tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/agricultural-land-31107/articlesAgricultural land – The Conversation2023-04-23T08:53:26Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2020802023-04-23T08:53:26Z2023-04-23T08:53:26ZKenya needs to grow more food: a focus on how to irrigate its vast dry areas is key<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516126/original/file-20230317-28-ukoaex.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A substantive amount of irrigation in Kenya is being implemented quietly by self-motivated farmers.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/healthy-crop-irrigated-cabbage-meru-kenya-2217221157">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>More than 80% of Kenya’s land mass is <a href="https://www.fao.org/3/ab396e/ab396e02.htm#:%7E:text=The%20arid%20and%20semi%2Darid,by%20hills%20and%20small%20mountains">made up of</a> arid and semi-arid areas. So, if Kenya is to increase its agricultural production, which currently accounts for <a href="https://www.knbs.or.ke/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/2022-Economic-Survey1.pdf#page=64">22.4% of GDP</a>, it must turn to irrigation-based farming in the arid and semi-arid areas. Agricultural engineer Bancy M. Mati <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378377422006527">explains</a> how the east African nation can go about this.</em></p>
<h2>What’s the state of Kenya’s irrigation development?</h2>
<p>Kenya’s irrigation potential is <a href="https://tech-action.unepccc.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2020/10/the-growth-of-small-scale-irrigation-in-kenya.pdf#page=7">about</a> at 1.342 million hectares of land. But the government has also pointed out in its long-term plan – <a href="https://vision2030.go.ke/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/Sessional-paper-No.-10-of-2012-On-Kenya-Vision-2030.pdf#page=58">Vision 2030</a> – that an additional 9.2 million hectares in arid and semi-arid regions have the potential for crop production through irrigation. Irrigation could be achieved mostly by a reliance on perennial rivers, underground water and, in some cases, harvested rain water. </p>
<p>The exclusion of this additional potential in most planning and policy documents, including the current <a href="https://www.irrigation.go.ke/download/national-irrigation-policy-2017/">National Irrigation Policy</a>, means that the country’s irrigation potential is underestimated. It is much greater than listed in most reports.</p>
<p>Only 19% of the area of Kenya officially assessed for irrigation has been <a href="https://www.irrigation.go.ke/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Strategic-Plan-Final.pdf#page=17">developed</a>. There is renewed impetus to expand and promote irrigation development. But the government’s investments are still focused on large-scale (expensive and tech-heavy) schemes.</p>
<p>In my view, the future growth and development of agriculture in Kenya will rely on developing the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Arid-and-semi-arid-areas-of-Kenya_fig1_279866590">dry areas</a>, which have low population density (less competing land use). The country should also intensify production in arable areas through irrigation.</p>
<p>Developing the drier areas is particularly important because they host the majority of food-insecure households. The prevalence of severe food insecurity is <a href="https://www.fao.org/3/cc0639en/cc0639en.pdf#page=163">estimated</a> at around 26.1% of the total population or about 14 million people. The <a href="https://www.ndma.go.ke/index.php/resource-center/send/86-2022/6602-lra-national-report-2022#page=11">majority</a> of the food-insecure people in Kenya are living in the arid and semi-arid lands. </p>
<h2>What’s not known about Kenya’s irrigation growth?</h2>
<p>I have recently studied <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378377422006527">informal irrigation initiatives</a> across the country. I found that planners, policymakers and financiers tend to see irrigation development as occurring only within “schemes”. That is how the <a href="http://kenyalaw.org/kl/fileadmin/pdfdownloads/Acts/IrrigationActCap346.pdf">Kenyan law</a> perceives irrigation projects. The law is important because it specifies what constitutes an irrigation undertaking for purposes of policy and other forms of support.</p>
<p>Yet, I found that individual farmers are quietly developing a substantial amount of irrigation themselves. Small-scale farmers are leading in <a href="http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/Working_Papers/working/WOR100.pdf#page=49">the uptake</a> of simple equipment for irrigation. But farmer-led initiatives are still unrecognised, unrecorded and ignored by the government. </p>
<p>The term “farmer-led irrigation development” is fairly recent, having been <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03066150.2016.1219719">coined</a> in 2017. But it has been practised in Kenya for a long time. A wealth of knowledge has <a href="https://au.int/en/documents/20200601/framework-irrigation-development-and-agricultural-water-management-africa">emerged</a> on its technological, economic and social components as a concept (not specifically in Kenya). </p>
<p>Still, Kenya’s policies, statutes and development plans don’t capture it explicitly. Its extent is largely unknown in official circles since it has not been mapped. </p>
<p>Based on my observations of <a href="https://theconversation.com/africas-agribusiness-sector-should-drive-the-continents-economic-development-five-reasons-why-198796">irrigation value chains</a>, the farmer-led initiative is set to become the next big thing pushing the growth of irrigation in Kenya. </p>
<p>This is more so as irrigation <a href="https://ppp.worldbank.org/public-private-partnership/sites/ppp.worldbank.org/files/2022-06/Briefing_paper_on_irrigation.pdf">moves</a> from public to private investment. The private sector is more adept at mobilising funds for irrigation and marketing the production. For instance, most of the irrigated vegetables sold in the market today are from farmer-led irrigation. Most of the <a href="https://unepccc.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2020/10/temarin-irrigation-report-exe-sum-final-web.pdf#page=3">buyers</a> of irrigation equipment also happen to be individual farmers. </p>
<h2>What are the drivers of farmer-led irrigation?</h2>
<p>Kenya is urbanising <a href="https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/639231468043512906/pdf/AUS8099-WP-P148360-PUBLIC-KE-Urbanization-ACS.pdf#page=38">rapidly</a>. Urbanisation is associated with higher incomes and changing lifestyles. Food preferences <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12571-021-01182-8">shift</a> towards high-value products like meat, dairy, fruit and vegetables.</p>
<p>The changes in food preferences have expanded markets for crops from irrigated agriculture. High-value crops are generally fresh produce sold off-season, when the price is highest. These require irrigation, which presents an opportunity to introduce new technologies like energy-efficient solar pumps and improved water application systems.</p>
<p>Smallholder, market-oriented producers have been at the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03066150.2016.1219719">forefront</a> of irrigation expansion across Africa over the last two decades.</p>
<p>Based on my research, there are four main drivers of farmer-led irrigation in Kenya:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>availability of appropriate and affordable irrigation technologies</p></li>
<li><p>land rights</p></li>
<li><p>access to finance</p></li>
<li><p>favourable prices paid to farmers.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Others are ease of access to information, a well-developed mobile money transfer system and relatively well-educated farmers willing to invest in irrigated agriculture.</p>
<h2>What should be done to expand irrigation?</h2>
<p>There is huge scope for irrigation expansion in Kenya through farmer-led initiatives and private financing. Where individuals and small groups make their own investments to advance irrigation, they record <a href="https://www.fao.org/3/W7314E/w7314e07.htm">better success rates</a> and fewer failures than the large public sector schemes. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/irrigating-africa-can-small-scale-farmers-lead-the-way-113692">Irrigating Africa: can small-scale farmers lead the way?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Farmer-led irrigation development is entrepreneurial, self-financing and market-oriented. Therefore, it requires these low-cost interventions. </p>
<p><strong>Policy support:</strong> there is a need to assess the extent of farmer-led irrigation in the country. This should include mapping to explore its impacts and opportunities for upscaling and possible policy support. Being “invisible”, the sector currently misses out on various subsidies, incentives and opportunities that are available for publicly funded schemes in Kenya. It is necessary to deliberately channel resources to support farmer-led irrigation through projects, subsidies, incentives, capacity building and access to information for farmers.</p>
<p><strong>Efficient water systems:</strong> in the past, irrigation schemes were designed with little concern for water wastage. But as water scarcity becomes <a href="https://www.scirp.org/journal/paperinformation.aspx?paperid=106638">more acute</a>, there is a need to improve the water productivity of crops and the overall efficiency of irrigation.</p>
<p><strong>Institutional support:</strong> farmer-led irrigation needs institutional support in areas like design (water pans, wells and gravity diversion works), efficiency, productivity and economic return analysis.</p>
<p><strong>Research support:</strong> research will guide policymakers and other actors in the irrigated agriculture space. At the moment, data is scanty.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/202080/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bancy M. Mati does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Kenya’s irrigation development is more advanced than official records show because they exclude what some farmers are doing.Bancy M. Mati, Professor of Agricultural Engineering, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1967772023-02-28T19:47:11Z2023-02-28T19:47:11ZGrowing farmland inequality in the Prairies poses problems for all Canadians<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512091/original/file-20230223-20-aqfkhr.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=113%2C5%2C3874%2C2323&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Research found that investor ownership of farmland in Saskatchewan was negligible in 2002, but by 2018 had climbed to nearly one million acres — almost 18 times the size of Saskatoon.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Jeff McIntosh</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/growing-farmland-inequality-in-the-prairies-poses-problems-for-all-canadians" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Real estate is a hot topic in Canada. Most Canadians are acutely aware of how home prices and rents have <a href="https://theconversation.com/new-study-reveals-intensified-housing-inequality-in-canada-from-1981-to-2016-173633">skyrocketed in the last 15 years or so</a>. In large cities, investor ownership of condos and houses has attracted the attention of policymakers and the public at large, prompting <a href="https://www.ctvnews.ca/business/who-s-exempt-from-canada-s-foreign-homebuyers-ban-here-s-what-you-need-to-know-1.6214997">the federal government to crack down on foreign buyers</a>. </p>
<p>While many are familiar with these urban real estate trends, few are aware of the <a href="https://www.landfoodsovereignty.ca/podcast">restructuring of farmland ownership occurring in rural areas</a>. Since 2014, we’ve been studying changing land tenure patterns in the Prairies, where 70 per cent of Canada’s agricultural land is situated. </p>
<p>Our research reveals three major trends — ongoing farm consolidation, increasing land concentration and expanding investor ownership of farmland — leading to <a href="https://policyalternatives.ca/publications/reports/concentration-matters">growing land inequality</a>. Like the transformation of urban real estate, who benefits from these changes is highly contested.</p>
<h2>Investor interest in farmland</h2>
<p>Investor purchases of farmland worldwide increased significantly as part of the <a href="https://grain.org/article/entries/93-seized-the-2008-landgrab-for-food-and-financial-security">global landgrab spurred by the food price spikes</a> of 2007 and 2008. High food prices, a growing global demand for food and environmental pressures <a href="https://www.producer.com/news/dont-farm-just-own/">convinced many global investors that farmland was a safe bet</a> in an increasingly volatile world. </p>
<p>As hedge funds, pension funds and wealthy individuals poured billions of dollars into farmland, researchers like us began to write about the financialization of agriculture — that is, the growing influence of financial players and financial motives over farming and food production.</p>
<p>Our research found that investor ownership of farmland in Saskatchewan was negligible in 2002, but had climbed to nearly one million acres by 2018 — almost 18 times the size of Saskatoon. (A million acres is about 4,050 square kilometres). While Saskatchewan sought to <a href="https://docs.legassembly.sk.ca/legdocs/Bills/27L4S/Bill27-187.pdf">tighten rules on farmland ownership in 2016</a>, this seems to have done little to slow down the pace of investor acquisitions. </p>
<p>Robert Andjelic, an investor from Alberta, is <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/business/article-farmland-ownership-canada-andjelic/">now Canada’s largest farmland owner</a> with <a href="https://andjelic.ca/">225,435 acres in 92 Saskatchewan rural municipalities</a>. His company leases farmland to dozens of farmers and undertakes “land improvements,” such as clearing trees, brush and other natural habitat, as well as filling in wetlands in order to farm from corner to corner of every parcel.</p>
<p>Another major investor is <a href="https://www.avenuelivingam.com/fund/agricultural-land-trust/">Avenue Living</a>, which has a foot in both urban real estate (as the owner of multi-family housing units across North America) and farmland, with a portfolio of some 83,000 acres.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A map of Saskatchewan showing the land holdings of investors and farmer-investor hybrids in blue" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512089/original/file-20230223-20-u1qbht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512089/original/file-20230223-20-u1qbht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512089/original/file-20230223-20-u1qbht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512089/original/file-20230223-20-u1qbht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512089/original/file-20230223-20-u1qbht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=583&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512089/original/file-20230223-20-u1qbht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=583&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512089/original/file-20230223-20-u1qbht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=583&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Land holdings (in blue) of investors and farmer-investor hybrids in Saskatchewan in 2018. Collectively, these entities owned 969,769 acres across the province.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Sarina Gersher with data from Information Services Corporation)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As investors gobble up more land, there is growing unease among farmers. <a href="https://bonnefield.com/farmers/">Investors argue they are helping farmers</a> by relieving them of their assets and providing young farmers with
access to land through rental agreements. Given that, on average, investors <a href="https://policyalternatives.ca/publications/reports/who-buying-farm">pay more for land compared to other buyers</a>, these deep-pocketed buyers have undoubtedly contributed to the rapid increase of farmland prices.</p>
<p>In our <a href="https://static1.squarespace.com/static/62251c157af1ef4305dfdfe6/t/633b97a841d091158b52bcca/1664849835129/Wild+West+Report+2022+%281%29.pdf">survey of 400 prairie farmers</a>, 76 per cent of farmers under 35 indicated that non-farmer investor activity has had a negative or very negative effect on the local farmland market. 83.2 per cent of older farmers indicated that investor activity has had negative or very negative impact on the local community. </p>
<p>Farmers also expressed unease about the growing economic clout of large farmers (over 10,000 acres) and mega-farms (over 30,000 acres) in the region.</p>
<h2>Mega-farms keep accumulating land</h2>
<p>Investors are not the only entities with vast landholdings. Some of Saskatchewan’s largest grain farms now own and control tens of thousands of acres. According to our research, Monette Farms owned some 63,000 acres of land in 2018, and farms much more than that with <a href="https://monettefarms.ca/about/">production sites in Montana, Arizona and Saskatchewan</a>. </p>
<p>One Organic Farms <a href="https://www.oneorganicfarm.com/ourstory">reportedly operates on a land base of 40,000 acres</a>, with the large majority of the land rented from Andjelic Land Inc., Saskatchewan’s largest investor-owner. </p>
<p>In-depth interviews with over 100 farmers in <a href="http://hdl.handle.net/1993/35283">Alberta</a>, <a href="http://hdl.handle.net/1993/35780">Saskatchewan</a> and <a href="http://hdl.handle.net/1993/35482">Manitoba</a> revealed many are deeply concerned about the environmental degradation wrought by big agriculture. Others argued these players out-compete locals for farmland and contribute little to local communities.</p>
<h2>Why should city dwellers care?</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.oxfam.org/en/research/uneven-ground-land-inequality-heart-unequal-societies">Land inequality has significant implications</a> for the vibrancy of democracy, the viability of rural communities and the sustainability of agriculture.</p>
<p>Accessing land is currently the <a href="https://doi.org/10.15353/cfs-rcea.v5i3.288">biggest barrier for young and new farmers</a> who want to get into farming and land prices continue <a href="https://www.parklandinstitute.ca/finance_in_the_fields">to soar above what is justified by its productive value</a>. At the same time, <a href="https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=3210005101">farm debt is the highest it’s ever been</a> and the prairies are experiencing <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-022-10353-y">an emptying out of the countryside</a>. </p>
<p>We should also be concerned about the financialized logic promoted by investors and mega-farmers, which seeks to extract monetary value from every square inch of farmland.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Overhead view of two tractors harvesting wheat in a huge field" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512092/original/file-20230223-26-huby4v.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512092/original/file-20230223-26-huby4v.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512092/original/file-20230223-26-huby4v.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512092/original/file-20230223-26-huby4v.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512092/original/file-20230223-26-huby4v.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512092/original/file-20230223-26-huby4v.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512092/original/file-20230223-26-huby4v.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Agriculture is a significant contributor to Canada’s greenhouse gas emissions.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Jeff McIntosh</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Given that agriculture is a <a href="https://www.nfu.ca/publications/agricultural-greenhouse-gas-emissions-in-canada-2nd-edition/">significant contributor to Canada’s greenhouse gas emissions</a>, doubling-down on this hyper-productive, fossil-fuel dependent model will only make it harder for Canada to meet its <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/services/environment/weather/climatechange/climate-plan/net-zero-emissions-2050.html">climate change commitment</a>.</p>
<p>The question is: what kind of agriculture do Canadians want? Growing land inequality undermines the social, economic and environmental sustainability of agriculture. </p>
<p>Progressive agrarian and food movements <a href="http://www.ipes-food.org/pages/LongFoodMovement">propose a different future</a> — one based on food sovereignty. This would entail equitable access to land for farmers, sustainable livelihoods and valuing farmland for its social and ecological worth, as well as its productive value. </p>
<p>As the climate crisis intensifies, there has never been a better time for urban and rural Canadians to work together to transform food systems.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/196777/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Annette Desmarais receives funding from the Canada Research Chair Program and the Social Sciences and Humanities Council of Canada.
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>André Magnan receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. </span></em></p>Farm consolidation, increasing land concentration and expanding investor ownership of farmland is leading to growing land inequality in the Canadian Prairies.Annette Desmarais, Canada Research Chair in Human Rights, Social Justice and Food Sovereignty, University of ManitobaAndré Magnan, Associate Professor, Sociology and Social Studies, University of ReginaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1908852022-10-19T20:31:02Z2022-10-19T20:31:02ZWhat a buzzkill: Early-ending winters disrupt bumblebee slumber<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/488402/original/file-20221006-15-vb3ccq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=92%2C105%2C4294%2C2621&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Bees that can adapt to the changing climate around us offer hope for more research and better policy and conservation efforts.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Gardeners across <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aax8591">North America and different parts of the world</a> have been growing worried over an eerie quiet settling over their gardens — a silence caused by the missing buzzing of bees. </p>
<p>With the increasing use of land for development and climate change worsening the bee disappearance globally, these gardeners have had to painstakingly transfer pollen grains from flower to flower with a paintbrush, simulating the <a href="https://www.towergarden.ca/blog.read.html/en/2015/6/flowers_but_no_fruit.html">process of pollination necessary for fruit or vegetable production</a>. </p>
<p>Losing these bees and other pollinators is no mere inconvenience, but a far broader challenge that is evolving with the changes in their environment.</p>
<p>In a recent research paper, <a href="https://science.uottawa.ca/biology/people/kerr-jeremy-t">my colleague Jeremy Kerr</a> and I found that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2022.109675">72 per cent of native bumblebee species in North America are ending their winter hibernation much earlier</a>. While these bees have been timing their emergence to earlier spring onsets, the rest face the threat of extinction. </p>
<h2>Early wake up call</h2>
<p>Since the 1970’s, climate stressors including the increased rate of warming, earlier onset of spring and more unpredictable extreme weather events have added <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2023989118">new and severe challenges to the agricultural sector — and the pollinators it relies on</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A pollen covered bee." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490570/original/file-20221019-20-xcjdui.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490570/original/file-20221019-20-xcjdui.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490570/original/file-20221019-20-xcjdui.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490570/original/file-20221019-20-xcjdui.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490570/original/file-20221019-20-xcjdui.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490570/original/file-20221019-20-xcjdui.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490570/original/file-20221019-20-xcjdui.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Bumblebee queens hibernate in the winter and search for pollen and nectar after waking up hungry and in need of energy.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Bees are extremely sensitive to environmental change. The changing climate increases the likelihood of an <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2012.1051">earlier end to winter and, thus, early flowering of spring plants</a>. These flowers are essential food sources for bumblebee queens that hibernate in the winter and search for pollen and nectar after <a href="https://www.bumblebeeconservation.org/lifecycle/">waking up hungry and in need of energy</a>.</p>
<p>The survival for those emerging from hibernation before the arrival of spring flowers — their main food source — is unlikely. This leads to smaller colonies with lower odds of persisting in the following years. </p>
<p>However, bumblebees that sync with the changing timing of spring take full advantage of the season’s floral resources and are more likely to thrive over time.</p>
<h2>In sync with climate change</h2>
<p>Our research found that many native bumblebee species in North America are adapting to the changing climate by cutting their hibernation period short.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490569/original/file-20221019-17-tn5ks7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A bee digging the ground." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490569/original/file-20221019-17-tn5ks7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490569/original/file-20221019-17-tn5ks7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490569/original/file-20221019-17-tn5ks7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490569/original/file-20221019-17-tn5ks7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490569/original/file-20221019-17-tn5ks7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490569/original/file-20221019-17-tn5ks7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490569/original/file-20221019-17-tn5ks7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Bumblebee queens find shelter in warm places like underground burrows and hibernate all through the winter.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We examined the relationship between climate and bumblebee spring emergence using records from museum collections across North America. After studying 17,000 individual bees across 21 species, we found that the climate influenced the spring emergence patterns of 15 species. </p>
<p>Species including the Rusty-patched bumblebee (<em>Bombus affinis</em>) — <a href="https://www.xerces.org/endangered-species/species-profiles/at-risk-invertebrates/bumble-bees/rusty-patched-bumble-bee">a species that is important to crop pollination but facing extinction across North America</a> — and the Half-black bumblebee (<em>Bombus vagans</em>) failed to keep up with the seasonal changes. Landscape fragmentation, pesticides and diseases from commercial bee colonies compounded these native species’ survival risk. </p>
<p>On the other hand, bee species like the <em>Bombus pensylvanicus</em>, <em>Bombus melanopygus</em> and <em>Bombus huntii</em> successfully tracked the early arrival of spring and woke up from their winter hibernation in time to feast on the early-blooming flowers.</p>
<p>As there are about 40 native species in North America, this research stresses the need for more research and better conservation of these economically valuable pollinators.</p>
<h2>Who runs the world? Bees!</h2>
<p>Like canaries in a coal mine, <a href="https://beegratefulenactus.com/2020/12/13/bees-as-bioindicators-a-tool-to-measure-environmental-pollution/">the dwindling bee presence is an indicator of deteriorating environmental quality</a>.</p>
<p>The agriculture industry, which takes up approximately <a href="https://ourworldindata.org/">38 per cent of our land surface</a>, heavily relies on these pollinators to thrive. The production of coffee, kiwis, blueberries, pumpkins, tomatoes and vanilla depends on pollination by bees, while other crops like bananas <a href="https://www.pollinator.org/pollinated-food">benefit from pollinators like birds and fruit bats</a>.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/YZCoX9tsT1E?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The global agriculture industry heavily relies on bee pollinators.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/190730/dq190730a-eng.htm">Agriculture contributes $49 billion</a> to the Canadian economy and over <a href="https://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/ag-and-food-statistics-charting-the-essentials/ag-and-food-sectors-and-the-economy/">US$1 trillion</a> to the U.S. economy. </p>
<p>However, the conversion of land from forests or meadows to crops and pasture and the use of pesticides is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaa7031">making these habitats increasingly unsuitable for many bees</a>. Pesticides are deadly to bees, and agricultural monocultures fail to provide consistent food sources for pollinators throughout the spring and summer.</p>
<p>Our diets consist of foods pollinated by bees. If some pollinators struggle to adapt to climate changes, many of our crops will yield far less fruit and vegetables, triggering food security challenges globally.</p>
<h2>The future of bees</h2>
<p>Our research highlights potential concern in those species that demonstrated decline over time and inability to match changes in the climate.</p>
<p>Given the importance of bees to our global economy and food safety, it is good news that some bees are matching changes in spring onset between years. It is crucial that we target conservation efforts towards those species that are faring worse. </p>
<p>Meanwhile, policies to protect our pollinators must continue to include <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/consumer-product-safety/pesticides-pest-management/growers-commercial-users/pollinator-protection.html">pest and pesticide regulation</a> and the protection of natural spaces, <a href="https://www.toronto.ca/services-payments/water-environment/environmentally-friendly-city-initiatives/reports-plans-policies-research/draft-pollinator-strategy/">even in our cities</a>.</p>
<p>Research studies like this can help policy-makers and species conservation authorities <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-018-06038-4">find effective and long-lasting ways of protecting the biodiversity of our planet for future generations.</a></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/190885/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Olga Koppel does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Seventy-two per cent of native bumblebee species in North America are cutting their winter hibernation short by timing their emergence to earlier spring onsets.Olga Koppel, PhD Candidate in Conservation Biology, L’Université d’Ottawa/University of OttawaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1901482022-09-20T20:20:26Z2022-09-20T20:20:26ZHalf of Western Sydney foodbowl land may have been lost to development in just 10 years<p>More and more farming land is being lost to other land uses such as housing on the outskirts of our cities. But how much land is being lost? And why does it matter?</p>
<p>Our newly published <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264837722002927">research</a> used the Western Sydney region as a case study of land lost since the 2011 census, and newly released Australian Bureau of Statistic (ABS) <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/standards/australian-statistical-geography-standard-asgs-edition-3/jul2021-jun2026/access-and-downloads/digital-boundary-files">data</a> allowed us to update our findings. While <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/standards/australian-statistical-geography-standard-asgs-edition-3/jul2021-jun2026/main-structure-and-greater-capital-city-statistical-areas/mesh-blocks">changes</a> in ABS land-use definitions make precise comparisons difficult, Western Sydney may have lost as much as 60% of its agricultural land over the past ten years. </p>
<p>The significance of these losses is that Western Sydney has long been seen as the foodbowl of Greater Sydney. It produces <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/industry/agriculture/value-agricultural-commodities-produced-australia/latest-release">more than three-quarters</a> of the total value of agricultural produce in the metropolitan region. The city relies heavily on Western Sydney for livestock, vegetables, eggs, grapes and nuts. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-best-before-food-labelling-is-not-best-for-the-planet-or-your-budget-189686">Why 'best before' food labelling is not best for the planet or your budget</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>We also interviewed people from different tiers of government working in Western Sydney. Our study highlights growing tensions between the New South Wales government and its attempts to manage population growth and housing pressures, and local councils and their efforts to protect food production on the city outskirts. The loss of productive land around our major cities is an increasingly urgent issue for our food security.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1529731936167395334"}"></div></p>
<h2>Food systems under pressure</h2>
<p>Like many cities, Sydney is being hit by many shocks and stresses – drought, bushfires, storms, floods and the COVID-19 pandemic’s impacts on supply chains. This rapid succession of shocks tests the resilience of local food security. Communities face soaring food prices as part of a broader surge in costs of living. </p>
<p>A lack of political will, short-term election cycles with shifting priorities, and low public awareness have meant the importance of retaining farming land close to the city isn’t well understood. Perishable foods grown close to urban markets not only reduce transport and energy costs, and emissions, but also <a href="https://apo.org.au/node/318103">improve a city’s food security</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/weve-had-a-taste-of-disrupted-food-supplies-here-are-5-ways-we-can-avoid-a-repeat-135822">We've had a taste of disrupted food supplies – here are 5 ways we can avoid a repeat</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Our study quantifies the loss of land categorised as agricultural or primary production in Western Sydney over time. Based on ABS data for land use by <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/standards/australian-statistical-geography-standard-asgs-edition-3/jul2021-jun2026/access-and-downloads/digital-boundary-files">mesh blocks</a> (the smallest geographic areas defined by the ABS), we estimate Western Sydney lost 9% of its primary production land from 2016 to 2021. The worst-affected council areas over this period, The Hills Shire, Blacktown, Camden and Campbelltown, lost 43%, 39%, 26% and 19% respectively.</p>
<p>Changes in <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/standards/australian-statistical-geography-standard-asgs-edition-3/jul2021-jun2026/main-structure-and-greater-capital-city-statistical-areas/mesh-blocks">ABS mesh block land-use definitions</a> (from “agriculture” in 2011 to “primary production” in 2016 and 2021), as well as <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/D3310114.nsf/home/Australian+Standard+Geographical+Classification+(ASGC)">changes to mapping standards</a>, make it difficult to accurately calculate the loss of land between 2011 and 2021. However, if these land-use categories in 2011, 2016 and 2021 are assumed to be broadly comparable, we can estimate that Western Sydney lost roughly 60% of its farming land over the past ten years. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485256/original/file-20220919-14-i3mxu4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485256/original/file-20220919-14-i3mxu4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485256/original/file-20220919-14-i3mxu4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=623&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485256/original/file-20220919-14-i3mxu4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=623&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485256/original/file-20220919-14-i3mxu4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=623&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485256/original/file-20220919-14-i3mxu4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=783&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485256/original/file-20220919-14-i3mxu4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=783&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485256/original/file-20220919-14-i3mxu4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=783&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Note: estimates of losses assume the land-use categories of ‘agricultural’ in 2011 and ‘primary production’ in 2016 and 2021 are comparable.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">The Conversation</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/urban-sprawl-is-threatening-sydneys-foodbowl-55156">Urban sprawl is threatening Sydney's foodbowl</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>The pressures of growth</h2>
<p>The NSW government has historically looked to Western Sydney to accommodate Greater Sydney’s growing population. </p>
<p>The population in Western Sydney is <a href="https://pp.planningportal.nsw.gov.au/populations">estimated to increase</a> from 2.4 million residents in 2016 to 4.1 million in 2041. The Department of Planning and Environment’s latest <a href="https://www.planning.nsw.gov.au/Research-and-Demography/Sydney-housing-supply-forecast">housing supply forecast</a> predicts the region will supply roughly 60% of Greater Sydney’s new dwellings in the period 2021-2025.</p>
<p>Attempts have been made to <a href="https://www.planning.nsw.gov.au/-/media/Files/DPE/Reports/sydney-growth-centres-strategic-assessment-program-report-2010-11.pdf">concentrate new development</a> in two designated growth areas – the <a href="https://www.planning.nsw.gov.au/Plans-for-your-area/Priority-Growth-Areas-and-Precincts/North-West-Growth-Area">North-West</a> and <a href="https://www.planning.nsw.gov.au/Plans-for-your-area/Priority-Growth-Areas-and-Precincts/South-West-Growth-Area">South-West</a> – from 2006 onwards. These locations used to contain swathes of undeveloped <a href="https://www.planning.nsw.gov.au/Research-and-Demography/Metropolitan-Housing-Monitors/Sydney-Greenfield-Monitor">greenfield land</a>. But local council policies to retain productive farmland have been put aside to accommodate state government growth plans. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485439/original/file-20220919-7117-6fc704.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Map showing location of Greater Sydney's North West and South West growth centres" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485439/original/file-20220919-7117-6fc704.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485439/original/file-20220919-7117-6fc704.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=562&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485439/original/file-20220919-7117-6fc704.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=562&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485439/original/file-20220919-7117-6fc704.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=562&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485439/original/file-20220919-7117-6fc704.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=706&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485439/original/file-20220919-7117-6fc704.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=706&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485439/original/file-20220919-7117-6fc704.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=706&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Greater Sydney’s designated growth areas are to the north-west and south-west of the city.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264837722002927#bib18">Lawton & Morrison 2022, Land Use Policy</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Greater Sydney Commission (now the <a href="https://www.greatercities.au/metropolis-of-three-cities">Greater Cities Commission</a>) introduced the concept of <a href="https://gsc-public-1.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/Values_of_the_Metropolitan_Rural_Area_of_the_Greater_Sydney_Region_(Ag_Econ_Plus).pdf">Metropolitan Rural Areas</a> (MRAs) to help preserve the remaining peri-urban rural land. The MRA is defined as the land uses outside the established and planned urban areas of Greater Sydney. It broadly comprises rural towns and villages, farmland, floodplains, defence land, national parks and wilderness areas. </p>
<p>Satellite imagery from our <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264837722002927">research</a>
reveals a slow but steady housing sprawl into surrounding rural land. Is the MRA concept too late to stem urban encroachment?</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/to-protect-fresh-food-supplies-here-are-the-key-steps-to-secure-city-foodbowls-114085">To protect fresh food supplies, here are the key steps to secure city foodbowls</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Why are farmers selling up?</h2>
<p>Why is farming land disappearing? Part of the answer lies in the cost-price squeezes farmers face. Costs of farming inputs have risen, while farmgate prices have fallen because of pressure from major retailers and competition. </p>
<p>As the cost of land and farming costs increase, low returns mean many farmers consider selling up to capitalise on land speculation. We estimate price differences between rural and residential land plots of up to 200% in Western Sydney (using the NSW Valuer General <a href="https://www.valuergeneral.nsw.gov.au/land_values/where_can_you_learn_more_about_your_land_value/land_values_online">online tools</a>). </p>
<p>The potential value uplift is a big incentive for farmers to approach the council and seek land rezoning to convert their rural holdings to more profitable land uses, such as housing and other urban uses. It makes financial sense. Who can blame them?</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/feeding-cities-in-the-21st-century-why-urban-fringe-farming-is-vital-for-food-resilience-106162">Feeding cities in the 21st century: why urban-fringe farming is vital for food resilience</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Local food production has been undervalued</h2>
<p>Our study suggests some questioning of a pro-urban growth agenda has begun. There is growing recognition of the importance of preserving agricultural and rural land on the outskirts of our major cities to help us withstand and recover from crises. </p>
<p>We are seeing shortages of essential items, supply-chain disruptions and rises in the prices of foods affected by climate-related events. These developments highlight the need to reduce dependence on distant food supplies. </p>
<p>Australian cities must find ways to maximise the sustainable use of available natural resources for more localised food production. We should also consider more carefully the role that farming land plays in other land-use functions, including flood mitigation. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/whats-causing-sydneys-monster-flood-crisis-and-3-ways-to-stop-it-from-happening-again-186285">What's causing Sydney's monster flood crisis – and 3 ways to stop it from happening again</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<hr>
<p><em>Amy Lawton, consultant in the advisory team at the Institute for Public Policy and Governance at UTS, was a co-author of this article, and of the journal publication while at WESTIR Ltd.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/190148/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amy Lawton, consultant in the advisory team at the Institute for Public Policy and Governance at UTS, was a co-author of this article, and of the journal publication while at WESTIR Ltd. Nicky Morrison does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Awais Piracha does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Growing fresh produce on the outskirts of a city reduces food miles and increases food security. But the foodbowls next to our our big cities are fast losing their land to urban growth.Nicky Morrison, Professor of Planning and Director of Urban Transformations Research Centre, Western Sydney UniversityAwais Piracha, Associate Professor of Urban Planning, Director Academic Programs, Geography Tourism and Urban Planning, Western Sydney UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1731542021-12-06T04:19:30Z2021-12-06T04:19:30ZAustralia’s agriculture sector sorely needs more insights from First Nations people. Here’s how we get there<p>Much of the debate on Indigenous agriculture in Australia has focused on a contested pre-colonial <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-the-dark-emu-debate-limits-representation-of-aboriginal-people-in-australia-163006">definition</a> as to whether Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people deserve the English title of “farmer”. </p>
<p>However this view stifles the real story of Indigenous engagement in Western agriculture. It also fails to recognise the inherent need for Indigenous peoples’ involvement in the sector.</p>
<p>In 2020, the Australian Department of Agriculture, Water and Environment conducted a series of roundtables to develop the <a href="https://www.awe.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/national-agricultural-workforce-strategy.pdf">National Agriculture Workforce Strategy</a>. </p>
<p>The strategy noted the urgency of transforming the agricultural workforce into a “complex, modern, sophisticated sector”. </p>
<p>There is no doubt the agricultural workforce is changing.</p>
<p>However, there’s a worryingly unsophisticated understanding of workforce diversity within the sector – especially in terms of Indigenous involvement in agriculture.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/indigenous-peoples-are-crucial-for-conservation-a-quarter-of-all-land-is-in-their-hands-99742">Indigenous peoples are crucial for conservation – a quarter of all land is in their hands</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Agriculture must connect with Indigenous people</h2>
<p>There is a critical and overdue need for agriculture to connect with Indigenous people.</p>
<p>This is best demonstrated through the Indigenous land holdings across the nation. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/ng-interactive/2021/may/17/who-owns-australia">The Guardian Australia</a> recently noted Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people own up to 54.17% of Australia’s landmass. </p>
<p>This is comparable to the <a href="https://www.niaa.gov.au/indigenous-affairs/land-and-housing">National Indigenous Australians Agency</a> estimate of Indigenous land ownership, which puts the figure at around 40%.</p>
<p>This extensive landholding by First Nations people is an essential component of the continued practice of agriculture in Australia. But despite Indigenous people owning these vast areas of land, only <a href="https://www.awe.gov.au/abares/products/insights/snapshot-of-australias-agricultural-workforce">1%</a> of the agricultural workforce identify as Indigenous.</p>
<p>This rate is unacceptably low, given <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-peoples/estimates-and-projections-aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-australians/latest-release">3.3% of Australia’s population more broadly identify as Indigenous</a>.</p>
<p>The National Agriculture Workforce Strategy identifies solutions to this lack of Indigenous workforce. Solutions such as promoting Indigenous people in agriculture through marketing, and fostering Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander leadership in this sector.</p>
<p>However, these proposed strategies fail to acknowledge broader concerns about inadequate Indigenous representation in the sector.</p>
<h2>Better data and a pipeline of Indigenous graduates</h2>
<p>To date, there has been no concerted effort across the agriculture sector to understand the size and scale of current Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander involvement, nor their agricultural production.</p>
<p>For example, the <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/articles/2020-21-agricultural-census">Australian Bureau of Statistics’ Agriculture Census</a> does not provide the opportunity for farmers to identify as Indigenous. Agriculture research and development corporations usually don’t collect these data, either.</p>
<p>There are also pipeline issues regarding Indigenous involvement in the sector. A recent study of 15 years of data by one of us (<a href="https://acda.edu.au/resources/IndigenousStudentsDoNotChooseAgricultureAtUniversity.pdf">James Pratley</a>) demonstrated universities had a low attraction and retention rate for Indigenous students. Fewer than five Indigenous students graduate in agriculture across Australia each year.</p>
<p>Despite the lack of university graduates, Australia has a <a href="https://humanrights.gov.au/our-work/statistical-overview-aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-peoples-australia">growing Indigenous youth demographic</a>, which could contribute to a much-needed workforce in future.</p>
<p>To encourage Indigenous people to enter agriculture, we need to show Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people belong in the sector. They need to feel welcome in our universities and TAFEs and we must better support those entering the industry.</p>
<p>Charles Sturt University has developed an <a href="https://www.csu.edu.au/office/advancement/giving-to-csu/active-funds/indigenous-agriculture-initiative">Indigenous agriculture initiative</a> drawing attention to the lack of Indigenous agriculture graduates. It also provides Indigenous students scholarships to study agriculture and/or do postgraduate research on aspects of Indigenous agriculture.</p>
<p>This provides Indigenous people with a pathway into agricultural industries and shows Indigenous people what opportunities exist.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1412194525385162752"}"></div></p>
<h2>Attracting and retaining Indigenous talent</h2>
<p>It’s also imperative larger agricultural companies develop <a href="https://www.reconciliation.org.au/reconciliation-action-plans/">Reconciliation Action Plans</a> (detailed, long-term strategies to meaningfully advance reconciliation between Indigenous and non-Indigenous people within an organisation). Big firms must also start or renew their efforts towards building more diverse workforces and supply chains.</p>
<p>Over <a href="https://www.reconciliation.org.au/reconciliation-action-plans/">1,100 Australian organisations have followed this path</a>.</p>
<p>Agricultural companies such as <a href="https://www.incitecpivot.com.au/%7E/media/Files/IPL/Sustainability/2021-2023-IPL-Innovate-RAP_R6-FIN-web.pdf">Incitec Pivot</a>, <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-07-22/obe-organic-leading-the-way-in-reconciliation-/100307874">OBE Organics</a> and <a href="https://www.bayer.com.au/sites/bayer_com_au/files/Bayer%2520RAP-Final.pdf">Bayer</a> have recently developed Reconciliation Action Plans. Other agricultural businesses and industries need to ensure their houses are in order too. </p>
<p>Reconciliation Action Plans provide a pathway for organisations to advance reconciliation across their business. This can be done through identified actions such as increasing Indigenous staff and initiatives for staff. Organisations are accountable for these actions through the Reconciliation Action Plan they develop. </p>
<p>As these Reconciliation Action Plans mature, employers in the agricultural sector will seek out Indigenous talent to meet targets and to crucially provide new perspectives.</p>
<p>Indigenous people’s input and talent is vital to modernising the agricultural sector. There is a huge opportunity to build employment pipelines from schools through universities into the broader agrifood industry. </p>
<p>A clear understanding of the size and scale of current Indigenous agricultural contributions is sorely needed. </p>
<p>Industry leaders who work to establish and grow the talent pipelines and develop Reconciliation Action Plans will reap the rewards.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-law-on-workplace-gender-equality-is-under-review-heres-what-needs-to-change-172406">A law on workplace gender equality is under review. Here's what needs to change</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/173154/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Josh Gilbert receives funding from the Food Agility CRC. He is affiliated with KU Children's Services, the NSW Aboriginal Housing Office, Reconciliation NSW, and Bridging the Gap Foundation. Josh formally worked at PwC's Indigenous Consulting.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>James Pratley does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The agricultural workforce is changing but a worryingly unsophisticated understanding of workforce diversity lingers in the sector – especially in terms of Indigenous involvement in agriculture.Joshua Gilbert, Researcher (Indigenous Policy) Jumbunna Institute for Indigenous Education & Research and Higher Degree Research Student at Charles Sturt University, University of Technology SydneyJames Pratley, Research Professor of Agriculture, Charles Sturt UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1504422020-12-15T19:11:19Z2020-12-15T19:11:19ZThe future of agriculture: why unis must prepare students to secure both our food and our planet<p>Agriculture will soon be worth <a href="https://nff.org.au/media-release/nff-releases-report-card-on-progress-towards-100-billion-goal/">A$100 billion</a> a year to Australia. The industry employs more than <a href="https://nff.org.au/media-release/nff-releases-report-card-on-progress-towards-100-billion-goal/">250,000 people</a>, stewards <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/11/12/3416/htm">80% of our land area</a> and drives world-class agribusiness and food sectors. In an uncertain employment market, every new agriculture graduate has a <a href="https://acda.edu.au/resources/GraduateSupplyforAgriculture-AglimmerOfhope.pdf">choice of six job opportunities</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/dont-panic-australia-has-truly-excellent-food-security-136405">Don't panic: Australia has truly excellent food security</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Agriculture today is fast-paced, global, diverse, reliant on high-end scientific discovery and increasingly responsive to consumers’ concerns about provenance, ethics and health. Despite all this, agriculture still fails to grip the imagination of many of our brightest students. </p>
<p>In Australia about <a href="https://acda.edu.au/resources/GraduateSupplyforAgriculture-AglimmerOfhope.pdf">300 to 400 students</a> graduate with some form of agriculture degree each year. With 17 universities offering significant agriculture studies, this would amount to only 23 students per university each year. And the numbers are declining. </p>
<p>As a growth sector with many jobs on offer, why does it lack appeal for students? Do we have the right model to attract the school leavers agriculture needs? </p>
<p>Part of the problem is social: agriculture doesn’t attract much attention apart from when Australia is on fire, covered in dust, flooded by water or when crops are dying of thirst. Parents and students associate agriculture with rural parched landscapes and struggling farmers, not high-technology science and genetics to produce the best meat or crops. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/technology-is-changing-the-face-of-northern-australian-cattle-farming-31552">Technology is changing the face of northern Australian cattle farming</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What do students need to know?</h2>
<p>The world of agriculture may start in a rural town far from Sydney Harbour, but it ends up in the commodity markets of London, Paris and New York and underpins some of the world’s most successful companies. And it does this with the help of some of our most innovative scientists.</p>
<p>To attract the best school leavers, it is vital that what we offer students is as exciting, diverse and challenging as the sector is becoming. To borrow a federal government term, the job-ready (agriculture) graduate of tomorrow needs to experience and understand best-practice regional farming systems. This is agriculture that’s in sync with a diverse landscape and <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/stop-fighting-and-start-adapting-to-climate-change-basin-authority-says-20201214-p56nbc.html">resilient to climate change</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-change-since-2000-has-cut-farm-profits-22-128860">Climate change since 2000 has cut farm profits 22%</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Students’ knowledge needs to be across the many ways to practise agriculture. These range from organic and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regenerative_agriculture">regenerative agricultural</a> practices, focused on replicating natural processes, through to technology-driven <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precision_agriculture">precision farming</a> and the emerging trend of using locally sourced inputs in <a href="https://www.ifpri.org/blog/circular-agriculture-vision-sustainability">circular farming systems</a>.</p>
<p>The days of simply shearing and shipping are over. The importance of provenance now goes right through the supply chain – we need to be able to trace food from paddock to plate. </p>
<p>Graduates will also need strong statistical and experimental design skills to manage the science and economics of agriculture. Since the emergence of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/precision-agriculture">precision agriculture</a> the quantitative skills graduates need have been totally transformed. They’ll have to manage big data sets to make informed decisions and optimise farm production. </p>
<p>The curriculum has had to expand beyond its historical focus on experimental design to include teaching <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0168169917301230">spatial and temporal data</a> combined with ecological statistics. Farmers want data in real time and mapped across their farm to optimise management and make spatially mapped yield predictions.</p>
<h2>A rising awareness of ethics</h2>
<p>The impact of producing food is under increasing scrutiny, too, exemplified by recent films <a href="https://kissthegroundmovie.com/">Kiss the Ground</a> and David Attenborough’s <a href="https://attenboroughfilm.com/">A Life on Our Planet</a>. </p>
<p>Consumers are demanding more of food producers. They are represented by groups concerned with better health and nutrition, more diverse diets, or advocates for differing ethical opinions. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/K3-V1j-zMZw?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Kiss the Ground trailer.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The current student cohort is also the most socially aware we have had in decades. The new agriculture curriculum must give them the tools to address these diverse agendas.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australias-farmers-want-more-climate-action-and-theyre-starting-in-their-own-huge-backyards-144792">Australia's farmers want more climate action – and they’re starting in their own (huge) backyards</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The rise of <a href="https://www.csiro.au/en/Research/AF/Areas/Digital-agriculture">digital agriculture</a> will further increase use of technology and data for decision-making along the entire supply chain from farm to consumer. Graduates must be aware of how digital technologies can be used to decommoditise – presenting products as unique that are strongly linked to priorities such as sustainability – and add value to farm outputs. Complex value-added products will allow producers to take advantage of rapidly expanding world markets, particularly on our doorstep in Asia.</p>
<p>Farmers continue to strive to protect the land. This is being recognised with <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/landline/farmers-reward:-paying-farmers-for-supporting/12492682">calls for payments</a> for ecosystem services that support biodiversity. </p>
<p>Future graduates will be armed with greater understanding of what makes a resilient landscape. They will be able to draw on scientific evidence to support on-farm management decisions and ensure their ecosystem service payments. They will be able to tailor land-management strategies to each farm.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-explained-regenerative-farming-can-help-grow-food-with-less-impact-123090">Climate explained: regenerative farming can help grow food with less impact</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Wanted: a visionary curriculum</h2>
<p>A renewed agriculture curriculum will open up tremendous opportunities for students. Data science, bioinformatics and genetics now form the basis of much of the activity in agriculture. This is dramatically extending the skill set of graduates. </p>
<p>While animal husbandry and crop cultivation remain central to our sector, the ag students of the future must strive to be the best geneticists, pathologists and ecologists. Sometimes all rolled into one.</p>
<p>A visionary new curriculum must also include a focus on entrepreneurship and market prospecting – leading to innovative start-ups – and ensure graduates have a global outlook. </p>
<p>They should be able to build agribusinesses that are responsive to the increasing risks, such as climate change, and agile enough to respond to volatility or to restructure to take advantage of new markets. Entrepreneurial skills will be needed too, to meet consumers’ expectations. </p>
<p>Universities must continue to listen and work with industry and consumers and be responsive to global trends and concerns. Agriculture will remain a growth industry. Careful management and investment in preparing students for the future of agriculture will ensure they can be tomorrow’s leaders of positive change and opportunity for the planet.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/150442/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Damien Field is affiliated with International Union of Soil Science, Soil Science Australia and Board member for Sydney Institute of Marine Science </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brent Kaiser works for the University of Sydney. He receives funding from the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Iain Young works for Sydney University. If the article encourages more students to study Agriculture, then University of Sydney would benefit.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Pauline Ross and Stephen Cattle do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Despite the many jobs on offer, agriculture courses are struggling to attract students. A visionary curriculum is needed that is as exciting, diverse and challenging as the sector itself is becoming.Damien Field, Associate Professor, Institute of Agriculture, University of SydneyBrent Kaiser, Professor of Legume Biology, University of SydneyIain Young, Professor and Dean, Faculty of Science, University of SydneyPauline Ross, Associate Dean (Education), Professor of Biology and Educational Strategy, University of SydneyStephen Cattle, Associate Professor in Soil Science, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1441352020-09-01T14:14:55Z2020-09-01T14:14:55ZForeign agriculture investments don’t always threaten food security: the case of Madagascar<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/355287/original/file-20200828-20-1idzymt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Farmhouse near Antananarivo, Madagascar. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">DeAgostini/Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Large-scale <a href="http://le.uwpress.org/content/87/2/312.full.pdf?casa_token=r5OopWL5aL0AAAAA:zejgGpqjsLY6tfq4Zk0yFQNM6CHI-fJ6-8IzInRM-A92fXlL2f7sFuLal9jYeNTMelCEl0SCdOM">land acquisitions</a> have been increasing in developing countries following the 2007/8 high <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00220388.2014.901501?needAccess=true">food price crisis</a>. Countries with limited agricultural potential, <a href="http://www.ipsnews.net/2014/07/land-grabbing-a-new-political-strategy-for-arab-countries/">like Gulf states</a>, have been driving foreign acquisitions in developing countries. Many developing country governments see these investments as an opportunity to increase foreign direct investment and employment opportunities for rural communities. </p>
<p>The African continent is the most targeted region in the global south for large-scale land acquisitions. According to the <a href="https://landmatrix.org/region/africa/">Land Matrix</a>, more than 14.2 million hectares of land have been transferred (in concluded deals) to large-scale agricultural investments in Africa. Most investors are from Europe, America and the Gulf States. </p>
<p>But there is a risk involved. These large-scale agricultural investments that produce cash and food crops for export could cause a loss of local land rights and access, and could threaten <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/01436597.2015.1029225?needAccess=true">food sovereignty</a> – people’s control over production and distribution of food. </p>
<p>With all land change uses, there are positive and negative influences and outcomes that need to be carefully weighed by governments and communities in the negotiation of these deals. Indeed, it’s often assumed that the impact of these investments on household food security and rural livelihoods will be mostly negative. But few studies have been done to test this assumption. </p>
<p>We carried out one such <a href="https://afrique-orientale-australe.cirad.fr/en/research-in-partnership/ongoing-projects/public-policy-poverty-and-inequality/afgroland">study</a> in Madagascar and found that large-scale land acquisitions don’t always have those adverse effects. In the debate about reducing poverty, it’s important to understand what’s really happening on the ground.</p>
<h2>Weighing up the pros and cons</h2>
<p><a href="http://www.fao.org/3/a-ak241e.pdf">Land</a> is important to the livelihoods, food security and the social identity of many people. A lack of adequate and secure access to land and natural resources is a cause of hunger and poverty. Globally, half those suffering from hunger are <a href="https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/175430/1/1014111781.pdf">smallholder farming households.</a> One in five of these households are landless.</p>
<p>Globally, the narrative focuses on the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/03066150.2011.559008?needAccess=true">adverse effects</a> of land investments. It often looks at the negative impact on people who depend on grazing, fishing and forest access. </p>
<p>But agricultural investments can create job opportunities, offer contracting or <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10220461.2013.780326?scroll=top&needAccess=true">outgrower</a> prospects, enable land rental markets, improve market access and stimulate infrastructure development. Such opportunities could play a role in reducing poverty and improving food security through increasing incomes and improving the distribution of food. </p>
<h2>The case of Madagascar</h2>
<p>Madagascar is one of the most <a href="https://landmatrix.org/country/madagascar/">targeted countries</a> for land-based investments in Africa, with a total of 1.4 million hectares in concluded deals. We <a href="https://afrique-orientale-australe.cirad.fr/en/research-in-partnership/ongoing-projects/public-policy-poverty-and-inequality/afgroland">explored</a> the food security effects of large-scale agricultural investment in an area of Madagascar.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.fao.org/3/y4671e/y4671e06.htm">Food security</a> is achieved when households have adequate safe and nutritious food to meet their nutritional needs. Food security is <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/03670244.2015.1094063?casa_token=AnkScSWl4tEAAAAA:Xmx9hrYDCoJ-23HjuQbAightBIXn7eTk70AE54bmErgkPv4hTIFiBsaAAmOcxXRmQ5gU4xlp6bBqog">multidimensional</a> and has no single internationally recognised measure. For this reason, we used seven internationally recognised indicators to assess the effect of large-scale agricultural investments on dimensions of food security in Madagascar.</p>
<p>The study covered two agribusiness models.</p>
<ol>
<li><p>Farming where the investor owned and ran the farming operation. This encompassed growing soya, geranium and other crops on about 3,500ha. </p></li>
<li><p>Farms which employed locals as farm workers and a contract or outgrower scheme that contracted 2,000 households to produce barley on their own land. The employing farm had been in the area for over 10 years and the outgrower scheme had operated for more than 20 years. </p></li>
</ol>
<p>Only a few households reported losing land rights. A <a href="https://agritrop.cirad.fr/594852/">study of Kenya, Madagascar and Mozambique</a> found that land-use patterns had occurred as the companies converted grassland to cropland. Unfortunately, the food security levels of the communities prior to the arrival of the agribusiness investments was not known. This limited the ability to draw conclusions on the changes that may have happened. </p>
<p>The study therefore focused on comparing the food security of three categories of households in the area of the agribusinesses. </p>
<p>Living in the area of the large agribusinesses (within a 25km radius) did not seem to be associated with poor food security of households. This was where at least one member was employed by the large agribusiness or contracting to these companies. <a href="https://rdcu.be/b5BwK">We found</a> that households employed by the agribusiness were more food secure than other households. </p>
<p>Their diets lacked diversity, however, perhaps because the income from employment was not enough to afford a variety of nutrient-rich foods. Low dietary diversity limits the intake of essential micronutrients and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5914317/">can lead to reduced productivity of adults</a> and affect the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jn/article/134/10/2579/4688437">growth and development of children</a>. </p>
<p>Households with employed members experienced less hunger than households engaged in contract farming and fewer months of inadequate food provision, because of their regular wages. But many did not have assets to sell in times of need. This reduced household ability to cope with food insecurity should a loss of income or natural disaster take place. It may be that the wages were enough to keep them from hunger but not enough for them to save and invest in assets for future stability. </p>
<p>Contract households farming barley on consignment enjoyed diets with higher diversity than households with members employed by the companies. This may arise from contract farming households having access to additional land to grow a variety of food crops for household consumption. But these households were worst off for most other food security indicators. This was because they received lumpy one-off contract payments compared to the consumption-smoothing monthly or weekly payments of employed households.</p>
<p>The sampled households in the neighbouring community seemed to have similar diets but owned more assets than the households in the zone of influence without members that were employed by the agribusiness or contracted to them. While non-engaged households in the zone of influence owned more assets than employed households but adopted more precautionary coping strategies (indicating some food stress in some months of the year) than other households living in the same area. On the whole, living in the zone of influence did not seem to have significant positive or negative effects on the food security of these non-engaged households.</p>
<h2>Informing policy</h2>
<p>The impact of large-scale investments in agricultural land is controversial. We found that households where at least one member was employed by the agribusiness were mostly more food secure than households carrying out contract farming. But this wasn’t always the case. Households in the zone of influence, but not engaged with the agribusinesses, were not found to be negatively affected in terms of food security at the time of the survey. </p>
<p>The most noticeable difference between households in the area of the agribusiness and those in the counterfactual community was observed in greater dietary diversity of the counterfactual households. This may have been attributed to their more traditional subsistence livelihoods and production patterns. </p>
<p>Governments in host countries should prioritise land reform to protect local land rights. They should also develop policy frameworks and institutions to enforce such policies and protect the food security of local communities.</p>
<p>Public policy should foster <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(13)60843-0/fulltext#:%7E:text=Nutrition%2Dsensitive%20programmes%20draw%20on,care%20resources%3B%20and%20to%20health%2C">nutrition-sensitive approaches</a> that provide incentives for organisations to improve worker nutrition, which in turn will reach households. </p>
<p>These incentives could encourage better farming practices, through subsidised seeds and farm inputs, access to irrigation and extension support. This will aid the production, harvesting, storage and preparation of nutritious foods to improve the dietary diversity of employees and contractors.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/144135/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Wegayehu Fitawek received funding for the research related with this article from Agriculture, Food Security and Climate Change (FACCE-JPI) African Food, Agriculture, Land and Natural Resource Dynamics (AFGROLAND) project. She also received funding from Land Matrix Scholarship "Land Matrix Phase III: PhD Programme ", funding by Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC), the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (Government of the Federal Republic of Germany, (BMZ) and the European Commission (EC). </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sheryl L Hendriks is affiliated with the Malabo Montpellier Panel. She received funding for the research related with this article through the Belmont Forum and the Joint Programming Initiative on Agriculture, Food Security and Climate Change (FACCE-JPI) African Food, Agriculture, Land and Natural Resource Dynamics (AFGROLAND), with funding from the Agence Nationale de la Recherche (ANR), France (grant number ANR-14-JPF2-0002-01), the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF), Switzerland (grant number 40FA40_160405) and the National Research Foundation (NRF) grant number 97819, South Africa.</span></em></p>Agricultural investments could play a role in reducing poverty and improving food security.Wegayehu Fitawek, PhD candidate in Agricultural Economics, University of PretoriaSheryl L Hendriks, Professor in Food Security; Head of the Department of Agricultural Economics, Extension and Rural Development, University of PretoriaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1087652019-01-17T13:50:24Z2019-01-17T13:50:24ZHow investment in irrigation is paying off for Ethiopia’s economy<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251282/original/file-20181218-27770-eugu2r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Ethiopia has harnessed the value of irrigation technologies.
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>After rapid economic growth averaging <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/poverty-matters/2014/oct/22/ethiopia-african-tiger-middle-income">10%</a> every year between 2004 and 2014, Ethiopia has emerged as an engine of development in Africa.</p>
<p>And there are no signs that ambitions for further growth are fading. This is clear from the government’s <a href="https://europa.eu/capacity4dev/resilience_ethiopia/document/growth-and-transformation-plan-ii-gtp-ii-201516-201920">blueprint</a> to achieve middle-income status – or gross national income of at least US$1006 per capita – by 2025. This would see a rapid increase in per capita income in Ethiopia, which is <a href="https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/ethiopia/overview">currently US$783</a>, according to the World Bank.</p>
<p>Ethiopia’s growth has been propelled by at least two factors: the prioritisation of agriculture as a key contributor to development and the fast-paced adoption of new technologies to boost the sector.</p>
<p>A <a href="https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NV.AGR.TOTL.ZS">third</a> of Ethiopia’s GDP is generated through agriculture, and more than <a href="http://www.fao.org/ethiopia/fao-in-ethiopia/ethiopia-at-a-glance/en/">12 million households</a> rely on small-scale farming for their livelihoods.</p>
<p>One of the drivers of growth in the agricultural sector has been the expansion of irrigation. The country has seen the <a href="https://www.mamopanel.org/resources/reports-and-briefings/water-wise-smart-irrigation-strategies-africa/">fastest growth</a> in irrigation of any African country. The area under irrigation increased by almost 52% between 2002 and 2014.</p>
<p>This was achieved by investing in the sector, and by harnessing technology to expand irrigation to farmers who traditionally relied on rainfall to water their crops. This boosted productivity and income for farmers by helping them extend the growing season and become more consistent in their production.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, only <a href="http://www.un.org/en/africa/osaa/pdf/pubs/2013africanagricultures.pdf">6% of arable land</a> is currently irrigated across the whole of Africa. This means that there’s huge potential to expand irrigation and unlock economic growth. </p>
<p>These factors are highlighted by a <a href="https://www.mamopanel.org/resources/reports-and-briefings/water-wise-smart-irrigation-strategies-africa/">new report</a> from the Malabo Montpellier Panel. The panel convenes experts in agriculture, ecology, nutrition and food security to guide policy choices by African governments. The aim is to help the continent accelerate progress towards food security and improved nutrition. </p>
<p>The panel’s latest report analyses progress – and highlights best practice – in irrigation in six countries. These include Kenya, Mali, Morocco, Niger and South Africa. Other African countries can draw lessons from the report’s insights.</p>
<h2>Reasons for success</h2>
<p>The report identified a number of common factors in countries where significant progress has been made to expand irrigation, including key policy and institutional innovations.</p>
<p>In the case of Ethiopia, one of the main reasons for its success is that agriculture and irrigation have been featured on the Ethiopian policy agenda since 1991. In addition, specialised institutions have been set up with clear commitments to maximise the benefits of water control and irrigation systems.</p>
<p>In addition, the government has invested in the sector and has plans to continue doing so. It aims to allocate US$15 billion to <a href="http://www.agri-learning-ethiopia.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/Agriculture-Policy-MTR_FINAL.pdf">irrigation development</a> by 2020.</p>
<p>The investment is expected to deliver a number of returns. These include:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>more efficient use of fertilisers, </p></li>
<li><p>a reduction in the seasonal variability in productivity and</p></li>
<li><p>better yields from irrigated crops grown.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Another major area of development has been the collection of data. This is an invaluable asset that allows for careful monitoring and management of resources such as water, especially in times of drought.</p>
<p>In 2013, Ethiopia’s Agricultural Transformation Agency began <a href="http://www.ata.gov.et/programs/highlighted-deliverables/input-voucher-sales-system-ivs/">mapping more than 32,400 sq kms</a> to identify water resources, particularly shallow groundwater, with the potential for irrigation development.</p>
<p>The final results of this mapping in 89 districts revealed nearly 3 billion cubic metres of water at a depth of less than 30 meters. This could allow approximately 100,000 hectares of land to be brought under irrigation, benefiting 376,000 families.</p>
<p>Finally, Ethiopia has harnessed the value of a full range of irrigation technologies. These have ranged small-scale interventions to large infrastructure.</p>
<p>A joint project between the Ethiopian Bureau of Agriculture, local extension officers, and an NGO called <a href="https://www.farmafrica.org/">Farm Africa</a>, for example, helped women and young people adopt small-scale irrigation. This was part of an initiative to increase their incomes and improve their nutrition.</p>
<p>Overall, the project reached nearly 6,400 women and landless people. The irrigation project also benefited 700 farming families.</p>
<h2>What other countries can do</h2>
<p>In order to have food and income security and to attain broader development goals, countries need to make sure that all levels of government are engaged in planning and implementation. The private sector and farming communities also need to be involved to expand irrigation.</p>
<p>The experience of Ethiopia and other countries leading on irrigation can help other African governments develop country-specific strategies to effectively take irrigation to scale. The benefits of doing so, such as enhancing on-farm productivity and income, and improving resilience and livelihoods, are transformational.</p>
<p>The expansion in irrigated farming, coupled with reliable agricultural inputs and stable markets for the expected growth in farm products, has the potential to catapult Ethiopia to the forefront of African countries that have embraced agriculture as the engine of economic growth.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/108765/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gebisa Ejeta receives funding from USAID and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. </span></em></p>Countries like Ethiopia have propelled economic growth by prioritising agriculture and new technologies to boost the sector.Gebisa Ejeta, Distinguished Professor, agronomy , Purdue UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/971562018-06-21T21:55:07Z2018-06-21T21:55:07ZHow mega mansions increase risks of heart disease and diabetes<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/224278/original/file-20180621-137717-1gt3srp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A luxury mansion in the suburbs of Vancouver, British Columbia.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Farmland is disappearing in many provinces across Canada. According to Larry Davis of the Ontario Federation of Agriculture, <a href="http://www.todaysfarmer.ca/2014/07/03/vibrant-agri-food-sector-hinges-on-farmland-preservation">350 acres of farmland are now lost per day in Ontario alone</a> to non-agricultural uses such as luxury housing.</p>
<p>Converting agricultural land to residential use in this way has detrimental effects on our health. Most worrisome is the potential of this conversion to increase rates of cardiovascular disease, diabetes, chronic respiratory disease and certain types of cancer.</p>
<p>The loss of agricultural land reduces the supply of locally grown vegetables, fruit and grains. This shortage drives up prices and threatens household food security. Being <a href="http://www.fao.org/3/a-y1500e.pdf">food insecure</a> means you have a limited or unsustainable access to nutritionally adequate, safe foods or the inability to acquire personally acceptable foods in socially acceptable ways.</p>
<p>As a registered nurse with 20 years of experience, I have seen first-hand the health issues that arise when individuals are not able to access healthy food. <a href="https://era.library.ualberta.ca/items/6354e160-6643-4d0c-8f7f-e3298b2b1399">My research in the Canadian Arctic</a> demonstrated the many complex challenges of being able to access nutritious food from the land. </p>
<p>Our health and well-being are directly tied to the land. We must find ways to preserve, protect and maintain farmland for agricultural use. Our health depends on it.</p>
<h2>Nutrient-poor foods</h2>
<p>According to Statistics Canada’s Consumer Price Index, the <a href="https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=1810000403">cost of fresh vegetables and fruit in Canada has increased significantly in recent years</a>. In 2017, tomatoes cost 16 per cent more than in 2016, and potatoes are up by almost 10 per cent. </p>
<p>Relying on fresh produce from the United States, especially from drought-affected California, also contributes to high costs at the cash register and in turn limits what we can purchase.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/224286/original/file-20180621-137711-w9x8yp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/224286/original/file-20180621-137711-w9x8yp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/224286/original/file-20180621-137711-w9x8yp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/224286/original/file-20180621-137711-w9x8yp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/224286/original/file-20180621-137711-w9x8yp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/224286/original/file-20180621-137711-w9x8yp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/224286/original/file-20180621-137711-w9x8yp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A farm in Caledon, in the Greater Toronto area of Ontario.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Michael Gil)</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Agricultural land that is used to build mega mansions instead of being actively farmed, <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/real-estate/vancouver/article-richmond-bc-residents-push-back-as-farmland-and-heritage-homes/">as is the case in Richmond, British Columbia,</a> can create a dependency on food that is inexpensive and nutrient-poor — leading many on the path to develop various types of chronic disease. </p>
<p>Such foods tend to be processed, high in fat (e.g. butter, oils, fried foods), sugars or starch, and promote over-consumption. This leads to weight gain over time. <a href="http://www.who.int/nutrition/publications/public_health_nut3.pdf">Obesity is a major factor in cardiovascular disease, diabetes and cancer</a>.</p>
<h2>Stress, heart disease, diabetes</h2>
<p>People cannot choose healthy nourishing foods when they are financially unaffordable. This forces individuals to become food insecure, and feel less in control of their lives. </p>
<p>Research shows that <a href="https://www.springer.com/us/book/9783319046174">the less control you feel over your life</a> due to limited or non-existent choices, the more stress you feel. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3341916/">Stress also has been linked</a> to heart disease, cancer and other chronic diseases.</p>
<p>Individuals who are food insecure are also <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0195962">more than twice as likely to develop Type 2 diabetes</a> as those who are food secure. </p>
<p>Being able to control your blood sugar is challenging when you aren’t able to afford nutritious food and follow a diabetic diet. </p>
<p>Also, when you factor in the cost of treatment for these chronic conditions, income that could have been used to purchase nutritious food is now being diverted, resulting in a vicious cycle of health issues and nutrient-poor foods.</p>
<h2>‘Health in All Policies’</h2>
<p>A recent report by the <a href="https://sencanada.ca/content/sen/committee/421/AGFO/reports/Farmland-final_e.pdf">Standing Senate Committee on Agriculture and Forestry</a> does not go far enough to protect agricultural land loss to development. </p>
<p>Among its five recommendations, the report calls for a tightening of restrictions on non-Canadian ownership. Eliminating policies that benefit foreign buyers and monitoring farmland for evidence of farming is required in order to reduce non-agricultural use of farmland. Our municipal and provincial governments must be held accountable.</p>
<p>Changing agricultural policy can influence food availability and food prices at the local, provincial and federal levels. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.who.int/healthpromotion/conferences/8gchp/130509_hiap_framework_for_country_action_draft.pdf">“Health in All Policies”</a> is an approach, promoted by the World Health Organization, that ensures decision makers are informed about the health, equity and sustainability consequences of various options during the policy development process. </p>
<p>We can improve the health of all people by incorporating health considerations into agricultural policies.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/97156/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bonnie Fournier receives funding from the Social Science and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) and the Canadian Institute of Health Research (CIHR). </span></em></p>As luxury housing developments swallow up agricultural land, they also diminish our food security and health.Bonnie Fournier, Associate Professor, Thompson Rivers UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/925072018-02-27T19:13:56Z2018-02-27T19:13:56ZWomen in rural workplaces struggle against the ‘boys club’ that leads to harassment<p>A <a href="https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ799042">culture of male dominance</a> in rural Australian workplaces is a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0277539513000927">key explainer</a> for the high rate of sexual harassment. </p>
<p>Women in rural Australia experience workplace sexual harassment at alarming rates. Researchers Skype Saunders and Patricia Easteal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0277539513000927">interviewed 84 female employees</a> from regional and remote areas of Western Australia, the Northern Territory, South Australia and New South Wales. They found that 73% of rural women had experienced sexual harassment at work. This is compared to 25% of women Australia-wide. </p>
<p>Only <a href="http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/journals/index.php/ijrlp/article/view/3127">35.7% of those surveyed</a> said they would disclose incidents of sexual harassment. A culture of self-reliance, the effects of small town gossip, fewer employment opportunities, a workplace culture of victim blaming and geographic isolation from services (such as police and medical care) prohibited the reporting of sexual harassment.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/when-sexual-assault-victims-speak-out-their-institutions-often-betray-them-87050">When sexual assault victims speak out, their institutions often betray them</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Gender roles in rural Australia follow traditional patterns and this culture sets rural women as <a href="https://ac.els-cdn.com/S0277539513000927/1-s2.0-S0277539513000927-main.pdf?_tid=spdf-f77baea4-ce9d-4324-b219-585c88d86794&acdnat=1519708367_caa59d3bb51f3a90bec21ceca2956636">outsiders in the workplace</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0277539513000927">Research</a> argues that women in regional workplaces, traditionally dominated by men, face a range of behaviours that signal to them they do not belong and are intruding on male spaces. Sexual harassment is the most powerful of these.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/change-is-possible-when-sexual-harassment-is-exposed-48992">Change is possible when sexual harassment is exposed</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>41% of the <a href="http://data.wgea.gov.au/industries/283">agricultural workforce</a> are female but in mining, only <a href="https://www.wgea.gov.au/wgea-newsroom/gender-equality-spotlight-mining">16% of mining employees are women</a>. </p>
<p>In workplaces where there are few women, women are more visible and they are <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0277539513000927">more likely to experience hostility</a>. Sexual harassment against women is more prevalent in male-dominated sectors such as mining and agriculture. </p>
<h2>The impact of sexual harassment in rural workplaces</h2>
<p>In rural towns where the line between private and public spheres is blurred, women’s reporting of sexual harassment and discrimination can <a href="http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/journals/index.php/ijrlp/article/view/3127">endanger their position</a> in the social fabric of their communities.</p>
<p>For women seeking career progression in male-dominated sectors of rural Australia infiltrating the network of the “boys club” is seen as important. For example, one participant <a href="https://anzam2016.com/wp-content/uploads/ANZAM_Proceedings/ANZAM_Proceedings.pdf">in a 2016 study</a> stated that her career success depended on “drinking with the boys” at rural functions. She believed that opting out of events such as these would inhibit her career advancement.</p>
<p>Studies by <a href="http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/full/10.1108/09649420210441923">Barbara Pini</a> and <a href="http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/full/10.1108/09649429610122113">Beatrice Dunfield</a> found that women’s access to leadership positions in agribusiness and agriculture was stifled by lower self-esteem due to systemic gender discrimination. In addition to sexual harassment Pini argued that workplaces did not support the balancing of work and family. She found leaders did not perceive female employees to have adequate skills and abilities and where there was culture of bullying, it inhibited women’s access to leadership positions. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/rape-culture-why-our-community-attitudes-to-sexual-violence-matter-31750">Rape culture: why our community attitudes to sexual violence matter</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Sexual harassment in the workplace is a real threat to regional communities. Women are significantly <a href="http://www.federationpress.com.au/bookstore/book.asp?isbn=9781862876354">more likely to leave small towns</a> due to the limitations in employment opportunities. </p>
<p>As women leave rural areas the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0277539513000927">opportunity to disrupt masculine culture</a> and create greater levels of respect for women in the workplace declines.</p>
<p>Sexual harassment in rural areas is strongly associated with workplaces that have a strong masculine culture, where dominating and excluding women through threatening behaviour is normalised. </p>
<p>The key to combatting this is dismantling ideas of masculine and feminine work spaces. One example of this is that men will work in sectors that have traditionally required physical strength, such as mining, and that women will play support roles in “soft” skill areas. </p>
<p>If we do away with this culture it will be an important starting point for creating safe workplaces free of sexual harassment. </p>
<p>While the statistics on sexual harassment in rural Australia are shocking, gender roles in rural Australia are in a state of renegotiation and reconstruction. That can continue if employees of both genders are committed to change.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/92507/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lucie Newsome does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A culture of male dominance in rural Australia is a key explainer for the high rate of sexual harassment in rural workplaces.Lucie Newsome, Lecturer, Business School, University of New EnglandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/680172016-12-07T07:50:45Z2016-12-07T07:50:45ZUrban and rural ‘terroirs’: shared assets in the global village<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/144112/original/image-20161101-15814-evox1h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Malvoisie vineyards in Lanzarote.
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vineyard#/media/File:La_Geria_vines.jpg">Yummifruitbat/Wikipedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Current debates surrounding two European trade agreements – <a href="http://ec.europa.eu/trade/policy/in-focus/ceta/">CETA</a> and <a href="http://carnegieeurope.eu/strategiceurope/?fa=50773">TAFTA</a> – provide us with a perfect opportunity to examine the French concept of <em>terroir</em>, and issues regarding the protection of geographic labelling (<a href="https://www.gov.uk/guidance/eu-protected-food-names-how-to-register-food-or-drink-products">Protected Designation of Origin, and Protected Geographical Indication</a>) that relate to that concept.</p>
<p>Geographical origin has always been used as a mark of quality in selling a wide array of agricultural products. Who hasn’t heard of Champagne or Bordeaux wines, Prosciutto di Parma, Parmesan or Roquefort?</p>
<p>In France, this practice has resulted in the development of specific geographical labelling, the <a href="http://www.inao.gouv.fr/Les-signes-officiels-de-la-qualite-et-de-l-origine-SIQO/Appellation-d-origine-protegee-Appellation-d-origine-controlee"><em>Appellation d'origine contrôlée</em></a>, which revolves around the concept of <em>terroir</em>. The reputation and prestige associated with a product’s geographical origin has created the temptation for misleading labelling. Fighting against misuses has become a major financial and legal issue in many rural areas.</p>
<p>While the concept of <em>terroir</em> is universally understood in France, its international definition and relevance has been the subject of lively debate. The United States has contested it at the <a href="https://www.wto.org/">World Trade Organization</a>.</p>
<p>The system of Protected Designation of Origin and Protected Geographical Indication has now been successfully expanded throughout Europe. Does this mean that the fight for <em>terroir</em> recognition has been won?</p>
<h2>An ode to cultural diversity</h2>
<p>France’s national institute of origin and quality (<a href="http://www.inao.gouv.fr/eng/">INAO</a>) defines <em>terroir</em> as:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>a restricted geographical area, in which a community of people, over the course of their history, developed a shared knowledge and production methods, based on a set of interactions between the physical and biological environment, and human factors. The particular characteristics, or typicity, arising from these social and technical histories bestow their notoriety to products originating from this geographical area.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>To a large extent, the <a href="http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/quality/schemes/index_en.htm">European Protection of Designated Origin</a> is based on the French <em>appellation</em>. To be awarded this label, producers must prove:</p>
<ul>
<li>the product’s historical origin and reputation</li>
<li>the strict delineation of territory and area of exclusivity for a given geographical designation</li>
<li>the specific characteristics, or typicity, of the product; knowledge and know-how inherent in the traditions and local customs associated with the local community.</li>
</ul>
<p>In France, studies in anthropology, history, geography, economics, sociology, agronomy and animal science have helped define the link between a product and its <em>terroir</em> but failed to resolve differences of opinions as to its exact nature.</p>
<h2>Between tradition and innovation</h2>
<p>A product of the wine industry, the concept of <em>terroir</em> applied exclusively to wine for a long time. But <em>terroir</em> is a flexible concept that has progressively expanded to include other French products such as cheeses, cured meats and vegetable products.</p>
<p>Sometimes considered inapplicable internationally, this concept emphasises the role of natural elements (landscape, soil, climate, genetic resources, and flora, among other things), and their interaction with human factors. Therefore, the definition of a locality and the legal protection given to geographical designations raise questions about the importance accorded to local knowledge, a product’s reputation and history, and the natural environment.</p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/144115/original/image-20161101-8691-1yy2q04.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/144115/original/image-20161101-8691-1yy2q04.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144115/original/image-20161101-8691-1yy2q04.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144115/original/image-20161101-8691-1yy2q04.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144115/original/image-20161101-8691-1yy2q04.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144115/original/image-20161101-8691-1yy2q04.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/144115/original/image-20161101-8691-1yy2q04.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Causse du Lot lamb from the Quercy region.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agneau_du_Quercy#/media/File:Agneau_caussenard_du_Quercy.jpg">Jean-Jacques Boujot/Wikipedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Some efforts have been made recently to encourage <a href="http://en.unesco.org/">UNESCO</a> to classify a number of <em>terroirs</em> as world heritage sites. However, such emphasis on history and cultural heritage does not translate into inertia or an end to innovation.</p>
<p>Maintaining a diverse range of social and technical systems is also useful in the fight against climate change, and the protection of natural resources (landscape, soil, biodiversity, and water, among other things).</p>
<p>However, ever increasing industrialised production methods, the standardisation of of know-how, as well as the development of new production lines for origin-based products (using reverse engineering techniques), do raise the tricky question of how to reconcile tradition with innovation.</p>
<h2>Constant collaborative re-invention</h2>
<p>The US has mainly fought against and <a href="https://www.cato.org/publications/policy-analysis/reign-terroir-how-resist-europes-efforts-control-common-food-names">criticised</a> the concept of <em>terroir</em>, while supporting private trademarking. But some American producers have shown growing interest in the idea over the last decade. This group, coordinated by the <a href="http://www.aop-us.org/">American Origin Products Association</a>, indicates a real change in outlook.</p>
<p>Labelling geographic origin can be understood as what <a href="https://mitpress.mit.edu/sites/default/files/titles/content/9780262083577_sch_0001.pdf">Elinor Ostrom and Charlotte Hess</a> define as “knowledge commons”. It’s based on both the shared prestige and reputation of a product with its customers and on the specific set of natural and cultural resources that come from local communities’ and producer regions’ shared knowledge and know-how.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/148753/original/image-20161205-25768-lxq4x6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/148753/original/image-20161205-25768-lxq4x6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=435&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/148753/original/image-20161205-25768-lxq4x6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=435&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/148753/original/image-20161205-25768-lxq4x6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=435&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/148753/original/image-20161205-25768-lxq4x6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=547&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/148753/original/image-20161205-25768-lxq4x6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=547&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/148753/original/image-20161205-25768-lxq4x6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=547&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Roquefort cheese is protected under EU law.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Demi_Castelviel_Gabriel_Coulet.jpg/1199px-Demi_Castelviel_Gabriel_Coulet.jpg">Digitalyeti/Wikimedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This attitude is substantiated by the growing number of countries in Africa, South America and Asia that are adopting <a href="http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/consultations/advisory-groups/international/2012-06-25/agri-working-doc_en.pdf">legal measures</a> similar to Europe’s protected geographic indications. In these cases, however, the concept of <em>terroir</em> and what constitutes typicity is broader: products are labelled according to their geographic origin, with a lesser substantive reference to other criteria defining their <em>terroir</em>.</p>
<p>Even in France, the origin-based labeling system has been sometimes criticised for its supposed rigidity and failure to adapt quickly enough to the demands of international markets, although it has boosted the promotion of local products and helped strengthen regional identities. By creating another link, <em>terroir</em> products have helped reshape the relationship between urban and rural areas.</p>
<p>By promoting traditional, typical and regional products with an origin-based label, <em>terroir</em> has become a valuable economic development tool for many EU rural regions.</p>
<p>The international use of the concept of <em>terroir</em> also includes transforming and adapting it to different contexts and applications, such as “urban terroirs”, and artisanal products, among other things. This usage should help reshape our vision of regions and their heritage.</p>
<p><em>Translated from the French by Alice Heathwood for <a href="http://www.fastforword.fr/en/">Fast for Word</a>.
This article was <a href="https://theconversation.com/terroirs-des-campagnes-terroirs-des-villes-patrimoines-communs-dans-le-village-global-67732">published</a>
originally on The Conversation France.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/68017/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Armelle Mazé does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>From wine to cheese, geographical origin has long been used as a mark of quality in selling a wide array of agricultural products. How do we protect it?Armelle Mazé, Economiste à l'INRA, AgroParisTech – Université Paris-SaclayLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/651552016-09-21T05:49:30Z2016-09-21T05:49:30ZFactCheck: Is 30% of Northern Territory farmland and 22% of Tasmanian farmland foreign-owned?<blockquote>
<p>There is no story of modesty here as the government is trying to frame it; 30% of the Northern Territory’s farmland is now foreign-owned, 22% of Tassie; that’s extraordinary. <strong>– Katter’s Australian Party federal MP Bob Katter, <a href="http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/inquirer/farmland-foreign-ownership-register-gives-size-not-value/news-story/069ab738d196d20637f20f37b41fd0dc">interview</a>, September 10, 2016.</strong></p>
</blockquote>
<p>Foreign ownership of Australian agricultural land is not new. Foreign cattle barons <a href="http://www.theland.com.au/story/3377060/vestey-still-a-big-ag-player/">owned large areas</a> of land in the Australian outback throughout much of the 20th century. </p>
<p>However, foreign investors’ interest in large tracts of farmland, and the federal treasurer’s decision to <a href="https://theconversation.com/morrisons-ruling-on-kidman-and-co-sale-redefines-the-national-interest-test-58413">block the sale</a> of the <a href="http://www.kidman.com.au/">S. Kidman and Co cattle properties</a> to a Chinese buyer, have helped fuel public debate on the issue. </p>
<p>When the Australian Taxation Office (ATO) released a new <a href="https://firb.gov.au/files/2016/08/Register_of_foreign_ownership_of_agricultural_land.pdf">Agricultural Land Register</a> in early September, federal MP <a href="http://www.bobkatter.com.au/">Bob Katter</a> said that 30% of Northern Territory farmland and 22% of Tasmanian farmland is now foreign-owned. </p>
<p>Is that right? </p>
<h2>Checking the source</h2>
<p>The Conversation asked a spokesperson for Bob Katter for sources to support his assertion but did not hear back before deadline.</p>
<p>Nevertheless, it’s clear Katter was referring to the Australian Taxation Office’s new <a href="https://firb.gov.au/files/2016/08/Register_of_foreign_ownership_of_agricultural_land.pdf">Register of Foreign Ownership of Agricultural Land</a>.</p>
<p>The register lists investors who are <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2015A00151">legally required</a> to report their interests in Australian agricultural land - whether that interest is freehold (meaning owned outright) or leasehold (meaning the land is rented).</p>
<p>Under rules announced in early 2015, investors must now notify the tax office within 30 days if they:</p>
<ul>
<li>Are a foreign person starting to hold agricultural land</li>
<li>Are a foreign person ceasing to hold agricultural land</li>
<li>Become a foreign person while holding agricultural land </li>
<li>Cease to be a foreign person while holding agricultural land</li>
<li>Are a foreign person holding land that becomes agricultural land or</li>
<li>Are a foreign person holding land that ceases to be agricultural land</li>
</ul>
<p>To build the register, the ATO collects investors’ names, contact details, country of incorporation and Australian Business Number or equivalent identifier. For individual investors, the ATO recorded their nationality, and passport and visa details. It also collects the land title details.</p>
<p>The ATO report covers registrations made between July 1, 2015 and June 30, 2016.</p>
<h2>What does the report show?</h2>
<p>The report shows that the largest amount of foreign agricultural land is held by investors from the United Kingdom, in control of 27.5 million hectares. Investors from the the United States (7.7 million hectares) hold the second largest amount of land, followed by the Netherlands (3.0 million hectares). Chinese investors hold the fifth largest amount of land, with about 1.5 million hectares.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/138562/original/image-20160921-12468-1wprtdj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/138562/original/image-20160921-12468-1wprtdj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=2176&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/138562/original/image-20160921-12468-1wprtdj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=2176&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/138562/original/image-20160921-12468-1wprtdj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=2176&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/138562/original/image-20160921-12468-1wprtdj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=2734&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/138562/original/image-20160921-12468-1wprtdj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=2734&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/138562/original/image-20160921-12468-1wprtdj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=2734&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://firb.gov.au/about/publication/register-of-foreign-ownership-of-agricultural-land/">The Conversation/Foreign Investment Review Board</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Leasing vs owning</h2>
<p>Bob Katter correctly quoted the percentages from the report, but his wording wasn’t quite accurate. He didn’t differentiate between foreign-owned and foreign-leased land. </p>
<p>To be fair, though, it’s not unusual for land to be leased for long periods of time – even as much as 99 years. So in practice, the difference between owning and leasing may be moot. The register doesn’t specify the length of the leases, saying only that:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>An interest in agricultural land includes a freehold interest or the right to occupy land under a lease (including a sublease or licence) where the term of the lease or licence (including any extension or renewal) is reasonably likely to exceed five years.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>What we do know is that the register shows that 30.1% of agricultural land in the Northern Territory and 21.8% of agricultural land in Tasmania is held by foreign interests.</p>
<p>As detailed in the chart below, the register shows that almost all of the foreign-held agricultural land in the Northern Territory is leased (but the register doesn’t say exactly how long the leases are). </p>
<p>In Tasmania, the numbers are very different. The register shows that of the farmland there that is held by foreigners, about 88% of it is freehold – meaning it is owned by a foreign interest.</p>
<iframe src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/1VHox/1/" frameborder="0" allowtransparency="true" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen" webkitallowfullscreen="webkitallowfullscreen" mozallowfullscreen="mozallowfullscreen" oallowfullscreen="oallowfullscreen" msallowfullscreen="msallowfullscreen" width="100%" height="380"></iframe>
<p>Much of the land identified in the report, particularly in the Northern Territory, is likely to be Crown leasehold. This means ultimate ownership rights remain with the Australian government, and lessees are required to manage the land in line with Australian property, agricultural and environmental laws.</p>
<h2>How does this compare to the past?</h2>
<p>We don’t know for sure, because the ATO register is the first of its kind.</p>
<p>The main previous source of official data on this issue was the Australian Bureau of Statistics’ (ABS) <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Lookup/7127.0Main+Features1Jun%202013?OpenDocument">Agricultural Land and Water Ownership Survey</a>, run in 2010 and 2013.</p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/DetailsPage/7127.0Jun%202013?OpenDocument#Data">2013 ABS survey</a> found 12.4% of Australian agricultural land had some level of foreign ownership, <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Latestproducts/7127.0Media%20Release1Jun%202013?opendocument&tabname=Summary&prodno=7127.0&issue=Jun%202013&num=&view=">saying</a> that:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Of the 400 million hectares of agricultural land in Australia, nearly 50 million hectares had some level of foreign ownership; this is up by around 5 million hectares, an increase of 11% on the 2010 result.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The ABS <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/subscriber.nsf/log?openagent&71270do001_201306.xls&7127.0&Data%20Cubes&1E31DDCBBEDDE426CA257CFB00159A51&0&Jun%202013&19.06.2014&Latest">reported</a> 31.7% of Northern Territory farmland as foreign-owned in 2013. Unfortunately, the Tasmanian data from the 2013 survey was not published.</p>
<p>If we compare the ATO and ABS data, it appears that the percentage of foreign-held agricultural land in Australia increased slightly between 2013 and 2016. It also appears that the percentage of foreign-held farmland in the Northern Territory fell slightly.</p>
<p>But care must be taken when comparing the results from the ATO register and the ABS survey. The ABS survey presents estimates based on a sample of agricultural businesses listed in the ABS business register, and must be used with care because of <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Lookup/7127.0Explanatory%20Notes1Jun%202013?OpenDocument">potential sampling errors</a>.</p>
<p>It’s likely that the ATO register reflects a more complete record of foreign ownership and leasing than the earlier ABS data. </p>
<h2>What don’t we know about foreign control of agricultural land?</h2>
<p><a href="http://firb.gov.au/about/publication/register-of-foreign-ownership-of-agricultural-land/">Not all the information</a> collected by the ATO has been made public.</p>
<p>The publicly available report doesn’t show <em>who</em> owns the land – it doesn’t show what proportion of the foreign-held land is owned or leased by foreign governments or foreign government investors such as state-owned enterprises. </p>
<p>The register’s <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2015A00151">guiding legislation</a> states that any publicly reported statistics must not identify investors, which limits what information the ATO can release for public perusal.</p>
<h2>Verdict</h2>
<p>Bob Katter got his figures right but his wording was not entirely accurate. It would have been more accurate for him to say that 30% of the Northern Territory’s farmland and about 22% of Tasmania’s farmland is now foreign-held – not foreign-“owned”.</p>
<p>In the Northern Territory, most of the foreign-held land is leased; in Tasmania most of that foreign-held land is owned outright by the foreign entity.</p>
<p>However, the register doesn’t include the length of land leases. For those tracts of land held under very long leases, the practical difference between owning and leasing may not be meaningful. <strong>– Erin Smith and Bill Pritchard.</strong></p>
<hr>
<h2>Review</h2>
<p>This is a sound FactCheck. I have independently confirmed all data and calculations used in the analysis. The authors are correct in confirming Katter’s claim, with the caveat that the term foreign “held” rather than “owned” should have been used.</p>
<p>Some further – and significant – qualifications of the ATO data can also be drawn out:</p>
<ol>
<li><p>While Tasmania and NT have relatively similar overall levels, their sectoral patterns are qualitatively different. As the <a href="https://firb.gov.au/files/2016/08/Register_of_foreign_ownership_of_agricultural_land.pdf">ATO data</a> show, most foreign-owned land in NT is for livestock production, while in Tasmania nearly all is in the forestry sector. </p></li>
<li><p>The legal differences between ownership and leasing are very slight in terms of assessing control and legal compliance matters. While the authors claim that leaseholders are required to meet “all Australian property, agricultural and environmental laws”, this is equally true of freeholders as well.</p></li>
<li><p>The ATO report appears not to adjust for the share of a property held by a foreign interest. For example, it does not differentiate between a farm that is 20% foreign-owned and one that is 100% foreign-owned. It is possible that some or even much of the “foreign held” land is actually a minority share in a joint-venture with Australian partners.</p></li>
<li><p>Significantly, the report only identifies the “place of incorporation” of the investor, rather than the nationality of the ultimate owner. Much of the British and American interests may well be held by legal persons of third countries, who have incorporated businesses (or bought shares in property trusts) in these jurisdictions. The dominance of the US and UK might therefore reflect a practice of incorporating agribusinesses in these countries, rather than ultimate ownership residing there. <strong>– Jeffrey Wilson</strong></p></li>
</ol>
<hr>
<p><div class="callout"> Have you ever seen a “fact” worth checking? The Conversation’s FactCheck asks academic experts to test claims and see how true they are. We then ask a second academic to review an anonymous copy of the article. You can request a check at checkit@theconversation.edu.au. Please include the statement you would like us to check, the date it was made, and a link if possible.</div></p>
<hr>
<hr><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/65155/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Erin Smith's PhD research was supported by an Australian Research Council Linkage Grant.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bill Pritchard receives funding from the Australian Research Council, and has previously received funding from the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation.
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jeffrey Wilson receives funding from the Australian Research Council for research into the politics of the Australia-China economic relationship (DP150100217). He is also a Research Fellow of the Perth USAsia Centre.</span></em></p>Katter’s Australian Party federal MP Bob Katter said 30% of the Northern Territory’s farmland and 22% of Tasmania’s farmland is foreign-owned. Is that true?Erin Smith, Post-doctoral Research Fellow, University of the Sunshine CoastBill Pritchard, Professor in Human Geography, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.