access technical and financial inputs. They also support new conversations that involve “communities of practice” across the whole city, linking citizens, resilience practitioners, experts and businesses.</p>
<p>Yet the change of heart at Rockefeller and the relatively sudden shift in support illustrates a very tangible risk of privately funded philanthropic support for international initiatives on cities.</p>
<p>One solution is to diversify the funding mixes at the heart of these networks. Another global city network, <a href="https://www.c40.org/partners">C40 Cities</a>, has pursued this in recent years. </p>
<p>Another solution is to allocate greater responsibility for cooperation across national, state and local governments. This should help with longevity, transparency and policy learning in city networks. The Swedish national <a href="http://viablecities.com/en/home/">Viable Cities program</a> provides a model of this. </p>
<p>In the wake of these experiences, a more open and strategic conversation on the role of philanthropy in advancing urban resilience agendas should take place urgently.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/116734/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Professor Lars Coenen receives funding from the City of Melbourne. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michele Acuto has received research funding from the ICLEI, C40, UCLG and WHO Healthy Cities. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sebastian Fastenrath and Svenja Keele do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Melbourne and Sydney are members of 100 Resilient CIties, which the Rockefeller Foundation has said it will no longer fund. So what has the global network achieved? And what can we learn from this?Sebastian Fastenrath, Research Fellow in Resilient Cities, The University of MelbourneLars Coenen, City of Melbourne Chair in Resilient Cities, The University of MelbourneMichele Acuto, Professor of Global Urban Politics and Director, Connected Cities Lab, The University of MelbourneSvenja Keele, Postdoctoral Fellow in Resilient Cities, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1126072019-03-03T19:05:47Z2019-03-03T19:05:47ZTownsville floods show cities that don’t adapt to risks face disaster<p>A flood-ravaged Townsville has captured public attention, highlighting the vulnerability of many of our cities to flooding. The <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-02-15/queensland-floods-special-climate-statement/10816184">extraordinary amount of rain</a> is just one aspect of the disaster in Queensland’s third-biggest city. The flooding, increasing urban density, the management of the Ross River Dam, and the difficulties of dealing with byzantine insurance regulations have left the community with many questions about their future. </p>
<p>These questions won’t be resolved until we enhance the resilience of cities and communities against flooding. Adaptation needs to become an integral part of living with the extremes of the Australian environment. I discuss how to design and create resilient urban landscapes later in this article.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/queenslands-floods-are-so-huge-the-only-way-to-track-them-is-from-space-111083">Queensland's floods are so huge the only way to track them is from space</a>
</strong>
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</p>
<hr>
<h2>Flood risk and insurance</h2>
<p>Another issue that affects many households and businesses is the relationship between insurance claims and <a href="https://www.preventionweb.net/news/view/63766">1-in-100-year flood event overlay maps</a>. Projected rises in flood risks under climate change have led to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2019/feb/20/townsville-homes-may-become-uninsurable-due-to-flooding-from-climate-change">concerns that parts of Townsville and other cities will become “uninsurable”</a> should the costs of cover become prohibitive for property owners. </p>
<p>Council flood data <a href="https://www.preventionweb.net/news/view/63766">used for urban planning and land-use strategies</a> is also used by insurers to assess the flood risk to individual properties. Insurers then price the risk accordingly. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/lessons-in-resilience-what-city-planners-can-learn-from-hobarts-floods-96529">Lessons in resilience: what city planners can learn from Hobart's floods</a>
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<p>However, in extraordinary circumstances, when the flooded land is actually larger than the area marked by the flood overlay map, complications emerge. In fact, that part of the community living outside the map’s boundaries is considered flood-free. Thus, those pockets of the community may have chosen not to have flood insurance and not have emergency plans, which leaves them even worse off after floods. This is happening in Townsville. </p>
<p>Yet this is nothing new. Many people experienced very similar circumstances in 2011. Flood waters covered as much land as Germany and France combined. Several communities were left on their knees. </p>
<p>Notwithstanding the prompt and vast response of the federal government and Queensland’s state authorities, a few years later Townsville is going through something alarmingly similar.</p>
<h2>Adaptation to create resilient cities</h2>
<p>To find a solution, we need to rethink how to implement the <a href="https://www.disaster.qld.gov.au/dmg/Prevention/Pages/3-5.aspx">Queensland Emergency Risk Management Framework</a>. That is no easy task. However, it starts with shifting the perspective on what is considered a risk – in this case, a flooding event. </p>
<p>Floods, per se, are not a natural disaster. Floods are part of the natural context of Queensland as can be seen below, for instance, in the <a href="https://www.qhatlas.com.au/content/channel-country">Channel Country</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/261144/original/file-20190227-150724-xvwvfx.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/261144/original/file-20190227-150724-xvwvfx.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/261144/original/file-20190227-150724-xvwvfx.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/261144/original/file-20190227-150724-xvwvfx.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/261144/original/file-20190227-150724-xvwvfx.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/261144/original/file-20190227-150724-xvwvfx.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/261144/original/file-20190227-150724-xvwvfx.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/261144/original/file-20190227-150724-xvwvfx.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Floods are part of the Australian landscape. Here trees mark the seasonal riverbeds in the Queensland outback between Cloncurry and Mount Isa.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Cecilia Bischeri</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The concept of adaptation as a built-in requirement of living in this environment then becomes pivotal. In designing and developing future-ready cities, we must aim to build resilient communities. </p>
<p>This is the ambitious project I am working on. It involves different figures and expertise with a shared vision and the support of government administrations that are willing to invest in a future beyond their elected term of office.</p>
<h2>Ideas for Gold Coast Resilientscape</h2>
<p>I live and work in the City of Gold Coast. Water is a fundamental part of the city’s character and beauty. In addition to the ocean, a complex system of waterways shapes a unique urban environment. However, this also exposes the city to a series of challenges, including flooding. </p>
<p>Last September, <a href="https://www.gchaveyoursay.com.au/industryhub/news_feed/updated-flood-overlay-maps">an updated flood overlay map</a> was made available to the community. The map takes into account the projections of a 0.8 metre increase in the sea level and 10% increases in storm tide intensity and rainfall intensity. </p>
<p>These factors are reflected in the 1-in-100-year flood overlay. It shows undoubtedly that the boundaries between land and water are changeable.</p>
<p>Building walls between the city and water as the primary flood protection strategy is not a solution. A rigid border can actually intensify the catastrophe. New Orleans and the <a href="https://soundwaves.usgs.gov/2006/01/">levee failures</a> during the passage of Hurricane Katrina in 2005 provide a stark illustration of this. </p>
<p>Instead, what would happen and what would our cities look like if we designed green and public infrastructures that embody flooding as part of the natural context of our cities and territory?</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/design-for-flooding-how-cities-can-make-room-for-water-105844">Design for flooding: how cities can make room for water</a>
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</em>
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<p>The current project, titled RESILIENTSCAPE: A Landscape for Gold Coast Urban Resilience, considers the role of architecture in enhancing the resilience of cities and communities against flooding. The proposal, in a nutshell, explores the possibilities that urban landscape design and implementation provide for resilience. </p>
<p>RESILIENTSCAPE focuses on the Nerang River catchment and the Gold Coast Regional Botanic Gardens, in the suburb of Benowa. The river and gardens were adopted as a case study for a broader strategy that aims to promote architectural solutions for a resilient City of Gold Coast. The project investigates the possibility of using existing green pockets along the Nerang River to store and retain excess water during floods. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/261354/original/file-20190228-150721-xt0v13.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/261354/original/file-20190228-150721-xt0v13.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/261354/original/file-20190228-150721-xt0v13.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/261354/original/file-20190228-150721-xt0v13.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/261354/original/file-20190228-150721-xt0v13.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/261354/original/file-20190228-150721-xt0v13.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/261354/original/file-20190228-150721-xt0v13.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/261354/original/file-20190228-150721-xt0v13.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Gold Coast Regional Botanic Gardens is one of the green areas along the Nerang River that could be used to store and retain flood water.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gold_Coast_Regional_Botanic_Gardens_(08).jpg">Batsv/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These green spaces, however, will not just serve as “water tanks”. If mindfully planned, the green spaces can double up as public parks and facilities. This would enrich the community’s social realm and maximise their use and return on investment. </p>
<p>The design of a landscape responsive to flooding can, by improving local urban resilience, dramatically change the impact of these events. </p>
<p>The goal of creating urban areas that are adaptive to an impermanent water landscape is the main driver of the project. <a href="https://www.fastcompany.com/3068730/this-new-orleans-neighborhood-is-fighting-flooding-by-welcoming-it">New Orleans</a> after <a href="https://theconversation.com/disappearing-acts-reflecting-on-new-orleans-10-years-after-katrina-46834">Hurricane Katrina</a> and<a href="https://archpaper.com/2017/10/five-years-sandy-nyc-update-flood-resilience-zoning/"> New York</a> after <a href="https://theconversation.com/frankenstorm-sandy-wreaks-havoc-on-nyc-floods-cities-10420">Sandy</a> are <a href="https://www.nisconsortium.org/nisc-activities/neworleansfloodresexp/">investing heavily in this direction</a> and promoting <a href="http://www.rebuildbydesign.org/">international design competitions</a> and community participation to mould a more resilient future. Queensland, what are we waiting for?</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/floods-dont-occur-randomly-so-why-do-we-still-plan-as-if-they-do-93371">Floods don't occur randomly, so why do we still plan as if they do?</a>
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<p><em>This article has been updated to clarify the use of flood data by insurers in assessing risk and the cost of cover.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/112607/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cecilia Bischeri does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Amid fears that parts of Townsville and other Australian cities might become “uninsurable”, making urban areas more resilient and adaptable to flooding is becoming more urgent.Cecilia Bischeri, Lecturer in Architecture, Griffith UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1072632018-12-10T18:55:42Z2018-12-10T18:55:42ZCities can grow without wrecking reefs and oceans. Here’s how<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/248335/original/file-20181203-194953-1yx65zo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Cairns has lots of hard grey infrastructure but much less green infrastructure that would reduce the impacts of the city's growth.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Karine Dupré</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>“<a href="https://www.iyor2018.org/">What happens if the water temperature rises by a few degrees?</a>” is the 2018 <a href="https://www.icriforum.org/about-icri/iyor">International Year of the Reef</a> leading question. While the ocean is the focus, <a href="https://www.un.org/development/desa/en/news/population/2018-revision-of-world-urbanization-prospects.html">urbanisation</a> is the main reason for the rising temperatures and water pollution. Yet it receives little attention in this discussion. </p>
<p>In turn, rising temperatures <a href="https://theconversation.com/urban-floods-we-can-pay-now-or-later-96160">increase downpours and urban floods</a>, adding to the pressures on urban infrastructure. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/design-for-flooding-how-cities-can-make-room-for-water-105844">Design for flooding: how cities can make room for water</a>
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<h2>Protecting the reef as Cairns grows</h2>
<p>Cairns is an expanding Queensland city located between two World Heritage sites – the <a href="http://www.greatbarrierreef.org/about-the-reef">Great Barrier Reef</a> and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daintree_Rainforest">Daintree Rainforest</a>. While important research focuses on these sites themselves, not much is known about how the surrounding urban areas influence these natural environments. Similarly, little is known about how urban planning and design contribute to the health of the inner city and surrounding water bodies, including the ocean. </p>
<p>Cairns is a major Australian tourism destination with a unique coastal setting of rainforest and reef. This attracts growing numbers of visitors. One effect of this success is increased urbanisation to accommodate these tourists. </p>
<p>There are many opportunities to promote sustainable and socially acceptable growth in Cairns. Yet this growth is not without challenges. These include:</p>
<ul>
<li>impacts of climate change, including sea-level rise and ocean warming</li>
<li>lack of comprehensive urban infrastructure strategy</li>
<li>lack of comprehensive assessment of the benefits of integrated urban design to maximise coastal resilience and the health of streams and oceans. </li>
</ul>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249156/original/file-20181206-186055-r0mm58.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249156/original/file-20181206-186055-r0mm58.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249156/original/file-20181206-186055-r0mm58.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249156/original/file-20181206-186055-r0mm58.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249156/original/file-20181206-186055-r0mm58.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249156/original/file-20181206-186055-r0mm58.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249156/original/file-20181206-186055-r0mm58.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249156/original/file-20181206-186055-r0mm58.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Rain gardens are common in Singapore.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/rogersoh/4742030401/in/photolist-8e39qR-8cTrF9-5ZVakG-6SD8Xr-dYNhd-5ZVULb-5ZVkTj-9WFvAV-d39rTQ-9WFtHH-9WJmQ1-9WFvgn-ojCd4B-8e3c2R-ojCdzB-5ZVUtA-5ZV7BU-8ur9JW-9SnZ4W-ov8N8x-9WFwY6-5ZV8Nf-c5y1kE-uLxdpo-o1nqXY-9WFwaa-ohFgoE-ot6Rgd-55jr8c-7jH9xY-2mMoCW-fVdLWn-6zSj5d-94ndL2-omyHjz-fzRSHi-oBpfnr-6dnEtg-m79GPr-FVFE9-eKdaHR-oi6UuW-einXy8-mKHUHk-5cFXGA-omswap-oV1kxp-oChdwV-oudGjB-9WFumT">Roger Soh/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As with most Australian cities, Cairns has an urban layout based on wide streets, mostly with little or no greenery. <a href="https://www.melbournewater.com.au/community-and-education/help-protect-environment/raingardens">Rain gardens</a>, for instance, are rare. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioswale">Bioswales</a> that slow and filter stormwater are present along highways, but seldom within the city. </p>
<p>The arguments for not adding greenery to the urban environment are familiar. These typically relate to costs of implementation and maintenance, but also to the speed with which water is taken out of streets during the tropical rainy season. This is because green stormwater solutions, if not well planned, can slow down the water flow, thus increasing floods.</p>
<p>However, cities can be designed in a way to <a href="https://theconversation.com/stormwater-innovations-mean-cities-dont-just-flush-rainwater-down-the-drain-40129">imitate nature</a> with solutions that are an integral part of the urban system. This can include dedicated areas of larger wetlands and parks, which capture water and filter pollution and undesired nutrients more efficiently, reducing polluted runoff to the reef.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/if-planners-understand-its-cool-to-green-cities-whats-stopping-them-55753">If planners understand it's cool to green cities, what's stopping them?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Integrated urban design</h2>
<p>Integrated urban design is an aspect of city planning and design that could be further developed to ensure the whole system works more efficiently. This involves integrating the three elements that make up urban infrastructure: </p>
<ol>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/our-cities-need-more-trees-and-water-not-less-to-stay-liveable-22166">the green</a> – parks, residential gardens, rain gardens, green roofs and walls, bioswales, etc</li>
<li>the grey – built drains, footpaths, buildings, <a href="http://www.envacgroup.com/products/our_products/envac-stationary-vacuum-system">underground vacuum
system</a>, etc</li>
<li><a href="https://www.amazon.com/Blue-Urbanism-Exploring-Connections-Between/dp/1610914058">the blue</a> – streams, stormwater systems, etc.</li>
</ol>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/248338/original/file-20181203-194953-1cjc3uf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/248338/original/file-20181203-194953-1cjc3uf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248338/original/file-20181203-194953-1cjc3uf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248338/original/file-20181203-194953-1cjc3uf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248338/original/file-20181203-194953-1cjc3uf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248338/original/file-20181203-194953-1cjc3uf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248338/original/file-20181203-194953-1cjc3uf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A rain garden, which absorbs rain and stores water to help control run-off from impervious hard surfaces, in Wellington, New Zealand.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Karine Dupré</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Urban infrastructure, therefore, can and should be planned and designed to provide <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11355-017-0346-6">multiple services</a>, including coastal resilience and healthier water streams and oceans. To achieve this, a neighbourhood or city-wide strategy needs to be implemented, instead of intermittent and ad hoc urban design solutions. Importantly, <a href="http://webpages.uidaho.edu/larc380/new380/assets/images/StormwaterFiles/images/HighPtSect.jpg">each element should coordinate with the others</a> to avoid overlaps, gaps and pitfalls. </p>
<p>This is what integrated urban design is about. So why don’t we implement it more often?</p>
<h2>Challenges and opportunities</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0013935117317115?via%3Dihub">Research has shown</a> that planning, designing and creating climate-resilient cities that are energy-optimised, revitalise urban landscapes and restore and support <a href="http://www.agriculture.gov.au/ag-farm-food/natural-resources/ecosystem-services">ecosystem services</a> is a major challenge at the planning scale. To generate an urban environment that promotes urban protection and resilience while minimising urbanisation impacts and restoring natural systems, we need to better anticipate the risks and have the means to take actions. In other words, it is a two-way system: well planned and designed green and blue infrastructures not only deliver better urbanised areas but will also protect the ocean from pollution. Additionally, it helps to manage future risks of severe weather. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1462901117305282?via%3Dihub">uncertainties of green infrastructure capacity and costs of maintenance, combined with inflexible finance schemes</a>, are obstacles to integrated urban solutions. Furthermore, the lack of <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01426397.2017.1353069">inter- and transdisciplinary approaches</a> results in <a href="http://www.arj.no/2012/03/12/disciplinarities-2/">disciplinary barriers</a> in research and policymaking to long-term planning of the sort that generates urban green infrastructure and its desired outcomes.</p>
<p>On the bright side, there is also strong evidence to suggest sound policy can <a href="http://sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1618866716305027?via%3Dihub">help overcome these barriers</a> through technical guides based on scientific research, standards and financial incentives. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/heres-how-green-infrastructure-can-easily-be-added-to-the-urban-planning-toolkit-57277">Here’s how green infrastructure can easily be added to the urban planning toolkit</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1877343514001110">Collaborative partnerships</a> are promising, too. Partnerships between academia and industry tend to be more powerful than streamlined industry project developments. </p>
<p>Finally, and very promisingly, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0013935117316778?via%3Dihub">Australia has its own successful green infrastructure examples</a>. <a href="https://www.melbourne.vic.gov.au/community/parks-open-spaces/urban-forest/Pages/urban-forest-strategy.aspx">Melbourne’s urban forest strategy</a> has been <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0013935117316778?via%3Dihub">internationally acclaimed</a>. Examples like these provide valuable insights into local green infrastructure governance. </p>
<p>Cairns has stepped up with some stunning blue <a href="http://www.qldbeaches.com/cairns-esplanade.html">infrastructure on the Esplanade</a> which raises awareness of both locals and visitors about the protection of our oceans. </p>
<p>This is only the start. Together academics, local authorities, industry stakeholders and communities can lead the way to resilient cities and healthier oceans.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249195/original/file-20181206-128208-ixjv4.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249195/original/file-20181206-128208-ixjv4.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249195/original/file-20181206-128208-ixjv4.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=266&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249195/original/file-20181206-128208-ixjv4.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=266&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249195/original/file-20181206-128208-ixjv4.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=266&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249195/original/file-20181206-128208-ixjv4.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249195/original/file-20181206-128208-ixjv4.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249195/original/file-20181206-128208-ixjv4.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cairns Esplanade Lagoon helps raise awareness of the need to protect the ocean as the city grows.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Karine Dupré</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-green-is-our-infrastructure-helping-cities-assess-its-value-for-long-term-liveability-50528">How green is our infrastructure? Helping cities assess its value for long-term liveability</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/107263/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Urbanisation is the main reason for rising temperatures and water pollution, but receives little attention in discussions about the health of water streams, reefs and oceans.Silvia Tavares, Lecturer in Urban Design, James Cook UniversityKarine Dupré, Associate Professor in Architecture, Griffith UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1058442018-12-04T18:52:24Z2018-12-04T18:52:24ZDesign for flooding: how cities can make room for water<p>Science is clearly showing that the world is <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/dec/03/david-attenborough-collapse-civilisation-on-horizon-un-climate-summit">shifting towards a more unstable climate</a>. Weather events like the <a href="http://floodlist.com/australia/australia-flash-floods-sydney-november-2018">flash floods in Sydney</a> last week will be more frequent and extreme, while the intervals between them will become shorter. With rising sea levels and frequent floods, water landscapes will become part of our urban routine. </p>
<p>Most Australian cities are already located along coastlines or within river catchments. Whether or not we are able to <a href="https://theconversation.com/keeping-global-warming-to-1-5c-not-2c-will-make-a-crucial-difference-to-australia-report-says-64287">keep global warming below 1.5°C</a>, the majority of the Australian population will soon live in a <a href="https://d28rz98at9flks.cloudfront.net/69538/69538.pdf">flood zone</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/trust-me-im-an-expert-australias-extreme-weather-103903">Trust Me, I'm An Expert: Australia's extreme weather</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>This means we will have to start planning and designing our cities for a new normal. We will become used to redesigned parks and gardens, for instance, that help us co-exist with water.</p>
<h2>Change of perspective: rainwater is a resource, not waste</h2>
<p>Understanding the water cycle is an opportunity to generate a positive relationship between natural processes, plants and people. We can learn to look at flooding as a regenerative element to improve life in urban areas.</p>
<p>For a long time, however, urban design has overlooked the opportunity rainwater provides within the urban system. A conceptual leap forward is needed to shift the common perception of rain as waste to be disposed of. It can instead be seen as a non-renewable resource to be protected and reused. </p>
<p>This change is already visible in front-line urban experimentation. Cities like <a href="https://www1.nyc.gov/assets/orr/pdf/NYC_Climate_Resiliency_Design_Guidelines_v2-0.pdf">New York</a>, <a href="http://gnoinc.org/wp-content/uploads/GNOH2O_Pamphlet_Trimmed_FINAL.pdf">New Orleans</a> and <a href="https://en.klimatilpasning.dk/media/568851/copenhagen_adaption_plan.pdf">Copenhagen</a> are reorganising themselves following <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/02/24/us/new-orleans-flood-walls-hurricanes.html">catastrophic</a> <a href="http://www.nyc.gov/html/dep/html/stormwater/flooding_index.shtml">floods</a> in <a href="http://cphpost.dk/news/flooding-in-denmark-becoming-the-norm.html">recent years</a>. Here, urban design is changing radically the ways to use, experience and perceive cities’ space. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/248384/original/file-20181203-194956-w79d5b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/248384/original/file-20181203-194956-w79d5b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/248384/original/file-20181203-194956-w79d5b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248384/original/file-20181203-194956-w79d5b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248384/original/file-20181203-194956-w79d5b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248384/original/file-20181203-194956-w79d5b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248384/original/file-20181203-194956-w79d5b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248384/original/file-20181203-194956-w79d5b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Enghaveparken, a park in the Danish capital Copenhagen, before and after rain.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.tredjenatur.dk/en/portfolio/enghaveparken-now/">Courtesy of Tredjenatur, Copenhagen</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Innovative strategies understand <a href="https://www.ruimtevoorderivier.nl/english/">flood as a natural process</a> to work with, rather than resist. Non-structural, soft and nature-based solutions to flood adaptation are replacing centralised and engineered technologies. </p>
<p>These projects use climate change positively to provide multiple added benefits. The benefits include spaces for recreation, ecological functions, environmental recovery, increased urban biodiversity and economic regeneration.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/lessons-in-resilience-what-city-planners-can-learn-from-hobarts-floods-96529">Lessons in resilience: what city planners can learn from Hobart's floods</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Make room for the water</h2>
<p>The idea to work with water through flood-mitigation measures based on natural processes has been explored in different ways. These can be summarised in four main strategies.</p>
<p><strong>Sponge spaces and safe failure:</strong> a network of small-to-medium-sized green areas absorbs and stores excess water. Almost every urban open space, including rooftops, can be part of a decentralised off-grid system. </p>
<p>In Copenhagen, the <a href="https://policytransfer.metropolis.org/case-studies/copenhagen-climate-resilient-neighbourhood-strategy">Climate-Resilient Neighbourhood program</a> aims to transform at least 20% of public ground to work as a sponge to reduce flash flooding in dense inner-urban areas. When needed, controlled flooding of one part of the system will avoid problems elsewhere – such as roads. These “safe to fail” spaces can have multiple functions and be used for public recreation when they are not flooded.</p>
<p><strong>Design for variability:</strong> as water processes are seasonal, design should reflect variability and periodic flood change. A more comprehensive understanding of nature’s processes in cities is emerging as a source of design inspiration, leading to a new spatial expression, besides ecological benefits. </p>
<p>This is an interesting advancement in urban design, with evolving layouts replacing fixed forms. A focused selection of plant varieties and soil substrata supports spatial variability. A good example is Billancourt Park in France, where water defines the constantly changing spaces of the gardens.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/248593/original/file-20181204-194932-1nuye1c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/248593/original/file-20181204-194932-1nuye1c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/248593/original/file-20181204-194932-1nuye1c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248593/original/file-20181204-194932-1nuye1c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248593/original/file-20181204-194932-1nuye1c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248593/original/file-20181204-194932-1nuye1c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248593/original/file-20181204-194932-1nuye1c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248593/original/file-20181204-194932-1nuye1c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The renatured Billancourt Park in Paris is designed to manage dramatic changes in water levels.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.landezine.com/index.php/2017/06/nature-at-mooring-boulogne-park-by-agence-ter/">Courtesy of Agence Ter, Paris</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/248385/original/file-20181203-194956-18spmgz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/248385/original/file-20181203-194956-18spmgz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/248385/original/file-20181203-194956-18spmgz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=240&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248385/original/file-20181203-194956-18spmgz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=240&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248385/original/file-20181203-194956-18spmgz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=240&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248385/original/file-20181203-194956-18spmgz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=301&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248385/original/file-20181203-194956-18spmgz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=301&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248385/original/file-20181203-194956-18spmgz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=301&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Parc de Billancourt, water levels diagram:
1) Permanent water, 2) Normal rain, 3) Important rain, 4) Annual flood, 5) 10 years flood, 6) 50 years flood.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://agenceter.com/en/projets/parc-du-billancourt/#">Courtesy of AgenceTer, Paris</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong>Don’t let it go:</strong> rainwater is a precious resource and should be retained and used on the spot. Impermeable ground and roof surfaces should be harnessed to capture rainwater, harvest it and store it for further uses, such as irrigation, washing and flushing toilets. The process is particularly simple and does not require specific technology, especially for rooftop water, which is clean enough to be reused as it falls.</p>
<p><strong>Let it seep through:</strong> paving should let water infiltrate to the underground and feed the aquifers. Permeable grounds restore the natural water cycle, allowing humidity exchange between air and the soil. An additional benefit is that this cools urban spaces, reducing heat in summer and creating a more comfortable habitat.</p>
<p>To limit the number of impervious surfaces, roads and parking should be reduced, with grass or porous tiles replacing asphalt. When paving is necessary, it should be designed to provide a moderate filtering function to reduce rain impurities.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/247925/original/file-20181129-170241-10conlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/247925/original/file-20181129-170241-10conlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/247925/original/file-20181129-170241-10conlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/247925/original/file-20181129-170241-10conlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/247925/original/file-20181129-170241-10conlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/247925/original/file-20181129-170241-10conlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/247925/original/file-20181129-170241-10conlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/247925/original/file-20181129-170241-10conlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The climate tile project in Nørrebro, Copenhagen.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.tredjenatur.dk/en/portfolio/climatetile/">Courtesy of Tredjenatur, Copenhagen</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-your-garden-could-help-stop-your-city-flooding-42473">How your garden could help stop your city flooding</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>A broad, collective effort is needed</h2>
<p>Broad implementation of the strategies needed to reduce flooding across public and private domains is complex. It calls for a collective effort.</p>
<p>Research on urban climate adaptation suggests that planning for flood management is often a top-down process. Post-flood recovery programs have rarely been opportunities for central governments to consider the needs of local communities. </p>
<p>Shared decisions on water management are needed to develop resilient communities and help them adapt to rapidly changing climate. New challenges can become opportunities if environmental goals can be twinned with sustainability and social equity objectives. </p>
<p>Moreover, the implementation of flood adaptation measures is still too sporadic. It’s often limited to centralised wetlands in large parks and gardens. A capillary-type network is needed, which infiltrates the dense urban fabric with small to medium nature-based measures. </p>
<p>There is no evidence yet, however, that the cumulative benefits from these systems will be effective to avoid massive flash flooding. Therefore, the need to start systematically testing and monitoring these measures at the urban scale is urgent. We need to start asking questions such as: what if every roof had a vegetated surface, if every sidewalk had retaining capacity, if every parking space was a rain garden?</p>
<p>Looking at how cities are designed and performing in Australia, there is plenty to learn from the international experience. We have a lot to do to adjust this knowledge to the local context.</p>
<p>And we urgently need to apply this knowledge, because if we don’t quickly learn how to work with water in cities, water will hit them even harder in the future.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/higher-density-in-a-flood-zone-heres-a-way-to-do-it-and-reduce-the-risks-86608">Higher density in a flood zone? Here's a way to do it and reduce the risks</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/105844/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elisa Palazzo does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Australia’s coastal settlements are highly exposed to the impacts of climate change. Climate-resilient urban landscapes that can cope with large amounts of water need to become the new normal.Elisa Palazzo, Senior Lecturer in Urban and Landscape Design, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1044932018-10-28T09:21:19Z2018-10-28T09:21:19ZGhana must move from coping with floods, to adapting for them<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/241794/original/file-20181023-169828-qcuelu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Ghana has at least one one major flood disaster every year.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">chunya2009/Flickr</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Ghana <a href="http://www.imedpub.com/articles/flood-risk-management-in-ghana-a-case-study-in-accra.pdf">has a serious</a> flood problem. Over about 50 years, 4 million people <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275893618_Flood_risk_management_in_Ghana_A_case_study_in_Accra">have been</a> affected by floods, resulting in economic damage <a href="http://www.imedpub.com/articles/flood-risk-management-in-ghana-a-case-study-in-accra.pdf">exceeding</a> USD$780 million. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/316093848_ADDRESSING_FLOOD_CHALLENGES_IN_GHANA_A_CASE_OF_THE_ACCRA_METROPOLIS">At least</a> one major flood disaster has occurred every year over the past 10 years. </p>
<p>Floods are not uncommon in West Africa. Rainfall variability and land use changes <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277979482_Trends_in_West_African_floods_a_comparative_analysis_with_rainfall_and_vegetation_indices">have made</a> them increasingly common throughout the region. </p>
<p>In Ghana’s urban areas, like Accra and Kumasi, floods are mostly triggered by <a href="http://floodlist.com/africa/ghana-floods-northern-regions-september-2018">seasonal rainfall</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/19463138.2014.984720">combined with</a> poor drainage, the dumping of waste into waterways and the low <a href="https://reliefweb.int/report/ghana/rapid-disaster-waste-management-assessment-26-october-flash-flooding-central-accra">elevation</a> of settlements. In northern Ghana, some floods are caused by <a href="https://www.myjoyonline.com/news/2018/August-23rd/bagre-dam-farmers-appeal-for-piecemeal-spillage.php">spillage</a> from a dam in Burkina Faso. </p>
<p>The floods <a href="https://theconversation.com/extreme-weather-leads-to-public-health-crises-so-health-and-climate-experts-must-work-together-83783">expose</a> communities to health risks, food <a href="http://archive.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/uu22we/uu22we0a.htm">shortages</a> and <a href="http://currents.plos.org/disasters/article/the-effects-of-flooding-on-mental-health-outcomes-and-recommendations-from-a-review-of-the-literature/">mental stress</a>. </p>
<p>The problem is Ghana’s government currently reacts to the floods using coping strategies. These don’t deal with the underlying risks, are expensive and don’t consider that floods will get worse. The government must take steps towards more proactive flood risk management. </p>
<h2>Reactive strategies</h2>
<p>After every flood, the country’s national disaster management organisation – along with the military, police, and other emergency personnel – <a href="https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/general-news/bagre-dam-spillage-lives-under-threat-in-the-north.html">is deployed</a> for rescue and emergency relief. </p>
<p>The government then repairs damaged infrastructure, clears waterways and <a href="https://citinewsroom.com/2018/07/13/ningo-prampram-district-demolishes-structures-on-waterways/">demolishes</a> properties built close to drainage channels. </p>
<p>The problem is this <a href="https://unhabitat.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/GRHS2011CaseStudyChapter04Accra.pdf">doesn’t deal</a> with the underlying causes of the floods, or prepare people for them. Money that could go towards future prevention is instead <a href="https://reliefweb.int/report/ghana/resilience-more-income-lessons-accra-s-2015-floods">spent</a> on perpetual cycles of recovery. </p>
<p>These coping strategies will get more costly because the flood risk is set to get worse. The amount of rainfall classified as “heavy” is <a href="https://www.uncclearn.org/sites/default/files/inventory/wb132.pdf">projected</a> to increase between 2010 and 2050, with the wet seasons projected to get wetter and the dry seasons drier. </p>
<p>This will be felt intensely in the urban areas as populations continue <a href="https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/general-news/accra-too-vulnerable-to-disasters.html">to grow</a>. Already, <a href="https://www.zef.de/fileadmin/downloads/forum/docprog/Termpapers/2012_2_Gilgenbach_Okyere_Yacouba.pdf">about</a> 40% of Accra is classified as “highly prone” to flooding. This will increase as, due to more building, less water <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-018-04396-1#article-info">will drain</a> into the soil.</p>
<h2>The case for flood risk adaptation</h2>
<p>The government needs to make the country more <a href="https://theconversation.com/resilience-in-south-africas-urban-water-landscape-60461">resilient</a> and able to withstand the challenges posed by intense and frequent floods. </p>
<p>Ghana participates in a variety of adaptation programmes. Like the <a href="https://www.100resilientcities.org/cities/accra/">resilient cities</a> network and the <a href="http://adaptation-undp.org/projects/africa-adaptation-programme">Africa Adaptation Program</a>. But this <a href="http://www.100resilientcities.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/Accra-PRA-report-summary-06-spreads.pdf">hasn’t</a> translated into action.</p>
<p>The government has also taken on projects to protect against floods, but these are focused on the coastal areas. For example the <a href="http://www.baird.com/what-we-do/project/keta-coastal-defence">Keta</a> sea defence project. </p>
<p>The current greater Accra Metropolitan Area <a href="http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/462521501525274641/pdf/SFG3426-V11-EA-P119063-Box405291b-PUBLIC-Disclosed-7-31-2017.pdf">sanitation and water project</a> is constructing drains and culverts in Accra. But this isn’t a major part of the project.</p>
<p>Much more needs to be done. Ghana must fully transition from coping strategies, to proactive, long-term measures. These include:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Structural flood protection measures – like storm drains or levees. These need to be constructed to protect all at risk areas, and not just the coastal areas </p></li>
<li><p>Improve early warning systems to ensure timely flood risk alerts. This should <a href="https://www.unisdr.org/files/608_10340.pdf">include</a>; a 24 hour monitoring and warning service during peak rain seasons and an education program to help communities understand the risk, respect the warnings and know how to respond</p></li>
<li><p>Social protection – like affordable social housing – which will move more people out of informal settlements built in flood prone zones</p></li>
<li><p>Strategies aimed at improving the natural environment – for example, creating riparian <a href="http://mci.ei.columbia.edu/files/2015/06/Networks-and-Knowledge-for-Community-Resilience-Building-in-Ghana%E2%80%99s-Capital.pdf">buffer zones</a> that protect and expand wetlands so that <a href="http://www.dof.virginia.gov/manage/riparian/functions.htm">vegetation</a> slows and absorbs flood waters </p></li>
<li><p>Encourage households <a href="https://www.nccarf.edu.au/sites/default/files/attached_files_publications/Flooding-CommunityAdaptationStrategies-factsheet.pdf">to adapt</a> and advise on actions they can take, like using more water resistant building materials </p></li>
<li><p><a href="http://mci.ei.columbia.edu/files/2015/06/Networks-and-Knowledge-for-Community-Resilience-Building-in-Ghana%E2%80%99s-Capital.pdf">Restore</a> lagoons and rivers </p></li>
<li><p>Proper waste management. Ghana has a <a href="https://qz.com/africa/1229079/ghana-the-worlds-fastest-growing-economy-has-a-trash-problem/">huge solid waste</a> problem. Poor disposal of solid waste often leads to the blocking of drains and drainage systems, preventing flood waters from flowing through</p></li>
<li><p>Moving homes and businesses out of flood prone locations. They can choose to do this, or the government can facilitate it by buying out at-risk properties </p></li>
<li><p>Build new homes on elevated ground or foundations</p></li>
<li><p>Strict planning to avoid construction in flood-prone areas</p></li>
<li><p>Deal with spillage from dams by building canals that channel the water. These can be dammed and the water used for irrigation. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>The initial cost of adaptation measures will be expensive, but it will pay off. Research <a href="http://www.gh.undp.org/content/dam/ghana/docs/Doc/Susdev/Final%20Project%20Report.pdf">shows that</a> for every US$1 spent on flood risk reduction, it saves at least US$4 to US$9 otherwise spent in an emergency response when disaster occurs. The Netherlands is a classic <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/may/19/floods-dutch-britain-netherlands-climatechange">example</a> of a country that has taken flood risk adaptation seriously. A quarter of the country is below sea level and 60% of its people in flood-risk areas but the measures it has taken have reduced the likelihood of major flooding. </p>
<p>Ghana can take advantage of predictions and past experiences of floods to aggressively pursue flood risk adaptation. Failure to do this will increase flood disasters, and social and economic disruptions.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/104493/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jerry Chati Tasantab is affiliated with the University of Newcastle. He receives the University of Newcastle International Postgraduate Research Scholarships (UNIPRS) and University of Newcastle Postgraduate Research Scholarship (UNRS External) for his PhD in Building since 2017.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jason von Meding, Kim Maund, and Thayaparan Gajendran do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Ghana needs to deal with the underlying causes of floods and prepare people for them.Jerry Chati Tasantab, PhD Candidate, School of Architecture and Built Environment, University of NewcastleJason von Meding, Senior Lecturer in Disaster Risk Reduction, University of NewcastleKim Maund, Head of Discipline-Construction Management, University of NewcastleThayaparan Gajendran, Associate professor, University of NewcastleLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1022342018-09-06T17:42:55Z2018-09-06T17:42:55ZLow-income neighborhoods would gain the most from green roofs in cities like Chicago<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/235070/original/file-20180905-45169-pgfw1f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Morris Inn on the University of Notre Dame campus has had a green roof since 2013.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ashish Sharma</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Heat waves aren’t just a source of discomfort. They’re the nation’s deadliest weather hazard, accounting for <a href="http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/hazstats.shtml">a fifth of all deaths caused by natural hazards in the U.S.</a> </p>
<p>Most of the time, low-income people who live in cities face the biggest risks tied to extreme heat. That’s because <a href="https://www.census.gov/geo/reference/ua/urban-rural-2010.html">urban areas</a>, especially neighborhoods with few parks or yards, absorb high amounts of solar radiation during the day – keeping night temperatures higher than in suburbs and rural areas.</p>
<p>I’m an <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=JlSZCaoAAAAJ">atmospheric scientist</a> who studies urban environments in an <a href="https://environmentalchange.nd.edu/">interdisciplinary way</a> that combines science, engineering and social sciences. I belong to a team of researchers and other professionals that’s looking into one solution we believe will help cool off homes, businesses and other structures all summer long: green roofs.</p>
<p><iframe id="2AlJf" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/2AlJf/2/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>Urban ecosystems</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.epa.gov/green-infrastructure/what-green-infrastructure">Green infrastructure</a> encompasses a range of methods to manage weather impacts, providing many community benefits in cost-effective ways.</p>
<p>For example, using <a href="https://www.go-gba.org/resources/green-building-methods/permeable-pavements/">permeable pavement</a>, <a href="https://www.cwp.org/urban-tree-canopy/">planting and preserving trees and other green spaces</a>, establishing <a href="https://www.dwell.com/article/living-green-walls-101-their-benefits-and-how-theyre-made-350955f3">vertical gardens</a> on a building’s exterior and making <a href="https://www.energy.gov/energysaver/energy-efficient-home-design/cool-roofs">rooftops white</a> can all help moderate urban temperatures, cut utility bills and make neighborhoods nicer places to live.</p>
<p>Many cities are also experimenting with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/11/6/064004">green roofs</a>, rooftops that are partially or completely covered in <a href="http://myplantconnection.com/green-roofs-maintenance.php">drought-resistant</a> plants with drainage and leak detection systems, to see if they can cool off urban heat.</p>
<p>These roofs can serve as a source of insulation or shade, cut electricity consumption, add green space and reduce air pollution. However, <a href="https://theconversation.com/green-and-cool-roofs-provide-relief-for-hot-cities-but-should-be-sited-carefully-60766">bunching too many of them</a> together in large areas could actually reduce air quality by increasing humidity and pollution.</p>
<p>I led a recent study that used an interdisciplinary approach to see where it would make the most sense to install green roofs to cool off homes in hot neighborhoods. As we explained in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aad93c">Environmental Research Letters</a>, an academic journal, we identified Chicago’s most vulnerable, heat-stressed neighborhoods – communities that would benefit most from <a href="https://www.cityofchicago.org/city/en/depts/dcd/supp_info/chicago_green_roofs.html">this amenity</a>.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1034885753770135552"}"></div></p>
<h2>Straining utilities and burdening the poor</h2>
<p>When temperature spike in cities, <a href="https://www.epa.gov/heat-islands/heat-island-impacts#energy">electricity use rises sharply</a> making it hard for utilities susceptible to <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/07/130719103146.htm">power outages</a>. When the lights go out, critical services such as drinking water, transportation and health care can be jeopardized. And poorer people, whose neighborhoods tend to be the hottest, can be the most at risk.</p>
<p>Some of the <a href="https://states.aarp.org/cooling-assistance-available-low-income-seniors-individuals-medical-needs/">poorest Americans</a>, of course, do not even have air conditioning. In other cases, they may have it installed but face so much economic hardship that they can’t afford to use it. </p>
<p>Chicago is most vulnerable to outages in July, when temperatures tend to peak. Electricity usage gets nearly as high in December due to the widespread use of <a href="http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2006-10-27/business/0610270271_1_holiday-lights-outdoor-bulbs-holiday-season">Christmas lights</a> throughout the <a href="http://www.fsec.ucf.edu/en/media/enews/2006/2006-07_Holiday-Energy.htm#lights">holiday season</a>, the <a href="https://www.4abc.com/blog/household-heating-statistics/">electric heat</a> consumed by 20 percent of local residents and the incidence of many of the year’s longest nights.</p>
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<p>Green roofs can help avoid outages by lowering rooftop surface temperatures. In turn, residents may consume less air conditioning and ease the strain on the grid when it matters most. But how green roofs should be deployed to maximize these benefits remains an open question.</p>
<h2>Where to invest</h2>
<p>My team identified neighborhoods that had the most to gain from green roofs by figuring out which neighborhoods had the most <a href="https://ahs-vt.maps.arcgis.com/apps/MapSeries/index.html?appid=5bfd71bdeff242d4a8f0d2780369807a">heat vulnerability</a>, and the greatest potential <a href="http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/11/6/064004/meta">reductions in rooftop temperatures with green roofs</a>, and <a href="https://data.cityofchicago.org/Environment-Sustainable-Development/Energy-Usage-2010/8yq3-m6wp">used the most electricity</a> for air conditioning.</p>
<p>People who reside in poor vulnerable neighborhoods consistently use relatively little air conditioning. However, businesses located in vulnerable neighborhoods do use more energy than enterprises located in more affluent areas because <a href="https://www.epa.gov/heat-islands">temperatures tend to get and stay higher</a> in poorer neighborhoods, requiring more energy to cool down interiors.</p>
<p>We designed steps for urban planners and city officials to scientifically set priorities for a public effort to install green roofs, neighborhood by neighborhood. </p>
<p>Most of the communities we determined would get the biggest benefits from green roofs are located on Chicago’s South Side and West Side. Given that between 1986 and 2015, an average of <a href="https://weather.com/science/weather-explainers/news/weather-event-fatalities-heat">130 people lost their lives across U.S.</a> every year due to heat stress, for many of these residents it could be a matter of life and death.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/102234/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ashish Sharma does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Taking this step may improve the quality of life for vulnerable people and reduce the amount of air conditioning they use, making their neighborhoods less prone to power outages.Ashish Sharma, Research Assistant Professor, University of Notre DameLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/906092018-03-30T10:52:56Z2018-03-30T10:52:56ZHow Texas is ‘building back better’ from Hurricane Harvey<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205609/original/file-20180208-180826-1i4xwoo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Hurricane Harvey flooded one-third of Houston and displaced more then 30,000 people in the region.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Janelle Rios</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>For most Americans, the one-two punch of last fall’s hurricanes is ancient history. But hard-hit communities in Texas, Florida and the Caribbean are still rebuilding.</p>
<p>I recently traveled with public health students from the University of Washington to southeast Texas, where the impacts of Hurricane Harvey last August are still felt today. With support from the <a href="https://hazards.colorado.edu/research/quick-response">Natural Hazards Center’s Quick Response Grant Program</a>, we wanted to understand how disaster recovery strategies can create long-term opportunities to promote healthy communities. </p>
<p>Through interviews with local health officials, we learned how Hurricane Harvey is still affecting many residents. As we often see during natural disasters, Harvey amplified pre-existing health and social stresses and inequities. </p>
<p>For example, greater Houston had only a paltry pre-storm <a href="https://www.houstonpublicmedia.org/articles/news/2018/03/27/275635/houston-has-large-backlog-in-affordable-housing/">supply of affordable housing</a>. Now buyers and renters are competing to secure undamaged units. We heard about families who were living in homes with toxic mold because they couldn’t afford to leave, and concerns that rising prices would drive people out on the street or force them to move to other cities and states. However, we also saw signs that communities were using Hurricane Harvey to springboard efforts to address persistent housing problems. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/212680/original/file-20180329-189807-4kfmk.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/212680/original/file-20180329-189807-4kfmk.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/212680/original/file-20180329-189807-4kfmk.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/212680/original/file-20180329-189807-4kfmk.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/212680/original/file-20180329-189807-4kfmk.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/212680/original/file-20180329-189807-4kfmk.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/212680/original/file-20180329-189807-4kfmk.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/212680/original/file-20180329-189807-4kfmk.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Flooding caused by Hurricane Harvey in southeast Texas, August 31, 2017.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.147atkw.ang.af.mil/News/Article-Display/Article/1304518/guarding-texas-state-federal-agencies-respond-to-harvey/">Staff Sgt. Daniel J. Martinez, Air National Guard</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Turning disasters into opportunities</h2>
<p>The default response after a major disaster is often to rebuild as quickly as possible. This typically means replicating what existed before the storm. But why not build back in a way that corrects long-standing problems? </p>
<p>Major disasters like Hurricane Harvey often bring <a href="https://www.texastribune.org/2018/01/04/four-months-after-hurricane-harvey-four-major-questions-about-recovery/">influxes of resources and attention</a> to communities that are struggling with health and social challenges. In a 2015 <a href="https://www.nap.edu/catalog/18996/healthy-resilient-and-sustainable-communities-after-disasters-strategies-opportunities-and">report</a>, the Institute of Medicine found that many communities fail to fully leverage recovery resources to address pre-existing issues, such as access to health care. </p>
<p>The report urged communities to consider short- and long-term health impacts of their recovery decisions, known as a “<a href="https://www.apha.org/topics-and-issues/health-in-all-policies">health in all policies</a>” approach to recovery. This approach recognizes that health is connected to many other issues, including transportation, social networks and housing. By thinking about the health impacts of recovery strategies, municipal leaders can rebuild in a way that promotes stronger and more resilient communities. </p>
<p>For example, co-locating mental health professionals at sites where people are signing up for FEMA aid can help more residents get counseling and support. In the long term, decisions about land use in badly damaged neighborhoods can create spaces where people can exercise and socialize, which helps them to lead healthier and happier lives.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/212682/original/file-20180329-189827-q0p4nr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/212682/original/file-20180329-189827-q0p4nr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/212682/original/file-20180329-189827-q0p4nr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/212682/original/file-20180329-189827-q0p4nr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/212682/original/file-20180329-189827-q0p4nr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/212682/original/file-20180329-189827-q0p4nr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=491&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/212682/original/file-20180329-189827-q0p4nr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=491&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/212682/original/file-20180329-189827-q0p4nr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=491&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Planning for disasters should include identifying those most likely to need help.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/XT9jZ3">Jill Carlson</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Leveraging local expertise to build back better</h2>
<p>The idea of incorporating health in all policies may sound sensible, but putting it into action after a hurricane, wildfire or tornado strike is easier said than done. As a former emergency manager in Baltimore, I know that working conditions after disasters are fast-paced and often chaotic. Communities are under political and social pressure to recover quickly, and health may not be at the top of their agendas. </p>
<p>Advance planning for recovery is important. And involving people who understand challenges to community health and well-being is essential. Local health departments, as well as community- and faith-based organizations, are often connected to at-risk populations. Involving these organizations in recovery planning and implementation can inform an approach that promotes community health and well-being. For example, they can identify opportunities to use recovery resources to meet pre-existing housing needs, or direct case management services to families that are already struggling. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"969331833732202496"}"></div></p>
<h2>Building healthier post-Harvey</h2>
<p>Harvey caused <a href="https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/news/UpdatedCostliest.pdf">US$125 billion in damages</a>, making it the second-worst storm to strike the U.S. mainland after Hurricane Katrina in 2005. The storm flooded one-third of Houston, displacing <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/texas-officials-hurricane-harvey-death-toll-at-82-mass-casualties-have-absolutely-not-happened/2017/09/14/bff3ffea-9975-11e7-87fc-c3f7ee4035c9_story.html?utm_term=.01924918fda7">more than 30,000 people</a> from their homes.</p>
<p>During our trip to Texas we saw that pre-disaster recovery planning was paying off. As an example, <a href="http://www.fortbendrecovers.org/about/">Fort Bend Recovers</a> was established in Fort Bend County, which covers 885 square miles in the Houston metro area, after <a href="https://www.chron.com/houston/article/Remembering-Houston-s-Memorial-Day-floods-7944644.php">major flooding</a> on Memorial Day in 2016. </p>
<p>In Harvey’s wake, plans developed by Fort Bend Recovers created a process for organizations, including local health and social services agencies, to rapidly reconvene to respond to community needs. Together they offered case management services, staffed mental health support lines, and convened emotional support groups. Such services can help individuals affected by the floods find housing and supplies, but also connect them with solutions for longer-term problems, such as finding affordable medical care. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/SknXSNjeKrU?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Lasting impacts in New York City a year after 2012’s Superstorm Sandy.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Hurricane season 2018 is coming</h2>
<p>In order to truly “build back better,” states and communities need to develop a plan for recovery in advance of the next disaster. Galveston County, on Texas’ Gulf Coast, is using its Hurricane Harvey recovery experience to formalize a <a href="https://www.galvestoncountyrecovers.org/">Long Term Recovery Group</a> that brings together the local health department and other community- and faith-based organizations to address community health needs. But we also heard about other communities that still don’t have a plan or mechanism for organizing recovery. </p>
<p>With support from the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation’s <a href="http://rwjf-newconnections.org/about-us/">New Connections Program</a>, my research team is now reviewing state disaster recovery plans nationwide. We plan to identify whether and how states use the disaster recovery period to build back better. We hope to highlight recovery strategies that promote equitable access to affordable and safe housing, health care, and places and spaces that encourage healthy activity and foster social connections.</p>
<p>As climate change <a href="https://theconversation.com/has-climate-change-really-improved-u-s-weather-58269">amplifies storms, floods and other extreme weather events</a>, U.S. communities can expect more frequent and severe natural disasters in the years to come. By recognizing and planning for opportunities to build back better, they can make themselves more resilient against the next disaster.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/90609/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nicole Errett receives funding from the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation's New Connections Program.</span></em></p>After disasters, communities often push to rebuild as quickly as possible. A public health expert says they should aim higher and fix problems that exist pre-storm.Nicole Errett, Lecturer in Environmental and Occupational Health, University of WashingtonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/842862017-11-15T19:17:48Z2017-11-15T19:17:48ZNatural hazard risk: is it just going to get worse or can we do something about it?<blockquote>
<p>Tomorrow’s risk is being built today. We must therefore move away from risk assessments that show risk at a single point in the present and move instead towards risk assessments that can guide decision makers towards a resilient future. – <a href="https://www.gfdrr.org/sites/default/files/publication/Riskier%20Future.pdf">Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery</a> (2016)</p>
</blockquote>
<p>But how can we do this? What decisions can we make today that will reduce the future risk of natural hazards, especially in a time of climate change? As an example, let’s take Adelaide, the South Australian capital, which is home to about 1.3 million people. We modelled five different plausible futures for greater Adelaide to explore the impacts of different risk-reduction strategies. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/188912/original/file-20171005-21999-1jyyeav.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/188912/original/file-20171005-21999-1jyyeav.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/188912/original/file-20171005-21999-1jyyeav.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=203&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/188912/original/file-20171005-21999-1jyyeav.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=203&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/188912/original/file-20171005-21999-1jyyeav.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=203&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/188912/original/file-20171005-21999-1jyyeav.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=256&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/188912/original/file-20171005-21999-1jyyeav.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=256&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/188912/original/file-20171005-21999-1jyyeav.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=256&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Modelling different plausible futures for greater Adelaide is a way to explore the impacts of risk-reduction strategies.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When considering natural hazard risks, most people think about bushfires and floods. These risks are <a href="https://theconversation.com/future-bushfires-will-be-worse-we-need-to-adapt-now-53041">likely to get worse as a result of climate change</a>. While we certainly need to act now to reduce climate change impacts, this is largely beyond the control of local governments.</p>
<p>But local decision-makers can control some aspects of natural hazard risk. These include the future locations of people and infrastructure.</p>
<p>In Adelaide, for instance, if we allow more people to live near rivers, they are more likely to be exposed to floods. And if more people live in the Adelaide Hills, they are more likely to be exposed to bushfires. </p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Further reading:</strong> <a href="https://theconversation.com/higher-density-in-a-flood-zone-heres-a-way-to-do-it-and-reduce-the-risks-86608">Higher density in a flood zone? Here’s a way to do it and reduce the risks</a></em></p>
<hr>
<p>Given the city’s population is expected to grow, land use planning is an essential aspect of hazard risk reduction. Planning should ensure that development occurs in areas where hazards are less likely to occur – if there are no people or buildings in areas prone to bushfires or floods, then there is no risk. </p>
<p>Local governments can also make decisions now that are likely to increase the resilience of communities and buildings that are exposed to hazards. For example, if building codes in Adelaide are changed today to require that all new buildings in bushfire-prone areas are <a href="http://theconversation.com/adapting-to-bushfires-a-new-idea-of-fire-proof-homes-54656">built from non-combustible material</a>, bushfire risk is unlikely to increase significantly. The risk might even decrease as old building stock is renewed. </p>
<p>Similarly, community education and campaigns to increase volunteering rates can increase long-term community resilience.</p>
<p>So the key to reducing risk is to understand that natural hazard risk is a combination of hazard, exposure and vulnerability (Figure 1).</p>
<p><strong>Figure 1: Elements of natural hazard risk</strong></p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192937/original/file-20171102-19889-bj0sn5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192937/original/file-20171102-19889-bj0sn5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192937/original/file-20171102-19889-bj0sn5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192937/original/file-20171102-19889-bj0sn5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192937/original/file-20171102-19889-bj0sn5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192937/original/file-20171102-19889-bj0sn5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=481&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192937/original/file-20171102-19889-bj0sn5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=481&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192937/original/file-20171102-19889-bj0sn5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=481&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The hazard component of the risk triangle in figure 1 corresponds to the likelihood that a hazard, such as a flood or bushfire, will actually occur at a particular location. If there is no hazard, there is no risk. </p>
<p>Exposure refers to who or what is exposed to the hazard at a particular location (who or what is getting wet, for example, in the case of a flood). This could be people, industry, agriculture, buildings and critical infrastructure. So even if a hazard occurs at a particular location, if nothing of value is exposed to the hazard, there is no risk.</p>
<p>Vulnerability corresponds to the impact or damage to people and assets that are exposed to a natural hazard event. For example, if a building is exposed to a bushfire, how the building is constructed has an impact on the resulting damage. </p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Further reading:</strong> <a href="https://theconversation.com/future-bushfires-will-be-worse-we-need-to-adapt-now-53041">Future bushfires will be worse: we need to adapt now</a></em></p>
<hr>
<p>It is also vital to understand that long-term local planning decisions have greater potential to affect changes in exposure and vulnerability. This, then, is where we find the greatest opportunity for reducing long-term natural disaster risk.</p>
<p>Given that risk-reduction measures targeting exposure and vulnerability take time to take effect, it is vital that decisions affecting future risk are made now. A potential problem with this approach is that we don’t know what the future holds, especially in a time of unprecedented technological, political and socioeconomic change. </p>
<h2>Modelling different scenarios</h2>
<p>To manage this challenge, we worked with policymakers to develop storylines representing five different plausible futures for greater Adelaide until 2050. These scenarios were framed around challenges to community resilience and to implementing top-down <a href="http://www.preventionweb.net/publications/view/53542">policy measures to reduce natural hazard risks</a> (Table 1). </p>
<p><strong>Table 1: Challenges to implementing mitigation options and to community resilience</strong></p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/188914/original/file-20171005-21957-1c7dus5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/188914/original/file-20171005-21957-1c7dus5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/188914/original/file-20171005-21957-1c7dus5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=319&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/188914/original/file-20171005-21957-1c7dus5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=319&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/188914/original/file-20171005-21957-1c7dus5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=319&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/188914/original/file-20171005-21957-1c7dus5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/188914/original/file-20171005-21957-1c7dus5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/188914/original/file-20171005-21957-1c7dus5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Riddell et al, 2017</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We then modelled these scenarios in a decision-support system that integrates models for hazards, land use and building stock (Figure 2).</p>
<p><strong>Figure 2: Integrating models for hazards, land use and building stock in a decision support system</strong></p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192777/original/file-20171101-8508-1nq40t5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192777/original/file-20171101-8508-1nq40t5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192777/original/file-20171101-8508-1nq40t5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192777/original/file-20171101-8508-1nq40t5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192777/original/file-20171101-8508-1nq40t5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192777/original/file-20171101-8508-1nq40t5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192777/original/file-20171101-8508-1nq40t5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192777/original/file-20171101-8508-1nq40t5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Risk was expressed in terms of average annual loss per 100m by 100m grid cell. This enabled us to compare the risks associated with the different hazards in each mapped area (Figure 3). For the purposes of illustration, these three scenarios are shown:</p>
<ul>
<li><p><strong>Silicon Hills</strong> (low challenges to mitigation and resilience) - Greater Adelaide transitions towards a new technology-focused economy, driven by highly skilled and engaged locals and expatriates. Residents enjoy the relaxed, nature-filled lifestyle the region offers.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Cynical Villagers</strong> (mitigation challenges dominate) – Greater Adelaide experiences low population growth but maintains a preference for large, newly developed properties. Community attitudes lead to environmental assets being strongly protected with an emphasis on small-scale, high-quality agricultural products.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Ignorance of the Lambs</strong> (resilience challenges dominate) – Greater Adelaide experiences large population growth, driven by migration. This creates a need for more commuter developments, with people attracted to existing activity centres along transport routes. </p></li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Figure 3: Changes in exposure to hazards for three of the five scenarios</strong></p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192779/original/file-20171101-8441-1vwfdqb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192779/original/file-20171101-8441-1vwfdqb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192779/original/file-20171101-8441-1vwfdqb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192779/original/file-20171101-8441-1vwfdqb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192779/original/file-20171101-8441-1vwfdqb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192779/original/file-20171101-8441-1vwfdqb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=542&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192779/original/file-20171101-8441-1vwfdqb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=542&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192779/original/file-20171101-8441-1vwfdqb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=542&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A ‘policy wind tunnel’ test</h2>
<p>We could then explore the impacts of different risk-reduction strategies under a range of plausible climate, economic and population scenarios. </p>
<p>Using <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364815216300780?via%3Dihub">exploratory scenarios</a> together with <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364815216311239">modelling to support decision-making</a> enables us to explore the impact of today’s decisions on the potential future risk of natural hazards in a safe environment. It’s like using a “policy wind tunnel” to stress-test different risk-reduction strategies under a range of potential future conditions. </p>
<p>Such an approach enables decision-makers to minimise future risks by identifying and implementing policy options that are likely to be effective under a wide range of plausible conditions. And that means we can avoid being caught by surprise by the impacts of future natural hazard events.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/84286/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Holger Robert Maier receives funding from the Bushfire and Natural Hazards CRC. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Graeme Riddell receives funding from the Bushfire & Natural Hazard CRC. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hedwig van Delden receives funding from the Bushfire and Natural Hazards CRC.</span></em></p>What decisions can we make today to reduce the future risk of hazards like floods and fire? Particularly in a time of climate change, modelling various plausible futures helps us plan for uncertainty.Holger Robert Maier, Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of AdelaideGraeme Riddell, Research Fellow, School of Civil, Environmental and Mining Engineering, University of AdelaideHedwig van Delden, Adjunct Associate Professor, University of AdelaideLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/855222017-11-14T02:43:23Z2017-11-14T02:43:23ZCan cities get smarter about extreme weather?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/193837/original/file-20171108-14209-ij0s4k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The intensity of heavy downpours in Houston has increased dramatically since the 1950s, leading some people to argue the city's disaster planning and infrastructure are not up-to-date. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">AP Photo/David J. Phillip</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Remember the movie <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AiAHlZVgXjk">“Moneyball”</a>? The Oakland A’s are struggling, financially and on the baseball field. Then they introduce an innovative system for figuring out which players will improve team performance. Moving away from observations by scouts, the A’s begin to use advanced statistics to value players. With their new insights, the A’s acquire high-impact players for relatively little money. Within a season, they’re at the top of the game and so successful that within a few years the rest of the league has reorganized how they value players, too.</p>
<p>“Moneyball” highlights the power of innovative <a href="http://cspo.org/library/knowledge-systems-analysis-a-report-for-the-advancing-conservation-in-a-social-context-project/">knowledge systems</a>: creative new sets of tools and practices for collecting, analyzing and applying data to solving problems. All organizations depend on knowledge systems, but it’s not uncommon, over time, for the knowledge they generate to become stale and poorly adapted to changing contexts.</p>
<p>As researchers on resilience and sustainability of cities, we’ve found that unfortunately that has become the case for a number of <a href="http://mdpi.com/1999-4907/8/6/203/htm">cities</a>. This is already causing problems: Outdated knowledge systems have <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13753-015-0052-7">exacerbated recent disasters</a> and contributed to growing financial losses from extreme weather, which have exceeded <a href="https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/billions/time-series">US$110 billion</a> in the U.S. this year alone.</p>
<p>Discussions around improving resilience and adaptation to extreme events often focus on <a href="https://theconversation.com/6-rules-for-rebuilding-infrastructure-in-an-era-of-unprecedented-weather-events-83129">upgrading infrastructure</a> or building new infrastructure, such as bigger levees or flood walls. But cities also need new ways of knowing, evaluating and anticipating risk by updating their information systems.</p>
<h2>500-year flood</h2>
<p>Consider the use of <a href="https://water.usgs.gov/edu/100yearflood.html">100-year</a> or 500-year flood levels to guide urban planning and development. Using this framework, cities hope to prevent small floods while limiting the occurrence of catastrophic flooding. </p>
<p>Yet, <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/amphtml/news/capital-weather-gang/wp/2017/09/13/we-still-dont-know-how-to-talk-about-floods/">the data behind this strategy</a> are rapidly becoming obsolete. <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/srep07093">Weather statistics are now changing</a> in many places. As a result, cities are experiencing <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/08/28/climate/500-year-flood-hurricane-harvey-houston.html?mcubz=0&mcubz=3">repeat 500-year floods, sometimes multiple times, in a few decades or less</a>. Yet cities continue to rely almost exclusively on historical data for projecting future risks.</p>
<p>The city of Houston, Texas, for example, has experienced a <a href="http://www.climatecentral.org/news/across-us-heaviest-downpours-on-the-rise-18989">167 percent increase in the intensity of heavy downpours</a> between 2005-2014 as compared to 1950-1959. The 2017 Hurricane Harvey flood in Houston represented the <a href="https://www.technologyreview.com/s/608800/our-hurricane-risk-models-are-dangerously-out-of-date/">third 500-year flood to occur in the past three years</a>. Prior to Harvey, Harris County flood control managers <a href="https://www.texastribune.org/boomtown-floodtown/">downplayed the need to change their knowledge systems</a>, arguing that the two prior flooding events were isolated events.</p>
<h2>New possible futures</h2>
<p>Cities need to better anticipate what would happen in the case of these types of unprecedented extreme weather events. The past few years have seen a growing number of <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/energy-environment/wp/2017/04/24/record-breaking-climate-events-all-over-the-world-are-being-shaped-by-global-warming-scientists-find/?utm_term=.ae0c33845413">record-breaking</a> storms, <a href="http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2015/02/150212-megadrought-southwest-water-climate-environment/">droughts</a> and other weather events. </p>
<p>The National Weather Service labeled Hurricane Harvey <a href="https://twitter.com/NWS/status/901832717070983169">“unprecedented,”</a> both for the rapidity of its intensification and the record levels of rainfall it dumped on Houston. Hurricane María hit San Juan as the <a href="http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/hurricane-maria-1.4297889">third-strongest storm to make landfall in the U.S.</a>, based on air pressure measurements. Its <a href="https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/why-hurricane-maria-surprised-forecasters-by-getting-so-strong-so-fast/">rapid intensification surprised forecasters</a> and presents yet another challenge to climate and weather models. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/194012/original/file-20171109-13317-rs1uef.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/194012/original/file-20171109-13317-rs1uef.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/194012/original/file-20171109-13317-rs1uef.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194012/original/file-20171109-13317-rs1uef.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194012/original/file-20171109-13317-rs1uef.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194012/original/file-20171109-13317-rs1uef.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194012/original/file-20171109-13317-rs1uef.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194012/original/file-20171109-13317-rs1uef.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hit hard by Hurricane Maria, Puerto Rico needs to rebuild infrastructure, such as this dam and its power grid. But it also needs to update the assumptions around extreme weather that go into planning and design.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">AP Photo/Ramon Espinosa</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Record-breaking events like these <a href="https://www.sciencefriday.com/segments/hurricane-harvey-and-the-new-normal/">cannot be made sense of using statistics</a> grounded on the past frequency of occurrence. Not recognizing the growing risks from extreme weather is dangerous and costly if cities continue to <a href="https://twitter.com/RogerPielkeJr/status/906239357757030400">create more buildings</a> that are more expensive in <a href="https://mobile.nytimes.com/2005/12/11/us/nationalspecial/in-study-a-history-lesson-on-the-costs-of-hurricanes.html">increasingly vulnerable locations</a>.</p>
<p>What’s needed are new and more creative ways to explore possible futures and their <a href="https://nextcity.org/daily/entry/cambridge-plan-climate-change-worst-case-scenario">potential implications</a>. One approach is to use climate or other predictive models. Such models are never perfect but can add important elements to discussions that can’t be gotten from historical data. </p>
<p>For instance, cities can look at projected sea level rise or storm surges and decide whether it makes economic sense to rebuild homes after damaging storms, or whether it’s better to compensate homeowners to move outside the flood zone. </p>
<h2>Designing for tomorrow’s storms</h2>
<p>Cities also need to upgrade their knowledge systems to anticipate risks in what are often called “design storms.” These are the anticipated future storms that people who design and build individual structures – from buildings to flood walls – are required to use in their designs as a minimum risk standard. </p>
<p>Cities need to seriously <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/srep07093?message-global=remove">rethink their design storm standards</a> if they are to fully understand and be comfortable with the future risks from extreme weather events to which their businesses and residents are being exposed.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/193835/original/file-20171108-14167-1nzbgg6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/193835/original/file-20171108-14167-1nzbgg6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/193835/original/file-20171108-14167-1nzbgg6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/193835/original/file-20171108-14167-1nzbgg6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/193835/original/file-20171108-14167-1nzbgg6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/193835/original/file-20171108-14167-1nzbgg6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/193835/original/file-20171108-14167-1nzbgg6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/193835/original/file-20171108-14167-1nzbgg6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Municipalities invest heavily in infrastructure, such as this spillway in Sacramento, to guard against flooding and other extreme weather events, but their design models are lagging as the climate changes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/usacehq/17620024974/in/photolist-cEEZW7-pvNAkt-9riqyt-peimZD-75Ezfo-ciLpGE-fhd2LU-cR6Lxq-cyRqa7-9nPMte-9GDgGy-bk9zcN-qYtZ8Y-fgXN98-9MaACX-qobkRa-cR6KQS-75EMDN-9isosR-qG1gkN-pvNffi-pvLM3G-cR6MN1-9MayiX-qfKdGX-bSSmKt-awFSK3-qPWyBL-75Bdmv-piL6bG-cR6KnW-cR6Ldy-ei6RL9-nt6kgR-fhd2nW-qfFRaS-9GoAhf-nt6gNP-9GkJt4-9Mawik-DmaCjc-qQ8TQ2-rsAX9F-Jd4sfw-whHWXE-tN9VJ6-sR26NJ-sR2ey3-rLPGvJ-LgR5WU">U.S. Army Corps of Engineers</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In New Orleans, for example, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers created a <a href="http://www.asce.org/question-of-ethics-articles/july-2015/">Standard Project Hurricane</a> in 1957 that defined the wind speeds and storm surges that the levees built around the city would have to withstand. As with most design storms, the Standard Project Hurricane was based on retrospective data of past hurricane frequency and intensity in the century prior to 1957. In subsequent decades, however, hurricane frequency and intensity changed significantly in the Gulf of Mexico, the Standard Project Hurricane was not updated and protection infrastructures were not upgraded, contributing to their failure in the face of <a href="https://biotech.law.lsu.edu/katrina/reports/erpreport.pdf">Hurricane Katrina</a>.</p>
<h2>Cities and federal government</h2>
<p>One final area for knowledge systems innovation in cities is risk inequalities.</p>
<p>It seems increasingly clear that cities like Houston, New York and New Orleans were poorly informed about how flooding risks would be distributed across communities within their cities, particularly communities of color and low-income communities. </p>
<p>This inattention to disproportionate risk raises several questions: Were the communities of these flood-prone cities aware of these risks and vulnerabilities? How much did <a href="http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/houston-harvey-drainage-1.4267585">city officials and developers know</a>? How did their efforts exacerbate existing disparities? Did people making decisions about where to live <a href="https://qz.com/1073503/hurricane-irma-many-floridians-are-now-in-danger-because-they-didnt-know-how-to-read-a-hurricane-map/">understand the risks they faced</a>? </p>
<p>The significance of knowledge systems for urban resilience extends beyond cities to national agencies and organizations. Sadly, the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/15/climate/flooding-infrastructure-climate-change-trump-obama.html?mcubz=3">Trump administration decided</a> in August to issue an executive order exempting federal agencies and public infrastructure projects from planning for sea level rise. <a href="http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/us-politics/donald-trump-barack-obama-flood-protections-flooding-hurricane-harvey-houston-texas-a7916476.html">Abolishing flood standards</a> is a step backwards for fostering knowledge systems that enhance urban resilience. </p>
<p>Even if federal agencies choose to ignore sea level rise, we believe cities should pressure them to take it into account. In the end, it is the city and its people who are being put at risk, not the federal government. It is promising, for example, to see local and regional efforts like the <a href="http://www.southeastfloridaclimatecompact.org/who-we-are/">Southeast Florida Regional Climate Compact</a> coming to together to upgrade their <a href="https://theconversation.com/can-a-single-region-in-florida-show-the-state-how-to-adapt-to-climate-change-63298">resilience knowledge systems</a> and advocate for desirable federal policies for climate adaptation.</p>
<p>What cities know and how they think are <a href="http://www.100resilientcities.org/resources/">essential to whether cities can make better decisions</a>. For over a century, cities have broadly approached knowledge about weather risks by collecting and averaging past weather data. Nature is now sending cities a simple message: <a href="https://www.wired.com/story/hurricane-irma-a-practically-impossible-storm/">That strategy won’t work anymore</a>.</p>
<p><em>This article was produced by the Knowledge Systems Innovation Group at Arizona State University’s Urban Resilience to Extreme Events Sustainability Research Network (UREx SRN) (Eric Kennedy, Margaret Hinrichs, Changdeok Gim, Kaethe Selkirk, Pani Pajouhesh, Robert Hobbins, Mathieu Feagan).</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/85522/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Clark Miller receives funding from the National Science Foundation for research on resilience, innovation, and knowledge systems. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Thaddeus R. Miller receives funding from the National Science Foundation. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tischa Muñoz-Erickson receives funding from the National Science Foundation.</span></em></p>It’s not just about rebuilding infrastructure after storms: Cities need to systematically rethink their knowledge systems which are at the heart of urban resilience.Clark Miller, Professor of the Future of Innovation in Society, Arizona State UniversityThaddeus R. Miller, Assistant Professor, School for the Future of Innovation in Society and The Polytechnic School, Arizona State UniversityTischa Muñoz-Erickson, Research Social Scientist, International Institute of Tropical Forestry Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/864372017-11-09T04:00:45Z2017-11-09T04:00:45ZWhy solar ‘microgrids’ are not a cure-all for Puerto Rico’s power woes<p>In addition to its many other devastating human consequences, Hurricane Maria left the island of Puerto Rico with its power grid in ruins. Power was knocked out throughout the island, with an estimated <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2017/09/29/restoring-puerto-ricos-power-is-going-to-be-overwhelming-prepa-says.html">80 percent</a> of its transmission and distribution wires incapacitated. When hospitals and other critical users could not get backup power and water supplies ran low, an extended outage became a humanitarian crisis that has yet to be resolved.</p>
<p>This shameful outcome should have been avoided with strong, swift federal leadership. Yet more than five weeks after the storm, only <a href="http://status.pr/">about 40 percent</a> of the grid has been rebuilt, and service remains unreliable even where power is restored.</p>
<p>As the recovery process inches its way forward, the questions many are asking go like this: Why are we rebuilding the grid to be the same as it was before the storm? Can’t we use this as an opportunity to create a more modern, resilient, renewable power system? Isn’t this the perfect opportunity for an upgrade?</p>
<p>The answer to these questions, from my perspective having worked with and researched the power industry for four decades, has little to do with technologies and everything to do with some nearly insurmountable financial and governance challenges. There is a path forward, but it will not be easy.</p>
<h2>The power system before Maria</h2>
<p>Prior to Maria, Puerto Rico had one of the largest public power authorities in the U.S., known as PREPA, serving a population of <a href="https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/PR">3.4 million people</a> from 31 power plants, 293 substations and <a href="https://www.aeepr.com/INVESTORS/OperationalProfile.aspx">32,000 miles of wire</a>. Almost half its generation was from old, very expensive oil-fired plants, <a href="https://www.utilitydive.com/news/puerto-rico-considers-privatization-for-islands-generation/507999/">resulting in prices about 22 cents per kilowatt hour</a>, among the highest in the U.S. The island has several solar photovoltaic farms but gets about <a href="https://www.eia.gov/state/print.php?sid=RQ">46 percent of its power from oil and only about 3 percent from solar</a>.</p>
<p>At the center of all this is PREPA and its outsized role in Puerto Rico. With US$9 billion of debt, PREPA has been part of the contentious refinancing process that ultimately required congressional action. PREPA is also the largest employer on the island, with strong connections to the island’s leadership, so proposals perceived to adversely impact PREPA can be difficult to enact. Recently the island has established a new energy commission called <a href="http://energia.pr.gov/en/about-the-commission/">PREC</a> with oversight over PREPA’s plans, spending and rates.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/193599/original/file-20171107-1014-1p28rr5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/193599/original/file-20171107-1014-1p28rr5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/193599/original/file-20171107-1014-1p28rr5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=387&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/193599/original/file-20171107-1014-1p28rr5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=387&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/193599/original/file-20171107-1014-1p28rr5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=387&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/193599/original/file-20171107-1014-1p28rr5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=486&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/193599/original/file-20171107-1014-1p28rr5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=486&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/193599/original/file-20171107-1014-1p28rr5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=486&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hurricane Maria knocked out long-distance transmission lines that transmit power from more remote parts of the island in addition to local utility poles.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">AP Photo/Gerald Herbert</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The PREC’s efforts at reform underscore the enormous challenges the utility faces. In September 2016 the <a href="http://energia.pr.gov/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/23-sept-2016-Final-Resolution-and-Order-IRP-CEPR-AP-2015-0002.pdf">PREC issued an order directing PREPA</a> to convert some of its oil plants to gas, renegotiate some high-priced renewables contracts and purchase more renewable energy. </p>
<p>In April 2017 PREPA issued a new financial plan with starkly grim prospects: a $4 billion maintenance backlog, the loss of fully one-quarter of its sales in the next 10 years, and <a href="http://energia.pr.gov/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/23-sept-2016-Final-Resolution-and-Order-IRP-CEPR-AP-2015-0002.pdf">continued red ink as far as the eye can see. </a> Meanwhile, renewable power developers who have tried to build plants on the island have encountered great difficulties, as chronicled in <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/puerto-rico-reconstruction-lowering-electricity-costs-kerinia-cusick/">this blog post.</a></p>
<p>Then, just before Maria, PREPA declared bankruptcy. Maria therefore destroyed the grid of a system that was already bankrupt, having trouble maintaining its service and paying its bills, resistant to renewable interconnections, and politically difficult to reform. </p>
<h2>Proposals for rebuilding with microgrids</h2>
<p>The challenge, then, is to 1) restore energy access as quickly as possible; 2) begin to build a long-term resilient and operable grid; and 3) reform a broken regulatory system. In the wake of the storm, clean energy experts and businesses saw this as the perfect opportunity to start over. </p>
<p>“Puerto Rico will lead the way for the new generation of clean energy infrastructure,” one solar CEO asserted, <a href="https://www.spectrum.ieee.org/energywise/energy/the-smarter-grid/should-a-devastated-caribbean-leap-forward-to-renewable-power-and-microgrids">“and the world will follow.”</a> Elon Musk also <a href="https://twitter.com/elonmusk/status/916234148104118272?lang=en">famously tweeted</a> an offer to solve the island’s energy problems with Tesla solar systems and batteries. </p>
<p>With an array of solar panels and batteries, a group of buildings, such as a hospital, or a neighborhood can power itself and operate independently in the case of an outage with the central grid – called “islanding” in industry parlance. </p>
<p>Provided they can be paid for and operated safely, quickly setting up these solar microgrid systems is an excellent measure that is both stopgap and long-term contributor. These systems can be set up in a matter of days, providing enough power to help neighborhoods with critical power needs, such as cellphone charging, powering cash machines and providing electricity service for health care and first responders. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"922840234143952899"}"></div></p>
<p>However, these systems cost tens of thousands of dollars, and there is currently no substantial way to pay for them other than the kindness of strangers. Three-and-a-half million people would need perhaps 350,000 of these systems – at a price tag in the billions – to provide only a fraction of most families’ power needs. </p>
<p>Even if costs were not a consideration, these distributed systems aren’t a substitute for the grid. Many people think that microgrids don’t need poles and wires, but if they serve more than one building they use pretty much the same grid as we use today. </p>
<p>Once the grid is rebuilt, the new grid-independent systems should then become part of a series of new community microgrids, or networks of multiple solar panel installations backed up by storage. These interconnected systems would be able to “island” together to keep the whole community running at partial if not complete levels of service. With the necessary planning and approvals, new community power organizations could be set up – perhaps separate from PREPA – <a href="http://thehill.com/opinion/energy-environment/353869-puerto-rico-needs-microgrids-and-private-buy-in-for-reliable">to finance the conversion of local grids to a more resilient form</a>. </p>
<p>So there is a path from the current grid to one that is far cleaner and more resilient, but it’s not simple or quick. It would require melding complete and rapid restoration of power with a major infusion of capital.</p>
<p>Changing the base of generation from PREPA’s aging, inefficient fleet to clean sources is an essential part of this path. However, even at an extremely fast pace, it takes months to plan the economics, financing and engineering of this transition. More commonly, it takes years and careful economic and financial planning to raise the billions of dollars of capital needed and then spend it wisely.</p>
<h2>A sustainable, resilient path forward</h2>
<p>Puerto Rico’s citizens have endured great hardship and tragedy. We as a society certainly owe it to them to do whatever we can to lessen the damage from the next hurricane and speed power restoration. However, the path to a sustainable and resilient grid for the island is not as simple as air-dropping solar panels and other equipment onto the island and assuming all will be well. The suggestion that restoring power by replanting the current poles and wires will foreclose a more distributed solution isn’t correct, nor is it the most equitable way to restore power to everyone as quickly as possible.</p>
<p>This isn’t to say that the installation of fully independent solar systems and microgrids should be discouraged in any way. With the important provision that the hardware is maintained properly, the more solar and storage we can get onto the island sooner the better. </p>
<p>At this point, Puerto Rico’s grid is being rebuilt essentially <a href="https://www.eenews.net/stories/1060065805">as it was before</a>.</p>
<p>But even as the grid is rebuilt as quickly as possible, the planning and engineering should begin on how to migrate the grid to smaller sections that self-island. This must include all the main aspects of power system development and operation, including financing, ownership, operation and maintenance of the systems. </p>
<p>The only logical way for Puerto Rico – and every other storm-prone electric system – to become a series of resilient and clean microgrids is to first get the entire grid functioning and then to create sections that can separate themselves and operate independently when trouble hits. </p>
<p><em>Dr. Fox-Penner thanks Scott Sklar, Phil Hanser, Sameer Reddy, Thomas McAndrew and Jennie Hatch for input. All errors are his own.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/86437/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter Fox-Penner is an academic affiliate of the Brattle Group and Chief Strategy Officer for Energy Impact Partners, which owns interests in a number of clean energy firms listed on EIP's website. He currently sits on the advisory board of EOS energy storage. Peter is also director of the Institute of Sustainable Energy at Boston University, which receives funding from the Hewlett, Barr, Mitchell, and Energy Foundations as well as Bank of America and National Grid.</span></em></p>Yes, Puerto Rico and any other storm-vulnerable location could benefit from on-site solar and battery backup, but it’s unrealistic to say these microgrids are enough to power the island.Peter Fox-Penner, Director, Institute for Sustainable Energy, and Professor of Practice, Questrom School of Business, Boston UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/833442017-09-01T20:12:27Z2017-09-01T20:12:27ZWhat Hurricane Harvey says about risk, climate and resilience<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/184386/original/file-20170901-27235-1grq5lf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Hurricane Harvey from the International Space Station on August 28.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/gsfc/36724564692/in/photolist-XXdZBS-Y2uFNj-Y2qtAL-Y2qsNy-8w97Ts-WTXhwn-X5w6Q6-XwY1hG-Y5R2eV-X2zbsW-Yg7Vc6-XZyR1k-XwZ5QN-X1uCRJ-XVgS91-X2z9X1-X2zbcq-8w661z-WNPa8k-5wynaq-X2za6N-Y1JRT1-WUN2wz-5wu3xM-8w5QGH-5wyngo-8w8Tdw-X2z9FE-8w65JP-XTqFwJ-XVWEAc-8w8TqL-XBmuTG-XBBArL-XXJJNU-XXjwNu-8w6656-XF4hfq-XXjy1j-WWGRJh-5wynhs-8w8Tn3-WYZ37B-YdqinT-WYZ4pM-WYZ4AZ-WYZ4Nx-XXjxiC-XBmupA-XBmvJE">NASA</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Hurricane Harvey has taught us many lessons, but the most valuable may be the oldest lesson of all, one we humans have been learning – and forgetting – since the dawn of time: how much we all have to lose when climate and weather disasters strike.</p>
<p>The risks we face from disasters depend on three factors: hazard, exposure and vulnerability. In the case of Harvey, the hazard was the hurricane with its associated winds, storm surge and, most of all, rain. Houston is one of North America’s biggest metro areas, making 6.6 million people exposed to this hazard. Finally, there’s our vulnerability to heavy rainfall events, in this case exacerbated by the city’s rapid expansion that has paved over former grasslands, overloaded critical infrastructure, challenged urban planning and <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-texans-heard-conflicting-messages-about-evacuating-ahead-of-hurricane-harvey-83203">limited evacuation routes</a>. These three factors explain the immense costs associated with tragedies like Hurricane Harvey.</p>
<p>As atmospheric scientists in Texas, we already know the hazards are real. Once the effects of Harvey have been added up, Texas and Louisiana will have been hit by <a href="https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/billions/mapping">more billion-plus dollar flooding events</a> since 1980 than any other states.</p>
<p>We also know that many of these hazards are intensifying. In a warmer world, <a href="http://nca2014.globalchange.gov/report/our-changing-climate/heavy-downpours-increasing">heavy precipitation</a> is on the rise, which increases the amount of rain associated with a given storm. <a href="https://www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-climate/climate-change-global-sea-level">Sea level</a> is rising, worsening the risks of coastal flooding and storm surge. At the cutting edge of climate research, scientists are also exploring how human-induced change may affect <a href="https://www.gfdl.noaa.gov/global-warming-and-hurricanes/">storm intensity</a> and the winds that steer the hurricanes. </p>
<p>This is why catastrophes like Harvey – in which every extra inch of rain can lead to additional damage and harm – highlight exactly how and why climate change matters to each and every one of us.</p>
<h2>Sensible response?</h2>
<p>People know the climate is changing, but they don’t know how serious it is. <a href="http://climatecommunication.yale.edu/visualizations-data/ycom-us-2016/">Over 70 percent</a> of Americans agree that the climate is changing, but less than half of us believe it will affect us personally. </p>
<p>Why? Perhaps because the image we associate most often with a changing climate is not the devastation left by a flood in our own state but rather a polar bear perched on a chunk of melting ice or an African farmer bearing silent witness to the impacts of a disaster that’s taken place on the other side of the world.</p>
<p>As tragedy unfolds, we must focus on the immediate response. But in the weeks and months that follow, we need to remember that, despite our air conditioners, our insurance and the politicized discourse that suggests that the science is somehow a matter of opinion rather than fact, we are incredibly vulnerable to natural disasters – disasters that are increasingly being amplified in a warming world.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/184387/original/file-20170901-27291-1gs7xxv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/184387/original/file-20170901-27291-1gs7xxv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/184387/original/file-20170901-27291-1gs7xxv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184387/original/file-20170901-27291-1gs7xxv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184387/original/file-20170901-27291-1gs7xxv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184387/original/file-20170901-27291-1gs7xxv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184387/original/file-20170901-27291-1gs7xxv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184387/original/file-20170901-27291-1gs7xxv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Finding safety in Texas: Society as a whole needs to recognize the growing risk of extreme weather events from a changing climate.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">AP Photo/Gerald Herbert</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>What sensible, pragmatic, bipartisan steps can we take to increase our resilience to risks that a disaster like Hurricane Harvey represents? This question must be asked, because the current administration has proposed <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/capital-weather-gang/wp/2017/05/24/white-house-budget-aims-to-slow-gains-in-weather-forecasting-shocking-weather-community/?utm_term=.fd84e94dbdea">cutting the budget</a> of the National Weather Service and other agencies that <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/proposed-budget-for-commerce-would-cut-funds-for-noaa/2017/03/15/6c93d864-09ad-11e7-93dc-00f9bdd74ed1_story.html?utm_term=.5c0096291085">study and forecast weather and climate disasters</a> and has rescinded regulations <a href="http://www.newsweek.com/trump-signed-away-obamas-flood-risk-rules-weeks-hurricane-harvey-hit-655712">designed to address rising sea levels</a> when constructing infrastructure. </p>
<p>First and foremost, we should reduce our exposure and build resilience to the hazards we already face today. We can’t continue building in places that we know will flood. We need to build and modernize infrastructure to make our water management systems more resilient to both floods and droughts. We must continue to invest in the weather forecasting systems that provided advance warning and in the public services that build community resilience and provide disaster response.</p>
<p>Ultimately, though, even these practical steps may not be enough. In a changing climate, building capacity and resilience to cope with today’s risks leave us unprepared for future extremes. That’s why, in order to reduce the risk of disasters both here and abroad, we need to minimize the climate change that is turbocharging these events. And that means reducing our emissions of the heat-trapping greenhouse gases.</p>
<h2>Changing the risk equation</h2>
<p>Here again Texas can lead the way. We’re already <a href="http://www.awea.org/state-fact-sheets">number one in wind power production</a> by state, thanks to targeted investments that boosted the power grid connecting cities with windy regions. And we’ve only <a href="http://www.seia.org/research-resources/top-10-solar-states">begun to tap</a> our abundant solar resources. </p>
<p>The innovations that energy companies have pioneered to build offshore oil platforms can inform the development of, and investment in, offshore wind turbines and their knowledge of producing petrochemicals could be applied to more sustainably produced biofuels. </p>
<p>There will always be those who <a href="https://www.brookings.edu/blog/planetpolicy/2015/12/09/the-global-economic-costs-from-climate-change-may-be-worse-than-expected/">claim</a> that the costs of moving to cleaner energy sources and reducing carbon emissions are too high. But the U.S. has improved air quality in ways in which the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/clean-air-act-overview/benefits-and-costs-clean-air-act-1990-2020-second-prospective-study">benefits greatly exceed the costs</a> and <a href="https://www.state.gov/e/oes/eqt/chemicalpollution/83007.htm">replaced ozone-depleting chemicals</a>, all while the <a href="https://gispub.epa.gov/air/trendsreport/2017/#growth_w_cleaner_air">economy has grown</a>. </p>
<p>Today, wind and solar power prices are now <a href="https://news.utexas.edu/2016/12/08/natural-gas-and-wind-are-the-lowest-cost-for-much-of-us">competitive with fossil fuels</a> across Texas. Across the country, these industries already employ <a href="http://www.politifact.com/illinois/statements/2017/apr/25/brad-schneider/are-there-three-times-many-solar-energy-jobs-coal-/">far more people than coal mining</a>. Electric cars may soon be as affordable as gasoline ones and be charged in ways that help balance the fluctuations in wind and solar power. Only someone profoundly pessimistic would bet against the ability of American ingenuity to repower our economy.</p>
<p>Hurricane Harvey exemplifies the risks we all face – and a more dangerous future if we don’t take actions now. More people and vulnerable infrastructure exposed to more frequent and intense hazards equals even greater risk for us in the future. The time to rethink the equation is now.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/83344/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew Dessler receives funding from NASA and the National Science Foundation. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Daniel Cohan's research program receives funding from NASA and has previously received funding from the Environmental Protection Agency, National Science Foundation, and Texas Commission on Environmental Quality.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Katharine Hayhoe's research program at Texas Tech University is supported by funding from the National Science Foundation, the Department of the Interior, and Department of Transportation. She is also the CEO of ATMOS Research, a consulting company that helps cities, states, provinces and regions build resilience to a changing climate</span></em></p>Three atmospheric scientists from Texas say Hurricane Harvey shows how the country needs to adapt to the effects of climate change and cut carbon emissions.Andrew Dessler, Professor of Atmospheric Sciences, Texas A&M UniversityDaniel Cohan, Associate Professor of Environmental Engineering, Rice UniversityKatharine Hayhoe, Professor and Director, Climate Science Center, Texas Tech UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/806772017-07-11T20:13:59Z2017-07-11T20:13:59ZWhat actually is a good city?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/177303/original/file-20170707-3066-7x2ly3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">It's hard to see how a city can be good for all its people unless they are involved in its creation.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Paul James</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>This is one of a <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/ecocity-summit-40496">series</a> of articles to coincide with the 2017 <a href="https://www.ecocity2017.com/">Ecocity World Summit</a>, which begins today in Melbourne.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>Our cities have now been named as the saving places of a planet in crisis. And yet we cannot decide on the principles that make for a good city. Everybody has a view, but some views are more sustainable than others.</p>
<p>What we desperately need is a big and general public dialogue about the principles that make for a good city. This is the basis of our project, <a href="https://www.ecocity2017.com/about/principles-for-better-cities/">Principles for Better Cities</a>, led by the City of Berlin. It provides a platform for the <a href="https://www.ecocity2017.com/">Ecocity World Summit</a> in Melbourne this week.</p>
<h2>Broader vision is needed</h2>
<p>We need to get beyond the current tendency to become fixated on spruiking different high-level concepts. For example, IBM, Microsoft and Big Tech have put their money – or actually other people’s money – <a href="https://theconversation.com/creative-city-smart-city-whose-city-is-it-78258">on the smart city</a>.</p>
<p>But the concept of the smart city is too often reduced to narrow technological monitoring and big data collection. <a href="http://www.mckinsey.com/global-themes/urbanization/how-to-make-a-city-great">McKinsey</a> says that a good city will achieve “smart growth”. But tell that to Brussels, Chicago, Montreal, Toronto and Vienna, global cities that are <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/cities/gallery/2016/nov/02/global-population-decline-cities-mapped">declining in size</a>.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://mobilityexchange.mercer.com/quality-of-living-rankings">Mercer</a> group and <a href="https://www.economist.com/blogs/graphicdetail/2016/08/daily-chart-14">The Economist</a> tell us liveability is the key. However, they narrowly developed their indices for corporations seeking to decide on how much they will pay their executives for moving to less liveable cities. This raises a further question: “Liveable for whom?”</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/our-work/initiatives/100-resilient-cities/">Rockefeller Foundation is backing</a> the <a href="https://theconversation.com/has-the-100-resilient-cities-challenge-benefited-melbourne-60307">resilient city</a>. This too is an important concept. But much of its appeal to governments is in saving resources as they seek to defer increasing climate risks through pushing responsibility back to resilient communities to self-manage their recoveries.</p>
<h2>A common problem of definition</h2>
<p>What actually is a good city then? </p>
<p>Depending on who you ask, they are sustainable cities, liveable cities and resilient cities, but they are also adapting cities and carbon-neutral cities. Or they are caring cities, inclusive cities, just cities, peaceful cities, information cities and networked cities. To confuse things further, they are also prosperous cities, learning cities and innovative cities.</p>
<p>Just by listing these urban forms, the problem starts to become clearer. These are just concepts with shifting or weak definitions. They mean anything “good” and apply variously to anybody’s projections.</p>
<p>The second problem comes with deciding what is actually good about these different emphases.</p>
<p>As part of this difficulty, assigning different indicators to each of these urban forms is extraordinarily difficult. Is a city more liveable because it has a Mediterranean climate? That is what the current liveability indices would suggest. </p>
<p>Is a city more resilient because its “man-made assets” are more robust? (Excuse the gender-specific language here.) That is what the core resilience literature tells us.</p>
<h2>Who decides?</h2>
<p>The third problem centres on the question: “Who decides what is good?”</p>
<p>The principles and indicators tend to be decided by elite researchers working at a distance from the field, or by teams using sets of secondary data that may or may not be appropriate. </p>
<p>Elite teams develop black-box indicator sets (such as liveability indexes) that remain commercial-in-confidence. The data drive the index construction without consideration of the meaning of that data. For example, one index ranking better cities in the greater Sydney region is driven by an indicator that suggests a key consideration is being closer to the beach or mountains.</p>
<p>The fourth problem becomes how do we order and prioritise the many claims about what is good. There are so many considerations that the number of potential principles becomes overwhelming. </p>
<p>This happened to the <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-can-the-new-urban-agenda-and-sustainable-development-goals-do-for-cities-75533">New Urban Agenda</a>, developed by the United Nations over the last two years. It has hundreds of principles, all thrown together in an incomprehensible list. Cities are understandably confused.</p>
<h2>Towards an inclusive, holistic approach</h2>
<p>Our <a href="http://www.circlesofsustainability.org/principles/">Principles for Better Cities</a> attempt to respond to all these problems. Complementary to the New Urban Agenda, Principles for Better Cities is an initiative of the <a href="https://www.metropolis.org/">World Association of Major Metropolises</a>, which has been working with cities on a set of basic principles to guide good urban development.</p>
<p>This set is based on the proposition that, rather than just adding together a list of proposals from different current or immediate concerns, the principles should begin from a general framework that concerns the human condition.</p>
<p>We start with the idea that there should be basic principles that relate to the following basic domains of social life:</p>
<ul>
<li><p><a href="http://www.circlesofsustainability.org/circles-overview/profile-circles/ecology-2/">Ecology</a> – cities should have a deep and integrated relationship with nature.</p></li>
<li><p><a href="http://www.circlesofsustainability.org/circles-overview/profile-circles/economics/">Economics</a> – cities should be based on an economy organised around the social needs of all citizens.</p></li>
<li><p><a href="http://www.circlesofsustainability.org/circles-overview/profile-circles/politics-2/">Politics</a> – cities should have an enhanced emphasis on engaged and negotiated civic involvement.</p></li>
<li><p><a href="http://www.circlesofsustainability.org/circles-overview/profile-circles/culture-2/">Culture</a> – cities should actively develop ongoing processes for dealing with the uncomfortable intersections of identity and difference.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>These have become the top-level principles for going deeper and deeper, elaborated across more and more specific subdomains of practice. </p>
<p>And here is the completely novel dimension. These principles have been and will be debated by people. None of these principles are fixed, hidden, confusing, or commercial-in-confidence. They are the outcome of open dialogue.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>You can read other articles in the series <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/ecocity-summit-40496">here</a>. The <a href="https://www.ecocity2017.com/">Ecocity World Summit</a> is being hosted by the University of Melbourne, Western Sydney University, the Victorian government and the City of Melbourne in Melbourne from July 12-14._T</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/80677/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paul James receives funding from the Australian Research Council. He is affiliated with Metropolis and is Scientific Advisor to City of Berlin. He is a co-convenor of the Ecocity Summit.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brendan Gleeson receives funding from the UK Economic and Social Research Council and is a co-convenor of the Ecocity World Summit 2017. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>John Wiseman is a co-convenor of the Ecocity World Summit 2017</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Belinda Young does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Developing principles to create cities that are good for all is not easy. Who decides what is good? And for whom? We desperately need a big and general public discussion about this.Paul James, Professor of Globalization and Cultural Diversity, Western Sydney UniversityBelinda Young, Project Officer – Ecocity, Melbourne Sustainable Society Institute, The University of MelbourneBrendan Gleeson, Director, Melbourne Sustainable Society Institute, The University of MelbourneJohn Wiseman, Professorial Fellow, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/801992017-07-09T19:55:28Z2017-07-09T19:55:28ZMarket-driven compaction is no way to build an ecocity<p><em>This is the first of a <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/ecocity-summit-40496">series</a> of articles to coincide with the 2017 <a href="https://www.ecocity2017.com/">World Ecocity Summit</a> in Melbourne.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>As Melbourne hosts the <a href="https://www.ecocity2017.com/">Ecocity World Summit</a> this week, we might ponder the progress of Australia, a “nation of cities”, toward achieving sustainable urbanism.</p>
<p>Australian metropolitan planning has long subscribed to what urban geographer Clive Forster called the “<a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1745-5871.2006.00374.x/full">compact city consensus</a>”. This is a commitment to consolidated, well-designed, low-energy cities with high usage of public and active transport. But after decades of halting pursuit, we seem no closer to this ideal.</p>
<p>The 2016 <a href="https://soe.environment.gov.au/theme/built-environment">State of the Environment</a> report makes critical findings on metropolitan development. It casts these trends, at least in part, as market-driven compaction rather than planned consolidation. Leanne Hodyl’s much-reported <a href="https://www.churchilltrust.com.au/media/fellows/Hodyl_L_2014_Social_outcomes_in_hyper-dense_high-rise_residential_environments_1.pdf">2014 study</a> showed that:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>High-rise apartment towers are being built in central Melbourne at four times the maximum densities allowed in Hong Kong, New York and Tokyo – some of the highest-density cities in the world.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>She concludes that Australian regulation of high-rise development is uniquely weak.</p>
<h2>Market prevails over planning</h2>
<p>The compact city vision that has guided Australian metropolitan strategy for at least three decades was intended to realise sustainability in a form that departed from the extensive, car-dependent monocentrism of the post-war metropolis.</p>
<p>Yet planning has not been the principal directional force for urbanisation during this period. Instead, it has been dominated by a far more powerful political consensus, neoliberalism. </p>
<p>Whatever one thinks of the compact city ideal – and it is <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1745-5871.2011.00728.x/full">contested among urbanists</a> – its realisation required a commitment to planned urbanisation. But that was never likely during an era of relentless hollowing-out of state capacities, including those needed to manage cities.</p>
<p>Instead, other forces have shaped the course of urban change. These include national policies (especially immigration, taxation and financing), technological innovation, cultural shifts, political economy (notably neoliberal governance) and increasingly unrestrained market power. This set of transformational “furies” can be grouped under the rubrics of intensification and pluralisation.</p>
<p>These forces have undeniably produced many welcome and stimulating changes in our cities. However, our current course, if left uncorrected, will potentially drive Australian cities further away from the ideal of sustainable urbanism. </p>
<p>The increases in “bad pluralities” – notably social polarisation and poverty – betray this ideal as much as physical failings do. Rising social ills, especially the ice plague and family violence, are markers of this betrayal.</p>
<h2>‘Urban fracking’ undermines the city</h2>
<p>Market-driven intensification has in many places permitted a fracturing and ransacking of urban value and amenity, and of human wellbeing, by development capital that has worn the thin robe of legitimacy provided by the compact city ideal. </p>
<p>We might summarise this as “urban fracking”: a new means of blasting through accumulated layers of material and symbolic value to extract profit. </p>
<p>Miles Lewis <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books/about/Suburban_Backlash.html?id=lUHcAAAACAAJ">observed in 1999</a> that much redevelopment in Melbourne’s middle-ring neighbourhoods was parasitic. That is, it draws on (and thus depletes) existing amenity without adding to it. </p>
<p>More generally, this dispossession of urban value, from public (or communal) to private, takes myriad forms: amenity and infrastructure mining through overdevelopment, transfer of public housing stock <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-should-the-state-wriggle-out-of-providing-public-housing-79581">to private investors</a> in redevelopment, the continued non-taxation of <a href="https://theconversation.com/tax-on-unearned-gains-is-the-missing-piece-of-the-affordable-housing-puzzle-77010">unearned land value increments</a>, privatisation of assets and services, and fast-tracked and favourable development approvals.</p>
<h2>Ill-prepared for climate change</h2>
<p>These various plunderings and injuries also potentially reduce the sustainability and resilience of our cities at a time of clear threat, especially the “climate emergency”. </p>
<p>Reducing green space and open space ratios in redevelopment areas raises particular risks for rapidly rising inner-city populations. </p>
<p>Consider that Melbourne City Council has <a href="http://www.theage.com.au/victoria/plans-to-use-mcg-as-shelter-for-melbournes-heatwave-refugees-20150213-13em74.html">prepared a Heatwave Response Plan</a>, which will evacuate city residents to the Melbourne Cricket Ground, Etihad Stadium and the Convention and Exhibition Centre. The council recognises that 82% of residents now live in buildings “without passive ventilation”. That’s code for the air-conditioned towers that have done little for the cause of sustainability. </p>
<p>New modelling reveals that <a href="https://theconversation.com/contributions-to-sea-level-rise-have-increased-by-half-since-1993-largely-because-of-greenlands-ice-79175">sea-level rise</a> is <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-05-23/coastal-areas-at-risk-new-climate-study-reveals/8549934">likely to flood</a> many inner-city high-rise redevelopment areas in Australian cities. This includes the zones identified for evacuation in Melbourne’s Heatwave Response Plan.</p>
<h2>Governance must be restored</h2>
<p>As the <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/census-2016-29877">2016 Census</a> confirms, our rapidly growing core metro regions are evolving into ever more complex landscapes, which defy simple description. It could be tempting to conclude that the sources of their problems resist identification. But this is not true. At the core of our urban failing is governance in all of its necessary forms – economic, social and spatial.</p>
<p>Our cities appear increasingly unsustainable, chaotic and frankly ungovernable only because we allow this to happen. Long historical stretches of firm urban governance, notably in Brisbane and Melbourne, produced much more balanced and agreeable patterns of urbanisation than we are now experiencing.</p>
<p>The ever-mounting costs and failures of the “long night” of neoliberal governance are resonating ever more strongly within national politics. Economist John Quiggin believes this is feeding a new, if nascent, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2017/jul/05/governments-are-buying-up-where-the-market-has-failed-is-this-the-end-of-privatisation">appetite for public intervention and ownership</a>. </p>
<p>We must hope this desire for restoration of state capacities extends to the cities whose rapidly deteriorating development trajectories threaten national wellbeing. </p>
<p>The first necessity is to reinstate capacities for public economic governance. The need is especially great in the areas of infrastructure and urban services, which powerfully shape the general course of urbanisation.</p>
<p>After decades of relentless privatisation and deregulation, however, there is little to govern and little to govern with. </p>
<p>To improve metropolitan functioning, there will be no escaping the necessity of what the late ANU academic Peter Self described as “<a href="https://www.amazon.com/Rolling-Back-Market-Economic-Political/dp/0312226527">rolling back the market</a>”. This will require nationalisation of key assets, especially infrastructure, and stronger regulation of urban amenities, especially energy, transport and hydraulic services.</p>
<p>This is the first, urgent step towards resetting our urban course for sustainability. State governments could do so without delay. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, most cannot yet conceive of a true break from neoliberal urbanism. The New South Wales government recently <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-are-the-implications-of-privatising-land-title-offices-60099">privatised its land registry</a>. South Australia and Victoria <a href="https://theconversation.com/torrens-our-land-title-pioneer-might-have-approved-of-privatised-registries-78327">plan to do the same</a>. </p>
<p>If this mindset can be changed, the next imperative is to establish strong planning governance for our metropolitan regions so our freewheeling development furies can be steered towards more sustainable ends. Renewal of governance is the key to surviving let alone thriving in the urban age.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>The <a href="https://www.ecocity2017.com/">Ecocity World Summit</a> is being hosted by the University of Melbourne, Western Sydney University, the Victorian government and the City of Melbourne in Melbourne from July 12-14.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/80199/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brendan Gleeson receives funding from the UK Economic and Social Research Council and is a co-convenor of the Ecocity World Summit 2017. </span></em></p>Achieving the goal of sustainable cities depends on rolling back the market after decades of privatisation and deregulation.Brendan Gleeson, Director, Melbourne Sustainable Society Institute, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/689392017-04-20T15:49:02Z2017-04-20T15:49:02ZFighting injustice helps in creating resilient urban spaces<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/164067/original/image-20170405-14626-wo19d1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Cape Town offers is an example of one city balancing resilience and justice.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Resilience is a word that’s thrown around a lot these days. It means different things to different people, but generally alludes to the ability of people or systems to <a href="http://www.resalliance.org/resilience">bounce back from shocks</a>, and, increasingly find ways to emerge stronger than before. Shocks might be acute – like floods or cholera outbreaks – or chronic – like stress because of poverty or insecurity. The term, that emerged from ecological literature, is concerned with how systems work. It has grown to be used in many fields including engineering, psychology, development studies and geography.</p>
<p>The popular concept of <a href="https://books.google.co.za/books?hl=en&lr=&id=Y5FnAq9kjxgC&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=building+resilience+Berkes&ots=-t9-8ghx1R&sig=IjJ5ZMjjhprRK8JMyaWAJrnzWtg#v=onepage&q=building%20resilience%20Berkes&f=false">building resilience</a> is touted as a positive one. It’s seen as a way to find new opportunities and innovations to help people deal with stresses that affect their lives. But the popular push for resilience can bring its own set of problems.</p>
<p>Resilience is gaining increasing popularity at an international policy level. It’s in the 2015 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Paris <a href="http://unfccc.int/paris_agreement/items/9485.php">Agreement</a>, in the 2015 <a href="http://www.unisdr.org/we/coordinate/sendai-framework">Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction</a>, and most notably, in the new <a href="https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdgs">Sustainable Development Goals</a>. </p>
<p>In the <a href="http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals.html">development goals</a> the language of resilience is used in multiple ways, alongside wellbeing and poverty alleviation. Resilience is invoked in five goals.</p>
<p>But pushing a resilience agenda can have unintended consequences. Do efforts to build resilience automatically address injustices and inequality? We argue here, and in a <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0956247816686905">recently published article</a>, that they don’t. A focus on justice is lacking in resilience responses, particularly in the African context, where there’s high inequality, high poverty and significant injustices.</p>
<h2>Resilience on the ground</h2>
<p>There are concrete attempts to translate the global frameworks into actions on the ground. For instance, the <a href="https://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/">Rockefeller Foundation</a> has been supporting <a href="http://www.100resilientcities.org">cities internationally</a> since 2013 to put the concept of resilience into practice. Seven of Rockefeller’s 100 Resilient Cities are located in Africa. They are Nairobi, Addis Ababa, Accra, Dakar, Lagos, Cape Town and Durban. And many other cities and towns across Africa are involved in <a href="http://www.flowafrica.org">finding ways to increase their resilience</a>.</p>
<p>This seems perfectly logical. African cities have high levels of vulnerability. This is because of rapid in-migration, old infrastructure, limited capacity to manage the city, and high levels of poverty and informality, among other things. African cities are also places where innovation and growth is taking place. </p>
<p>Potentially, the development pathways of urban areas in Africa could be leapfrogged to <a href="http://www.christianaid.org.uk/images/LowCarbonAfrica.pdf">more sustainable pathways</a>. Pushing for resilience in urban Africa is central to helping build liveable and thriving cities.</p>
<p>But balancing resilience and justice is a much trickier proposition.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/164069/original/image-20170405-14612-etnguu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/164069/original/image-20170405-14612-etnguu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/164069/original/image-20170405-14612-etnguu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/164069/original/image-20170405-14612-etnguu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/164069/original/image-20170405-14612-etnguu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/164069/original/image-20170405-14612-etnguu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/164069/original/image-20170405-14612-etnguu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/164069/original/image-20170405-14612-etnguu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Mzuzu Malawi, is another example of the problems inherent in balancing justice and resilience.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Lukasz Lukomski/Wikimedia Commons</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Unintended consequences</h2>
<p>The City of Cape Town offers one of many examples of the challenges in balancing resilience and justice. City officials were aware of the need to manage their water leakage problem and realised that many households with high bills and leakages were relatively poor. </p>
<p>The city developed a programme to fit water management devices in the homes of poor people who have <a href="http://www.capetown.gov.za/Family%20and%20home/residential-utility-services/residential-water-and-sanitation-services/water-management-devices">high water bills.</a> These devices limit household water supply to 350 litres a day (based on households’ free water of 6kl per month plus an extra 4.5kl of free water monthly). When installed, the household debt is written off and the water leaks are fixed. </p>
<p>From the city’s point of view, this programme is increasing resilience through securing water supply and debt management for indigent households. </p>
<p>But residents find these devices <a href="http://www.emg.org.za/images/downloads/water_cl_ch/wdms%20shadow%20side.pdf">punitive and unjust</a>. Many have found that 350 litres are often not enough and leaks often resurface, as outlined in <a href="https://www.springerprofessional.de/en/water-rights-and-poverty-an-environmental-justice-approach-to-an/11806146">a recent paper</a>. Because the meter starts recording water use around 4.30am, the allocated water can be gone by 6am if there are leaks. This is just when the household needs the water. Households often end up asking neighbours for water, and find it hard to meet their economic and household water needs.</p>
<p>Another example of the problems inherent in balancing issues of justice and resilience comes from the city of Mzuzu, in northern Malawi. Here, flooding poses a <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212420916306719">major risk to the city</a>. To reduce the impact of flooding, the city introduced building codes that would make houses more resistant. </p>
<p>But what the city didn’t foresee was that the higher expense of building houses that could meet these codes would push people away from formally planned areas to build in informal, unplanned settlements. Unsurprisingly, the areas where they have settled are the only ones available, precisely because they are most vulnerable to flooding, for example along the steep riverbanks. And so people find themselves pushed by circumstances to build their non-code-compliant housing in the most flood prone areas of the city.</p>
<p>The people driving resilience interventions are often those in powerful positions. And there’s limited room for more marginalised groups to have their voice heard. The City of Cape Town, for example, didn’t consult local communities before putting in the water management devices. They just did it. </p>
<h2>Collaboration is crucial</h2>
<p><a href="http://www.reachingresilience.org/IMG/pdf/resilience_new_utopia_or_new_tyranny.pdf">Resilience approaches tend not to be pro-poor</a>, and issues of justice are often not considered. So, if resilience efforts don’t explicitly consider justice issues, they will end up making those who are the most in need of building resilience the least resilient.</p>
<p>But without justice and poverty, inequality can’t be reduced, nor can wellbeing be improved. And, if people are poor, suffer high inequality, and have low levels of wellbeing, they can’t withstand or respond to shocks and stresses well: the very thing that resilience-building is supposed to address. </p>
<p>There are no easy answers to ensure that resilience approaches don’t undermine justice. Both procedural justice – which looks at who gets a say in decision making – and distributive justice – which looks at who gets what slice of the pie – will need to be a part of the push for resilience. Decision makers and communities will need to work together to discuss these two questions, whenever “resilience-building” efforts are involved: <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02723638.2016.1206395.">resilience of what and for whom?</a></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/68939/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gina Ziervogel receives funding from the University of Cape Town African Climate and Development Initiative Chair Programme and from the National Research Foundation. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lorena Pasquini receives funding under the Urban Africa: Risk Knowledge (Urban ARK) research and capacity building programme, funded by the UK's Department for International Development and Economic and Social Research Council. </span></em></p>If resilience efforts don’t consider justice issues, they will end up making those who are the most in need the least resilient.Gina Ziervogel, Associate Professor, Department of Environmental and Geographical Science and African Climate and Development Initiative Research Chair, University of Cape TownLorena Pasquini, Research Coordinator, Lecturer and Senior Researcher, African Climate & Development Initiative, University of Cape TownLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/696112017-02-14T02:16:00Z2017-02-14T02:16:00ZRecovering from disasters: Social networks matter more than bottled water and batteries<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/155970/original/image-20170207-30915-mey630.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Survivors leave Tohoku a day after the March 11, 2011 earthquake and tsunami.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/808armada/8484105842/in/photolist-dVHg5W-9vqETc-bC37Hi-9qtD5P-9r8WEj-9yA4Ln-9qQXLU-dPJUqd-9z2Way-bn1o1y-9vkG4X-dPDhoX-9qB8nB-nd73kz-9rdj7q-9zSwpX-9GAwvT-aUYWhi-bn3sxJ-kU7mqZ-7GcwNH-9qNA1R-9Ff7aF-9Gdjj5-bn1nWJ-9qN8vG-9pWSAh-aJ6zUM-aGdBs6-aJ7kbv-bzXisx-9upkVe-9upk7H-9Ff6i2-9zyEYe-9Fi1PG-bzVTeP-9rBw68-a5JHSP-9zyBiv-bn1CjA-9CtbsL-9qAURj-cmAkiW-cmAkzA-bBs5dv-9pDcfG-bo9xDC-9usAs7-bp8cJW">Warren Antiola/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Standard advice about preparing for disasters focuses on building shelters and stockpiling things like food, water and batteries. But <a href="https://theconversation.com/building-climate-resilience-in-cities-lessons-from-new-york-52363">resilience</a> - the ability to recover from shocks, including natural disasters - comes from our connections to others, and not from physical infrastructure or disaster kits. </p>
<p>Almost six years ago, Japan faced a paralyzing <a href="http://www.reconstruction.go.jp/english/topics/Progress_to_date/index.html">triple disaster</a>: a massive earthquake, tsunami, and nuclear meltdowns that forced 470,000 people to evacuate from more than 80 towns, villages and cities. My colleagues and I investigated how communities in the hardest-hit areas reacted to these shocks, and found that social networks - the horizontal and vertical ties that connect us to others - are our most important defense against disasters. </p>
<h2>The 2011 catastrophe</h2>
<p>At 2:46 pm on Friday, March 11, 2011, a massive 9.0 earthquake struck off Japan’s northeastern coast. The quake was bigger and lasted longer than the hundreds of quakes which rattle the nation annually, but did little damage to homes and businesses. Unfortunately, however, the danger was far from over. </p>
<p>Within 40 minutes massive waves of water, some as high as six stories, smashed down on coastal communities in the Tohoku region in northeastern Japan. Some 18,500 lives were lost, primarily to the tsunami. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/9nTlgtf7TME?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Footage from the March 11, 2011 earthquake and tsunami.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Damage from the earthquake and tsunami shut down the cooling systems at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plants 1 through 3, which experienced nuclear fuel meltdowns. Over 160,000 people were forced to evacuate from Fukushima prefecture. The radiation exclusion zone initially covered more than 5,400 square miles, but has slowly decreased as decontamination efforts have progressed.</p>
<p>In total, more than 470,000 people evacuated during the disaster. The <a href="http://www.paristechreview.com/2011/08/25/nuclear-fukushima-accident-social-political-perspective/">nuclear accident</a> paralyzed national politics, made many survivors <a href="http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2011/10/17/the-fallout">anxious and depressed</a>, and <a href="http://blogs.cfr.org/asia/2016/04/12/anti-nuclear-sentiment-and-japans-energy-choices/">changed the landscape</a> of energy policy in Japan by pushing local residents to pursue non-nuclear options. Many communities have started electricity cooperatives where they use geothermal, solar and wind to produce their power.</p>
<h2>What saved lives during the tsunami?</h2>
<p>A Japanese colleague and I hoped to learn why the mortality rate from the tsunami varied tremendously. In some cities along the coast, no one was killed by waves which reached up to 60 feet; in others, up to ten percent of the population lost their lives. </p>
<p>We studied more than 130 cities, towns and villages in Tohoku, looking at factors such as exposure to the ocean, seawall height, tsunami height, voting patterns, demographics, and social capital. We found that municipalities which had <a href="https://works.bepress.com/daniel_aldrich/27/">higher levels of trust and interaction</a> had lower mortality levels after we controlled for all of those confounding factors.</p>
<p>The kind of social tie that mattered here was horizontal, between town residents. It was a surprising finding given that Japan has spent a tremendous amount of money on <a href="http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2014/04/16/national/community-bonds-not-seawalls-key-to-minimizing-deaths-311-study/">physical infrastructure such as seawalls</a>, but invested very little in building social ties and cohesion.</p>
<p>Based on interviews with survivors and a review of the data, we believe that communities with more ties, interaction and shared norms worked effectively to provide help to kin, family and neighbors. In many cases only 40 minutes separated the earthquake and the arrival of the tsunami. During that time, residents literally picked up and carried many elderly people out of vulnerable, low-lying areas. In high-trust neighborhoods, people knocked on doors of those who needed help and escorted them out of harm’s way.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/155973/original/image-20170207-4251-zab1ts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/155973/original/image-20170207-4251-zab1ts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/155973/original/image-20170207-4251-zab1ts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/155973/original/image-20170207-4251-zab1ts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/155973/original/image-20170207-4251-zab1ts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/155973/original/image-20170207-4251-zab1ts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/155973/original/image-20170207-4251-zab1ts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Rescue boats ferry people through flooded streets in New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina, September 11, 2005.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/mcquaid/134941679/in/photolist-cVBsF-5mmRT-5mmUf-5mmP6-5mmSh-cVzTi-cVGnw-5XL1Y6-94hFyh-dhzq6-6WsSkQ-5mmMB-8vrVZL-5z8Fwo-4dtJa9-37X9Tg-5mmNC-7oZY4c-cVzTg-5mmNj-5mmMQ-5mmR5-dhzn7-cVBsK-5mmTP-5mmPU-cVq7H-4Fyzre-4BFwi-7oZY7D-pWaRt2-9abH7w-kNxga-8uRkBs-cVCWG-drdb78-475TgU-6yoLQ-7vHV8G-8XovWG-4xxJnH-4BFwc-cVBsE-4yiUK-cVzTm-qkc1oo-cVBsL-4yiUM-dGZ9Zm-4BW5A">USCG/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What helped cities bounce back?</h2>
<p>In another <a href="https://works.bepress.com/daniel_aldrich/30/">study</a> I worked to understand why some 40 cities, towns and villages across the Tohoku region had rebuilt, put children back into schools and restarted businesses at very different rates over a two-year period. Two years after the disasters some communities seemed trapped in amber, struggling to restore even half of their utility service, operating businesses and clean streets. Other cities had managed to rebound completely, placing evacuees in temporary homes, restoring gas and water lines, and clearing debris. </p>
<p>To understand why some cities were struggling, I looked into explanations including the impact of the disaster, the size of the city, financial independence, horizontal ties between cities, and vertical ties from the community to power brokers in Tokyo. In this phase of the recovery, vertical ties were the best predictor of strong recoveries. </p>
<p>Communities that had sent more powerful senior representatives to Tokyo in the years before the disaster did the best. These politicians and local ambassadors helped to push the bureaucracy to send aid, reach out to foreign governments for assistance, and smooth the complex zoning and bureaucratic impediments to recovery. </p>
<p>While it is difficult for communities to simply decide to place more senior representatives in Tokyo, they can take the initiative to make connections with decision makers. Further, they can seek to make sure that they speak with a unified voice about their community’s needs and vision.</p>
<h2>Social ties, not just sandbags</h2>
<p>The Tohoku disasters reinforce past evidence about the <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2015/12/09/some-communities-are-destroyed-by-tragedy-and-disaster-others-spring-back-heres-what-makes-the-difference/">importance of social networks and social capital</a> in disaster recovery around the world. While climate change is making some disasters <a href="https://www.epa.gov/climate-change-science/understanding-link-between-climate-change-and-extreme-weather">more devastating over time</a>, there is good news from our findings. Governments, NGOs and private citizens have <a href="http://daldrich.weebly.com/uploads/1/5/5/0/15507740/aldrich_american_behavioral_scientist_2014.pdf">many tools available</a> to foster horizontal and vertical connections.</p>
<p>Nonprofits like the <a href="http://www.redcross.org.au/files/12-011_RED_Roundtable_Report_v3-F-web.pdf">Australian Red Cross</a>, <a href="http://bocostrong.org/">BoCo Strong</a> in Boulder, Colorado, and New Zealand’s <a href="http://www.getprepared.org.nz/sites/default/files/uploads/Community%20Resilience%20Strategy%202012.pdf">Wellington Regional Emergency Management Organization</a> now take social capital seriously as they work to <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Building-Resilience-Capital-Post-Disaster-Recovery/dp/0226012883">build resilience</a>. In these programs local residents work alongside civil society organizations to help strengthen connections, build networks of reciprocity, and think about the needs of the area. Rather than waiting for assistance from the government, these areas are creating their own plans for mitigating future crises.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/156064/original/image-20170208-17355-18v6kxe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/156064/original/image-20170208-17355-18v6kxe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/156064/original/image-20170208-17355-18v6kxe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/156064/original/image-20170208-17355-18v6kxe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/156064/original/image-20170208-17355-18v6kxe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=542&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/156064/original/image-20170208-17355-18v6kxe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=542&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/156064/original/image-20170208-17355-18v6kxe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=542&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In a 2012 ceremony, residents of Joplin, Missouri walk the route of a massive tornado that ripped through the town a year earlier, killing 161 people.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Joplin-Tornado-Anniversary/b1b71c1de73445eabef7c0662975cfdf/67/0">AP Photo/Charlie Riedel</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How to build resilience</h2>
<p>Communities can build cohesion and trust in a variety of ways. First, residents can emulate <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_4nI7AgUKwk">Mr. Fred Rogers</a> and learn about their neighbors, who will serve as first responders during any crisis. Next, whole communities can seek to deepen interactions and trust by organizing sports days, parties, religious festivals and other community events that build trust and reciprocity. </p>
<p>For example, San Francisco provides funds to local residents to hold <a href="http://empowersf.org/neighborfest/">NeighborFest</a>, a block party open to all. City planners and urban visionaries can learn to think like <a href="https://www.pps.org/reference/jjacobs-2/">Jane Jacobs</a>, an advocate for living cities and third spaces - that is, places beyond work and home where we can socialize. By designing what advocates call “<a href="https://www.pps.org/reference/ten-strategies-for-transforming-cities-through-placemaking-public-spaces/">placemaking public spaces</a>,” such as pedestrian-friendly streets and public markets, they can reshape cities to enhance social interaction. </p>
<p>Finally, communities can increase volunteerism rates by rewarding people who volunteer their time and providing concrete benefits for their service. One way to do this is by developing <a href="http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.595.5589&rep=rep1&type=pdf">community currencies</a> — local scrip which is only accepted at local businesses. Another strategy is <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20685912">time banking</a>, in which participants earn credits for their volunteer hours and redeem them later for services from others.</p>
<p>After 3/11, one organization in Tohoku has sought to bring these kinds of programs - social capital creation and design - together by providing a <a href="http://www.ibasho.org/web/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/150318Elders-Leading-the-Way-to-Resilience-Conference-Version.pdf">communal space run by elderly evacuees</a> where neighbors can connect. </p>
<p>As communities around the world face disasters more and more frequently, I hope that my research on Japan after 3.11 can provide guidance to residents facing challenges. While <a href="https://theconversation.com/build-disaster-proof-homes-before-storms-strike-not-afterward-61947">physical infrastructure</a> is important for mitigating disaster, communities should also invest time and effort in building social ties.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/69611/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Daniel P. Aldrich received funding from the Fulbright Foundation, the Abe Foundation, the National Science Foundation, the Kinley Trust Fellowship from Purdue University, and the Louisiana Coastal Protection and Restoration Authority.</span></em></p>Disaster preparations often focus on gear and logistics, but research in Japan after the 2011 earthquake and tsunami shows that strong social ties played a key role in helping communities rebound.Daniel P. Aldrich, Professor of Political Science, Public Policy and Urban Affairs and Director, Security and Resilience Program, Northeastern UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/689842016-11-30T19:19:54Z2016-11-30T19:19:54ZOur cities need to go on a resource diet<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/146492/original/image-20161118-19334-15v5qqu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Think of all the resources needed to transform Shenzhen, a fishing town 35 years ago, into a megacity of more than 10 million people. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AShenzhen_Skyline_from_Nanshan.jpg">Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Cities are the epicentres of human activity. They cover <a href="http://unhabitat.org/urban-themes/climate-change/">less than 2% of the earth’s land surface</a> but generate <a href="http://www.mckinsey.com/global-themes/urbanization/urban-world-mapping-the-economic-power-of-cities">about 70% of GDP</a> and house <a href="https://www.un.org/development/desa/en/news/population/world-urbanization-prospects.html">more than half</a> the human population. The importance of cities is only going to increase in coming decades as another <a href="https://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/Publications/Files/WUP2014-Report.pdf">2.5 billion people move to urban centres</a>. </p>
<p>This intense production and consumption requires huge quantities of natural resources. Cities account for more than 60% of global energy use, 70% of greenhouse gas emissions and 70% of global waste. Current practices are depleting the Earth’s finite resources, changing its climate and damaging its natural ecosystems. With our planetary life support system <a href="http://www.stockholmresilience.org/research/planetary-boundaries/planetary-boundaries/about-the-research/the-nine-planetary-boundaries.html">in the red</a>, we need to put cities on a serious resource diet.</p>
<h2>Resources efficiency in the New Urban Agenda</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www2.habitat3.org/file/535859/view/588897">New Urban Agenda</a> adopted at the <a href="https://theconversation.com/habitat-iii-the-biggest-conference-youve-probably-never-heard-of-63499">Habitat III</a> conference outlines a vision for sustainable urban development. These <a href="https://theconversation.com/habitat-iii-is-over-but-will-its-new-urban-agenda-transform-the-worlds-cities-67432">global guidelines</a>, along with the related UN <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-the-worlds-new-sustainable-development-goals-47262">Sustainable Development Goals</a>, recognise the need to use resources more efficiently. </p>
<p>Habitat III included a <a href="https://habitat3.org/programme/rapid-urbanization-and-material-usage-resource-efficiency-through-sustainable-construction-and-urban-planning-2/">number of sessions</a> on resource efficiency and associated tools and <a href="http://www.unep.org/SBCI/pdfs/Cities_and_Buildings-UNEP_DTIE_Initiatives_and_projects_hd.pdf">initiatives</a>. Organisations such as <a href="http://www.unep.org/">UNEP</a>, <a href="http://unhabitat.org/">UN-Habitat</a> and the <a href="http://ec.europa.eu/index_en.htm">European Commission</a> and its <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en">research centres</a> typically led these events. The New Urban Agenda includes many references to efficiency and reduced consumption in cities. </p>
<p>We must now act urgently to translate words into actions. This will ease pressure on ecosystems and produce a range of co-benefits, including health, wellbeing and resilience.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"789182973652328452"}"></div></p>
<h2>How do we create more resource-efficient cities?</h2>
<p>Cities use resources directly, such as burning fossil fuels for electricity and transport. However, indirect uses, such as water for growing food crops, are much wider-reaching. </p>
<p>It can be overwhelming to consider the resources used for all goods, processes and infrastructure in cities. Yet it is possible to measure this using a <a href="http://watersfoundation.org/systems-thinking/definitions/">systems approach</a>. Instead of considering components in isolation, the entire city is considered as an open system, connected to others. </p>
<p>This perspective ensures a much broader understanding of complex relationships between scales, resource flows, the built environment, socio-economic factors and ecological outcomes.</p>
<p>There are tools that embrace a systems perspective. For example, the <a href="https://urbanmetabolism.weblog.tudelft.nl/what-is-urban-metabolism/">urban metabolism</a> approach considers cities as ecosystems, across which flows of resources (such as energy or water) are measured. <a href="http://www.unep.org/resourceefficiency/Consumption/StandardsandLabels/MeasuringSustainability/LifeCycleAssessment/tabid/101348/Default.aspx">Life cycle assessment</a> measures resource use through the entire production, consumption and degradation process of a good or service.</p>
<p>These approaches have been successfully applied at various scales such as <a href="http://metabolismofcities.org/datavisualizations/1-the-urban-ecosystem-of-brussels">cities</a>, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2013.06.003">neighbourhoods</a> and <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2013.05.076">buildings</a>. This reveals that we are using more resources than shown by traditional assessment techniques (see this example on <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-energy-saving-homes-often-use-more-energy-20589">building energy efficiency regulations</a>). </p>
<p>But measurement without action has no impact on the ground. How can these tools be used to transform our cities?</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/147099/original/image-20161123-19722-1thf46b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/147099/original/image-20161123-19722-1thf46b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=558&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147099/original/image-20161123-19722-1thf46b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=558&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147099/original/image-20161123-19722-1thf46b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=558&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147099/original/image-20161123-19722-1thf46b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=701&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147099/original/image-20161123-19722-1thf46b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=701&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147099/original/image-20161123-19722-1thf46b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=701&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Recent research enables us to map the quantities of materials in buildings and predict when and where we can reuse or recycle these. Here a map of estimated steel quantities in each building of Melbourne, Australia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Source: authors' own; left: Google and TerraMetrics; right: Stephan, A. and Athanassiadis, A. (In Press) Quantifying and mapping embodied environmental requirements of urban building stocks, Building and Environment</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Many initiatives are targeting urban resource efficiency. The <a href="https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/circular-economy">circular economy paradigm</a> is a good example, where materials are reused, upcycled and recycled. It demonstrates that waste is a human concept and not an inherent property of cities. Waste does not exist in natural systems. </p>
<p>A range of projects by <a href="http://www.unep.org/resourceefficiency/Policy/ResourceEfficientCities/tabid/55541/">UNEP</a>, the <a href="http://www.eea.europa.eu/highlights/resource-efficient-cities-vital-step">European Commission</a> and other organisations support local resource efficiency initiatives and encourage local governments to implement related regulations. Blogging, data visualisation and disseminating research all help promote the adoption of resource efficiency concepts. In addition to the pioneering work of groups such as <a href="http://metabolismofcities.org/">metabolism of cities</a>, the uptake of <a href="https://theodi.org/about">open data</a> is helping with this.</p>
<h2>Learning from those who already live on less</h2>
<p>Informal settlements provide interesting lessons in resource efficiency. Construction materials in these settlements are typically not very durable. However, because they are in short supply, they are constantly reused or repurposed, almost never discarded. </p>
<p>Other residents often reuse replaced materials, such as metal sheets, or store them for later use. This practice avoids additional resource use to produce new materials.</p>
<p>Although informal slum areas are often the focus of “<a href="unhabitat.org/urban-initiatives/initiatives-programmes/participatory-slum-upgrading/">upgrading</a>” and improvement, lessons learnt in these settings can enhance material flow management and reduce waste elsewhere in cities.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/146903/original/image-20161122-24533-29505h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/146903/original/image-20161122-24533-29505h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146903/original/image-20161122-24533-29505h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146903/original/image-20161122-24533-29505h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146903/original/image-20161122-24533-29505h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146903/original/image-20161122-24533-29505h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146903/original/image-20161122-24533-29505h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Informal settlements like Karail next to Banani Lake in Dhaka, Bangladesh, can offer lessons in resource efficiency, waste reduction and material flow management to most cities.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Alexei Trundle</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Co-benefits of resource efficiency</h2>
<p>More resource-efficient cities tend to result in better health outcomes. For instance, encouraging walking, cycling and public transport instead of car use can reduce fossil fuel consumption and greenhouse gas emissions, and <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(16)30067-8">improve population health through increased physical activity</a>. </p>
<p>Food systems that promote consumption of fresh, local produce can benefit both the environment and nutrition. Energy-efficient housing reduces energy and water use and can <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2008.08.017">improve occupants’ health</a> at the same time.</p>
<p>Resource efficiency can also contribute to urban resilience. <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/research/environment/index.cfm?pg=nbs">Nature-based solutions</a> use relatively few non-renewable materials to increase resilience to environmental change and natural disasters. For example, a park can be designed to be flooded during storms or a tsunami, reduce the urban heat island effect, support urban ecosystems and provide areas for community activities, recreation and urban agriculture.</p>
<p>Efficiency can also ensure that redundancy – <a href="http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/320741468036883799/pdf/758450PUB0EPI0001300PUBDATE02028013.pdf">a core principle of resilience</a> – is built into urban systems. This means resources can be repurposed in the event of an unanticipated shock or stress. For example, during the recent <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-caused-south-australias-state-wide-blackout-66268">blackout</a> in South Australia, a household with solar battery storage was able to <a href="http://techau.com.au/tesla-powerwall-delivers-12-hrs-of-power-during-sa-blackout/">maintain power for 12 hours</a> “off grid”. </p>
<h2>Working together for better solutions</h2>
<p>Although these steps move cities in the right direction, more action from governments, the private sector and civil society is needed to transform our growing urban footprints.</p>
<p>Focusing solely on resource efficiency may neglect opportunities to generate co-benefits across sectors and will not provide robust solutions. We need to look at the entire city as a system and work together, across all disciplines, with effective and strong governance structures that support integrated policy definition and long-term implementation. If we don’t, we might simply shift a problem from one area to another, increase resource demand elsewhere, or create social divisions and tensions. </p>
<p>Strong leadership, political stability, effective institutions and awareness-raising among citizens are vital factors for success. Urban resource efficiency is critical, but it should be considered along all other pressing issues highlighted in the New Urban Agenda.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/68984/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>André Stephan receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alexei Trundle receives research funding from the United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat), and an Australian Postgraduate Award from the Australian Government.
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dave Kendal receives funding from the Clean Air and Urban Landscape hub of the National Environmental Science Program</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hayley Henderson receives an APA scholarship from the Australian Government.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hesam Kamalipour receives IPRS and APA scholarships from the Australian Government. He is also a Doctoral Academy member at the Melbourne Social Equity Institute (MSEI).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Melanie Lowe receives funding from the National Health and Medical Research Council and the National Environmental Science Programme.</span></em></p>Our cities need to become much more efficient not just to conserve precious resources but to improve the economy, wellbeing and resilience to environmental change and disasters.André Stephan, Postdoctoral Research Fellow, The University of MelbourneAlexei Trundle, PhD Candidate, Australian-German Climate & Energy College, The University of MelbourneDave Kendal, Researcher, Royal Botanic Gardens Victoria (ARCUE), The University of MelbourneHayley Henderson, PhD Candidate in Urban Planning, The University of MelbourneHesam Kamalipour, PhD Candidate and Research Assistant in Urban Design, The University of MelbourneMelanie Lowe, Research Fellow, McCaughey VicHealth Community Wellbeing Unit, Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/658802016-10-13T00:04:29Z2016-10-13T00:04:29ZWhy the world needs more resilience-thinking to stem escalating crises<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139532/original/image-20160928-727-187i0q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The relatively low death toll when Cycle Aila hit Bangladesh in 2009 was widely attributed to improvements in disaster preparedness.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Reuters/Andrew Biraj</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>2016 may well prove to be a turning point in how humanitarian aid responds to crises. For one, the need is great. <a href="http://www.internal-displacement.org/assets/publications/2016/2016-global-report-internal-displacement-IDMC.pdf">Forced migration</a> from conflict is at its highest since the second world war; the number and scale of disasters triggered by natural hazards <a href="http://www.unisdr.org/files/47804_2015disastertrendsinfographic.pdf">are increasing</a>; and 2015 was the <a href="http://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-noaa-analyses-reveal-record-shattering-global-warm-temperatures-in-2015">hottest year</a> ever recorded.</p>
<p>The aid sector, largely unchanged in 75 years, is struggling to cope. The first-ever World Humanitarian Summit, convened in May to “rethink” aid, <a href="http://reliefweb.int/report/world/grand-bargain-shared-commitment-better-serve-people-need">acknowledged</a> a “woefully under-resourced humanitarian response” has to “do much more far better”.</p>
<p>To achieve this, <a href="https://www.odi.org/publications/10381-time-let-go-remaking-humanitarian-action-modern-era">some argue</a> radical change is needed, because:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>… the formal system faces a crisis of legitimacy, capacity and means.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>At such a dramatic time, then, with burgeoning need and an aid system that is failing to cope, what meaning does “resilience” have?</p>
<h2>Does a lack of agreed definition hamper efforts?</h2>
<p>The word resilience is not new. It <a href="http://www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci.net/13/2707/2013/">has been around</a> (in English) since at least the early 17th century.</p>
<p>There are many competing definitions. One, from the International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, <a href="http://resilience.acoss.org.au/">defines resilience as</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>… the ability of individuals, communities, organisations or countries exposed to disasters and crises and underlying vulnerabilities to anticipate, reduce the impact of, cope with, and recover from the effects of shocks and stresses without compromising their long-term prospects. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>This understanding gives as much attention to what happens before a disaster (such as an earthquake or flood) as it does to the immediate aftermath of relief and recovery. If prepared for beforehand, the impact of disasters can be reduced, or even prevented altogether.</p>
<p>Critics of resilience argue, among other things, that the lack of a commonly agreed definition is a weakness. After all, resilience can trace its roots to engineering, psychology and ecology. </p>
<p>However, this misses the point. The chief benefit of resilience lies in its “good enough” understanding by a broad church of actors, and not in the detail. People get it, and can act in resilient ways.</p>
<p>People have long enacted resilience measures:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Construction workers in the remote and highly seismic Himalayas <a href="http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/abs/10.1108/09653560910965655">built</a> multistorey earthquake-resistant buildings that have stood for more than 800 years. </p></li>
<li><p>Algeria <a href="http://drh.edm.bosai.go.jp/database/item/93d125cc7972e323175dee349e9099c051af1693">developed the science</a> of base isolation – building structures on rollers so they could avoid shaking with the ground in an earthquake – more than 400 years ago.</p></li>
<li><p>In recent times, Bangladesh, where between 300,000 and 500,000 people were killed in Cyclone Bhola in 1970, reduced casualties through better preparedness to a little more than 3,000 in Cyclone Sidr in 2007, and 190 in Cyclone Aila in 2009. While the cyclone size varied, the reduced death count was widely attributed to improvements in disaster preparedness.</p></li>
</ul>
<h2>The power to bring people together</h2>
<p>A second benefit of resilience lies in its convening power. </p>
<p>Aid workers, donors, businesspeople and politicians are comfortable to stand alongside efforts that build resilience in ways they might not have done if the rallying cry was a rather more negatively toned “less vulnerability”. An example is the global <a href="https://theconversation.com/has-the-100-resilient-cities-challenge-benefited-melbourne-60307">100 Resilient Cities</a> initiative funded by the Rockefeller Foundation. Its central task is to mobilise political will for action within complex urban contexts.</p>
<p>The word “resilience” has positive connotations, certainly compared to the bleak language of disasters. Synonyms and related words for resilience include animation, adaptability and flexibility. </p>
<p>This matters, as how issues are framed <a href="http://nrl.northumbria.ac.uk/9497/">is vital</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139536/original/image-20160928-709-exc9hx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139536/original/image-20160928-709-exc9hx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139536/original/image-20160928-709-exc9hx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139536/original/image-20160928-709-exc9hx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139536/original/image-20160928-709-exc9hx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=469&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139536/original/image-20160928-709-exc9hx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=469&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139536/original/image-20160928-709-exc9hx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=469&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">One of the benefits of a focus on resilience is the way it brings aid and development workers together.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Reuters/Regis Duvignau</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Development versus disaster</h2>
<p>Resilience-thinking helps in a third, critical area: the aid sector has grappled with the development-disaster divide for decades.</p>
<p>The separation of long-term actions dealing with chronic problems such as poverty from the short-term response to acute events such as cyclones and tsunamis is seen by some as essential, and by others as a deep problem. </p>
<p>“Purist” humanitarian agencies argue that combining humanitarian action with developmental challenges – such as engaging in local politics – muddies the waters and can hamper the primary mission of responding with lifesaving actions. </p>
<p>However, the mainstream of aid thinking, for the past 20 years at least, has sought to bring these two sides closer together. The <a href="http://www.redcross.org.au/world-humanitarian-summit-grand-bargain.aspx">Grand Bargain</a> between major donors and humanitarian agencies was launched at the <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-does-the-un-want-to-achieve-from-the-first-world-humanitarian-summit-59099">World Humanitarian Summit</a> in May this year. <a href="https://consultations.worldhumanitariansummit.org/bitcache/075d4c18b82e0853e3d393e90af18acf734baf29?vid=581058&disposition=inline&op=view">The agreement</a> commits signatories to, among other things, “enhance engagement between development and humanitarian actors”.</p>
<p>Resilience-thinking helps to improve links between disasters and development in two ways.</p>
<ul>
<li><p>First, a good understanding of resilience asserts that developmental actors need to grapple with the threat of disasters (rather than leave it to relief actions alone) and engage in efforts to mitigate or even prevent them. </p></li>
<li><p>Second, a resilience approach forces emergency response actors to consider timeframes beyond the immediate provision of relief. Decisions made in immediate response <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books/about/Shelter_After_Disaster.html?id=qNpo6F6GZn0C&redir_esc=y">can have dramatic effects</a> on long-term recovery. An example is a decision on where to locate a relief camp, which in time may become a permanent neighbourhood of a city.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Pre-disaster investments must now be taken more seriously to stem the steady increase in the number of crises. </p>
<p>Putting into practice effective resilience-based approaches lies in the domain of governance. At a policy level, decision-makers across the board – including governments, aid agencies and the private sector – need to take pre-crises actions more seriously. </p>
<p>Responsibility also lies within communities and civil society, where individuals and neighbourhoods need to be better prepared. Uniting around improved resilience provides a means to achieve this.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>This article is based on chapter one, co-written by the author, of the IFRC 2016 World Disasters Report, Resilience: Saving Lives Today, Investing For Tomorrow. The report is being launched this week at events in London, Geneva, Dakar and Quito.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/65880/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Sanderson received funding from IFRC to co-edit the 2016 IFRC World Disasters Report</span></em></p>With burgeoning need and an aid system that is failing to cope, what meaning does ‘resilience’ have?David Sanderson, Professor, Judith Neilson Chair in Architecture, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/666212016-10-05T19:20:36Z2016-10-05T19:20:36ZHurricane Matthew approaches the eastern US: Six essential reads<p><em>Editor’s note: The following is a roundup of stories related to hurricanes and storms.</em></p>
<p>Mandatory evacuations have begun in coastal areas of Florida and other southern states as Hurricane Matthew continues its slow ascent from Haiti and Cuba toward the mainland U.S. </p>
<p>Even as we wait to see the effects from this category 4 hurricane, it’s worthwhile to consider the views of experts on hurricanes, disaster response and climate change. </p>
<p>On the 10-year anniversary of Hurricane Katrina, Kerry Emanuel from MIT wrote that there’s growing evidence that the <a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-change-and-hurricane-katrina-what-have-we-learned-46297">strength of hurricanes will worsen in the future</a>. </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“Theory and computer models show that the incidence of the strongest hurricanes – those that come closest to achieving their potential intensity – will increase as the climate warms, and there is <a href="http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v455/n7209/abs/nature07234.html">some indication</a> that this is happening.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>As such, it’s time for the country to recognize the growing risks of severe weather due to climate change and to <a href="https://theconversation.com/we-need-to-change-how-and-where-we-build-to-be-ready-for-a-future-of-more-extreme-weather-41713">alter our development patterns</a>, said Keith Krumwiede of the New Jersey Institute of Technology.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“Changing course will require a reassessment of risks as they relate not only to how but also to where we build. In our larger, more densely populated regions and cities, massive storm protection projects are both necessary and economically viable, but in many places we would be much better served to move out of harm’s way.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"783466288295346176"}"></div></p>
<p>Cities, in particular, are developing plans to build infrastructure able to withstand – and rebound from – storm surges, heavy rains and other extreme weather events. This “<a href="https://theconversation.com/building-climate-resilience-in-cities-lessons-from-new-york-52363">resilient infrastructure</a>” could take many shapes – everything from sea walls and levees to wetland restoration and other “green infrastructure” to buffer against flooding and storm surges, wrote Cynthia Rosenzweig from NASA and William Solecki from Hunter College, who shared their experiences from New York City.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“Some cities will be exposed to repeated and worsening droughts, while others may be more exposed to flooding or extreme heat events. Scientists and stakeholders need to work together to understand the risks that are relevant for each city so that they can find effective ways to prepare for climate change.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>A couple of our expert writers explained why it’s so challenging to make progress on resilient design plans at the municipal level. Recent flooding in Louisiana, for instance, was made worse by suburban sprawl and <a href="https://theconversation.com/suburban-sprawl-and-poor-preparation-worsened-flood-damage-in-louisiana-64087">lack of follow-through on infrastructure investing</a>, wrote Craig E. Colten from Louisiana State University. Cities also need to <a href="https://theconversation.com/cities-can-prepare-for-hurricane-season-by-reforming-shortsighted-and-outdated-laws-59875">revamp building codes and create new flood projections</a> to be able to better prepare for post-storm recovery, according to John Travis Marshall from Georgia State University.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“Creative problem solving flourishes in cities out of necessity. Many local officials are developing innovative approaches to disaster recovery and mitigation where existing laws have provided little guidance. Examples include relocating residents from vulnerable neighborhoods and developing historic resource preservation programs for coastal cities.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Karen Vella of Queensland University of Technology and William Butler of Florida State University unpacked the experience of the Southeast Florida Climate Change Compact, a part of Florida that’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/rising-seas-bring-heavy-burden-to-florida-coastal-economy-can-it-adapt-38766">particularly vulnerable to hurricanes</a>, storm surges and sea level rise. The Compact has been held up as an example of forward-looking climate adaptation, but there’s a limit to what it can accomplish in the absence of state and federal leadership. </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“Its approach is innovative and has been effective in creating a culture of adaptation. But as a voluntary initiative, it provides guidance only to local governments without robust inducements or support from other levels. ”</p>
</blockquote><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/66621/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
As the U.S. braces for potential landfall of Hurricane Matthew, our experts weigh in on hurricanes, the need for resilient infrastructure and climate change.Martin LaMonica, Director of Editorial Projects and Newsletters, The Conversation U.S.Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/644742016-09-09T04:35:23Z2016-09-09T04:35:23ZDefeating terrorism through design: Think souks, not office buildings<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/136954/original/image-20160907-25266-ltqg2i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Embodiment of defiance... or foolhardy design?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/86502566@N03/16267367576">Paul Silva</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>To fight terrorist networks, <a href="https://www.upress.umn.edu/book-division/books/designing-our-way-to-a-better-world">we need to understand them and learn from them</a>. Obviously that doesn’t mean training to become terrorists ourselves. But we can learn from the way many terrorist organizations operate – via highly networked, decentralized connections. This kind of setup has a lot in common with the networked way in which many of us will live and work in the decades ahead.</p>
<p>Since the wake-up call of 9/11, terrorism has come to characterize many of the <a href="http://knopfdoubleday.com/book/234879/the-terror-years/9780385352079/">military conflicts in the 21st century</a>. Today’s terrorist networks demonstrate a highly resilient way of organizing diverse and often distantly located people toward a common goal. This system of organization helps explain why, <a href="http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2016/09/are-we-any-safer/492761/">as journalist Steven Brill argues</a>, we are not much safer now than we were before 9/11, even after spending US$1 trillion on homeland security. As <a href="http://www.nebraskapress.unl.edu/product/War-of-the-Flea,676555.aspx">studies of guerrilla warfare</a> have shown, centralized, hierarchical, top-down systems, like our current Department of Defense, have a hard time defeating a decentralized, nonhierarchical, networked ones, like the Islamic State group.</p>
<p>Centralized, hierarchical systems may appear stronger, with more power and efficiency on their side. But networked, nonhierarchical ones have much greater capacity to take a hit and to keep functioning, as the sizable literature on <a href="http://www.resalliance.org/publications">ecosystem resilience</a> has repeatedly shown. Networked systems even have an “antifragile” quality, as <a href="http://www.randomhousebooks.com/books/176227/">scholar Nassim Nicholas Taleb has argued</a>, with an ability to bounce back even stronger after a shock. All of which suggests we need to fight terrorist networks in networked ways of our own.</p>
<p>I am an architect and urban designer by training and so I leave it to policymakers and defense strategists to contemplate what this means militarily. I want to focus on what I know: the target side of the equation. How can we reduce the targets of terrorism, getting rid of concentrations of people of a particular type to reduce the likelihood of a devastating strike? How can we rethink our cities and our buildings so that instead of trying to fortify our architectural bull’s-eyes, we eliminate them with a denser weave of diverse activities across a metropolitan area? </p>
<h2>Designing away targets, not fortifying them</h2>
<p>The idea of doing away with the targets of large concentrations of people doing the same type of activity may seem like a restraint of Americans’ freedom, a violation of the First Amendment right to “peaceably assemble” in whatever kind of conglomeration we choose. But it’s really a call for us to assemble in new ways, aided by digital technology, so we can do so with peace of mind. </p>
<p>In some ways, the 9/11 terrorists were sending us an unintended message: Concentrating the military command in the Pentagon, or financial and governmental organizations in the World Trade Center towers, makes them – and all of us commuting to workplaces like this every day – more vulnerable.</p>
<p>Taleb captures this idea in the title of one of his book chapters: “The Souk and the Office Building.” The modern office building may seem efficient by gathering so many people in an organization together. Such structures, though, remain vulnerable to what Taleb calls “fat tails,” in which <a href="http://www.randomhousebooks.com/books/176227/">distant events have inordinate effects</a> on their operation – think of a power failure that can incapacitate an entire corporate headquarters.</p>
<p>Office towers also have what I describe as a <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Designing-To-Avoid-Disaster-The-Nature-of-Fracture-Critical-Design/Fisher/p/book/9780415527361">fracture-critical nature</a>; they’re subject to catastrophic failure when hit by an unanticipated force like a commandeered airplane.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/136965/original/image-20160907-25231-btolu6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/136965/original/image-20160907-25231-btolu6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/136965/original/image-20160907-25231-btolu6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/136965/original/image-20160907-25231-btolu6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/136965/original/image-20160907-25231-btolu6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/136965/original/image-20160907-25231-btolu6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/136965/original/image-20160907-25231-btolu6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/136965/original/image-20160907-25231-btolu6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A souk, with many access points and a diffuse layout.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/bhaktiamsterdam/7426935774">Bhakti Dharma</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Taleb contrasts the familiar U.S. urban landscape with the Arab bazaar or souk. Comprising a network of small shops along covered streets, without any center or clear boundaries, there are multiple ways in and out. Souks might seem more vulnerable to attack, given their accessibility. Such complex webs of human activity, however, are also highly resilient – not just economically because of their diversity of small businesses, but also militarily because of their distributed nature.</p>
<p>In the heavily damaged souk in Aleppo, Syria, one businessman still <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/in-sight/wp/2016/03/29/witness-the-stunning-devastation-inside-aleppos-destroyed-souks/">opens his shop to serve coffee</a> to patrolling soldiers, an act of resistance as well as a sign of resilience. Can you imagine an accounting department on a bombed-out skyscraper’s 43rd floor, for instance, opening for business after an attack? </p>
<p>It’s significant that an Arab urban form, the souk, may serve as one of the best defenses against a type of attack emanating from the Arab world. Unlike most shopping malls that stand like isolated targets in the midst of parking lots, souks typically cover existing streets and turn them into pedestrian precincts, as Milan, Italy, did long ago with <a href="http://www.ingalleria.com/en">its Galleria</a> and as Las Vegas did more recently with <a href="http://vegasexperience.com/">Fremont Street</a>. The mall and the city become an integral whole. </p>
<h2>We’re already living with digital souks</h2>
<p>Souks may seem far removed from modern life, just as office buildings seem to epitomize it. But that’s begun to change with the rise of a sharing, collaborative or on-demand economy. Many people now work anywhere that has a high-bandwidth internet connection. We shop anytime for goods and services that are delivered to our doors. We meet anyplace some good food or coffee allows us to linger.</p>
<p>We have, in other words, already created a kind of digital version of the souk, with service platforms providing people access to experiences as diverse as those encountered by the customers in Arab markets. <a href="http://books.wwnorton.com/books/Platform-Revolution/">Such platform companies have great resilience</a> because of their accessible, distributed character and their ability to compete successfully against gatekeeper organizations. Look at how quickly Uber has overtaken taxi companies and Airbnb traditional hoteliers by leveraging excess capacity to meet people’s needs at a lower cost. These companies also exist everywhere and nowhere, not concentrated in an office building or a hotel, but spread across a city or region, in individual apartments and cars. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/136935/original/image-20160907-25257-ro85jk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/136935/original/image-20160907-25257-ro85jk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/136935/original/image-20160907-25257-ro85jk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=350&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/136935/original/image-20160907-25257-ro85jk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=350&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/136935/original/image-20160907-25257-ro85jk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=350&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/136935/original/image-20160907-25257-ro85jk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/136935/original/image-20160907-25257-ro85jk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/136935/original/image-20160907-25257-ro85jk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hey! Here’s where we keep our top brass!</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/la-citta-vita/6040339754">La Citta Vita</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our greatest weakness comes from the old thinking that still pervades not just our military, but also our public policies and development assumptions. We continue to zone our cities as if the sharing economy didn’t exist, build our roads as if driverless cars won’t happen, and pursue economic development strategies as if the platform revolution doesn’t matter. And, despite the message that terrorists have sent us, we continue to maintain and construct targets for their attacks: The Pentagon remains a bull’s-eye from the air, as do the office towers recently built around the World Trade Center site. Such buildings may embody defiance and feel like proof of our resilience; really they only show how little we’ve learned from our enemies. A physically strengthened or more highly defended target is still a target.</p>
<p>The fight against terrorism requires that we start thinking in new ways about how to live and work in a 21st-century economy. Just as we need to acknowledge and embrace the distributed, on-demand nature of how many people will create and exchange goods and services in the near future, we also need to start imagining a more distributed and diverse built environment in line with that economy and in defense against those who might want to attack us.</p>
<p>America began as a nation of small shopkeepers and small communities scattered across the land. While the movement of people chasing economic opportunities to metropolitan areas seems unstoppable, we need to inhabit our cities and suburbs in much more networked ways. While this will take at least a generation to accomplish, we can already see it in trends like the home office, flextime, and walkable mixed-use neighborhoods. These should become the norm, even as we reduce, as much as possible, the number of big, symbolic structures that only tempt terrorists – foreign or domestic. We need to think souks, not office buildings.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/64474/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Thomas Fisher does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Are terrorist attacks also an implicit design critique of our urban landscape? An architect and urban designer suggests we can fight terrorism by not building obvious targets.Thomas Fisher, Professor of Architecture, Director of the Metropolitan Design Center, and Dayton Hudson Chair in Urban Design, University of MinnesotaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/632982016-08-19T02:12:25Z2016-08-19T02:12:25ZCan a single region in Florida show the state how to adapt to climate change?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134340/original/image-20160816-13020-mw4aep.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A 2009 flood, worsened by a high tide, in Miami. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/13748835@N00/3599479128/">maxstrz/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>With every passing year, Southeast Florida faces more pressure to adapt to climate change. The region already experiences the <a href="http://www.dep.state.fl.us/oceanscouncil/reports/climate_change_and_sea_level_rise.pdf">effects of climate change</a>, such as flooding on sunny days during the highest tides of the year, the failure of flood control canals, rapid beach erosion and saltwater intrusion into drinking water supplies. </p>
<p>In 2009 the <a href="http://www.southeastfloridaclimatecompact.org/">Southeast Florida Regional Climate Change Compact</a> – which brings together Florida’s largest regional economy and most vulnerable cities – was created to tackle climate change. </p>
<p>The compact is just one example of a growing trend of local and regional organizations banding together to take action on climate change in the United States. With limited federal and state government support for adapting to climate change, regional climate efforts are particularly important in the U.S.</p>
<p>We and our colleagues <a href="http://jpe.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/0739456X16659700v1.pdf?ijkey=vWQkrdUzLDTSuBb&keytype=finite">studied Florida’s regional efforts</a> and found that its approach is innovative and has been effective in creating a culture of adaptation. But as a voluntary initiative, it provides guidance only to local governments without robust inducements or support from other levels. And Florida has had limited success with voluntary regional planning approaches in the past. </p>
<h2>Vulnerable</h2>
<p>The compact is a voluntary partnership of four counties (<a href="http://www.broward.org/Pages/Welcome.aspx">Broward</a>, <a href="http://miamidade.gov/wps/portal/Main/home/!ut/p/c5/04_SB8K8xLLM9MSSzPy8xBz9CP0os3hnQ29jA38vF98wk1ALA08fD1MPLzNfAwN_c_1wkA6gCndHDxNzH6CQUZiBgZGfaXCgQWiwsYGnMUTeAAdwNND388jPTdUvyM5Oc3RUVAQAZBGxdA!!/dl3/d3/L2dBISEvZ0FBIS9nQSEh/">Miami-Dade</a>, <a href="http://www.monroecounty-fl.gov/">Monroe</a> and <a href="http://www.pbcgov.com/">Palm Beach</a>) and 26 municipalities within those counties. It has received notable political attention. President Obama regards it as “one of the nation’s <a href="http://m.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/12/03/fact-sheet-16-us-communities-recognized-climate-action-champions-leaders">leading examples</a> of regional-scale climate action” and has highlighted it as “a <a href="http://m.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/12/03/fact-sheet-16-us-communities-recognized-climate-action-champions-leaders">model not just for the country</a>, but for the world.” </p>
<p>The emergence of local leadership for climate action reflects the climate-related pressures facing Southeast Florida. A three-foot rise in sea level would submerge more than <a href="http://www.rollingstone.com/politics/news/why-the-city-of-miami-is-doomed-to-drown-20130620">a third of the region</a>. Over 5.5 million people live in Southeast Florida, predominantly along the coast, so the risks to coastal infrastructure from sea level rise are substantial.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134341/original/image-20160816-13025-1etvgyp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134341/original/image-20160816-13025-1etvgyp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134341/original/image-20160816-13025-1etvgyp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134341/original/image-20160816-13025-1etvgyp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134341/original/image-20160816-13025-1etvgyp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134341/original/image-20160816-13025-1etvgyp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134341/original/image-20160816-13025-1etvgyp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134341/original/image-20160816-13025-1etvgyp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">To prepare for effects of climate change, such as flooding of city infrastructure, municipal planners need to incorporate climate change into their land-use plans.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/skewgee/3403879864/in/photolist-28DSNS-9NGKrb-diG3MD-9NDZCz-9NBBMn-9Nv8dj-nN25fM-6qsU9J-zoEHn-9N4sor-9N2XN6-6bMLTS-9N7H4a-kvt9n5-9N9zH3-9N6ECD-kvrxAc-cBFokQ-cBFo6U-fCzCRp-fCzxyx-9N4jDa-9N9HiN-8rdthx-9LeuMp-5CDQpk-6MHPfy-8rgaA3-kvt7tW-asKqK-5vRRHN-7frR5W-dx3y8V-dZQvbK-kvrvV8-cVHUxA-y3W9yg-ymRd2S-ELyeDe-FxCjQ7-rxaymV-9Lev6p-C45HnC">skewgee/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It is little wonder this region is considered one of the most vulnerable areas worldwide in terms of assets exposed to property damage from <a href="http://www.oecd.org/env/cc/39721444.pdf">coastal flooding due to climate change</a>. </p>
<p>Adapting to climate change in Southeast Florida, however, is complex. The underlying geology – much of the state lies above porous limestone – and generally flat topography means strategies used elsewhere to combat the effects of sea level rise will not work and that new ideas are needed. Also, Florida is home to a politically conservative state government that <a href="http://www.miamiherald.com/news/state/florida/article12983720.html">reportedly discourages</a> the use of terms like “climate change,” “global warming” or “sustainability” in funding, policy, programs or research. </p>
<p>To adapt to the effects of climate change, governments need to redirect development away from vulnerable locations and upgrade critical infrastructure such as roadways, water supply, wastewater and stormwater facilities to better withstand coastal flooding from sea level rise. </p>
<h2>Thoughtful, yet limited, design</h2>
<p>The Southeast Florida Regional Climate Change Compact is structured so that professional staff can build general agreement on recommendations for local governments and others to inform legislation, policy and planning. This occurs through the steering committee – the principal decision-making body of the compact. </p>
<p>The compact’s steering committee consists of high-ranking professionals, usually only one or two levels below the county chief executive. Once it reaches regional agreement on policy and products, such as <a href="http://www.southeastfloridaclimatecompact.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/2015-Compact-Unified-Sea-Level-Rise-Projection.pdf">the unified sea level rise projection</a> and the <a href="http://www.southeastfloridaclimatecompact.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/regional-climate-action-plan-final-ada-compliant.pdf">Regional Climate Adaptation Plan</a>, the relevant authorities in each county or municipality translate this into local action.</p>
<p>The compact works through existing planning and policy processes by seeking to amend comprehensive land-use plans, stormwater master plans, zoning ordinances, building codes and transportation standards. Implementation is dependent on county and municipal decision processes, budgets, local approaches to public involvement, enforcement, monitoring and review, and politics. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134342/original/image-20160816-13035-10qs5zv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134342/original/image-20160816-13035-10qs5zv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134342/original/image-20160816-13035-10qs5zv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=809&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134342/original/image-20160816-13035-10qs5zv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=809&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134342/original/image-20160816-13035-10qs5zv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=809&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134342/original/image-20160816-13035-10qs5zv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1017&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134342/original/image-20160816-13035-10qs5zv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1017&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134342/original/image-20160816-13035-10qs5zv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1017&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">With a sea level one foot higher, coastal Florida faces significant challenges to its coastal communities.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://coast.noaa.gov/slr/?ll=-8717490.20186778;3090743.5488104867&level=3&CurSLR=1&CurTab=0">NOAA</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>The ability to prioritize climate action through development control and sustainability decisions varies across the region. The efforts done through existing planning and local initiatives build on years of experience in improving comprehensive plans and lessons about managing growth and development in Florida. Many states require local governments to prepare a comprehensive plan, and some require that these plans be aligned with land development regulations (the local zoning code, most notably). Through state statutes and key court decisions, comprehensive plans in Florida have become increasingly important; any alterations to local land use policies and all development decisions must be consistent with the local comprehensive plan. </p>
<h2>Template for other regions?</h2>
<p>The level of uptake by local government appears to be relatively high, as the municipal <a href="http://www.southeastfloridaclimatecompact.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/RCAP-IGD-2014-Survey-Report-2-26-15-FINAL.pdf">implementation</a> report highlights. Strategies to improve energy and fuel efficiency and policies to adapt water supply, water management and to improve local sustainability are among the most implemented recommendations of the climate action plan. </p>
<p>In terms of results, though, changes to county and municipal comprehensive plans, which function as sort of a <a href="http://articles.extension.org/pages/26677/the-purpose-of-the-comprehensive-land-use-plan">long-range vision</a> for communities, have been modest. The compact has placed climate change in the set of issues to be considered, but with no requirements that climate change be a primary factor to shape land-use decisions or infrastructure investments. </p>
<p>State, federal and regional governments participate in compact discussions and technical working groups and share scientific data for emergency management and vulnerability assessment in response to 1-, 2- and 3-foot sea level rises. But they are not bound to participate in decision-making processes or implement recommendations. </p>
<p>This coordinated structure means the regional body is able to lobby and achieve outcomes at these other levels of government. For example, in 2010 the compact negotiated the creation of <a href="http://www.southeastfloridaclimatecompact.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/final-report-aaa.pdf">Adaptation Action Areas</a> (AAAs) by the Florida Legislature, and in 2015 state statute Chapter 163 was amended to strengthen Florida’s Comprehensive Planning Law around flooding. Also, the Regional Climate Action Plan identifies priority areas for the region to lobby for federal resources, align state and local policy arrangements, and coordinate scientific data and new research. This sort of activity builds a narrative for more progressive climate change policies at state and federal level.</p>
<p>Questions remain about <a href="http://jpe.sagepub.com/content/early/2016/07/29/0739456X16659700.full.pdf?ijkey=vWQkrdUzLDTSuBb&keytype=finite">whether this is enough to influence outcomes</a>. The compact does not require any actions by participating members and it controls no major resources of its own. It does have the capacity to steer policy and practice by involving county professionals, creating a culture of information sharing, building new knowledge and ideas to address climate change adaptation issues. </p>
<p>This provides a useful starting point for climate action. The collective weight of coordinated multiregional climate action could be just what’s needed to strengthen the lobbying power and direct resources for supportive climate policies at the federal level. As such, other regions around the U.S. could consider replicating variations of Florida’s regional planning model.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/63298/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Karen Vella currently receives funding from the Australian Research Council and the Australian National Environmental Science Program (Tropical Water Quality Hub) for unrelated projects examining policy and governance in the Great Barrier Reef and Murray-Darling Basin (Australia).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>William Butler received funding from the Florida Department of Economic Opportunity in support of research that was instrumental to completing this work. </span></em></p>With little state and federal leadership, regional planners in southern Florida try to prepare for the effects of climate change.Karen Vella, Senior Lecturer in Property and Planning, Queensland University of TechnologyWilliam Butler, Associate Professor of Urban and Regional Planning, Florida State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.