tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/armed-militia-21522/articlesArmed militia – The Conversation2023-09-20T12:26:10Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2130282023-09-20T12:26:10Z2023-09-20T12:26:10ZHow local police could help prevent another January 6th-style insurrection<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/547578/original/file-20230911-17-mbivt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=847%2C469%2C2074%2C1374&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Enrique Tarrio, leader of the Proud Boys, at left, and group member Joe Biggs were sentenced to many years in federal prison.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/enrique-tarrio-leader-of-the-proud-boys-and-joe-biggs-news-photo/1230086703">Stephanie Keith/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Some of the most prominent members of the Proud Boys, a far-right militant group that functions more like a street gang than a militia, have been <a href="https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/proud-boys-leader-sentenced-22-years-prison-seditious-conspiracy-and-other-charges-related">sentenced to long terms</a> in federal prison for their roles in the Jan. 6, 2021, insurrection at the U.S. Capitol in Washington, D.C. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.vox.com/politics/2023/5/5/23712755/proud-boys-sedition-trial-verdict-conviction-january-6-attack-trump">Experts</a> declare that these successful prosecutions by the U.S. Justice Department will not only discourage far-right groups but also deter people from joining them and engaging in future criminal activity.</p>
<p>Group chairman Henry “Enrique” Tarrio was <a href="https://www.npr.org/2023/09/06/1197824591/former-proud-boys-leader-enrique-tarrio-sentenced-to-22-years-for-jan-6-riot-rol">sentenced to 22 years</a> in federal prison after being found guilty of <a href="https://theconversation.com/regardless-of-seditious-conspiracy-charges-outcome-right-wing-groups-like-proud-boys-seek-to-build-a-white-nation-184592">seditious conspiracy</a>. Group leaders Ethan Nordean, Joe Biggs and Zachary Rehl were also found guilty of <a href="https://www.justice.gov/news/press-releases?search_api_fulltext=+proud+boys&start_date=&end_date=&sort_by=field_date">seditious conspiracy</a> and sentenced to 18, 17 and 15 years, respectively. <a href="https://www.npr.org/2023/09/01/1197186891/proud-boys-member-dominic-pezzola-sentenced-to-10-years-in-jan-6-riot-case">Dominic Pezzola</a>, a Proud Boys member who breached the Capitol building with a stolen police riot shield, was found not guilty of seditious conspiracy but was convicted of a variety of felonies, including assaulting a police officer, robbing government property and obstructing an official proceeding – and sentenced to 10 years in prison.</p>
<p>But despite the lengths of those sentences, prosecutors had asked U.S. District Judge Timothy Kelly to impose even harsher ones, claiming the offenses were related to terrorism. Kelly, however, ruled that claims of terrorism <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/dc-md-va/2023/09/01/proud-boys-pezzola-nordean-sentencing-jan6/">overstate the conduct</a> of the Proud Boys sentenced.</p>
<p>That fits with our analysis of the Proud Boys. As <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=fjys1XAAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">scholars</a> who <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=cLpO6QwAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=sra">study</a> street gangs and far-right groups, we see that the larger law enforcement community <a href="https://contexts.org/articles/classifying-far-right-groups-as-gangs/">continues to focus</a> – we believe mistakenly – on the belief that, like terrorist groups, white supremacists are coordinated in ideology and intent. Evidence shows that perception actually diverts local police agencies’ attention from <a href="https://theconversation.com/white-nationalist-groups-are-really-street-gangs-and-law-enforcement-needs-to-treat-them-that-way-107691">identifying and managing these groups</a>. </p>
<p>Gangs are generally defined as <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781003159797-4/demystifying-alt-right-gangs-matthew-valasik-shannon-reid">durable, street-oriented groups whose own identity includes involvement in illegal activity</a>. We believe that if police had treated Proud Boys as <a href="https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520300453/alt-right-gangs">members of a street gang</a> from the group’s inception in 2016, the events of Jan. 6, 2021, might have been avoided, or at least reduced in severity.</p>
<h2>The trouble with fighting domestic terrorism</h2>
<p>The United States lacks explicit laws banning domestic terrorism, in part because they are <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-is-it-so-difficult-to-fight-domestic-terrorism-6-experts-share-their-thoughts-165054">constitutionally controversial</a> and may target unintended groups. </p>
<p>That problem has arisen with other criminal laws, such as the <a href="https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/mjrl17&div=13&id=&page=">Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act</a>, which was designed to specifically target organized crime groups, like the Italian Mafia. The application of RICO, however, has been adapted and used aggressively against <a href="https://www.npr.org/2022/05/15/1099004661/young-thug-is-the-latest-rapper-to-be-charged-under-historically-problematic-ric">Black, Latino and Indigenous groups</a> and <a href="https://www.npr.org/2023/09/06/1197987659/georgia-has-charged-61-stop-cop-city-protesters-with-racketeering">political protestors</a>.</p>
<p>Nevertheless, some <a href="https://harvardlawreview.org/print/vol-136/responding-to-domestic-terrorism-a-crisis-of-legitimacy/">have suggested</a> that passing laws defining and outlawing domestic terrorism would be the best way to deal with the threats posed by the Proud Boys and other far-right extremists.</p>
<p>But when <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/player/play/1854516291659">Canada</a> and <a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/political/470065/new-zealand-designates-american-proud-boys-and-the-base-terrorist-organisations">New Zealand</a> designated the Proud Boys as a terrorist organization, that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-99804-2_3">did not eliminate white supremacists</a> from those countries. It merely forced them to <a href="https://www.adl.org/resources/blog/re-branding-white-supremacy">rebrand</a> themselves with a new name and logo. Treating Proud Boys solely as members of a terrorist organization does not actually stamp out white supremacy groups. </p>
<p>Instead, this perception hurts local law enforcement’s ability to recognize local, disorganized, far-right groups as street gangs and not terrorist groups. Police discretion is immense. Time and again, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/14/us/proud-boys-law-enforcement.html">police have been documented</a> ignoring Proud Boys <a href="https://theintercept.com/2020/07/15/george-floyd-protests-police-far-right-antifa/">violence and intimidation</a>. Failing to arrest members <a href="https://www.wweek.com/news/courts/2018/10/14/why-dont-portland-police-stop-the-proud-boys-from-brawling/">explicitly observed in criminal infractions</a> has only encouraged future acts of violence. Furthermore, local law enforcement’s <a href="https://www.brennancenter.org/our-work/research-reports/hidden-plain-sight-racism-white-supremacy-and-far-right-militancy-law">history of failing</a> to investigate and arrest members of far-right groups forces the federal government to be solely responsible for prosecuting them.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/547586/original/file-20230911-8058-5e3iib.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two men stand in an open space inside a building." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/547586/original/file-20230911-8058-5e3iib.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/547586/original/file-20230911-8058-5e3iib.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547586/original/file-20230911-8058-5e3iib.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547586/original/file-20230911-8058-5e3iib.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547586/original/file-20230911-8058-5e3iib.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547586/original/file-20230911-8058-5e3iib.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547586/original/file-20230911-8058-5e3iib.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Proud Boys member Dominic Pezzola, center with police shield, was among those who stormed the Capitol on Jan. 6, 2021.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/CapitolBreachExtremistPlots/5abfd5183c2e41319090fd7fc31ad807/photo?Query=proud%20boys&mediaType=photo&sortBy=creationdatetime:desc&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=429&currentItemNo=193">AP Photo/Manuel Balce Ceneta</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Once a gang, always a gang</h2>
<p>From the very start, Proud Boys founder Gavin McInnes explicitly declared the group a “<a href="https://www.vice.com/en/article/y3v54k/joe-rogan-spotify-proud-boys">gang</a>.” Local police across the U.S. actively investigate and prosecute gangs, especially those whose members are <a href="https://www.amnesty.org.uk/files/reports/Trapped%20in%20the%20Matrix%20Amnesty%20report.pdf">Black</a>, <a href="https://www.nbcwashington.com/news/local/attorneys-and-activists-question-accuracy-of-police-gang-database/2517076/">Latino</a> and <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2020/opinions/systemic-racism-police-evidence-criminal-justice-system/">other people of color</a>.</p>
<p>Proud Boys are predominantly white men who also intimidate and threaten communities around the U.S. with <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/sep/19/proud-boys-document-jan-6-violence">disorderly conduct, public harassment</a> and <a href="https://www.hachettebookgroup.com/titles/andy-b-campbell/we-are-proud-boys/9781668611159/?lens=hachette-books">more serious violence, including battery, assault, murder, rioting and hate crimes</a>. This <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118726822.ch22">“cafeteria-style”</a> offending is quite common among gang members participating in a range of criminal activities. </p>
<p>But, perhaps because of the Proud Boys’ claims to be just a “<a href="https://www.start.umd.edu/publication/proud-boys-crimes-and-characteristics">western chauvinist</a>” men’s club, local law enforcement agencies <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/14/us/proud-boys-law-enforcement.html">have tended not</a> to treat the Proud Boys and other far-right groups as street gangs. Such increased scrutiny by police of their criminal activities would have produced a much greater deterrent effect. Instead, the lack of acknowledging the Proud Boys’ violent criminal behavior only emboldened them further.</p>
<p>In fact, police have either remained idle or even consorted with Proud Boys members at recent protests, even <a href="https://www.wkbn.com/news/ohio/columbus-police-chief-responds-after-officer-seen-high-fiving-proud-boy/">giving them high-fives</a>, as observed in Columbus, Ohio, at a demonstration against the “Holi-drag” story time event. This type of police engagement is just one element of how <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S1742058X18000139">police ignore the threat of white supremacy</a> and its followers.</p>
<h2>Broadening the concept of gangs</h2>
<p>Many Proud Boys fail to exhibit remorse for their actions. <a href="https://www.npr.org/2023/09/01/1197186891/proud-boys-member-dominic-pezzola-sentenced-to-10-years-in-jan-6-riot-case">Pezzola declared “Trump won!” as he exited the federal courtroom</a> after his sentencing. <a href="https://twitter.com/misstessowen/status/1699823971674227184/photo/1">Tarrio</a> is now positioning himself as a <a href="https://www.vice.com/en/article/z3mqva/january-6-trump-apologists-blame-biden-proud-boys">political prisoner</a> to rally support from the GOP.</p>
<p>This raises our concerns that Proud Boys members will continue to be active and violent. Research finds it is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427811419368">effective for police to systematically monitor and target groups</a> that exhibit violent behavior and that doing so deters future acts of violence.</p>
<p>Sometimes, new laws can help. In Alabama, for instance, a law enacted in June <a href="https://legiscan.com/AL/bill/SB143/2023">expands the legal definition</a> of groups police might be concerned about. Instead of using a specific term like “street gang,” as most states do, the Alabama law defines a “<a href="https://www.al.com/news/2023/05/alabama-legislation-removes-gangs-in-favor-of-criminal-enterprises.html">criminal enterprise</a>” as any group of three or more people who engage in a pattern of criminal activity. Such an approach aids in removing the bias in law enforcement that street gangs are composed only of urban youth.</p>
<p>We hope that police will collect and share information about far-right groups’ criminal acts with other agencies to help identify people who are active in various areas of a state or even around the country. But in the end, the evidence shows that the Proud Boys, like any street gang, remain primarily <a href="https://www.brennancenter.org/our-work/analysis-opinion/white-supremacist-links-law-enforcement-are-urgent-concern">localized groups</a> that are best dealt with by local police, not federal agents.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/213028/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The Proud Boys are more of a loosely affiliated street gang than they are a unified right-wing militia, researchers say. But police ignore the threats from these groups, and their threats grow.Matthew Valasik, Associate Professor of Criminology and Criminal Justice, University of AlabamaShannon Reid, Associate Professor of Criminal Justice and Criminology, University of North Carolina – CharlotteLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1892912022-08-25T12:26:58Z2022-08-25T12:26:58ZConviction of two Michigan kidnap plotters highlights danger of violent conspiracies to US democracy<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480921/original/file-20220824-4026-dyadxd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C3%2C2492%2C1543&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Barry Croft Jr., left, and Adam Fox were found guilty by a federal jury on charges related to a 2020 plot to kidnap Michigan Gov. Gretchen Witmer.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/MichiganGovernorKidnappingPlot/10d99e1d3dd947439c5ff1ad52c40af6/photo">Kent County Sheriff's Office via AP</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Two of the six men facing federal charges in a plot to kidnap Michigan Gov. Gretchen Whitmer in 2020 were <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/08/23/us/verdict-trial-gretchen-whitmer-kidnap.html">found guilty</a> by a federal jury on Aug. 23, 2022. </p>
<p>The verdict in the trial of co-defendants Adam Fox and Barry Croft Jr. comes after a previous trial ended in <a href="https://www.clickondetroit.com/news/local/2022/04/08/2-men-found-not-guilty-mistrial-declared-for-2-others-in-whitmer-kidnap-plot-trial/">acquittals</a> for two other co-defendants, Daniel Harris and Brandon Caserta, and mistrials for Fox and Croft. Their two other alleged accomplices, <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/gretchen-whitmer-kidnapping-ty-garbin-pleads-guilty/">Ty Garbin</a> and <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2022/02/07/politics/whitmer-kidnap-plot-kaleb-franks-guilty-plea/index.html">Kaleb Franks</a>, pleaded guilty and agreed to cooperate with the prosecutions against the others.</p>
<p>All six were members of the Wolverine Watchmen, a militia group in Michigan who felt compelled to act against Whitmer’s COVID-19 restrictions. Several other members of the Watchmen <a href="https://www.mlive.com/news/jackson/2022/04/trial-scheduled-for-jackson-county-men-accused-in-whitmer-kidnapping-plot.html">still face state charges</a> for their alleged roles in the kidnapping plot.</p>
<p>Observers like <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=5nxIh9YAAAAJ&view_op=list_works&sortby=pubdate">me</a> knew relatively little about the Wolverine Watchmen when the men were <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-michigan-whitmer-idUKKBN26T37C">first arrested</a> in October 2020. I have studied the U.S. domestic militia movement <a href="https://www.amycooter.com/research.html">for 12 years</a>. I have learned about general militia structures, and I have conducted in-depth interviews and done <a href="https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/handle/2027.42/98077">extensive fieldwork</a> with militia groups. I have long-standing contacts who have informed my understanding of groups. And still, I do not believe it’s possible to know the full extent of the defendants’ intentions or abilities.</p>
<p>But I do know that violent threats and plots need to be treated seriously – especially those that focus on specific people and their supposed tyranny. </p>
<p>It will also be important to observe how militias and related groups respond to these convictions: Claims that the judicial process was corrupt have already surfaced, which could fuel <a href="https://www.poynter.org/fact-checking/2022/70-percent-republicans-falsely-believe-stolen-election-trump/">additional mistrust in American political systems</a> as the nation heads into midterm congressional elections. </p>
<h2>What is this group, and where did it come from?</h2>
<p>In 2020, <a href="https://theconversation.com/lessons-from-embedding-with-the-michigan-militia-5-questions-answered-about-the-group-allegedly-plotting-to-kidnap-a-governor-147876">reports from my militia contacts and other sources</a> indicated the Wolverine Watchmen had split off from the larger <a href="https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2020/08/24/the-militias-against-masks">Michigan Liberty Militia</a>, which had featured prominently in an April 2020 Michigan <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-michigan-whitmer-idUKKBN26T37C">state lockdown protest</a> that garnered national attention. </p>
<p>The Wolverine Watchmen appear to be a type of militia called “millenarian,” which tends to be dangerous, secretive, <a href="https://www.aspi.org.au/opinion/far-right-groups-and-conspiracy-theories-are-being-brought-together-through-internet">conspiracy-oriented</a> and anti-government. This is in contrast with the other type of militia unit – “constitutionalist” – whose members still train with firearms but take a much more defensive, rather than offensive, stance toward the government.</p>
<p>The exact cause of the split is not clear, but I have witnessed in my work that fractures are exceedingly common in militia groups because of personality conflicts or disputes over a group’s goals and plans, as well as whether their actions are private or in public.</p>
<p>In a similar vein, it also appears that Adam Fox, the plot’s alleged mastermind, had been <a href="https://www.michiganradio.org/news/2020-10-12/michigan-militia-groups-try-to-distance-themselves-from-alleged-terrorist-plot">kicked out</a> of yet another militia group called the Michigan Home Guard before joining the Watchmen. Public reports of this incident match what militia informants have reported to me about Fox’s volatility both in person and on social media.</p>
<p>Other members may have been recruited to the Watchmen at <a href="https://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/2022/03/29/whitmer-kidnap-jury-wolverine-watchmen/7207466001/">multimilitia events</a> the unit was known to attend or even host. Insiders tell me that some members may have followed Fox when the Home Guard largely dissolved following one leader’s participation in a <a href="https://m.facebook.com/60minutes/videos/when-he-says-stand-by-what-does-he-want-what-is-he-planning-on-having-us-stand-b/366649564660607/">“60 Minutes” interview</a> that was perceived as harmful to the militia movement.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/362708/original/file-20201009-13-h5xfw8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Armed men stand on the steps of the Michigan capitol building." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/362708/original/file-20201009-13-h5xfw8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/362708/original/file-20201009-13-h5xfw8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362708/original/file-20201009-13-h5xfw8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362708/original/file-20201009-13-h5xfw8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362708/original/file-20201009-13-h5xfw8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362708/original/file-20201009-13-h5xfw8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362708/original/file-20201009-13-h5xfw8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">On April 30, 2020, armed men wearing ‘Michigan Liberty Militia’ insignias stood on the steps of the state Capitol building as part of a protest against Gov. Gretchen Whitmer’s lockdown orders.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/armed-protesters-provide-security-as-demonstrators-take-news-photo/1211395465">Jeff Kowalsky/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What are their aims or goals?</h2>
<p>Several of those initially charged are affiliated with the <a href="https://ctc.westpoint.edu/the-evolution-of-the-boogaloo-movement/">Boogaloo</a> movement, a loose ideology whose adherents seek to foster <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-are-white-supremacists-protesting-the-deaths-of-black-people-140046">varying degrees of social upheaval</a>, often through attacks on law enforcement or other government representatives.</p>
<p>Watchmen commander and co-founder Joseph Morrison, for example, included “Boogaloo” as part of his <a href="https://www.deadlinedetroit.com/articles/26380/meet_boogaloo_bunyan_founder_of_michigan_militia_that_plotted_to_overthrow_government">online handle</a>. </p>
<p>Boogaloo ideology is not synonymous with millenarianism but is much more similar than it is to the more reserved constitutionalist outlook. Boogaloo shares with millenarianism a desire for violence and disruption, and both perspectives can be further incited by a <a href="https://www.aspi.org.au/opinion/far-right-groups-and-conspiracy-theories-are-being-brought-together-through-internet">variety of conspiracy fantasies</a>, such as those that enhance believers’ perceptions of political opponents as not just wrong-thinking, but evil. </p>
<p>Co-conspirator Ty Garbin <a href="https://www.bridgemi.com/michigan-government/star-witness-whitmer-kidnap-plotters-wanted-boogaloo-war-stop-biden">testified</a> that the ultimate goal of the kidnapping plot was “to cause as much disruption as possible to prevent Joe Biden from getting into office.” </p>
<p>Garbin’s stated focus specifically on Biden – and, by default, ensuring a continued Trump presidency – would imply that the Watchmen did not want to completely overthrow the government but instead retain a leader who met their approval. </p>
<p>Prosecutors, however, used even stronger language than Garbin in the second federal trial, <a href="https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2022/08/11/moar-a11.html">asserting</a> that Croft and Fox wanted to start a “second American Revolution.” This is a variation of a goal at the extreme end of the Boogaloo spectrum: to initiate a <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/usa-election-extremists/u-s-capitol-siege-emboldens-motley-crew-of-extremists-idUSL1N2JJ0A0">second civil war</a>. </p>
<p>Despite the common disdain for Whitmer and government COVID-19 policies that brought these men together, they had ideological differences, too. </p>
<p>Brandon Caserta, for example, posted an <a href="https://www.newsweek.com/donald-trump-tyrant-not-your-friend-says-suspect-governor-whitmer-kidnapping-plot-1537821">anti-Trump video</a>, while Daniel Harris had previously <a href="https://oaklandcounty115.com/2020/06/08/lake-orion-protest-affirms-black-lives-matter-movement/">protested</a> against police brutality and in support of Black Lives Matter. </p>
<p>I have observed some online commentators dismiss those actions as tactical maneuvers to make militias seem less exclusionary than they really are. However, in my experience, militia members hold a complex array of personal beliefs, including support for racial equality that is sincere even if <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/citizen-militias-in-the-u-s-are-moving-toward-more-violent-extremism/">not entirely informed</a> about the full scope of modern racism.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/362704/original/file-20201009-17-1delzu5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Michigan Gov. Gretchen Whitmer" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/362704/original/file-20201009-17-1delzu5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/362704/original/file-20201009-17-1delzu5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362704/original/file-20201009-17-1delzu5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362704/original/file-20201009-17-1delzu5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362704/original/file-20201009-17-1delzu5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362704/original/file-20201009-17-1delzu5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362704/original/file-20201009-17-1delzu5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">After the arrests were announced in 2020, Michigan Gov. Gretchen Whitmer spoke to the public.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/MichiganGovernorKidnappingPlot/37be31aef6d244d488394d44506fc23f/photo">Michigan Office of the Governor via AP</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Were they a serious threat?</h2>
<p>Questions remain among some militia members and their supporters about the seriousness of the Watchmen’s plot. At the time of their arrests, militia members who knew some of the defendants <a href="https://theconversation.com/lessons-from-embedding-with-the-michigan-militia-5-questions-answered-about-the-group-allegedly-plotting-to-kidnap-a-governor-147876">told me they doubted</a> their ability to actually execute the complicated plan. </p>
<p>While I continue to hear disparaging remarks about Croft and Fox in particular, most of the skeptical focus has since shifted to the integrity of the investigation. </p>
<p>The defense team in the original trial argued the plot was actually the creation of <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2022/mar/19/michigan-governor-kidnap-case-terrorists-fbi-dupes-gretchen-whitmer">undercover agents or informants</a> involved in the investigation. The first jury <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/national-security/2022/04/08/michigan-whitmer-verdict-governor/">may have found this argument persuasive</a> for Harris’ and Caserta’s acquittals, but it seems to have fallen short as an explanation for Fox and Croft in both trials.</p>
<p>Militia supporters have nonetheless noted that some texts and other communications from informants were <a href="https://wwmt.com/news/local/governor-gretchen-whitmer-michigan-kidnapping-kidnap-kill-plot-barry-croft-adam-fox-grand-rapids-mistrial-fbi-evidence-mistrial-second-trial-conspiracy">not shared</a> with jurors in either federal case, a fact they believe supports defense attorneys’ arguments that FBI agents engaged in entrapment. </p>
<p>And some supporters of the defendants have raised concerns about the <a href="https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/kenbensinger/fbi-michigan-kidnap-whitmer">background and behavior of FBI agents</a> who were involved in the case, apparently seeking to impeach their credibility. One agent was arrested for <a href="https://www.detroitnews.com/story/news/local/detroit-city/2021/07/21/records-fbi-agent-assaulted-wife-swingers-party-gretchen-whitmer-terror-plot/8041014002/">violently assaulting his wife</a>, while yet another was removed from the list of witnesses after facing <a href="https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/jessicagarrison/a-third-fbi-agent-will-not-be-testifying-in-the-michigan">allegations of perjury</a> in a different case. </p>
<p>Jurors in the ongoing state trial of the eight other members of the Watchmen will <a href="https://www.michigan.gov/ag/news/press-releases/2022/08/10/ag-nessel-prevails-in-continued-prosecution-of-wolverine-watchmen">be barred</a> from hearing this information about the FBI agents’ actions, which further contributes to the perceptions some militia-world actors have about the unfairness of the process.</p>
<p><em>This article is based on a <a href="https://theconversation.com/lessons-from-embedding-with-the-michigan-militia-5-questions-answered-about-the-group-allegedly-plotting-to-kidnap-a-governor-147876">previous article</a> published Oct. 9, 2020.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/189291/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amy Cooter is a Senior Research Fellow at Middlebury College's Center for Terrorism, Extremism, and Counterterrorism. After the previous The Conversation article, defense attorneys for Adam Fox asked for her expert insights on the usual structures and activities of militia groups, but she received no detailed information about the case or any defendants beyond what was presented at trial. Dr. Cooter is a prior recipient of the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship.</span></em></p>Two men accused of planning to kidnap Michigan Gov. Gretchen Whitmer in 2020 have been found guilty. Their backgrounds and the trial itself raise concerns about the role of extremism in America.Amy Cooter, Senior Research Fellow in Terrorism, Extremism and Counterterrorism, MiddleburyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1868142022-07-21T12:25:01Z2022-07-21T12:25:01ZJan. 6 committee set to examine Trump’s connection to Capitol rioters – a militia expert explains this complex relationship<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/475215/original/file-20220720-21-p2n0iw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=83%2C205%2C4991%2C3173&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Members of the Oath Keepers stand outside the U.S. Capitol on Jan. 6, 2021. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://mapi.associatedpress.com/v1/items/fb58be12bf054cf6a15adc2c8a3327ef/preview/AP22124749551112.jpg?wm=api&tag=app_id=1,user_id=904438,org_id=101781">Manuel Balce Ceneta/Associated Press</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>It’s not quite clear what, exactly, former President Donald Trump was doing and privately saying inside the White House during the <a href="https://www.npr.org/2022/01/05/1069977469/a-timeline-of-how-the-jan-6-attack-unfolded-including-who-said-what-and-when">five long</a>, violent hours when more than 2,000 rioters invaded the U.S. Capitol building on <a href="https://apnews.com/hub/capitol-siege">Jan. 6, 2021.</a></em></p>
<p><em>It’s a key timeline that the House Select Committee to Investigate the January 6th Attack on the U.S. Capitol is set to explore on July 21, 2022 during its latest – and <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2022/07/16/politics/january-6-committee-latest/index.html">possibly last</a> – <a href="https://january6th.house.gov">public hearing</a>.</em></p>
<p><em>At the heart of the issue is Trump’s precise engagement, if any, with the rioters and several fringe nationalist militia groups, including the <a href="https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/group/proud-boys">Proud Boys</a>, Three Percenters and <a href="https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/group/oath-keepers">Oath Keepers</a>, that stormed the Capitol.</em> </p>
<p><em><a href="https://as.vanderbilt.edu/sociology/bio/?who=amy-cooter">Amy Cooter</a>, a senior lecturer in sociology at Vanderbilt University, embedded with militia groups, mostly in Michigan, from 2008 through 2012. Knowing who these groups are – and how they have changed over time – makes it easier to understand the Jan. 6 attacks, Cooter said.</em></p>
<p><em>“Fifteen years ago, people thought of these groups as being niche, crazy people. That’s not really what I saw in my fieldwork – I saw people who were just more willing to be open about their political perspectives than maybe more mainstream Republicans were at the time. It seemed to me, both then and now, that their concerns resonate with a broad swath of the population,” Cooter said in a recent interview.</em></p>
<p><em>We asked Cooter to explain what drives these groups and their complicated relationship with Trump and the government.</em></p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/475193/original/file-20220720-9522-1pykmg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A group of male rioters storm the U.S. Capitol appearing to storm security in dark uniforms" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/475193/original/file-20220720-9522-1pykmg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/475193/original/file-20220720-9522-1pykmg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475193/original/file-20220720-9522-1pykmg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475193/original/file-20220720-9522-1pykmg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475193/original/file-20220720-9522-1pykmg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475193/original/file-20220720-9522-1pykmg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475193/original/file-20220720-9522-1pykmg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Rioters storm the U.S. Capitol on Jan. 6, 2021, breaching security around the building.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://media.gettyimages.com/photos/trump-supporters-clash-with-police-and-security-forces-as-people-try-picture-id1230734366?s=2048x2048">Brent Stirton/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong>What is your understanding of how Trump is seen by these nationalist groups?</strong> </p>
<p>Traditionally, militia groups have been very opposed to the federal government, regardless of whether we’re talking about Democrats or Republicans. However, with Trump, they really found sort of a mouthpiece. Not all of them truly liked him, but they really want somebody who speaks out against immigration and has a nationalistic and isolationist perspective. Trump gave them a sense of legitimacy. But there didn’t seem to be too many formal connections, as far as we know.</p>
<p><strong>How does leadership and hierarchy work within these groups?</strong></p>
<p>Many of these groups present themselves as top-down organizations with centralized leadership and then different state-level structures. But the degree to which that is reality varies enormously, especially with the <a href="https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/group/three-percenters">Three Percenters</a> but also with the Oath Keepers.</p>
<p>There are groups that kind of fit the stereotypical top-down model that make it easy to activate them for action. There are other groups who maybe were completely oblivious to this Jan. 6 plan.</p>
<p><strong>What do you mean by activate? That sounds similar to language Trump used during a presidential debate in September 2020, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qIHhB1ZMV_o">telling the Proud Boys</a> to “<a href="https://apnews.com/article/election-2020-joe-biden-race-and-ethnicity-donald-trump-chris-wallace-0b32339da25fbc9e8b7c7c7066a1db0f">stand back and stand by</a>.”</strong> </p>
<p>Militias always see themselves as prepared for action. Usually, this means they’re prepared to defend themselves and their communities in the event of a natural disaster, or some kind of invasion. But as we saw leading up to Jan. 6, some of these groups <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/justice-department/court-document-proud-boys-case-laid-plan-occupy-capitol-buildings-jan-rcna33755">were clearly planning</a> more than just a defensive stance.</p>
<p><strong>What was Trump getting from these groups, and what were they getting from Trump?</strong></p>
<p>They get from Trump this idea that someone finally represents their interests, someone finally sees the state of the nation as they do, even though not all of them completely agree with him. They see it as an opportunity to push things in the direction that they would prefer. </p>
<p>I don’t think it’s much of an exaggeration to say that Trump sees an opportunity for a private army from them. In 2018, he pardoned the Bundy ranchers, <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-oregon-standoff-trump/trump-pardons-oregon-ranchers-who-inspired-refuge-standoff-idUSKBN1K021Q">who were arrested</a> for arson on federal land. Not a lot of people paid attention to this, but that was a signal to these groups that he had their back and would expect them to have his back in the future.</p>
<p>I think that Jan. 6 is really kind of proof of that, that he has activated people who in some cases do have military or police experience.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/475191/original/file-20220720-18-t6r2r7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A group of men wear baseball hats, beards and casual clothing, including an official-looking Proud Boys shirt, as they smile and gather around two people on a motorcycle." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/475191/original/file-20220720-18-t6r2r7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/475191/original/file-20220720-18-t6r2r7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475191/original/file-20220720-18-t6r2r7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475191/original/file-20220720-18-t6r2r7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475191/original/file-20220720-18-t6r2r7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475191/original/file-20220720-18-t6r2r7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475191/original/file-20220720-18-t6r2r7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Members of the Portland Proud Boys talk during a July 16, 2022, event in Gladstone, Ore.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://media.gettyimages.com/photos/members-of-the-portland-proud-boys-talk-during-an-event-organized-by-picture-id1241949018?s=2048x2048">Nathan Howard/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong>How have you seen these groups evolve over time, since you began researching them?</strong></p>
<p>Before Trump, there had been very clear-cut tensions between different groups. That boundary has <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/justice-department/new-evidence-reveals-coordination-oath-keepers-three-percenters-jan-6-rcna30355">broken down substantially</a>, and most groups have been pushed <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/citizen-militias-in-the-u-s-are-moving-toward-more-violent-extremism/">more toward an extreme</a> than used to be true – in no small part because of how Trump and others in his administration legitimized the core fears that different groups had about being invaded.</p>
<p>Since Jan. 6, the groups as a whole have <a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/number-of-hate-groups-declined-in-2021-but-proud-boys-chapters-surging-says-splc">declined in size</a>. Many of these people were really surprised at how Jan. 6 played out and were <a href="https://www.timesofisrael.com/capitols-most-violent-rioters-now-claim-to-be-ashamed-pleading-for-mercy/">quite embarrassed</a> – or they were appalled that it didn’t go far enough.</p>
<p>Now, many people have taken a <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/citizen-militias-in-the-u-s-are-moving-toward-more-violent-extremism/">step back even</a> from these groups altogether. But the folks that have stuck around continue to be quite radical, and probably even more radical than they were before. Especially thinking about what is going to happen with the midterm elections, we are going to see a lot of invigoration.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/186814/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amy Cooter is a prior recipient of the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship</span></em></p>Nationalist militia groups like the Oath Keepers have changed over the last several years – especially since the Capitol attack – in a few important ways, generally becoming more extreme.Amy Cooter, Senior Lecturer in Sociology, Vanderbilt UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1754982022-01-24T14:24:43Z2022-01-24T14:24:43ZWhy elections will not solve Libya’s deep-rooted problems<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/442230/original/file-20220124-15-1p9cm0n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Libyan Prime Minister Abdul Hamid Dbeibah speaks after submitting his candidacy papers for the presidential election last November. The poll was postponed. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">EPA-EFE/Stringer</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Libya is poised to hold presidential and parliamentary elections <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/un-official-libya-elections-could-be-rescheduled-for-june/2022/01/17/de128cbe-7786-11ec-9dce-7313579de434_story.html">this year</a> but there are still many <a href="https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20220118-libya-parliament-speaker-demands-new-election-date-be-set">unresolved issues</a>. Ongoing political turmoil has caused the elections to be <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-59755677">postponed</a> several times, with no exact date set. </p>
<p>All of this chaos was to be predicted if you look at what Libya inherited in the aftermath of its long-time leader <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Muammar-al-Qaddafi">Muammar Gaddafi</a>, who was ousted in a revolution <a href="https://www.trtworld.com/africa/libyans-commemorate-2011-revolution-that-toppled-gaddafi-44249">in 2011</a>. </p>
<p>Though the United Nations <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/12/24/western-powers-libya-new-date-presidential-election">has urged</a> the holding of elections to provide legitimacy to a new government (especially after months of negotiating a peace plan), the problems facing Libya are too vast. They include violence by non-state actors, foreign meddling and the absence of constitutional framework that has universal support. </p>
<p>These challenges have significant implications for Libya’s future. Moving forward the country faces ongoing turmoil, state failure and protracted conflict, similar to <a href="https://www.cfr.org/global-conflict-tracker/conflict/political-instability-iraq">Iraq</a>.</p>
<h2>Violent armed militia</h2>
<p>The biggest challenge is that the government does not have a monopoly over the legitimate use of force. In other words, there is no unified national military that has control over the entire territory. This is one of the reasons why elections had to be repeatedly postponed. It is simply <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/dec/21/fears-of-libya-violence-as-un-races-to-manage-election-postponement">not safe to go to the polls</a>.</p>
<p>Libya is still awash with violent non-state actors – hundreds of different militia groups that engage in violence to undermine the interim governments and carve out their own fiefdoms. The capital Tripoli is under the control of an array of <a href="https://www.france24.com/en/africa/20211222-militias-mobilise-in-libya-capital-amid-tensions-over-election">different armed groups</a>. These militias and violent groups vie for political power while also being heavily involved in <a href="https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/libya-2021-islamists-salafis-jihadis">organised criminal activity</a>.</p>
<p>Some of these militias, which were involved in human rights abuses, were even <a href="https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2021/02/libya-ten-years-after-uprising-abusive-militias-evade-justice-and-instead-reap-rewards/">rewarded by the interim government</a> (currently led by led by <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/2/6/abdul-hamid-dbeibah-who-is-libyas-new-prime-minister">Abdul Hamid Dbeibeh</a>). For example, Abu Salim Central Security Force leader, Abdel Ghani al-Kikli, who was responsible for unlawful killings and torture, was tasked with heading the “Stability Support Authority”, which directly reported to the <a href="https://reliefweb.int/report/libya/libya-ten-years-after-uprising-abusive-militias-evade-justice-and-instead-reap-rewards">President of the Government of National Accord (GNA)</a>. The GNA was only dissolved <a href="https://www.chathamhouse.org/2021/02/can-libyas-new-interim-government-break-impasse">in February 2021</a>.</p>
<p>There is also the issue of General <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-27492354">Khalifa Haftar</a>’s forces, the Libyan National Army, which may <a href="https://www.aa.com.tr/en/africa/libyas-warlord-uses-gangs-for-hire-rogue-mercenaries/1725301">still have about 25,000 fighters</a>. Though pro-Haftar forces have been pushed back from Tripoli, much of the East, including the strategic city of Sirte, is <a href="https://www.arabnews.com/node/2001236/middle-east">still under their control</a>. Haftar, who faces legal action for <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/sep/04/khalifa-haftar-libya-warlord-faces-legal-action-us-alleged-war-crimes">alleged war crimes</a>, is running for president in the upcoming elections, though he was <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/nov/16/libyan-warlord-khalifa-haftar-to-run-for-president">initially banned from running</a>.</p>
<p>In addition to Haftar’s forces there are various tribal militias, Salafist militias, jihadist groups, (like the Islamic State) and as many as 20,000 foreign forces <a href="https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/libya-2021-islamists-salafis-jihadis">including mercenaries</a>. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/libya-conflict-boils-down-to-the-man-driving-the-war-khalifa-haftar-115192">Libya conflict boils down to the man driving the war -- Khalifa Haftar</a>
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<p>In fact, foreign involvement remains a huge challenge. The United Arab Emirates, Russia, and Egypt have supported General Haftar’s forces, while Turkey and Qatar have supported the Government of National Accord, supplying a steady flow of arms and fighters to an <a href="https://ecfr.eu/publication/spoiler-alert-how-europe-can-save-diplomacy-in-libya/">already chaotic situation</a>.</p>
<h2>Lack of a constitution</h2>
<p>The other issue is that there is no constitution that <a href="https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20220123-libyan-pm-wants-constitution-before-elections">all Libyans adhere to</a>. There isn’t even any agreement on a basic set of principles, or any meaningful debate on what the constitution should comprise. </p>
<p>For example, there is still division over how much power the president and the parliament should have. There are also still loopholes in the current <a href="https://constitutionnet.org/vl/item/libyas-final-draft-constitution-contextual-analysis">draft of the constitution</a>, which provide leeway for the Supreme Commander of the military to <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/2/6/libyas-tortuous-path-towards-a-constitution-and-elections">circumvent civilian authority</a>.</p>
<p>Additionally, questions remain about the validity of the elections themselves. There are many candidates that have been barred from running, though two of the most controversial candidates – General Haftar and Muammar Qaddafi’s son <a href="https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/colonel-muammar-gaddafis-heir-back-in-the-race-to-be-president-of-libya-x8khn8qfs">Saif al-Islam al-Gaddafi</a> – have <a href="https://agsiw.org/whats-next-for-libyas-electoral-process/">successfully appealed this ban</a>. </p>
<p>A controversial law passed in September allowed Haftar to run as a presidential candidate and then <a href="https://www.france24.com/en/africa/20211217-as-deadlines-are-missed-presidential-election-in-libya-mired-in-uncertainty">return to his military role if not elected</a>. None of the local and national problems such as ongoing violence, have been fixed since the elections were postponed, so it is unclear how the postponed voting will resolve matters.</p>
<h2>Muammar Gaddafi’s legacy</h2>
<p>Gaddafi (1969-2011) seized power in a <a href="https://www.history.co.uk/this-day-in-history/01-september/qaddafi-leads-coup-in-libya">military coup</a> and proceeded to rule by using divide and conquer strategies against his own people, which have had a lasting impact even today. </p>
<p>His personalist style of rule focused not on building a unified national military, but on creating rival tribal militias that vied for his loyalty while contending against one another. The chain of command in Libya’s military was also <a href="https://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/failed-states-and-institutional-decay-9781441113429/">intentionally unclear</a>. Never was there a national military capable of effectively fighting other countries. </p>
<p>Under Gaddafi a constitution was promulgated <a href="https://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/docs/ELECTRONIC/74768/90470/F714252367/LBY74768.pdf">in 1969</a>, but through a series of declarations he was able to exercise total control and <a href="https://www.perlego.com/book/838363/dictators-and-dictatorships-understanding-authoritarian-regimes-and-their-leaders-pdf?utm_source=google&utm_medium=cpc&gclid=CjwKCAiA866PBhAYEiwANkIneHH8SdE34AzZCt-1LoginEHxcQ6DR5TKR3Oc2Z_TPbATt_bLFUvO2xoCQvEQAvD_BwE">essentially rule by decree</a>. Elections ceased to be held during Gaddafi’s reign and <a href="https://www.loc.gov/item/global-legal-monitor/2012-01-12/libya-law-criminalizing-the-creation-of-political-parties-repealed/">political parties were banned in 1972</a>.</p>
<h2>Conclusion</h2>
<p>Without much history of parliamentary politics and political debate, the road to peace in Libya, more than a decade since the country fell into chaos following the ouster and killing of Qaddafi, has focused on giving each warring faction a piece of the pie, rather than creating institutions that <a href="https://ecfr.eu/publication/spoiler-alert-how-europe-can-save-diplomacy-in-libya/">might foster national unity</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/theres-no-shortage-of-players-in-libyas-conflict-but-few-champions-for-peace-138947">There's no shortage of players in Libya's conflict. But few champions for peace</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>With controversial candidates on the ballot, there is little hope that the presidential and parliamentary elections will be able to unify the country. In fact, there is greater concern that elections could <a href="https://www.latimes.com/world-nation/story/2021-12-29/explainer-libya-future-at-stake-after-failing-to-hold-vote">cause tensions to explode even further</a>. </p>
<p>Moving forward Libya needs to establish a ceasefire and continue to work on the political settlement, before meaningful elections can be held.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/175498/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Natasha Lindstaedt does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The biggest challenge is that the government does not have a monopoly over the legitimate use of force.Natasha Lindstaedt, Professor, Department of Government, University of EssexLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1624892021-06-14T12:27:02Z2021-06-14T12:27:02ZWhy the Second Amendment protects a ‘well-regulated militia’ but not a private citizen militia<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/405782/original/file-20210610-27-hcgsf9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=26%2C0%2C3000%2C1976&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Second Amendment declares the importance of state-government authorized militias, like these National Guard troops guarding the California State Capitol building.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/CaliforniaGovernor-ThreatInvestigation/bcc5077a59904172915907871d881914/photo">AP Photo/Rich Pedroncelli</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When a federal judge in California <a href="https://www.saf.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/Miller_v_Bonta_Opinion.pdf">struck down the state’s 32-year-old ban on assault weapons</a> in early June 2021, he added a volatile new issue to the gun-rights debate. </p>
<p>The ruling, by U.S. District Court Judge Roger Benitez, does not take effect immediately, because California has <a href="https://oag.ca.gov/news/press-releases/attorney-general-bonta-responds-court-decision-miller-v-bonta">30 days to appeal</a> the rejection of its assault weapons ban. Most coverage has focused on Benitez’s provocative analogy between an <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2021/06/08/swiss-army-knife-ar-15-judge-assault-weapons-ban-no-difference/">AR-15 and a Swiss army knife</a>. But the case raises troubling questions about the meaning and proper role of “militias” under the Second Amendment.</p>
<p>The plaintiffs in the lawsuit claimed that California’s assault weapons ban <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/06/05/us/assault-weapons-ban-california.html">unconstitutionally restricted citizens’ Second Amendment rights</a> by preventing them from using assault weapons for home defense and other legal purposes. California’s defense was that assault weapons are more <a href="https://storage.courtlistener.com/recap/gov.uscourts.casd.642089/gov.uscourts.casd.642089.33.0.pdf#page=21">dangerous</a> than other firearms and therefore subject to additional restrictions.</p>
<p>In his ruling, Benitez asserts that citizens have a right to own a private assault weapon not just for defense of a gun owner’s home, but also for “<a href="https://www.saf.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/Miller_v_Bonta_Opinion.pdf#page=81">citizens’ militias</a>” engaged in homeland defense.</p>
<p>If the founders were alive today, I believe they would be very concerned – because the Constitution is clear that the only militias protected by the Second Amendment are “well-regulated” units authorized and controlled by state governments, <a href="https://repository.law.uic.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1773&context=lawreview#page=27">not a private citizen militia</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/405970/original/file-20210611-27-17verfe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="People wearing camouflage, face masks and helmets stand with weapons" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/405970/original/file-20210611-27-17verfe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/405970/original/file-20210611-27-17verfe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/405970/original/file-20210611-27-17verfe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/405970/original/file-20210611-27-17verfe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/405970/original/file-20210611-27-17verfe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/405970/original/file-20210611-27-17verfe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/405970/original/file-20210611-27-17verfe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">These armed, camouflage-clad people at a protest in 2021 say they are part of a militia group, but not one sponsored by a state government.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/armed-members-of-the-new-england-minutemen-militia-group-news-photo/1232914788">Joseph Prezioso/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Starting from a precedent</h2>
<p>The preamble to the Second Amendment mentions service in a militia as a reason citizens have the right to keep and bear arms: “<a href="https://constitution.congress.gov/constitution/amendment-2/">A well regulated Militia</a>, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms shall not be infringed.”</p>
<p>In his ruling, Benitez builds on the 2008 Supreme Court case <a href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/2007/07-290">D.C. v. Heller</a>. In that landmark case, the Supreme Court held, as Justice Antonin Scalia wrote, that the amendment protects a right to possess a firearm unconnected to military service and that individuals are free to use such weapons for “<a href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/07pdf/07-290.pdf">traditionally lawful purposes</a>, such as self-defense within the home.”</p>
<p>Benitez accepts this individual right, including to own assault weapons, but he adds what he calls “citizen militias” to the mix, which he defines as an “informal assembly of able-bodied, ordinary citizens acting in concert for the security of our nation.” The AR-15, he says, is an “<a href="https://www.saf.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/Miller_v_Bonta_Opinion.pdf#page=80">ideal arm</a>” for such purposes.</p>
<p>While distinguishing a citizen militia from a “<a href="https://www.saf.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/Miller_v_Bonta_Opinion.pdf#page=81">state-organized militia</a>,” the judge is vague about what, exactly, a citizen militia is. The examples he offers include the <a href="https://www.saf.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/Miller_v_Bonta_Opinion.pdf#page=88">armed partisans</a> led by Fidel Castro, Ho Chi Minh, and the Taliban and Iraqi insurgents. Although Benitez surely knows that the United States has a <a href="https://theconversation.com/vigilantism-again-in-the-news-is-an-american-tradition-141849">long history of vigilantism</a> and mob violence, he doesn’t say which informal groups of armed citizens in this country might qualify and which would not.</p>
<p>That lack of specificity is a problem. Does a citizen militia include the <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/michigan-open-carry-laws-legal-protesters-guns-at-state-capitol-2020-5">protesters who occupied the Michigan State Capitol</a> during the spring of 2020, posing with assault weapons slung over their shoulders? What about the activists who in the summer of 2020 briefly created Seattle’s <a href="https://www.kuow.org/stories/dispatches-from-seattle-s-new-autonomous-zone-known-as-chaz">Capitol Hill autonomous zone</a>, where guards armed with AR-15s stood watch at the entrance and patrolled the streets? <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2021/02/04/us/kyle-rittenhouse-since-arrest-bail/index.html">Kyle Rittenhouse</a>, on trial for killing two people with a Smith & Wesson rifle in Kenosha, Wisconsin, <a href="https://www.jsonline.com/story/news/2020/08/26/kyle-rittenhouse-charged-kenosha-protest-shootings-militia/5634532002/">allegedly viewed himself as part of a militia</a> and claimed to be helping the police.</p>
<h2>Government-authorized groups only</h2>
<p>The biggest problem with Benitez’s ruling is that the Second Amendment sanctions a “well-regulated militia,” <a href="https://reason.com/2019/11/03/what-is-a-well-regulated-militia-anyway/">not an informal assembly of armed citizens</a>. As the founders knew, a “well-regulated militia” was one authorized, trained and – with growing frequency during the American Revolution – armed and provisioned by state governments.</p>
<p>After the American Revolution, the purpose of these state militias was clearly laid out in Article I, Section 8, Clause 15 of the Constitution: so Congress could use them to “<a href="https://constitution.congress.gov/constitution/article-1/#article-1-section-8-clause-15">execute the laws of the union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions</a>.” </p>
<p>Today, the militia in all 50 states is the <a href="https://reason.com/2019/11/03/what-is-a-well-regulated-militia-anyway/">National Guard</a>. In California, as Benitez notes in his opinion, the militia also includes the State Guard, a force <a href="https://calguard.ca.gov/csg/">trained and equipped by the government</a>. There is nothing informal about it.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/405780/original/file-20210610-22-1lapbzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An illustration of British redcoats firing into a civilian crowd" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/405780/original/file-20210610-22-1lapbzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/405780/original/file-20210610-22-1lapbzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=676&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/405780/original/file-20210610-22-1lapbzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=676&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/405780/original/file-20210610-22-1lapbzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=676&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/405780/original/file-20210610-22-1lapbzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=849&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/405780/original/file-20210610-22-1lapbzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=849&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/405780/original/file-20210610-22-1lapbzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=849&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">After the Boston Massacre, American Colonial leaders feared mob violence.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Boston_Massacre_MET_DT2086.jpg">Paul Revere, from Metropolitan Museum of Art, via Wikimedia Commons</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Avoiding mob rule</h2>
<p>Having lived through the Revolutionary War, the founders knew why the words “well regulated” mattered. They had seen what happened when people took the law into their own hands. </p>
<p>After the Boston Massacre in 1770, when British soldiers opened fire on a crowd that had been pelting them with rocks and ice, John Adams defended the soldiers during their murder trial, worried that a guilty verdict could <a href="https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674237384">lead to mob rule</a>. </p>
<p>In 1775, the Colonial Minutemen who stood their ground at Lexington and Concord served in units authorized by the Massachusetts legislature. Although taking up arms against their king and his soldiers, they <a href="https://www.tahlequahdailypress.com/opinion/columns/column-point-counterpoint-well-regulated-militia-means-national-guard/article_c4185497-8f10-5648-961b-c69363cb80c6.html">fought as members of a well-regulated militia</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/405781/original/file-20210610-27-pjxms7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Men on horses review columns of troops" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/405781/original/file-20210610-27-pjxms7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/405781/original/file-20210610-27-pjxms7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/405781/original/file-20210610-27-pjxms7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/405781/original/file-20210610-27-pjxms7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/405781/original/file-20210610-27-pjxms7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=478&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/405781/original/file-20210610-27-pjxms7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=478&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/405781/original/file-20210610-27-pjxms7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=478&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">President George Washington, at center on white horse, reviews troops in Maryland before marching to suppress the Whiskey Rebellion.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:WhiskeyRebellion.jpg">Metropolitan Museum of Art, via Wikimedia Commons</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Naturally, not all early Americans accepted such distinctions. During the so-called Whiskey Rebellion from 1791 to 1794, which occurred after the Constitution and Second Amendment had been ratified, <a href="https://www.history.com/topics/early-us/whiskey-rebellion">armed insurgents near Pittsburgh</a> forcibly resisted a new federal tax on distilled spirits, mustering in military-style formations, tarring and feathering federal excise officers, and threatening secession. President George Washington responded in 1794 by marching west <a href="https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/whiskey-rebellion/">at the head of 12,950 federalized state militiamen</a>. By the time the Western Army reached the Ohio River, most of the rebels had gone home. The nation’s first president made clear that in a democratic republic, the way to make your voice heard is through the ballot box, not the muzzle of a gun.</p>
<p>The right to own a gun is “<a href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/07pdf/07-290.pdf#page=2">not unlimited</a>,” as Justice Scalia wrote in 2008. For that reason, the Supreme Court held that state and federal authorities can bar firearms from schools and public buildings, while the people remain free to prohibit what Scalia called “<a href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/07pdf/07-290.pdf#page=2">dangerous and unusual weapons</a>.” </p>
<p>The AR-15 may no longer be unusual, but <a href="https://www.seattletimes.com/nation-world/nation/california-appeals-court-ruling-upending-assault-weapons-ban/">California’s decision to appeal Benitez’s ruling</a> shows that the <a href="https://www.npr.org/2021/06/05/1003649674/california-assault-weapons-ban-disrespects-freedom-federal-judge-writes">state still thinks it is dangerous</a>. If the rifle really is Benitez’s “ideal” weapon for a citizen militia, then perhaps the state is right.</p>
<p>[<em>Insight, in your inbox each day.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=insight">You can get it with The Conversation’s email newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/162489/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Eliga Gould does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A recent federal court ruling appeared to expand Second Amendment rights to private citizen militias, which a historian of early America explains is not what the founders intended.Eliga Gould, Professor of History, University of New HampshireLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1589672021-04-18T07:36:03Z2021-04-18T07:36:03ZNigeria has a new police chief. Here’s an agenda for him<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/395217/original/file-20210415-18-17f10ql.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Community policing must be high on the agenda of Nigeria's new police chief </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/nigerian-police-officers-take-position-outside-a-courtroom-news-photo/840869076?adppopup=true">Pius Utomi Ekpei/AFP via Getty Images </a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The <a href="https://www.thecable.ng/buhari-appoints-usman-alkali-baba-acting-igp">appointment</a> of Usman Alkali Baba as Nigeria’s acting Inspector General of Police on April 6, 2021 brought a kind of <a href="https://guardian.ng/news/buhari-names-usman-alkali-baba-as-acting-igp/">closure</a> to calls for reform of the Nigerian security architecture. It was applauded in some quarters.</p>
<p>The main demand was to replace the heads of security services to infuse new blood into the fight against various forms of <a href="https://www.brookings.edu/blog/africa-in-focus/2021/02/18/rising-insecurity-in-northwest-nigeria-terrorism-thinly-disguised-as-banditry/">insecurity</a>, including <a href="https://www.acaps.org/country/nigeria/crisis/northwest-banditry">banditry</a> and <a href="https://qz.com/africa/1624376/kidnapping-for-ransom-is-nigerias-latest-security-problem/">kidnappings</a>. </p>
<p>The demand to rejig the security architecture was not the only one. There were also cries against the way the police carry out their duties especially in the area of human rights and different forms of abuse they mete out to citizens. This culminated in demanding for the abolition of the Special Anti-Robbery Squads (SARS) set up by different police formations across the country. It became the #ENDSARS movement which resonated across the globe. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-54624611">#ENDSARS</a> movement also demanded an end to police brutality, as well as justice and compensation for its victims. It asked for inquiries to investigate and prosecute reported cases of police misconduct, and for better welfare packages for police officers.</p>
<p>President Muhammadu Buhari <a href="https://apnews.com/article/africa-muhammadu-buhari-nigeria-0de79ac9ffb8a51be16d4dbf8c279d48">replaced</a> all the service chiefs – the army, navy, airforce, and the chief of defence staff – on January 26, 2021 but <a href="https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/440636-breaking-buhari-extends-tenure-of-igp-adamu.html">extended</a> the tenure of the former police chief, Mohammed Adamu, for three months. Now Baba has replaced Adamu.</p>
<p>The Inspector General is the administrative and operational head of the police and is responsible for the deployment of the personnel and resources of the force to ensure public safety.</p>
<p>Part of the new incumbent’s job will be to build a more accountable and public-friendly police force. He will need the support and cooperation of the public, among others. He must pay attention to the immediate and remote causes of the protests that have taken place, and follow up on recommendations of the judicial <a href="https://cleen.org/details-of-endsars-state-judicial-panels-of-inquiry-in-nigeria/">panels of inquiry</a> into human rights abuses by the police.</p>
<p>My research on community policing has identified some challenges and suggested some ways in which citizens can take an active part in policing. </p>
<h2>Community policing</h2>
<p>Community policing is the <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Short-History-British-Police/dp/B0010XPHJ0">recognition</a> that for the police to do their work, they need the approval of the public. It’s based on the concept that police officers and private citizens working together in creative ways can help solve community problems related to crime, fear of crime, social and physical disorder and neighbourhood decay.</p>
<p>A start was made on community policing under Adamu. For example, the police engaged volunteers from the public as <a href="https://punchng.com/insufficient-manpower-police-settle-for-part-time-special-constables/">special constables</a> to perform administrative work. </p>
<p>But my research has highlighted several barriers to this approach in Nigeria: corruption, impunity, poor funding, indiscipline and inadequate facilities, among others. </p>
<p>In one <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1350/ijps.2009.11.3.130">study </a> I noted that some members of society interfere in the course of justice. Some corrupt police officials want the status quo to be maintained. The police also have financial constraints and a poor public image. The new inspector general must tackle all these problems. He must ensure that available funds are used effectively and enforce discipline among officers. </p>
<p>My <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/19361610.2014.883296">work</a> on the Nigerian police’s image crisis concluded that the police could not afford to lose the trust and confidence of the public if the fight against terrorism, extremism, and high profile criminality was to be won. </p>
<p>In the context of increasing banditry and kidnapping, policing will have to be led by intelligence. That requires a cooperating public to volunteer information to the police. The new chief will have to ensure the relationship with the public and with other security agencies is conducive to sharing information.</p>
<p>The relationship of the police with some ethnic militias has been <a href="http://saharareporters.com/2021/03/24/breaking-nigerian-army-police-kill-16-ipobs-eastern-security-network-operatives-abia">tense</a> and this will have to be managed. Militia groups are a sign that the public has lost faith in formal law enforcement and security services, as one of my <a href="https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Community-Partnership-in-Policing%3A-The-Nigerian-Ikuteyijo-Rotimi/53cbe648e6a72205308398480d0a3989e8b6c756">studies</a> has shown.</p>
<p>Although the new inspector general was part of the previous management team, he could still bring some innovations to policing in the country. For instance, there are robust provisions in the new <a href="https://placng.org/i/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/The-Clean-copy-of-Nigeria-Police-Act-Repeal-and-Re-enactment-Bill-2020-Passed-by-the-House.pdf">Police Act 2020</a> and the <a href="https://www.policinglaw.info/assets/downloads/2015_Administration_of_Criminal_Justice_Act.pdf">Administration of Criminal Justice Act</a> which could ensure that the police are accountable in protecting lives and properties. The provisions relate to what constitutes an offence by a police officer, establishment of police complaints response unit for citizens to report infractions of officers and discipline within the force. </p>
<p>Errant police officers should be exposed and disciplined. Morale among dedicated officers could be boosted through various incentives. All should be accountable and transparent in their operations.</p>
<p>Training and retraining to boost the capacity of police should equally be tackled. This would also enable them to identify and deal with their inherent biases and give them confidence in carrying out their responsibilities. They also need to develop their interpersonal skills to <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/19361610.2014.883296">improve</a> police image. </p>
<h2>Modern policing techniques</h2>
<p>The police need to be re-positioned with contemporary policing techniques. They are not well equipped at present to tackle terrorism and other violent crimes. Since the <a href="https://publicofficialsfinancialdisclosure.worldbank.org/sites/fdl/files/assets/law-library-files/Nigeria_Constitution_1999_en.pdf">constitution</a> places the maintenance of internal security under the police, they should respond more decisively to the many challenges within the country.</p>
<p>They need up to date weapons and technology. Body cameras, for example, can improve accountability, reduce abuses, enhance evidence collection and document events. Automated licence plate readers, drones for aerial surveillance and apps to allow citizens to report crimes would also contribute to building the public’s confidence in the police.</p>
<h2>Improved welfare</h2>
<p>Better housing, robust insurance policies, and regular payment of pensions are some of the ways that the welfare of police can be improved. These will give them less incentive to turn to corruption for survival.</p>
<p>The change of guard in the leadership of the Nigerian police is an opportunity to advance policing in the country. The new inspector general is in a position to do things differently and get better results.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/158967/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lanre Ikuteyijo does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Apart from tackling terrorism, banditry and kidnappings, Nigeria’s new Inspector General of Police must embrace community policing.Lanre Ikuteyijo, Senior lecturer, Obafemi Awolowo UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1535802021-01-19T19:45:57Z2021-01-19T19:45:57ZArmed groups from Capitol riot pose longer-term threat to Biden presidency<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/379601/original/file-20210119-22-bgigax.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C30%2C5067%2C3342&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Rioters stormed the U.S. Capitol Jan. 6, but that may not be their last violent move.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/protesters-gather-outside-the-u-s-capitol-building-on-news-photo/1294933486">Tasos Katopodis/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Details continue to emerge about the <a href="https://abcnews.go.com/US/visual-timeline-attack-capitol-hill-unfolded/story?id=75112066">Jan. 6 U.S. Capitol incursion</a>. Exactly what happened – including the degree of planning involved and rioters’ possible connections with <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2021/01/13/politics/capitol-insurrection-insider-help/index.html">Capitol police or even members of Congress</a> – <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2021/01/15/politics/lieutenant-general-russel-honore-capitol-security-review/index.html">may not be known</a> for some time. </p>
<p>But there are looming threats of <a href="https://theconversation.com/trump-supporters-seeking-more-violence-could-target-state-capitols-during-inauguration-heres-how-cities-can-prepare-153285">more possible violence</a>, not just in Washington, D.C., but in <a href="https://abcnews.go.com/US/armed-protests-planned-50-state-capitols-fbi-bulletin/story?id=75179771">all 50 state capitals</a>. As a scholar of American militants, I see the groups behind the Jan. 6 events looking beyond Inauguration Day toward broader opposition to the Biden administration. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/379598/original/file-20210119-26-b7y1yp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="The crowd heads toward the U.S. Capitol" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/379598/original/file-20210119-26-b7y1yp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/379598/original/file-20210119-26-b7y1yp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379598/original/file-20210119-26-b7y1yp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379598/original/file-20210119-26-b7y1yp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379598/original/file-20210119-26-b7y1yp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379598/original/file-20210119-26-b7y1yp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379598/original/file-20210119-26-b7y1yp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">On Jan. 6, a large crowd with a range of right-wing views headed toward the U.S. Capitol.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/trump-supporters-near-the-u-s-capitol-on-january-06-2021-in-news-photo/1230477024">Shay Horse/NurPhoto via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Different groups, different goals</h2>
<p>Among the insurrectionists were members of various groups with a wide range of generally right-wing views, including neo-Nazis, <a href="https://www.vice.com/en/article/epdmva/a-proud-boy-in-disguise-helped-lead-the-insurrection-at-the-capitol">Proud Boys</a>, <a href="https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/a-former-marine-stormed-the-capitol-as-part-of-a-far-right-militia">Oath Keepers</a>, <a href="https://patch.com/washington/lakewood-jblm/right-wing-militia-announces-plans-occupy-wa-capitol-report">Three Percenters</a> and <a href="https://ohiocapitaljournal.com/2021/01/12/ohio-militia-group-joined-invasion-of-u-s-capitol/">militia members</a>. There were also <a href="https://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/detroit/2021/01/05/michigan-trump-supporters-heading-washington-rally-trump/4126658001/">supporters of Donald Trump</a> who likely see themselves as concerned individual citizens, rather than members of any preexisting groups.</p>
<p>Among the militia groups I study, some truly believe the presidential election results were fraudulent, though <a href="https://www.foxnews.com/politics/william-barr-doj-fbi-voter-fraud-2020-election">there is no evidence of that</a>. Some – regardless of their perceptions of the election’s legitimacy – do not want to see Trump’s tenure end because they believe Biden’s proposed policies threaten their ideal America. That image prioritizes individual effort and achievement, and disdains social welfare. It also discourages efforts to have legislation – or even hard conversations – that would move toward reducing systemic racism or other oppressive structures in society.</p>
<p>Their goals in traveling to the Capitol from all over the country included symbolically supporting Trump, forcibly “stopping the steal” of the election from Trump and even <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/dc-md-va/2021/01/06/dc-protests-trump-rally-live-updates/">starting a civil war</a>.</p>
<h2>What they have in common</h2>
<p>Beyond wanting to keep Trump in office, these different groups had other shared views. Those who attended were <a href="https://www.politifact.com/article/2021/jan/11/timeline-what-trump-said-jan-6-capitol-riot/">generally attentive to Trump’s own messaging</a> about Jan. 6, encouraging them to believe in the illegitimacy of the election and to individually do something about the outcome by protesting in person.</p>
<p>Most – but notably <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2021/01/07/ashli-babbitt-dead-capitol-riot/">not all</a> – were men, and the vast majority appear to have been white. White voters have always comprised the <a href="https://www.vox.com/2020/11/7/21551364/white-trump-voters-2020">bulk of Trump’s support</a>. <a href="https://theconversation.com/lessons-from-embedding-with-the-michigan-militia-5-questions-answered-about-the-group-allegedly-plotting-to-kidnap-a-governor-147876">White men comprise the majority</a> of militias and similar groups, so their representation at the incursion is not surprising. Their presence is, however, likely evidence of some of their motivations.</p>
<p>The groups I study are, at their core, <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/militia-expert-warns-trumps-capitol-insurrectionists-could-try-again/">nostalgic groups</a> who believe America as it should be has already been lost, and who look to the past in search of a society where all citizens, but especially men, were more self-sufficient and less reliant on the federal government. They believe it is their moral responsibility to prevent a further decline of American society and, where possible, to fight for a return to this earlier time.</p>
<p>Many insurrectionists at the Capitol held flags or wore clothing with <a href="https://qz.com/1953366/decoding-the-pro-trump-insurrectionist-flags-and-banners/">references to 1776</a>, which has been used in some overtly white supremacist groups, but has been more widely used by groups calling themselves “patriots” for decades to symbolically advocate for a second American Revolution and a return to a smaller government that, from their perspective, better remembers it serves the people. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/379599/original/file-20210119-13-194i05g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Trump supporters clash with police Jan. 6" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/379599/original/file-20210119-13-194i05g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/379599/original/file-20210119-13-194i05g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379599/original/file-20210119-13-194i05g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379599/original/file-20210119-13-194i05g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379599/original/file-20210119-13-194i05g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379599/original/file-20210119-13-194i05g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379599/original/file-20210119-13-194i05g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Trump supporters, some of whom say they support the police, clash with officers outside the U.S. Capitol on Jan. 6.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/trump-supporters-clash-with-police-and-security-forces-as-news-photo/1230454383">Joseph Prezioso/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A complex relationship with authority</h2>
<p>These groups, which traditionally have been described as “<a href="https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/ideology/antigovernment">anti-government</a>,” in fact have a much more complicated relationship with government and other authority. </p>
<p>Most see constitutional leaders as legitimate and worthy of protection but believe it is their sole prerogative to determine who lives up to that standard. They also believe that liberals and others who disagree with them should not have an equal say in the direction of the country or in which leaders should represent the people’s collective interests.</p>
<p>Footage from the Capitol, including the <a href="https://www.newyorker.com/news/video-dept/a-reporters-footage-from-inside-the-capitol-siege">extended video released by the New Yorker</a>, shows how these people view themselves as the arbiters of who is good and who is bad, in at least two ways.</p>
<p>In a scene when men are rifling through desks on the Senate floor, they initially misunderstand paperwork and believe Sen. Ted Cruz was going to “sell [them] out” by accepting Biden’s win in Arizona. </p>
<p>But then they say “he’s with us” after another man notes that Cruz was actually objecting to Arizona’s outcome. </p>
<p>Others, looking for evidence to “use against these scumbags” – by which they mean members of Congress whom they believe are disloyal to the people – say, “I think Cruz would want us to do this.” These people frame Cruz as a morally just representative, in contrast to other senators and representatives.</p>
<p>The video also shows apparently contradictory responses to Capitol police. Some groups involved likely do have <a href="https://theconversation.com/militias-warning-of-excessive-federal-power-comes-true-but-where-are-they-143333">different views of police</a>, but much of the response was driven by whether they believed any given officer was protecting the public or the government.</p>
<p>Some participants told officers they appreciated and supported them, such as the improperly masked officer in that same New Yorker video who asked a man sitting on the Senate floor if he needed medical attention while voicing few objections to their actions. Other participants <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2021/01/09/us/officer-crushed-capitol-riot-video/index.html">physically attacked</a> and <a href="https://nypost.com/2021/01/10/black-capitol-police-officers-say-terrorists-used-n-word/">yelled racist slurs</a> at officers seen as blocking entry into different parts of the building or generally opposing their efforts.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/379597/original/file-20210119-21-1jk0gxo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="The U.S. Capitol is fortified in advance of Joe Biden's inauguration" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/379597/original/file-20210119-21-1jk0gxo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/379597/original/file-20210119-21-1jk0gxo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379597/original/file-20210119-21-1jk0gxo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379597/original/file-20210119-21-1jk0gxo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379597/original/file-20210119-21-1jk0gxo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379597/original/file-20210119-21-1jk0gxo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379597/original/file-20210119-21-1jk0gxo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The U.S. Capitol is fortified in advance of Joe Biden’s inauguration.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/CapitolBreach/7c8a46f120c042e29684a7a7a93ecba1/photo">AP Photo/Matt Slocum</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>On Inauguration Day</h2>
<p>Predicting what may happen on Jan. 20 is difficult, in part because efforts to <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/tech-news/amazon-suspends-hosting-parler-its-servers-citing-violent-content-n1253648">take these groups and their communications offline</a> make systematically monitoring them more difficult. In addition, from conversations I have had with members and from what I can see on message boards, these groups and their members do not yet agree on what their next steps should be.</p>
<p>Several groups who had previously planned to protest either on or shortly before Inauguration Day now say they believe participation to be too risky. That may be a reason behind the <a href="https://www.usnews.com/news/politics/articles/2021-01-17/statehouses-us-capital-brace-for-potentially-violent-week">relatively low turnout for protests at state capitols on Jan. 17</a>, despite initial promises of mass action. </p>
<p>Some groups are undoubtedly deterred by the <a href="https://www.militarytimes.com/news/your-military/2021/01/14/national-guard-dc-presence-will-swell-to-26000-for-biden-inauguration/">increased law enforcement presence</a> in Washington, D.C. Others are now saying they believe plans for demonstrations to be <a href="https://www.michiganadvance.com/2021/01/15/militia-group-bows-out-right-wing-extremist-groups-gear-up-for-sunday-in-lansing/">“false flag” events</a> – essentially fake protests whose true intent is designed to malign people they view as “real patriots,” or to bring them out in the open so the FBI and other agencies can identify them for further arrest or harassment.</p>
<p>Some, influenced by QAnon conspiracy fantasies, even believe that either Trump or Biden may enact <a href="https://www.politifact.com/article/2021/jan/11/fact-checking-claims-about-insurrection-act-martia/">martial law on Inauguration Day</a> – Trump to maintain power, or Biden as part of a broader plan to control citizens and move America toward a dictatorship.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/379596/original/file-20210119-14-1h6n2da.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Armed protesters at the New Hampshire Statehouse Jan. 17, 2021" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/379596/original/file-20210119-14-1h6n2da.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/379596/original/file-20210119-14-1h6n2da.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379596/original/file-20210119-14-1h6n2da.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379596/original/file-20210119-14-1h6n2da.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379596/original/file-20210119-14-1h6n2da.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379596/original/file-20210119-14-1h6n2da.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379596/original/file-20210119-14-1h6n2da.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Armed protesters demonstrated at the New Hampshire Statehouse on Jan. 17.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/CapitolBreach-DemonstrationsNewHampshire/7031c50bff574165ab26aa2840083abf/photo">AP Photo/Winslow Townson</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Beyond Jan. 20</h2>
<p>What is more concerning is the potential for small groups or individuals to plan and act well past Jan. 20. </p>
<p>Trump’s inflammatory influence may be long-lasting, and it was not the root cause of unease for many of these groups, whose anti-government stance predates Trump and will outlast him. Even after Biden takes office and does not implement martial law, their suspicion and feelings of alienation will not immediately dissipate.</p>
<p>Some will be looking for signals that they should again act to combat what they see as governmental tyranny. Small groups and individuals may continue to plan violent actions, in what could amount to an uncoordinated campaign of <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-domestic-terrorist-designation-wont-stop-extremism-141258">domestic terrorism</a>.</p>
<p>Potential <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/29/us/politics/trump-biden-mask-mandate.html">national mandates</a> related to controlling the coronavirus could be especially important flashpoints for these groups, and Biden’s administration will likely have ongoing and enormous challenges in moving forward without strong – and possibly violent – opposition to change.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/153580/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amy Cooter is a prior recipient of the National Science Foundation's Graduate Research Fellowship Program.</span></em></p>Looming threats of more possible violence signal broader opposition to the Biden administration in what could become a loose campaign of domestic terrorism.Amy Cooter, Senior Lecturer in Sociology, Vanderbilt UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1486102020-10-30T12:48:29Z2020-10-30T12:48:29ZUS Capitol mob highlights 5 reasons not to underestimate far-right extremists<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/377833/original/file-20210108-21-1yufnvi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=30%2C30%2C4992%2C3313&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A man wearing a T-shirt alluding to the QAnon misinformation campaign walks through the U.S. Capitol during the Jan. 6 incursion.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/CapitolBreachSocialMedia/7a54ed4854aa450cb08339ae2e2c1ee8/photo">AP Photo/Manuel Balce Ceneta</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In the wake of the mob incursion that took over the U.S. Capitol on Jan. 6, it’s clear that many people are <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/15/us/politics/trump-election-violence.html">concerned about violence from far-right extremists</a>. But they may not understand the real threat. </p>
<p>The law enforcement community is among those who have failed to understand the true nature and danger of far-right extremists. Over several decades, the FBI and other federal authorities have only <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/03/magazine/FBI-charlottesville-white-nationalism-far-right.html">intermittently paid attention to</a> far-right extremists. In recent years, they have <a href="https://www.usnews.com/news/national-news/articles/2020-09-22/the-problem-with-militias-and-the-constitution">again acknowledged</a> the extent of <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2020/09/08/politics/white-supremacy-dhs-draft-assessment/index.html">the threats</a> they pose to the country. But it’s not clear how long their attention will last.</p>
<p>Clearly the U.S. Capitol Police underestimated the threat on Jan. 6. <a href="https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2021/01/08/capitol-police-failure-456237">Despite plenty of advance notice and offers of help from other agencies</a>, they were caught totally unprepared for the mob that took over the Capitol.</p>
<p>While researching my forthcoming book, “<a href="https://nyupress.org/9781479808014/it-can-happen-here/">It Can Happen Here: White Power and the Rising Threat of Genocide in the U.S.</a>,” I discovered that there are five key mistakes people make when thinking about far-right extremists. These mistakes obscure the extremists’ true danger.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/365790/original/file-20201027-16-b770at.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A KKK march in Tennessee in 1986" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/365790/original/file-20201027-16-b770at.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/365790/original/file-20201027-16-b770at.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365790/original/file-20201027-16-b770at.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365790/original/file-20201027-16-b770at.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365790/original/file-20201027-16-b770at.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=538&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365790/original/file-20201027-16-b770at.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=538&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365790/original/file-20201027-16-b770at.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=538&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In this Jan. 18, 1986, photo, a KKK group marches in Tennessee to protest the first national observance of Martin Luther King Jr.’s birthday.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/KKKProtestsMLKHoliday/68f346ca12664825a70f9c6baa2fcdce/photo">AP Photo/Mark Humphrey</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>1. Some have white supremacist views, but others don’t</h2>
<p>When asked to condemn white supremacists and extremists at the <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/elections/2020/09/30/presidential-debate-read-full-transcript-first-debate/3587462001/">first presidential debate</a>, President Donald Trump floundered, then said, “Give me a name.” His Democratic challenger Joe Biden offered, “<a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2020/09/30/proudboys1001/">The Proud Boys</a>.”</p>
<p>Not all far-right extremists are militant white supremacists.</p>
<p>White supremacy, the belief in white racial superiority and dominance, is a major theme of many far-right believers. Some, like the Ku Klux Klan and neo-Nazis, are <a href="https://www.adl.org/resources/glossary-terms/extreme-right-radical-right-far-right">extremely hardcore hate groups</a>.</p>
<p>Others, who at times identify themselves with the term “<a href="https://www.sapiens.org/language/white-power-dog-whistles/">alt-right</a>,” often <a href="https://www.adl.org/resources/backgrounders/alt-right-a-primer-on-the-new-white-supremacy">mix racism, anti-Semitism and claims of white victimization</a> in a less militant way. In addition, there are what some experts have called the “<a href="https://www.adl.org/resources/backgrounders/from-alt-right-to-alt-lite-naming-the-hate">alt-lite</a>,” like the <a href="https://www.adl.org/proudboys">Proud Boys</a>, who are less violent and disavow overt white supremacy even as they promote white power by glorifying white civilization and demonizing nonwhite people including Muslims and many immigrants.</p>
<p>There is another major category of far-right extremists who <a href="https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/ideology/antigovernment">focus more on opposing the government</a> than they do on racial differences. This so-called “patriot movement” includes tax protesters and <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/five-myths/five-myths-about-militias/2020/09/04/9d7c25e0-ee23-11ea-99a1-71343d03bc29_story.html">militias</a>, many heavily armed and a portion from <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2020/11/right-wing-militias-civil-war/616473/">military and law enforcement</a> backgrounds. Some, like the Hawaiian-shirt-wearing <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/08/19/magazine/boogaloo.html">Boogaloos</a>, seek civil war to overthrow what they regard as a corrupt political order. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/365792/original/file-20201027-18-kez3kw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A boat flies the Gadsden ‘Don't tread on me’ flag and a Three Percenters flag." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/365792/original/file-20201027-18-kez3kw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/365792/original/file-20201027-18-kez3kw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365792/original/file-20201027-18-kez3kw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365792/original/file-20201027-18-kez3kw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365792/original/file-20201027-18-kez3kw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365792/original/file-20201027-18-kez3kw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365792/original/file-20201027-18-kez3kw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">During an April protest in Seattle, a boat flies the Gadsden ‘Don’t tread on me’ flag and the flag of the Three Percenters right-wing militia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/VirusOutbreakWashingtonState/e34f7e8fd1864c03a45c23ceea3d0744/photo">AP Photo/Ted S. Warren</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>2. They live in cities and towns across the nation and even the globe</h2>
<p>Far-right extremists are in communities all across America.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/five-myths-about-the-ku-klux-klan/2016/03/11/cddfa6f6-e55b-11e5-a6f3-21ccdbc5f74e_story.html">KKK</a>, often thought of as <a href="https://www.splcenter.org/20110228/ku-klux-klan-history-racism">centered in the South</a>, has chapters from coast to coast. The same is true of other far-right extremist groups, as illustrated by the Southern Poverty Law Center’s <a href="https://www.splcenter.org/hate-map">Hate Map</a>.</p>
<p>Far-right extremism is also global, a point underscored by the <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2013/09/26/world/europe/norway-terror-attacks/index.html">2011 massacre in Norway</a> and the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/23/world/australia/christchurch-tarrant-sentencing-explained.html">2019 New Zealand mosque attack</a>, both of which were perpetrated by people claiming to resist “<a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/18/opinion/new-zealand-tarrant-white-supremacist-terror.html">white genocide</a>.” The worldwide spread led the <a href="https://www.un.org/sc/ctc/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/CTED_Trends_Alert_Extreme_Right-Wing_Terrorism.pdf">U.N. to recently issue a global alert</a> about the “growing and increasing transnational threat” of right-wing extremism.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/365796/original/file-20201027-22-1chvv7k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A person wearing a 'Q' vest" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/365796/original/file-20201027-22-1chvv7k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/365796/original/file-20201027-22-1chvv7k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365796/original/file-20201027-22-1chvv7k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365796/original/file-20201027-22-1chvv7k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365796/original/file-20201027-22-1chvv7k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365796/original/file-20201027-22-1chvv7k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365796/original/file-20201027-22-1chvv7k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The ‘collective delusion’ known as QAnon will be around for many years.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/QAnon/6f09da76236342f1b998cd548bd0fab0/photo">AP Photo/Ted S. Warren</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>3. Many are well organized, educated and social media savvy</h2>
<p>Far-right extremists include people who write books, wear sport coats and have advanced degrees. For instance, in 1978 a physics professor turned neo-Nazi wrote a book that has been called the “<a href="https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/intelligence-report/2004/turner-diaries-other-racist-novels-inspire-extremist-violence">bible of the racist right</a>.” Other leaders of the movement have <a href="https://www.newsweek.com/bannon-spencer-trump-alt-right-breitbart-infowars-yale-gottfried-oathkeepers-572585">attended elite universities</a>.</p>
<p>Far-right extremists were early users of the internet and now thrive on social media platforms, which they use to agitate, recruit and organize. The 2017 “Unite the Right” rally in Charlottesville <a href="https://publicintegrity.org/politics/social-media-where-voices-of-hate-find-a-place-to-preach/">revealed how effectively</a> they could reach large groups and mobilize them into action.</p>
<p>Platforms like Facebook and Twitter have recently <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2019/05/instagram-and-facebook-ban-far-right-extremists/588607/">attempted to ban</a> many of them. But the alleged Michigan kidnappers’ ability to <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/08/opinion/facebook-gretchen-whitmer.html">evade restrictions</a> by simply <a href="https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/salvadorhernandez/michigan-militant-pages-still-on-facebook">creating new pages</a> and groups has <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/oct/09/facebook-rightwing-extremists-michigan-plot-militia-boogaloo">limited the companies’ success</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/365823/original/file-20201027-24-l0vts6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A German American Bund march in New York City" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/365823/original/file-20201027-24-l0vts6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/365823/original/file-20201027-24-l0vts6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=473&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365823/original/file-20201027-24-l0vts6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=473&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365823/original/file-20201027-24-l0vts6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=473&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365823/original/file-20201027-24-l0vts6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=594&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365823/original/file-20201027-24-l0vts6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=594&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365823/original/file-20201027-24-l0vts6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=594&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">People carrying a Nazi flag march in New York City in 1937.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.loc.gov/resource/cph.3c17148/">New York World-Telegram and the Sun Newspaper Photograph Collection/Library of Congress</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>4. They were here long before Trump and will remain here long after</h2>
<p>Many people associate far-right extremism with the rise of Trump. It’s true that <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/11/12/us/hate-crimes-fbi-report.html">hate crimes</a>, <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2020/05/13/case-you-thought-there-couldnt-be-more-bad-news-anti-semitism-is-spiking/">anti-Semitism</a> and the number of <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/mar/18/white-nationalist-hate-groups-southern-poverty-law-center">hate groups</a> have risen sharply since his campaign began in 2015. And the <a href="https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/qanons-growth-mirrors-sharp-spike-extremist-violence-us/story?id=73079916">QAnon movement</a> – called both a “<a href="https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/drumoorhouse/qanon-mass-collective-delusion-buzzfeed-news-copy-desk">collective delusion</a>” and a “<a href="https://www.cnn.com/2020/10/07/tech/qanon-europe-cult-intl/index.html">virtual cult</a>” – has gained widespread attention.</p>
<p>But far-right extremists were here long before Trump.</p>
<p>The history of white power extremism dates back to slave patrols and the post-Civil War rise of the <a href="https://www.splcenter.org/20110228/ku-klux-klan-history-racism">KKK</a>. In the 1920s, the KKK had <a href="https://www.npr.org/sections/npr-history-dept/2015/03/19/390711598/when-the-ku-klux-klan-was-mainstream">millions</a> of members. The following decade saw the rise of Nazi sympathizers, including 15,000 uniformed “<a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/meet-screenwriting-mystic-who-wanted-be-american-fuhrer-180970449/">Silver Shirts</a>” and a 20,000-person <a href="https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2019/02/20/695941323/when-nazis-took-manhattan">pro-Nazi rally</a> at Madison Square Garden in New York City in 1939.</p>
<p>While adapting to the times, far-right extremism has <a href="https://www.rollingstone.com/politics/politics-features/the-history-of-white-supremacy-in-america-205171/">continued</a> into the present. It’s not dependent on Trump, and will <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2020/10/08/white-supremacists-gretchen-whitmer/">remain a threat</a> regardless of his public prominence.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/365793/original/file-20201027-19-1y2naws.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="People wearing camouflage and carrying weapons" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/365793/original/file-20201027-19-1y2naws.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/365793/original/file-20201027-19-1y2naws.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365793/original/file-20201027-19-1y2naws.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365793/original/file-20201027-19-1y2naws.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365793/original/file-20201027-19-1y2naws.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365793/original/file-20201027-19-1y2naws.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365793/original/file-20201027-19-1y2naws.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Members of the Boogaloo movement, seen here at a New Hampshire demonstration, seek a civil war in the U.S.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/APTOPIXVirusOutbreakNewHampshire/165d06c2aa5746099e1641d0c1f5e03a/photo">AP Photo/Michael Dwyer</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>5. They pose a widespread and dire threat, with some seeking civil war</h2>
<p>Far-right extremists <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/02/opinion/trump-proud-boys.html">often appear to strike</a> in spectacular “lone wolf” attacks, like the <a href="https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=OK026">Oklahoma City federal building bombing in 1995</a>, the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2016/12/15/us/dylann-roof-trial.html">mass murder at a Charleston church</a> in 2015 and the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/27/us/active-shooter-pittsburgh-synagogue-shooting.html">Pittsburgh synagogue shooting</a> in 2018. But these people are not alone.</p>
<p>Most far-right extremists are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2017.1419554">part of larger extremist communities</a>, communicating by social media and distributing <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2019/08/04/three-mass-shootings-this-year-began-with-hateful-screed-chan-its-founder-calls-it-terrorist-refuge-plain-sight/">posts</a> and <a href="http://www.jstor.com/stable/resrep23577">manifestos</a>.</p>
<p>Their messages speak of fear that one day, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/18/technology/replacement-theory.html">whites may be outnumbered by nonwhites</a> in the U.S., and the idea that there is a <a href="https://www.sapiens.org/language/white-power-dog-whistles/">Jewish-led plot to destroy the white race</a>. In response, they prepare for a war between whites and nonwhites.</p>
<p>[<em>Deep knowledge, daily.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=deepknowledge">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter</a>.]</p>
<p>Thinking of these extremists as loners risks missing the <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2020/10/08/white-supremacists-gretchen-whitmer/">complexity of their networks</a>, which brought as many as 13 alleged plotters together in the planning to kidnap Michigan’s governor.</p>
<p>Together, these misconceptions about far-right extremist individuals and groups can lead Americans to underestimate the <a href="https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/publications/2020_10_06_homeland-threat-assessment.pdf">dire threat they pose to the public</a>. Understanding them, by contrast, can help people and experts alike address the <a href="https://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/us-election-violence-right-wing-atrocities-genocide-by-alex-hinton-2020-10">danger</a>, as the election’s aftermath unfolds.</p>
<p><em>Editor’s note: This is an updated version of an article originally published Oct. 30, 2020.</em></p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/365789/original/file-20201027-18-ouujqo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C16%2C3625%2C2566&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Members of the Proud Boys arrive at an event in Oregon." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/365789/original/file-20201027-18-ouujqo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C16%2C3625%2C2566&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/365789/original/file-20201027-18-ouujqo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365789/original/file-20201027-18-ouujqo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365789/original/file-20201027-18-ouujqo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365789/original/file-20201027-18-ouujqo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=538&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365789/original/file-20201027-18-ouujqo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=538&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/365789/original/file-20201027-18-ouujqo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=538&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Members of the Proud Boys right-wing extremist group arrive at a pro-Donald Trump rally in Oregon in September 2020.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/Election-2020-Debate-Race/1ceeb96ce01b41e79ded8fd10fbca399/photo">AP Photo/Andrew Selsky</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/148610/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alexander Hinton receives funding from the New Jersey Center for Gun Violence Research. </span></em></p>Many people are concerned about far-right extremism. But they may not understand the real threat.Alexander Hinton, Distinguished Professor of Anthropology; Director, Center for the Study of Genocide and Human Rights, Rutgers University - NewarkLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1478762020-10-09T17:58:23Z2020-10-09T17:58:23ZLessons from embedding with the Michigan militia – 5 questions answered about the group allegedly plotting to kidnap a governor<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/362710/original/file-20201009-23-1nohjgk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=323%2C365%2C3473%2C2059&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A search warrant and a list of seized property from an FBI raid related to the alleged kidnapping plot.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/copy-of-a-search-warrant-and-property-list-is-left-on-a-car-news-photo/1228961096">Jeff Kowalsky/AFP via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Details are still emerging about the men <a href="https://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/2020/10/08/gretchen-whitmer-kidnap-plot/5924691002/">arrested on federal and state charges</a> related to an <a href="https://www.detroitnews.com/story/news/local/michigan/2020/10/08/feds-thwart-militia-plot-kidnap-michigan-gov-gretchen-whitmer/5922301002/">alleged plot to kidnap Michigan Gov. Gretchen Whitmer</a>. Federal prosecutions can take months and even years, so it will be quite some time before a full analysis of this situation becomes possible.</p>
<p>But as a <a href="https://www.amycooter.com/research.html">scholar who has spent the last 12 years studying the U.S. domestic militia movement</a>, including <a href="https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/handle/2027.42/98077">three years of fieldwork embedded with militias in Michigan</a>, I believe several themes will remain important, wherever the details lead.</p>
<h2>1. What is this group, and where did it come from?</h2>
<p>Reports I’m hearing indicate that the group the arrested men were part of, called the <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2020/10/08/wolverine-watchmen-michigan-militia/">Wolverine Watchmen</a>, likely started early this year as an offshoot of the <a href="https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2020/08/24/the-militias-against-masks">Michigan Liberty Militia</a>. That group has received wide publicity for its <a href="https://www.detroitnews.com/story/news/politics/2020/05/14/protesters-begin-gathering-thursday-demonstration/5186937002/">involvement in lockdown protests</a> at the state Capitol in Lansing.</p>
<p>It’s not clear why the split may have happened, but it is very common for internal splits to occur in militia groups. I’ve observed that directly in my fieldwork, and have heard the same from long-term militia members who say it dates back to the <a href="https://www.usnews.com/news/national-news/articles/2020-09-22/the-problem-with-militias-and-the-constitution">beginnings of the movement in the early 1990s</a>.</p>
<p>Sometimes these splits are for practical reasons, like groups that grow too large dividing into smaller groups to allow for more frequent meetings and closer connections. Or people tire of traveling long distances to be part of a large group, and instead start their own unit closer to home.</p>
<p>Other times, splits happen because of personality conflicts or disagreements over the direction of the group. Some members of Michigan’s <a href="https://theweek.com/articles/495680/who-are-hutaree">Hutaree militia</a>, for instance, started as members of a different group, but were pushed out. </p>
<p>The reasons I heard from militia members on both sides of that split were that those who became the Hutaree hinted at having more extreme views than the rest of the group. Leaders of the original group had also expressed concerns about <a href="https://www.amycooter.com/uploads/1/2/3/7/12374434/2_chapter_2_demographics_pictures.pdf">unsafe firearms handling</a> practices among those future Hutaree members, an offense that, if persistent, is grounds for membership revocation in many militias.</p>
<p>The reasons the Wolverines split are not yet clear – but it is possible that they had ideological disagreements.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/362708/original/file-20201009-13-h5xfw8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Armed men stand on the steps of the Michigan capitol building." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/362708/original/file-20201009-13-h5xfw8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/362708/original/file-20201009-13-h5xfw8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362708/original/file-20201009-13-h5xfw8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362708/original/file-20201009-13-h5xfw8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362708/original/file-20201009-13-h5xfw8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362708/original/file-20201009-13-h5xfw8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362708/original/file-20201009-13-h5xfw8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">On April 30, armed men wearing ‘Michigan Liberty Militia’ insignia stood on the steps of the state Capitol building as part of a protest against Gov. Gretchen Whitmer’s lockdown orders.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/armed-protesters-provide-security-as-demonstrators-take-news-photo/1211395465">Jeff Kowalsky/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
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</figure>
<h2>2. What are their aims or goals?</h2>
<p>Traditionally, researchers have categorized militias as one of two general types: “constitutionalists,” who are largely law-abiding and make up the majority of the movement, and “millenarians,” who are more prone to conspiracy theories and violent action. </p>
<p>More recently, <a href="https://theconversation.com/militias-evaluate-beliefs-action-as-president-threatens-soldiers-in-the-streets-140123">internal divisions have occurred in both these groups</a> around whether they support police, or whether they call for a widespread <a href="https://theconversation.com/militias-warning-of-excessive-federal-power-comes-true-but-where-are-they-143333">uprising against government tyranny</a>.</p>
<p>From the evidence available so far, it strikes me that the arrested men are probably more millenarian in outlook. In general, millenarian groups are <a href="https://www.amycooter.com/uploads/1/2/3/7/12374434/hutaree_threat.pdf">more likely</a> than their constitutionalist comrades to be invested in conspiracy theories, to be motivated by religious and racist views and to have members who are closely related to each other.</p>
<p>These characteristics fit with what is known so far about the men arrested in Michigan, which include <a href="https://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/2020/10/08/governor-gretchen-whitmer-kidnap-plot-militia/5921409002/">two people who share a residence</a> and two others who share a last name. For instance, at least one of them appears to have <a href="https://www.thedailybeast.com/what-we-know-about-wolverine-watchmen-accused-of-terror-kidnap-plot-against-michigan-gov-gretchen-whitmer">followed and promoted</a> QAnon, a movement that has been called a “<a href="https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/drumoorhouse/qanon-mass-collective-delusion-buzzfeed-news-copy-desk">collective delusion</a>” rather than a conspiracy theory. That <a href="https://www.isdglobal.org/isd-publications/qanon-and-conspiracy-beliefs/">belief system includes claims</a> that “vaccinations with tracking chips will later be activated by 5G cellular networks,” “the coronavirus is a hoax,” “celebrities harvest [a chemical] from children’s bodies” and that a “global network tortures and sexually abuses children in Satanic rituals,” among other ideas.</p>
<p>A different member of the alleged conspiracy has shared online images of Norse symbols and a religion worshiping the Norse god Odin. These are not inherently racist, but many racists and white supremacists <a href="https://www.adl.org/hate-symbols?keys=norse">identify with and promote</a> the myths and iconographies of that religion, often called “Odinism.”</p>
<p>Some might suspect that the men were motivated by a <a href="https://theconversation.com/militias-warning-of-excessive-federal-power-comes-true-but-where-are-they-143333">desire to overthrow the government</a> – since they allegedly sought to kidnap a governor. But based on the information available so far, including the <a href="https://static.politico.com/e5/1d/aa6277a242e0af889ec06f7e4a12/michiganaffidavit.pdf">federal charges against them</a>, I think it is more likely that these men saw themselves as resisting government overreach and infringement on individual liberties, seeking to restore what they understood to be a constitutional leadership structure.</p>
<p>For instance, the federal charging document quotes one of the men as saying “I can see several states taking their … tyrants. Everybody takes their tyrants.”</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/362704/original/file-20201009-17-1delzu5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Michigan Gov. Gretchen Whitmer" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/362704/original/file-20201009-17-1delzu5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/362704/original/file-20201009-17-1delzu5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362704/original/file-20201009-17-1delzu5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362704/original/file-20201009-17-1delzu5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362704/original/file-20201009-17-1delzu5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362704/original/file-20201009-17-1delzu5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362704/original/file-20201009-17-1delzu5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">After the arrests were announced, Michigan Gov. Gretchen Whitmer spoke to the public.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/MichiganGovernorKidnappingPlot/37be31aef6d244d488394d44506fc23f/photo">Michigan Office of the Governor via AP</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>3. How much of their belief is about gender?</h2>
<p>Overt sexism is not usually part of militia groups’ principles, but militias are dominated by men, with most groups having no more than <a href="https://www.amycooter.com/uploads/1/2/3/7/12374434/2_chapter_2_demographics_pictures.pdf">10% women</a> among their membership. Many of those men believe in largely traditional roles, where men are the protectors and breadwinners of the family, and women take more supporting and child-rearing roles. </p>
<p>Those beliefs can be amplified among people who follow certain versions of Odinism that are connected to white supremacy. From their perspective, It’s a way to increase the numbers of strong <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/190195?seq=1">white families and white babies</a>.</p>
<p>The document detailing the federal charges says the men <a href="https://static.politico.com/e5/1d/aa6277a242e0af889ec06f7e4a12/michiganaffidavit.pdf">used sexist language</a> when discussing the governor, including the word “bitch.” That seems to confirm that their anger may have been sparked not just by Whitmer’s lockdown orders, but also the fact that she’s a woman.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1251169217531056130"}"></div></p>
<h2>4. Was this influenced by President Donald Trump?</h2>
<p>It is <a href="https://www.newsweek.com/donald-trump-liberate-michigan-tweet-plot-kidnap-gretchen-whitmer-governor-1537719">impossible to say definitively</a> whether these men were inspired by anything Pres. Donald Trump has said or done.</p>
<p>However, the president has used inflammatory language <a href="https://www.detroitnews.com/story/news/politics/2020/03/17/trump-targets-whitmer-after-she-criticizes-federal-covid-19-response/5066695002/">criticizing Whitmer</a> – including a tweet just two days after a <a href="https://www.lansingstatejournal.com/story/news/2020/04/15/michigan-gridlock-protest-coronavirus-lansing-mi-pictures-videos/5137461002/">large anti-lockdown protest</a> <a href="https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2020/apr/15/operation-gridlock-thousands-protest-whitmers-stay/">including armed protesters</a> surrounded the state Capitol building. That <a href="https://www.detroitnews.com/story/news/politics/2020/04/17/trump-tweets-liberate-michigan-other-states-democratic-governors/5152037002/">tweet, on April 17, 2020, simply declared</a> “LIBERATE MICHIGAN!”</p>
<p>Around the same time, <a href="https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/us/facebook-approached-fbi-about-michigan-militia-six-months-ago/ar-BB19QjP0">Facebook reportedly alerted the FBI</a> to online discussions that related to this group’s alleged plot.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/2020/10/08/whitmer-denounces-right-wing-hate-groups-trump-complicit/5925981002/">Whitmer herself</a> has said the <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-10-08/michigan-governor-blames-trump-for-fostering-hate-groups">president’s rhetoric is partially responsible</a> for the plot, including his <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/proud-boys-stand-back-and-stand-by-trump-refuses-to-condemn-white-supremacists/">refusal to denounce white supremacists</a> during the Sept. 29 presidential debate.</p>
<p>In the wake of the arrests, Trump continued to attack Whitmer, saying she had done “<a href="https://twitter.com/realDonaldTrump/status/1314377607379640320">a terrible job</a>” battling the coronavirus pandemic and accusing her of not being grateful enough to “My Justice Department” for its work on the case.</p>
<h2>5. Were they a serious threat?</h2>
<p>As a specialist on Michigan militias, I’ve been asked several times since the news broke whether this group posed a real threat, in terms of being likely to act on its plan and kidnap or harm Gov. Whitmer. </p>
<p>Members of other militia groups in the state reported to me after the arrests that they do not believe these men were “smart enough” to pull off anything like this. </p>
<p>I heard similar comments about the suspected weaknesses of Hutaree members a decade ago. In 2010, nine members of that group, another Michigan militia, were arrested on federal charges that they <a href="https://www.detroitnews.com/story/news/local/michigan/2020/10/08/mysterious-wolverine-watchmen-militia-group-flew-under-radar/5927896002/">planned a series of events to kill large numbers of police officers</a>. Those charges were ultimately dismissed by a federal judge who said <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-crime-militia-idUSBRE82S1EX20120329">all they were doing was talking</a>, though a few of the group were convicted of more minor charges involving weapons possession. </p>
<p>[<em>Deep knowledge, daily.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=deepknowledge">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter</a>.]</p>
<p>The involvement of informants and undercover agents may also raise concerns about <a href="https://theintercept.com/2015/02/26/fbi-manufacture-plots-terrorism-isis-grave-threats/">FBI practices</a>, which have been <a href="https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/peteraldhous/fbi-entrapment">criticized</a> as <a href="https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2011/07/fbi-terrorist-informants/">fabricating entire plots</a> to entrap innocent people in cases that <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/16/fbi-entrapment-fake-terror-plots">alleged Islamic terrorism</a>.</p>
<p>These are the issues to keep an eye on, as the details emerge and the case unfolds.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/147876/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amy Cooter is a previous recipient of a National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship.</span></em></p>Much remains unknown so far about an alleged plot to kidnap Michigan Gov. Gretchen Whitmer, but five themes will remain relevant no matter how events unfold.Amy Cooter, Senior Lecturer in Sociology, Vanderbilt UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1473412020-10-08T18:17:57Z2020-10-08T18:17:57ZAmericans aren’t worried about white nationalism in the military – because they don’t know it’s there<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/361745/original/file-20201005-24-11sp8ij.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=15%2C0%2C5097%2C3403&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">There is a long history of links between white nationalist movements and the U.S. military.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/soldier-lineup-royalty-free-image/521351990">Bo Zaunders/Corbis Documentary via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>White nationalist groups, who make up some of the <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2020/10/06/politics/white-supremacists-anarchists-dhs-homeland-threat-assessment/index.html">most serious terror threats</a> in the country, <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2020/11/right-wing-militias-civil-war/616473/">find new members</a> and <a href="https://madison.com/ct/news/local/govt-and-politics/powder-keg-right-wing-activists-armed-with-guns-increase-protest-tensions-as-election-day-approaches/article_b1dd6d38-9cb5-54b4-b048-1539fa891c4d.html">support</a> in the U.S. <a href="https://www.splcenter.org/news/2020/02/11/splc-testifies-congress-alarming-incidents-white-supremacy-military">military</a>. These groups <a href="https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/ideology/white-nationalist">believe that white people are under attack</a> in America. </p>
<p>In their effort to create an all-white country where nonwhites do not have civil rights protections, these groups often instigate violent confrontations that target racial and religious minorities. Since 2018, white supremacists have <a href="https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/publications/2020_10_06_homeland-threat-assessment.pdf">conducted more lethal attacks</a> in the United States than any other domestic extremist movement. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/7/18/explained-who-are-the-far-right-proud-boys">Proud Boys</a> group, for example, whom President Donald Trump addressed in the first presidential debate of 2020, <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2020/11/right-wing-militias-civil-war/616473/">includes veterans and active duty service members</a>. The group’s members, who are <a href="https://www.vox.com/2018/10/15/17978358/proud-boys-trump-biden-debate-violence">required to engage in physical violence</a> before joining, <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2020/09/30/politics/proud-boys-trump-debate-trnd/index.html">celebrated Trump’s statement</a> to “<a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/30/us/politics/trump-debate-white-supremacy.html">stand back and stand by</a>,” considering his call an endorsement of their extremist ideology.</p>
<p>While many Americans <a href="https://www.latimes.com/politics/story/2020-10-01/trump-debate-voters-white-supremacy-proud-boys">were appalled</a> at the <a href="https://www.latimes.com/politics/story/2020-10-01/trump-debate-voters-white-supremacy-proud-boys">president’s statement</a>, our research shows that most Americans remain unaware of the connections these groups have to the military. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/18/opinion/history-white-power.html">links between</a> the <a href="https://www.stripes.com/news/us/airman-accused-of-spreading-white-nationalist-propaganda-is-demoted-but-remains-in-military-1.607954">U.S. military</a> and white nationalists <a href="https://fas.org/irp/eprint/rightwing.pdf">date back to the 1990s</a>, with many believers seeing military service as an opportunity to <a href="https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/intelligence-report/2008/fbi-reports-extremists-military">hone their fighting skills and recruit others</a>. </p>
<p>Our research has found that most Americans <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0095327X20918394">don’t know much about the level of white nationalism</a> in the military – though when they find out, they’re worried about it.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/361973/original/file-20201006-18-1k4gfyx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two people wearing military-like gear" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/361973/original/file-20201006-18-1k4gfyx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/361973/original/file-20201006-18-1k4gfyx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/361973/original/file-20201006-18-1k4gfyx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/361973/original/file-20201006-18-1k4gfyx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/361973/original/file-20201006-18-1k4gfyx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/361973/original/file-20201006-18-1k4gfyx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/361973/original/file-20201006-18-1k4gfyx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Two members of the Proud Boys wear military-like gear at a rally in Oregon in September 2020.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/the-proud-boys-a-right-wing-pro-trump-group-are-heavily-news-photo/1228752071">John Rudoff/Anadolu Agency via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>White nationalists active in the military</h2>
<p>Researchers do not have reliable data on how many active duty or veteran service members belong to white nationalist groups. But current military members are increasingly aware of the <a href="https://www.militarytimes.com/news/pentagon-congress/2017/10/23/military-times-poll-one-in-four-troops-sees-white-nationalism-in-the-ranks/">influence of far-right groups</a> in the ranks. </p>
<p>In the most recent poll by Military Times, an independent media organization covering the military, about <a href="https://www.militarytimes.com/news/pentagon-congress/2019/02/28/white-nationalism-remains-a-problem-for-the-military-poll-shows/">one-fifth of service members</a> have reported seeing signs of white nationalism or racist ideology in the military community. Those include the casual use of racial slurs and anti-Semitic language, and even <a href="https://www.marinecorpstimes.com/news/your-marine-corps/2019/02/26/another-marine-is-being-investigated-for-neo-nazi-ties-amid-concerns-about-white-supremacy-in-the-ranks/">explosives deliberately arranged in the shape of a swastika</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.militarytimes.com/news/pentagon-congress/2019/09/12/lawmakers-want-closer-tracking-of-white-supremacy-nazi-sympathizers-in-the-military/">More than one-third of service members</a> surveyed in 2018 said white nationalism is a significant threat to the country – which is more than were seriously concerned about threats from Syria, Afghanistan or immigration.</p>
<p>White nationalists with military experience have committed acts of violence, usually after leaving the service – like the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/27/us/military-white-nationalists-extremists.html">1994 Oklahoma City bombing</a> and the <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2012/08/06/us/wisconsin-temple-shooting/index.html">2012 mass shooting at a Wisconsin Sikh temple</a>. </p>
<p>But <a href="https://www.propublica.org/article/atomwaffen-division-hate-group-active-duty-military">active duty personnel</a> have also been involved in white nationalist activity. In July 2018, a <a href="https://www.marinecorpstimes.com/news/your-marine-corps/2019/09/04/the-neo-nazi-boot-inside-one-marines-descent-into-extremism/">white nationalist was dismissed from the Marine Corps</a> for his involvement in hate groups, including attending the 2017 “Unite the Right” protest in Charlottesville, Virginia. </p>
<p>In February 2019, a Coast Guard officer stationed at the agency’s headquarters was <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/20/us/christopher-hasson-coast-guard.html">arrested and accused of stockpiling weapons</a> as part of a <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/21/us/coast-guard-christopher-hasson-terrorist-attack.html">plan to start a race war</a>. </p>
<p>In April 2019, a Huffington Post investigation revealed that <a href="https://www.huffpost.com/entry/white-nationalists-military-identity-evropa_n_5cc1a87ee4b0764d31dd839c">at least 11 members of various military branches</a> were under investigation for involvement in a white nationalist group.</p>
<p>In September 2019, an Army soldier who had expressed support for right-wing extremism was <a href="http://www.bu.edu/articles/2020/eradicate-white-nationalists-from-military/">arrested after sharing bomb-making instructions</a> with undercover agents. That same month, an Air Force master sergeant who had been involved with a white supremacist group was <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2019/11/20/air-force-airman-accused-white-nationalist-propaganda-identity-evropa-demoted/">demoted but allowed to continue serving</a>.</p>
<p>In June 2020, an Army private was <a href="https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/us-army-soldier-charged-terrorism-offenses-planning-deadly-ambush-service-members-his-unit">charged with terrorism offenses</a> after he <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-53145806">leaked sensitive information</a> about his unit to two white supremacist groups, including one that <a href="https://www.armytimes.com/news/your-army/2020/06/22/us-soldier-plotted-with-satanic-neo-nazis-to-ambush-his-own-unit-overseas-feds-say/">promotes rape and murder</a> as part of its quest for a race war. </p>
<h2>Congressional concern</h2>
<p>Lawmakers have been paying attention to the problem. In 2019, the House of Representatives approved a requirement to screen potential military enlistees for signs of white nationalism, as part of the Pentagon’s annual budget allocation. But the <a href="https://thehill.com/policy/defense/operations/475475-senate-removes-white-nationalist-from-measure-to-screen-military">Senate removed that provision</a> before sending the bill to the White House for the president’s signature.</p>
<p>Military and academic experts agree that <a href="https://www.militarytimes.com/news/pentagon-congress/2019/09/12/lawmakers-want-closer-tracking-of-white-supremacy-nazi-sympathizers-in-the-military/">violent ideologies in the ranks</a> make it harder for soldiers to <a href="https://www.law.berkeley.edu/files/csls/Unit_Cohesion_and_Military_Performance_Ch5_MacCoun_Hix.pdf">form the bonds of trust</a> with one another that they rely on in combat.</p>
<p>If Congress did ban white nationalists from serving in the military, members of white nationalist groups would have a harder time receiving <a href="https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/intelligence-report/2006/several-high-profile-racist-extremists-serve-us-military">military training</a>. They would also be cut off from an important <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/inside-u-s-military-s-battle-white-supremacy-far-right-ncna1010221">recruitment</a> <a href="https://warontherocks.com/2019/08/the-fight-in-the-right-it-is-time-to-tackle-white-supremacist-terrorism-globally/">network</a>.</p>
<p><iframe id="YMXZI" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/YMXZI/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>American views of white nationalism</h2>
<p>We wanted to find out how much the public knew about white nationalism in the military, and what they think about it. So in early May 2019, we conducted a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0095327X20918394">demographically representative survey of 1,702 American adults</a>. </p>
<p>First, we asked respondents how prevalent they thought white nationalism was in the military. Most – 70% – said there were “some” white nationalists on active duty. Another 20% said there were “many.” Just 10% thought there were none.</p>
<p>Then we sought to find out whether people thought it was a problem. To answer that question, we split our respondents into two groups. We asked one half of them whether “white nationalism in the military” is “not a problem,” a “somewhat serious problem” or a “serious problem.” Only 30% of them thought it was a “serious” problem; 47% percent thought it was “somewhat serious” and 23% thought it was “not a problem.” </p>
<p>The other half of the respondents got the same question – but before we asked, we gave them the results of a 2018 Military Times poll finding that “<a href="https://www.militarytimes.com/news/pentagon-congress/2019/02/28/white-nationalism-remains-a-problem-for-the-military-poll-shows/">22% of service members … have seen evidence</a> of white nationalism or racist ideology within the armed forces.” Having learned that information, 35% of this group said the problem is “serious” – a statistically significant increase of five percentage points.</p>
<p>After that, we returned to the first group, and gave them the information from the Military Times poll – and found that 39% of them considered the problem “serious.” This nine-point increase was also statistically significant.</p>
<p>We did see an initial political divide among our respondents. People who identified as strong conservatives were less concerned about white nationalism in the military than were strong liberals. But respondents across the political spectrum were willing to update their views, and considered white nationalism a serious problem, once we gave them additional, factual information.</p>
<h2>The military is a trusted institution</h2>
<p>The American public is <a href="https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/12/03/americans-blind-faith-in-the-military-is-dangerous-civilian-oversight-deference-mcraven-trump/">deferential to</a> the military, and <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/ft_19-03-21_scienceconfidence_americans-trust-in-military/">trusts it as an institution</a>. White nationalist groups and ideologies get a <a href="https://www.military.com/daily-news/2020/02/12/neo-nazi-group-membership-may-not-get-you-booted-military-officials-say.html">boost</a> of <a href="https://www.salon.com/2017/10/26/does-the-military-have-a-white-nationalism-problem/">credibility</a> and legitimacy through their links to the U.S. military. Civilians <a href="https://www.defenseone.com/policy/2020/06/generals-are-speaking-good-thing/165923/">often take cues</a> from the statements and actions of those who served.</p>
<p>[<em>Deep knowledge, daily.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=deepknowledge">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter</a>.]</p>
<p>Our work suggests that informing the public about service members’ worries about white nationalism in the military could increase concern among both liberals and conservatives about the growing power of these groups. Increased public concern could create an incentive for policymakers to try to combat white nationalist groups, in the military and in society at large.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/147341/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>People typically underestimate how much white nationalism goes on in the military, but when they learn the truth, they’re concerned.Jennifer Spindel, Assistant Professor of Political Science, University of New HampshireMatt Motta, Assistant Professor of Political Science, Oklahoma State UniversityRobert Ralston, Postdoctoral Fellow in Political Science, University of MinnesotaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1455052020-09-08T12:18:22Z2020-09-08T12:18:22ZPortland and Kenosha violence was predictable – and preventable<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/356430/original/file-20200903-20-1pypf6g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C7%2C5169%2C3433&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Portland police hold back Chandler Pappas, who was with the victim, in the wake of a fatal shooting on Aug. 29, 2020.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/portland-police-hold-back-chandler-pappas-who-was-with-the-news-photo/1228264216">Nathan Howard/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The U.S. reached a deadly moment in protests over racial injustice, as back-to-back shootings in Kenosha, Wisconsin, and Portland, Oregon, on Aug. 25 and 29 took the lives of three people and seriously injured another. </p>
<p>It was tragic – but not surprising. </p>
<p>The alleged shooters were at the protests for different reasons: One was a pro-police supporter who believed he was <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/who-is-kyle-rittenhouse-and-what-happened-in-the-kenosha-shootings-11598653456">protecting local businesses</a> in Kenosha and the other an “<a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/what-is-known-of-michael-reinoehl-person-of-interest-in-portland-killing-11599087170">antifa supporter” and “fixture of anti-police demostrations”</a> in Portland. The victims included apparent <a href="https://apnews.com/0994e25654d255e552aaad8a15e16c84">supporters of Black Lives Matter protests</a> and a <a href="https://www.oregonlive.com/portland/2020/08/man-fatally-shot-after-pro-trump-caravan-was-patriot-prayer-friend-and-supporter.html">supporter of a far-right group</a>. Together, they reflect an escalating risk of spontaneous violence as heavily armed citizen vigilantes and individuals mobilize at demonstrations and protests.</p>
<p>As a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=YNZE_wMAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">scholar of extremism</a> and director of the <a href="https://www.american.edu/centers/university-excellence/peril.cfm">Polarization and Extremism Research and Innovation Lab</a> at American University, I have spent the past few months watching people mobilize across the political spectrum – about Second Amendment rights, state shelter-in-place orders and police brutality, and in reaction to those protests – while leaders respond insufficiently to the threat of violence. </p>
<h2>Foreseeable conflict</h2>
<p>I wasn’t the only one expecting violence. In mid-July, terrorism expert <a href="https://extremism.gwu.edu/jj-macnab">J.J. McNab</a> <a href="https://www.thetrace.org/rounds/daily-bulletin-congressional-panel-gets-warning-on-boogaloo-violence/">testified before Congress</a> about her concern “that there will be a shootout at one or more of the Black Lives Matter protests,” warning of the dangers of having <a href="https://www.indystar.com/story/news/nation/2020/09/05/kentucky-derby-2020-protests-breonna-taylor-angry-viking-louisville/5729427002/">heavily armed groups with conflicting goals</a> at the same events.</p>
<p>The danger existed long before that, though. In my new book, “<a href="https://press.princeton.edu/books/hardcover/9780691203836/hate-in-the-homeland">Hate in the Homeland: The New Global Far Right</a>,” I explain that the past three years – from the <a href="https://www.facinghistory.org/sites/default/files/Unite_the_Right_Rally_in_Charlottesville_Timeline.pdf">Charlottesville “Unite the Right” rally in 2017</a>, through mass shootings in <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/27/us/active-shooter-pittsburgh-synagogue-shooting.html">Pittsburgh</a> and <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/el-paso-shooting-victim-death-toll-rises-22-today-death-penalty-for-domestic-terrorism-in-walmart-shooting-2019-08-05/">El Paso</a>
to this more recent violence – have shown the growing activity of the extremist fringe in U.S. society. </p>
<p>Yet over the past year, the presence of a wide range of militia and vigilante groups has repeatedly caught local communities and national leaders unprepared to handle the threat they pose.</p>
<p>The pandemic has changed some things: The threat from planned extremist violence, like in <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/new-zealand-mosque-shootings">Christchurch, New Zealand</a> in March 2019 and <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/poway-synagogue-shooting-suspect-john-earnest-in-custody-after-1-dead-3-injured-today-live-updates-2019-04-27/">Poway, California the following month</a>, is probably lower now – in part because there are fewer large public gatherings for extremists to target. But the threat of spontaneous violence – especially at protests organized around racial injustice and police brutality – is high. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/356432/original/file-20200903-22-v93obi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="People hug each other and hold candles at a vigil" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/356432/original/file-20200903-22-v93obi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/356432/original/file-20200903-22-v93obi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/356432/original/file-20200903-22-v93obi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/356432/original/file-20200903-22-v93obi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/356432/original/file-20200903-22-v93obi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/356432/original/file-20200903-22-v93obi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/356432/original/file-20200903-22-v93obi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">People comfort each other a vigil for victims of an Aug. 3, 2019, shooting in El Paso.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/APTOPIXTexasMallShooting/a4b990a566fc4dec961a354706a3a440/photo">AP Photo/John Locher</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Militia and vigilante groups’ conflicting goals</h2>
<p>Americans’ collective inaction to stem the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2020/aug/19/facebook-qanon-us-militia-groups-restrictions">growth of militia</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/vigilantism-again-in-the-news-is-an-american-tradition-141849">vigilante groups</a> is, in part, rooted in confusion about their goals. </p>
<p>Extremist and paramilitary groups in the U.S. are motivated by a <a href="https://theconversation.com/militias-warning-of-excessive-federal-power-comes-true-but-where-are-they-143333">wide range of competing factors</a>. Some are <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/25/us/border-militia-mexico.html">white supremacists</a> seeking to <a href="https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674286078">spark a race war</a>. Others are <a href="https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2020/01/militia-richmond-virginia-gun-rally.html">fighting a government</a> they <a href="https://cup.columbia.edu/book/oath-keepers/9780231550314">perceive to be tyrannical</a>. Still others are oriented around <a href="https://www.cbs58.com/news/creator-of-kenosha-guard-group-explains-call-to-action-before-deadly-shooting">vigilante support for or defense of local businesses</a> and law enforcement. </p>
<p>Left-wing militias have also grown in recent years, primarily organized around <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/02/opinion/socialist-left-guns-nra-trump.html">resistance to the far right</a>. These include the recently formed <a href="https://www.newsweek.com/armed-black-demonstrators-challenge-white-supremacist-militia-georgias-stone-mountain-park-1515494">Not F**cking Around Coalition</a>, a Black militia group that has shown up at protests this summer to challenge white supremacists. </p>
<p>At this summer’s protests, that division has been on clear display. Even within groups that ostensibly share the same goals – such as the <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2020/07/american-boogaloo-meme-or-terrorist-movement/613843/">Boogaloo bois</a>, who call for revolution or civil war – there is little alignment. </p>
<p>In late May, three alleged members of the Boogaloo movement were arrested in Las Vegas for <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/all/three-men-connected-boogaloo-movement-tried-provoke-violence-protests-feds-n1224231">allegedly plotting to spark violence at a Black Lives Matter protest</a>. But a month later in Richmond, Boogaloo groups marched alongside Black protesters and chanted to “<a href="https://www.npr.org/2020/07/06/887467436/-were-willing-to-do-what-it-takes-causes-collide-in-richmond-s-streets">drown out the white supremacists</a>” who showed up.</p>
<p>Despite their conflicting goals, militia and vigilante groups all share a sense of dire threat and a belief that their lives, their future survival or people they want to protect are threatened by some outside group. This is <a href="https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/extremism">“us versus them” thinking at its most extreme</a>; militias feel compelled to defend against those threats. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/345820/original/file-20200706-3980-1q7hz4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3789%2C2518&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/345820/original/file-20200706-3980-1q7hz4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3789%2C2518&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/345820/original/file-20200706-3980-1q7hz4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/345820/original/file-20200706-3980-1q7hz4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/345820/original/file-20200706-3980-1q7hz4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/345820/original/file-20200706-3980-1q7hz4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/345820/original/file-20200706-3980-1q7hz4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/345820/original/file-20200706-3980-1q7hz4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Armed civilians have been attending public protests throughout the year.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/armed-counter-protesters-and-a-police-officer-stand-watch-news-photo/1223867050">George Frey/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Conditions ripe for online radicalization</h2>
<p>Extremists thrive when people feel uncertain and isolated. They invite new members to join a community and engage heroically to thwart a pressing threat. One review of existing literature finds that almost all recent research finds the “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s40894-019-00108-y">need for belonging</a>” is key to extremism, along with a need for control.</p>
<p>That’s why the current moment is a tinderbox for paramilitary and extremist growth. Millions of Americans are anxious about an unseen virus, are isolated during shutdowns, face widespread economic uncertainty and are spending much more time online, where encounters with propaganda and misinformation are more likely. </p>
<p>During the COVID-19 pandemic, there has been <a href="https://www.adn.com/nation-world/2020/08/01/armed-civilians-militia-like-groups-surge-into-public-view-this-summer-at-rallies-and-counter-protests/">explosive growth</a> in radical political groups, civilian militia, vigilante and conspiracy group membership on social media – across the ideological spectrum. Earlier this summer, Facebook banned <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/facebook-bans-hundreds-of-groups-users-linked-to-boogaloo-movement-2020-7">hundreds of accounts</a> associated with the far-right “boogaloo” scene, which advocates for revolution and civil war. Last month, Facebook removed nearly 10,000 <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2020/aug/19/facebook-qanon-us-militia-groups-restrictions">QAnon groups and 980</a> “offline anarchist groups,” including some that “identify as Antifa.” </p>
<p>Social media plays a role in the radicalization of <a href="https://www.start.umd.edu/pubs/START_PIRUS_UseOfSocialMediaByUSExtremists_ResearchBrief_July2018.pdf">90% of recent extremists</a> in the U.S. The current situation is no exception.</p>
<p>Throughout the spring and summer of 2020, across the country, heavily armed vigilante and militia members responded to incendiary calls to action and to misinformation on social media related to state regulations on gun ownership, shelter-in-place orders and, finally, Black Lives Matter protests. Calls have gone out to “<a href="https://techcrunch.com/2020/08/26/facebook-kenosha-guard-militia-protest/">armed citizens to protect our lives and property</a>” to show up at protests to defend against “evil thugs.” </p>
<p>In Kenosha, local law enforcement legitimized vigilante and militia presence by thanking them for being there. “<a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/kenosha-police-thanked-armed-militia-and-gave-water-2020-8">We appreciate you guys</a>,” one police officer in an armored vehicle says on a widely circulated video as he tossed a water bottle to armed militia members. <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/kenosha-police-thanked-armed-militia-and-gave-water-2020-8?op=1">Thanking citizen vigilantes for their support</a> essentially empowers individuals to <a href="https://www.mediamatters.org/black-lives-matter/after-kenosha-shootings-former-sheriff-david-clarke-advises-radio-listeners-how">take matters into their own hands</a>.</p>
<p>Under these conditions, if there’s anything surprising about the violence that has erupted, it’s that it took so long for it to happen. </p>
<iframe src="https://www.facebook.com/plugins/video.php?href=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.facebook.com%2Fsam.wunderle%2Fvideos%2F10216501641126335%2F&show_text=0&width=560" width="100%" height="291" style="border:none;overflow:hidden" scrolling="no" frameborder="0" allowtransparency="true" allowfullscreen="true"></iframe>
<figure><figcaption><span class="caption">A video of Kenosha police thanking armed civilians.</span></figcaption></figure>
<h2>What can be done?</h2>
<p>There are several ways to reduce the threat of future violence, but they all include minimizing the number of people who feel empowered – by local authorities <a href="https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2020/09/trump-support-kyle-rittenhouse-election-violence.html">or elected officials</a> – to act violently. </p>
<p>Leaders at all political levels could affirm people’s right to protest peacefully while unequivocally condemning vigilante and militia mobilization, regardless of the reason. Many studies have found that incendiary or hateful rhetoric from politicians both <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/03050629.2020.1739033">deepens political polarization</a> and increases support for political violence. Research in Germany has shown that when <a href="https://doi.org/10.1086/386271">politicians use incendiary language</a>, violence increases. But when they use different words, <a href="https://fortune.com/2017/02/13/donald-trump-national-security-cve-right-wing-extremism-terrorism-germany/">violence drops</a>.</p>
<p>If public rhetoric doesn’t cool down, I expect escalating polarization and politicization of the protests and vigilante violence may make matters worse in the coming months. I’m particularly concerned because firearms purchases have <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2020/08/03/politics/gun-background-checks-fbi/index.html">skyrocketed during the pandemic</a>.</p>
<p>[<em>Deep knowledge, daily.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=deepknowledge">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter</a>.]</p>
<p>However, communities could work to <a href="https://www.westernstatescenter.org/2020-white-nationalism-in-schools-trainer">interrupt the radicalization</a> of <a href="https://www.american.edu/centers/university-excellence/upload/splc_peril_covid_parents_guide.pdf">young people, and adults</a>. <a href="https://www.american.edu/centers/university-excellence/peril.cfm">My own research lab</a> recently released a <a href="https://www.splcenter.org/PERIL">guide for parents and caregivers to online radicalization</a>, in collaboration with the Southern Poverty Law Center, in order to better help recognize risk and build resilience to extremist narratives during the COVID-19 pandemic. This fall we will study how tools like that affect parents’ abilities to intervene at early stages of radicalization.</p>
<p>Our aim is to reduce the chances of people adopting extremist views and joining militia or vigilante groups in the first place. After all, having fewer extremists seems likely to reduce extremist violence.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/145505/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cynthia Miller-Idriss does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The increasing visibility of a wide range of militia and vigilante groups has repeatedly caught local communities and national leaders off guard.Cynthia Miller-Idriss, Professor of Education and Sociology, American UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1433332020-07-29T19:11:27Z2020-07-29T19:11:27ZMilitias’ warning of excessive federal power comes true – but where are they?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/349396/original/file-20200724-27-1620b3p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C8%2C5434%2C3603&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Federal agents use crowd control munitions to disperse Black Lives Matter protesters in Portland, Oregon, on July 20, 2020.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Photo-Gallery-Portland-Protests/61e566ce3a3b44c29c8fa7c1cd0fcb55/68/0">AP Photo/Noah Berger</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Militias and many other Second Amendment advocates have <a href="https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/handle/2027.42/98077">long argued</a> that their primary desire to own firearms – often, many of them – is rooted in a need to protect themselves and their families from a tyrannical federal government, or to discourage the government from becoming tyrannical in the first place.</p>
<p>But with the mayor of a major U.S. city <a href="https://news.wttw.com/2020/07/22/trump-sends-more-100-federal-agents-chicago-fight-violence">warning that “tyranny and dictatorship”</a> have already arrived on the streets – in the shape of unidentified federal troops using questionable tactics – militia groups appear reluctant to throw their lot in with protesters. In fact, many have been supporting government action to suppress peaceful demonstrators.</p>
<p>Certainly the scenes in Portland have alarmed civil liberties groups:
Heavily armed and camouflaged federal officers, <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/federal-agents-portland-protesters-standoff-chaos-envelopes-portions-city-n1234520">wearing no name tags or other insignia</a>, are on the streets of Portland, Oregon, and have teargassed and arrested seemingly peaceful protesters with <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2020/07/nothing-can-justify-attack-portland/614413/">little or no provocation</a>. President Donald Trump has said similar forces are <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/20/us/politics/trump-chicago-portland-federal-agents.html">coming to other cities</a> – many run by <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/07/trump-send-federal-law-enforcement-democrat-led-cities-200720162447357.html">Democrats</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://twitter.com/AndrewMCrespo/status/1285738001004482561">To some</a>, it may <a href="https://trofire.com/2020/07/21/trump-prepares-to-send-his-secret-police-to-other-american-cities/">look exactly like</a> what the <a href="https://thenib.com/a-well-regulated-militia/">militias have been warning</a> of.</p>
<p>As a scholar of the U.S. domestic militia movement, I have seen in recent months <a href="https://theconversation.com/militias-evaluate-beliefs-action-as-president-threatens-soldiers-in-the-streets-140123">a new divide emerging</a> in these groups.</p>
<p>Some, often calling themselves the “<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-are-white-supremacists-protesting-the-deaths-of-black-people-140046">boogaloo movement</a>,” see the current political unrest as an opportunity to wrest power from an overbearing federal government. Others support police and their enforcement of strict law and order, even if that means authorities using powerful weapons and overwhelming force.</p>
<h2>Shifting online dynamics</h2>
<p>Assessing what these groups are doing, and how they are discussing recent events, has become more difficult for observers like me in recent weeks. On June 30, Facebook announced it had <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2020/06/30/facebook-boogaloo-ban-accounts">removed hundreds of accounts and groups</a> allegedly related to the “boogaloo movement.” </p>
<p>The move came in the wake of several arrests of alleged boogaloo adherents across the country, including three in Nevada accused of plotting to “<a href="https://abc7.com/boogaloo-las-vegas-protest-news-george-floyd/6231077/">firebomb</a>” federal land and one in Texas <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/airman-charged-killing-federal-officer-during-george-floyd-protests-california-n1231187">accused of killing</a> one police officer and critically injuring another.</p>
<p>Boogaloo groups still have a social media presence and, until recently when the portion of the site they used was closed, a large presence on the Reddit discussion site, where comments are loosely regulated and people can post anonymously. </p>
<p>Now the movement’s public face is smaller and harder to find without insider knowledge. For instance, until recently it was common to see groups with the words “big igloo” in their names, a play on the word “boogaloo.” After Facebook’s crackdown, some groups are using the word “icehouse” or other synonyms that may not be as obvious. They are therefore harder for algorithms to find, but also for people to find – whether to observe or to join in.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/349243/original/file-20200723-33-1dj3un9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A meme showing federal officials in camouflage arresting a person and putting them into an unmarked van." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/349243/original/file-20200723-33-1dj3un9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/349243/original/file-20200723-33-1dj3un9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=602&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349243/original/file-20200723-33-1dj3un9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=602&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349243/original/file-20200723-33-1dj3un9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=602&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349243/original/file-20200723-33-1dj3un9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=756&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349243/original/file-20200723-33-1dj3un9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=756&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349243/original/file-20200723-33-1dj3un9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=756&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some ‘back the boog’ social media groups are sharing memes like this, warning of government exercising too much power.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.facebook.com/BigDocsIcehouseBonanza/photos/a.1852268258272120/1868562929975986/?type=3&eid=ARBxvFg-W0dkvc1i5Wxq-ZB6jAwP-qqufhIy9iGhTvhw0kQ0qyOqt2UyDSmNvd0BnUdQFRHzI3lW8FSW">Big Doc's Icehouse Bonanza/Facebook</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>‘Backing the boog’</h2>
<p>The groups who “back the boogaloo” imply, or even outright declare, that the U.S. is no longer a free country, and generally call for supporters to oppose, violently if necessary, federal forces and the government they represent.</p>
<p>In the days after George Floyd’s death, I saw some of these groups call for members to participate in protests opposing police violence. But I have not seen similar calls in response to federal officers’ violence in Portland.</p>
<p>That may change if federal forces do appear in other places, especially areas geographically closer to active “back the boog” supporters. It is also possible that the groups are discussing protests or other actions in less public ways, in private messages or on platforms like <a href="https://theconversation.com/parler-what-you-need-to-know-about-the-free-speech-twitter-alternative-142268">Parler</a>, that have marketed themselves as friendlier toward a variety of conservative views.</p>
<h2>‘Backing the blue’</h2>
<p>There are still militia members who support police, often called “back the blue” groups. Commentators have observed that <a href="https://www.motherjones.com/anti-racism-police-protest/2020/06/nra-police-protest-george-floyd-donald-trump/">silence</a> from them and other Second Amendment supporters certainly seems to be hypocritical, at best, and possibly <a href="https://thenib.com/a-well-regulated-militia/">supportive</a> of tyranny in the current context.</p>
<p>That’s not the way they see it. They argue that one of the few legitimate functions of the federal government is to protect citizens from others who might infringe on their rights or safety. They support police who say that Portland authorities have <a href="https://www.foxnews.com/us/portland-politicians-condoned-destruction-of-city-police-union-boss-says">failed to protect</a> regular people from violent protesters.</p>
<p>That’s also what these groups claimed happened in Seattle’s autonomous zone – though they rely on news <a href="https://www.foxnews.com/us/anti-fascist-group-seen-as-playing-major-role-in-portland-unrest-report">sources</a> that describe the protesters as inherently dangerous and <a href="https://www.foxnews.com/us/seattle-protests-armed-guards-local-businesses-extortion">hampering</a> business and free association. They seemingly ignore or discount other <a href="https://slate.com/technology/2020/06/seattle-capitol-hill-autonomous-zone-occupied-protest.html">reports</a> that these characterizations are exaggerated. In my research, I found that militia members were likely to exclusively trust sources like Fox News or even more conservative sites for their information, and recent data <a href="https://www.dataforprogress.org/blog/2019/3/23/the-fox-news-bubble">confirms</a> that such sources may strongly shape viewers’ understanding of political and other events.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/KQdkNW5T_ks?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Federal officers beat and pepper-spray a Navy veteran standing in peaceful demonstration.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Mistaken perceptions?</h2>
<p>This view of protesters as violent is amplified by some “back the blue” members’ belief that the demonstrators are “<a href="https://thelibertarianrepublic.com/tyranny-in-portland-nah-stop-signaling-to-marxists/">Marxist</a>” members of <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-or-who-is-antifa-140147">antifa, a mostly nonviolent leaderless collective movement</a> generally opposing fascism.</p>
<p>For example, one Facebook group shared a <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KQdkNW5T_ks&feature=share&fbclid=IwAR15hm9fgpzsjVQ4-HalsnFgCmhEMq5osx5sb0B_S7ArRPlxnZ6H93xb-14">video</a> of Christopher David, the Navy veteran <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2020/07/21/portland-protest-navy-vet-christopher-david-beaten-federal-agents-video/5477552002/">beaten by federal officers</a> in Portland, talking about his experience. A commentator responded, “The end of the video tell[s] the tale, he’s going to raise money for [Black Lives Matter]! He is a liar he went there to stand with his commie comrades.”</p>
<p><a href="https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674286078">Scholarship on conservative groups</a> argues that they use anti-communist language to cast political opponents as not real Americans who have thus have forfeited any protections U.S. citizens should have.</p>
<h2>Anti-liberal rhetoric</h2>
<p>Some other “back the blue” members see hypocrisy in liberals, noting that few, if any, on the left objected when federal officers killed <a href="https://www.opb.org/news/series/burns-oregon-standoff-bundy-militia-news-updates/lavoy-finicum-shooting-video-occupation/">LaVoy Finicum</a> during the 2016 <a href="https://theconversation.com/malheur-occupation-is-over-but-the-war-for-americas-public-lands-rages-on-54943">standoff between federal officials and armed supporters of rancher Cliven Bundy</a> during a land dispute elsewhere in Oregon.</p>
<p>There are sharing pages like one on a well-known conservative satire site that suggests the same Oregon authorities opposing federal officers <a href="https://babylonbee.com/news/federal-secret-police-disguise-selves-as-rioters-so-democrat-mayors-will-let-them-do-whatever-they-want">tolerate violent behavior from protesters</a> because of “identity politics” – the idea that certain groups favored by liberals, in this case, Black people, are held to a different and more lax standard. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/349709/original/file-20200727-29-1nh284s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/349709/original/file-20200727-29-1nh284s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=340&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349709/original/file-20200727-29-1nh284s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=340&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349709/original/file-20200727-29-1nh284s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=340&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349709/original/file-20200727-29-1nh284s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349709/original/file-20200727-29-1nh284s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349709/original/file-20200727-29-1nh284s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Image shared on Facebook of a modified Gadsden flag.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Several Facebook pages shared an image of a modified Gadsden flag, with a Black Lives Matter fist and promising “we will tread” as “proof” that Portland protesters would take away others’ rights, including the right to bear arms, if given the chance and thus do not deserve protection themselves. One comment in support of such a post read, “I[’m] glad to see I’m not the only person happy to see these commies being snatched up and dragged away. Yes, I know that this could just as easily be turned around and that we could also be dragged away in broad daylight. But if they aren’t stopped now, and they do somehow manage to gain complete power, we’ll get dragged away anyways. Better them than us, before it’s too late.”</p>
<p>[<em>Deep knowledge, daily.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=deepknowledge">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter</a>.]</p>
<p>Federal intervention has <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2020/07/22/portland-protests-grow-larger-after-trump-sends-feds/5483028002/">not stopped the Portland protests from growing</a>, but some <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2020/jul/20/donald-trump-us-cities-federal-agents-officers">analysts</a> expect Trump to increase the response in an attempt to appeal to his supporters as the country heads into the November election. Many people fear that move would <a href="https://www.the-american-interest.com/2020/06/19/the-danger-of-electoral-violence-in-the-united-states/">spark violence</a>. </p>
<p>The “back the blue” militia members generally respect law and order enough to not fulfill their threats of violence or criminal action – but the “back the boog” groups may not be so restrained. The “back the blue” groups may also act if federal action escalates, and members believe they are <a href="https://time.com/5845533/trump-george-floyd-protest-white-house/">needed or useful</a> to help defend the interests of average citizens.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/143333/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amy Cooter is a prior recipient of the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship.</span></em></p>Some militia members see political unrest as an opportunity to wrest power from an overbearing federal government. But others support strict enforcement of law and order.Amy Cooter, Senior Lecturer in Sociology, Vanderbilt UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1426332020-07-22T19:19:59Z2020-07-22T19:19:59ZFar-right ‘boogaloo’ movement is using Hawaiian shirts to hide its intentions<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/348471/original/file-20200720-63094-1uybg4c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=224%2C54%2C4142%2C2926&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Members of the boogaloo have taken to wearing Hawaiian shirts.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.cpimages.com/CS.aspx?VP3=DamView&VBID=2RLQ2J41JF4I&SMLS=1&RW=1440&RH=814&RW=1440&RH=814">(Charlie Riedel/AP)</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Members of the loosely organized far-right “boogaloo” movement are making the rounds in the news. They’re gaining notoriety not for being <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2020/07/american-boogaloo-meme-or-terrorist-movement/613843/">linked to domestic acts of terrorism in the United States</a>, but for their penchant for Hawaiian shirts. </p>
<p>Their fondness for aloha-infused militia looks has caught the interest of journalists and <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/29/style/boogaloo-hawaiian-shirt.html?referringSource=articleShare">prominent news outlets</a>. This mix of street fashions has become an identifying characteristic of boogaloo boys or bois. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jul/08/boogaloo-boys-movement-who-are-they-what-do-they-believe">The boogaloo is a fragmented community</a> that <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-trending-53018201">began as a firearms board on 4chan</a> and then <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jul/01/what-is-boogaloo-movement-rightwing-anti-government">blossomed on Facebook</a>. <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2020/06/19/what-is-boogaloo-movement/3204899001/">The term boogaloo</a> comes from the 1980s movie <em>Breakin’ 2: Electric Boogaloo</em>. More recently the term has been used to refer to <a href="https://heavy.com/news/2020/06/the-boogaloo-movement-5-fast-facts/">anti-government sentiment, civil unrest and the desire for a second civil war</a>. </p>
<p>The boogaloo community includes far-right, pro-gun, anti-government libertarians spanning a wide spectrum of ideologies including <a href="https://www.adl.org/resources/backgrounders/alt-right-a-primer-on-the-new-white-supremacy">white supremacy</a>, anarchy and a range of conspiracy theories. The boogaloo are, however, unified by violent militant attitudes and terrorist tendencies. They are also savvy when it comes to managing their public image and hiding their actions.</p>
<h2>Hawaiian shirts vs. aloha shirts</h2>
<p>As a scholar studying the intersections of fashion, visual culture and social issues, the boogaloo’s adoption of Hawaiian shirts troubles me. Hawaiian shirts have <a href="https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/history-of-aloha-hawaiian-shirt">historically</a> <a href="https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/history-of-aloha-hawaiian-shirt">symbolized place, consumerism, colonialist oppression and the opposition to conventional culture, and have been an alternative to formal wear</a>.</p>
<p>On the one hand, we have the problematic association of Hawaiian prints with laid-back lifestyles. On the other hand, Indigenous Hawaiians perceive <a href="https://www.stanforddaily.com/2018/02/26/hawaiian-clothes-and-colonialism/">these motifs as stereotyping their authentic culture</a>.</p>
<p>Hawaiian shirts’ meanings play out in surprising ways within the far-right’s efforts to make their ideology mainstream. For mainstream onlookers, Hawaiian shirts worn with tactical gear may fool them about the boogaloo’s true colours. The common <a href="https://www.racked.com/2018/2/23/16982034/aloha-shirt-history">association of Hawaiian prints with relaxed easy-going attitudes</a> is misguided here. The boogaloo are <a href="https://www.voanews.com/usa/race-america/boogaloo-boys-aim-provoke-2nd-us-civil-war">bent on violence</a> and <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2020/06/03/us/boogaloo-extremist-protests-invs/index.html">hope for a second civil war to advance their agenda</a>.</p>
<p>Called <a href="http://www.thealohashirt.com/history">aloha shirts</a> in Hawaii, these garments were reclaimed from their colonialist implications by Indigenous Hawaiian designers. Since the mid-1980s, designers like <a href="https://www.hawaiibusiness.com/talk-story-sig-zane/">Sig Zane have injected aloha prints with authentic Indigenous energy</a>.</p>
<p>Early Hawaiian shirts featured Asian motifs, which were replaced by local motifs in the 1930s. With this shift the shirts started embodying <a href="https://www.hawaii.edu/uhwo/clear/home/lawaloha.html">“aloha,” meaning respect for all animated or inanimate beings</a>.</p>
<p>For Hawaiians, and especially Indigenous Hawaiians, the boogaloo’s co-opting of Hawaiian shirts is outrageous. In today’s Hawaii, aloha shirts symbolize tolerance and <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/far-right-hawaiian-print-shirts-why-protesters-boogaloo-racist-a9539776.html">Hawaiians don’t want it associated with the racism of the boogaloo</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Five men belonging to the boogaloo movement wearing camouflage clothing and carrying guns." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/348477/original/file-20200720-37-g033fy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/348477/original/file-20200720-37-g033fy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/348477/original/file-20200720-37-g033fy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/348477/original/file-20200720-37-g033fy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/348477/original/file-20200720-37-g033fy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/348477/original/file-20200720-37-g033fy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/348477/original/file-20200720-37-g033fy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The boogaloo are known for being armed and wearing militia-style clothing.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/16086041@N00/49416109936/">(Anthony Crider/Flickr)</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Boogaloo boys’ street style</h2>
<p>Although the boogaloo movement seems to pop up in 2019, its roots are entrenched in online fringe politics. <a href="https://www.splcenter.org/hatewatch/2020/06/05/boogaloo-started-racist-meme">Civil rights advocacy groups and researchers have linked the boogaloo to white supremacist</a> groups as early as 2013. These online communities are a natural evolution from neo-Nazi and militant white nationalist organizations.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-conspiracy-theories-spread-online-its-not-just-down-to-algorithms-133891">How conspiracy theories spread online – it's not just down to algorithms</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><a href="https://www.yahoo.com/entertainment/why-boogaloo-bois-wear-hawaiian-210228866.html">Accessorizing fatigues with Hawaiian shirts</a> is a styling attempt by far-right groups to manage their public image. The clash of camo or tactical fabrics and aloha prints is certainly striking. This is especially true against urban backdrops of cityscapes or protester and police outfits.</p>
<p>It isn’t new for white supremacists to co-opt conformity dress, but <a href="https://www.vice.com/en_ca/article/ep4abn/the-aloha-shirt-is-bigger-than-the-boogaloo-movement">incorporating Hawaiian shirts</a> opens new avenues for political posturing. A similar strategy was employed in 2017 by white supremacist protesters in Charlottesville, Va. <a href="https://www.gq.com/story/uniform-of-white-supremacy">They sported polo shirts and khakis</a>, in an attempt to lend a sense of legitimacy to their cause.</p>
<p>White supremacists adopted business casual attire to distance themselves from the negative connotations of Nazi and Ku Klux Klan garb. At least superficially, this new look helped conceal their true nature. But their violence eventually surfaced and <a href="https://www.gq.com/story/fred-perry-wants-alt-right-bros-to-stop-wearing-their-polos">fashion brands’ promptly made declarations to distance themselves</a> from the movement.</p>
<h2>What do Hawaiian shirts mean to the far-right?</h2>
<p>Perhaps Hawaiian shirts, fatigues and assault weapons synthesize the disparity of beliefs among the loosely organized boogaloo. The colourful elements in Hawaiian prints could suggest this unity in a perceived diversity. Although these fringe groups share a belief in an upcoming race war, they differ on many other topics. </p>
<p>Some commentators have suggested that the Hawaiian shirt motifs <a href="https://www.bellingcat.com/news/2020/05/27/the-boogaloo-movement-is-not-what-you-think/">speak to the boogaloo’s online origins</a>. After all, they were a meme before becoming a somewhat coherent virtual and then physical organization. This inside joke, <a href="https://www.splcenter.org/hatewatch/2020/06/05/boogaloo-started-racist-meme">copy-and-paste esthetic of memes and GIFs</a> is shared by boogaloos in social media. </p>
<p>Integrating Hawaiian prints into paramilitary outfits is a calculated effort by far-right affiliates. They want to get noticed in a crowded political space. Thus, the boogaloos’ seemingly innocent outfits are about calling attention to themselves, while simultaneously masking their violent intentions.</p>
<p>Don’t be tricked by the kitschy cheerfulness of their Hawaiian prints. There is nothing as <a href="http://www.honolulumagazine.com/Honolulu-Magazine/July-2020/How-Hawaiian-Shirts-Fight-Extremism/">far from the aloha spirit</a> as the hate championed by the boogaloo.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/142633/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Henry Navarro Delgado does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The boogaloos, a far-right community, have taken to wearing Hawaiian shirts. This co-option is far from the spirit of the shirt, which signifies respect for all animated or inanimate beings.Henry Navarro Delgado, Associate Professor of Fashion, Toronto Metropolitan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1405972020-06-24T16:49:10Z2020-06-24T16:49:10ZThe ICC’s rejection of Bemba’s compensation claim points to need for reform<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/342759/original/file-20200618-41230-1bzo5yq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Jean-Pierre Bemba during his trial at the International Criminal Court in The Hague, The Netherlands.
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">EPA-EFE/Michael Kooren</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The International Criminal Court (ICC) recently rejected a <a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/Pages/item.aspx?name=pr1523">claim for financial compensation</a> by former Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) vice president Jean Pierre Bemba after he was acquitted of war crimes and crimes against humanity <a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/Pages/item.aspx?name=pr1390">on appeal in 2018</a>. </p>
<p>The court’s decision has wider implications for international criminal law.</p>
<p>In 2016, the ICC convicted Bemba of the charges against him, and <a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/Pages/item.aspx?name=PR1223">sentenced him to 18 years’ imprisonment</a> for the crimes committed by his militia in the neighbouring Central African Republic in 2002 and 2003.</p>
<p>But, on 8 June 2018, the <a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/Pages/item.aspx?name=pr1390">ICC Appeals Chamber acquitted him</a> of all charges. According to some observers, his acquittal <a href="https://theconversation.com/bemba-acquittal-overturns-important-victory-for-sexual-violence-victims-99948">overturned an important victory for victims of sexual violence</a> under international criminal law, thanks largely to evidentiary ambiguities and inconsistencies. </p>
<p>Bemba then filed a claim seeking over €69 million in damages he claimed he had suffered due to having had his assets frozen for a decade by the court. He also wanted to be compensated for legal expenses.</p>
<p>His claim consisted of two components. First, was a request for compensation pursuant to article 85 of the Rome Statute, on account of a grave and manifest miscarriage of justice during the hearing of the main case against him. The <a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/NR/rdonlyres/ADD16852-AEE9-4757-ABE7-9CDC7CF02886/283503/RomeStatutEng1.pdf">Rome Statue </a> is the treaty that established the International Criminal Court in July 1998. </p>
<p>Second, was a request for compensation for the damage suffered by his property and assets, as a result of the court’s orders. He alleged that the court failed to properly manage and preserve his property.</p>
<p>The decision is a unique interpretation of the court’s powers and jurisdiction regarding compensation to those that are acquitted. The principal element relates to the cooperation of states with the International Criminal Court.</p>
<p>For the first time, the court restricted its responsibility under <a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/resourcelibrary/official-journal/rome-statute.aspx">Article 93(1)(k) of the Rome Statute.</a> Basically, its responsibility stops at requesting state parties to seize and freeze assets. It is then up to the states to preserve such assets and they cannot be held to account by the court for any mismanagement.</p>
<h2>Narrow interpretation of Rome Statute</h2>
<p>The court exercises a great degree of discretion when it comes to compensation. This is due to the ambiguity in the language of <a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/resourcelibrary/official-journal/rome-statute.aspx#article85">Article 85 of the Rome Statute</a>, which gives the victim of unlawful arrest or detention, an enforceable right to compensation. Exceptional circumstances are provided for by Article 85(3) which states that;</p>
<blockquote>
<p>…in exceptional circumstances, where the court finds conclusive facts showing that there has been a grave and manifest miscarriage of justice, it may in its discretion award compensation, according to the criteria provided in the Rules of Procedure and Evidence, to a person who has been released from detention following a final decision of acquittal or a termination of the proceedings for that reason.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>But this is ambiguous because the terms “grave and manifest miscarriage of justice” are not defined in the statute, and so can lead to divergent interpretations.</p>
<p>This is the third claim for compensation to be rejected by the court. In 2015, the court rejected a claim by <a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/CourtRecords/CR2016_01994.PDF">Mathieu Ngudjolo</a>. The militia leader was accused of having committed war crimes and crimes against humanity in the DRC in 2003. He was acquitted in 2012.</p>
<p>Similarly, in 2016, the court rejected <a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/CourtRecords/CR2016_01563.PDF">Jean-Jacques Mangenda-Kabongo’s request</a> for compensation claim. Mangenda was a member of Bemba’s defence team and case manager. He had been convicted by the court of tampering with witnesses in Bemba’s initial trial. </p>
<p>Due to the legal ambiguity in the Rome Statute, the court has set a very high threshold for term the “grave and manifest miscarriage of justice”. In other words, the violations must be serious and exceptional. </p>
<p>A liberal interpretation of Article 21(3) could have allowed an expansive understanding of this problematic term. Such an interpretation would recognise internationally recognised human rights, like the right to compensation, within the courts decisions.</p>
<p>The narrow interpretation relates to the maintenance of seized property. In response to the claim for financial loss arising from destruction and damage to Bemba’s property in the DRC, Portugal and Belgium, the court indicated that it did not have the mandate to adjudicate on damage to assets resulting from the conduct of member states. </p>
<p>This line of argument isn’t convincing. State signatories to the Rome Stature are considered to be agents of the court. As such, their conduct relating to cases before the court would be subject to review by the court. </p>
<h2>Potential impact of judgment</h2>
<p>The court’s decision points to a need to amend the wording relating to the meaning of “grave and manifest miscarriage of justice” under the Rome Statute. It also has implications for international criminal law. </p>
<p>The practice of providing compensation for an acquitted accused is considered important in some domestic statutes. For example, in the <a href="https://blogs.kent.ac.uk/criminaljusticenotes/2019/03/04/compensating-miscarriages-of-justice/">UK</a>, compensation for “miscarriage of justice” is possible, depending on the punishment and its consequences on the person’s life. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-northern-ireland-47973826">In Northern Ireland, more than £9m was paid in compensation</a> between 2010 and 2019, to 16 people whose criminal convictions were overturned.</p>
<p>There is also no provision for compensation after acquittal under the statutory frameworks of the <a href="https://www.refworld.org/docid/3dda28414.html">International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia</a>, <a href="https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b3952c.html">International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda</a>, or the<a href="https://legal.un.org/avl/ha/scsl/scsl.html"> Special Court for Sierra Leone</a>. </p>
<p>Nonetheless, the Rome Statute is an inspirational legal source to other tribunals. For example, Article 85 of the Rome Statute was adopted by the <a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/CourtRecords/CR2020_01979.PDF">International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda</a> in its determination of the term “grave and manifest miscarriage of justice”. </p>
<p>The International criminal law court cannot practically lead the way in fixing this anomaly, since it is a member driven court. However, special international tribunals must evolve to reflect contemporary realities of people who are acquitted after long trials, and the need for compensation. </p>
<p>Regarding the responsibility to maintain property seized from an accused person, we observe a complex role of the court’s registry, with regard to support and follow up duties.</p>
<p>Nonetheless, there is clearly a need for administrative reforms. This decision suggests that the International Criminal Court might be reluctant to seize or freeze assets in the future. This needs to be considered, in light of the looming war crimes trials of former <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-51462613">Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir</a>, and warlord <a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/Pages/item.aspx?name=ma252">Ali Muhammad Ali Abd–Al-Rahman (Ali Kushayb)</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/140597/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tonny Raymond Kirabira receives funding from Erasmus+ Programme for his current Research Visit at the International Criminal Court,that will end on 31 August 2020.
The views expressed therein are those of the author alone and do not reflect the views of the International Criminal Court.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Leïla Choukroune does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The court’s decision has wider implications for international criminal law.Tonny Raymond Kirabira, PhD Researcher, University of PortsmouthLeïla Choukroune, Professor of International Law and Director of the University Research and Innovation Theme in Democratic Citizenship, University of PortsmouthLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1401232020-06-09T18:01:40Z2020-06-09T18:01:40ZMilitias evaluate beliefs, action as president threatens soldiers in the streets<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/340087/original/file-20200605-176575-1l9oaev.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=50%2C0%2C5615%2C3741&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Members of militia groups demonstrate in Virginia in January 2020.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/the-light-foot-militia-from-pennslyvania-organized-other-news-photo/1194947106">Shay Horse/NurPhoto via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>So-called “militias” and “patriot groups” have different beliefs and viewpoints, but most of these citizen-focused organizations share a concern about government infringement on individual liberties. </p>
<p>In the wake of <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2020/05/26/george-floyd-minneapolis-police-officers-fired-after-public-backlash/5263193002/">George Floyd’s death while in police custody</a>, citizens are <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-protest-during-a-pandemic-and-still-keep-everyone-safe-from-coronavirus-6-questions-answered-139978">protesting in American streets</a> against police violence. Many protesters are facing off against <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/03/us/tear-gas-risks-protests-coronavirus.html">well-armed officers</a> and National Guard troops, with President Donald Trump threatening to <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/white-house/trump-considering-move-invoke-insurrection-act-n1221326">send in federal troops</a>. </p>
<p>That puts these groups in a curious position.</p>
<p>Their public activity has long championed the <a href="https://www.routledge.com/American-Extremism-History-Politics-and-the-Militia-Movement/Mulloy/p/book/9780415483803">importance of individual constitutional rights</a>, and they believe in the right to use armed resistance against government overreach.</p>
<p>But many of these groups’ members have also been <a href="https://nymag.com/intelligencer/2017/10/if-only-nongun-owners-voted-hrc-would-have-won-48-states.html">supporters of the president</a>, who is now <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/article/insurrection-act.html">speaking openly</a> of taking the sort of far-reaching government action these groups have long warned against.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/340099/original/file-20200605-176571-1czydj3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/340099/original/file-20200605-176571-1czydj3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/340099/original/file-20200605-176571-1czydj3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340099/original/file-20200605-176571-1czydj3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340099/original/file-20200605-176571-1czydj3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340099/original/file-20200605-176571-1czydj3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340099/original/file-20200605-176571-1czydj3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340099/original/file-20200605-176571-1czydj3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Members of the military wearing U.S. Army Special Forces insignia block protesters near Lafayette Park and the White House on June 3, 2020.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/members-of-the-u-s-army-special-forces-and-law-enforcement-news-photo/1217490211">Drew Angerer/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A unique perspective on the militias</h2>
<p>My <a href="https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/handle/2027.42/98077">research and analysis</a> of militia groups is based on much more than online posts. I spent three years embedded with the militias in Michigan, doing interviews and ethnographic research, and continue to observe and directly ask members about their motivations for different actions. </p>
<p>In the past, I have seen groups like this oppose police brutality, but usually abstractly or by objecting to violent, individual officers – so-called “bad apples” – rather than systemic racism. They say they are law-abiding citizens and don’t typically think about police violence as something likely to affect them personally.</p>
<p>This is the first time I have seen public Facebook pages for several right-wing organizations <a href="https://www.facebook.com/bigigloobois/photos/a.122432899161080/287394125998289/?type=3&eid=ARD1DIRvcxOiSF_2xSqwMfHifpsmyunlOcPC1Mbsi1EkSqxRGr0Ym6cZZTkvXQMtNKjwKBE1JogNIP-5&__tn__=EHH-R">openly encouraging</a> members to support black protesters, including <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2020/06/03/us/boogaloo-extremist-protests-invs/index.html">calls to travel long distances</a> to Minneapolis to participate in person.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/339899/original/file-20200604-67347-1vlzqhk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/339899/original/file-20200604-67347-1vlzqhk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/339899/original/file-20200604-67347-1vlzqhk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1036&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339899/original/file-20200604-67347-1vlzqhk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1036&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339899/original/file-20200604-67347-1vlzqhk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1036&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339899/original/file-20200604-67347-1vlzqhk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1301&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339899/original/file-20200604-67347-1vlzqhk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1301&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339899/original/file-20200604-67347-1vlzqhk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1301&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A post from the ‘Big Igloo Bois’ Facebook page calls for supporters to travel to Minneapolis to join the protests against police violence.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Screenshot from Facebook</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>There used to be two kinds</h2>
<p>Militia researchers tend to see militia groups as one of two types, based on a <a href="https://www.press.umich.edu/3692721/to_shake_their_guns_in_the_tyrants_face">distinction identified by historian Robert Churchill</a>. <a href="https://www.michiganadvance.com/2019/06/28/militia-threats-just-paralyzed-oregons-legislature-the-movements-roots-in-michigan-run-deep/">Roughly nine in 10 groups are what he calls Constitutionalist</a>, taking a literal interpretation of the Constitution and saying they want to be prepared to defend themselves against the government, should that government become tyrannical.</p>
<p>The remaining 10% of groups he calls <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/millennialism">Millenarian</a> – a reference to their belief in a range of conspiracy theories including fears of global catastrophe during “Y2K” at the start of this millennium. These groups, influenced by a more threatening view of the world, are more likely to <a href="https://reason.com/2010/05/05/the-myth-of-the-menacing/">engage in violence and to seek out conflict</a>.</p>
<p>In recent months, some militia groups have begun to identify with a different category, one focused on what they call “the boogaloo,” some hoped-for pivotal moment of government overreach where citizens will engage in organized resistance and possibly revolution to take power away from the government.</p>
<p>These people, mostly men, are armed, often dress in Hawaiian shirts and span a broad spectrum of ideas, ranging from a general interest in firearms to <a href="https://www.middlebury.edu/institute/academics/centers-initiatives/ctec/ctec-publications-0/boogaloo-movement-wants-be-seen-anti-racist">openly advocating for civil war</a>. </p>
<p>Militia groups don’t typically include race in their overt ideology, but some white supremacist groups have also adopted the “boogaloo” outlook and sometimes attend the same rallies as they advocate for a <a href="https://www.adl.org/blog/the-boogaloo-extremists-new-slang-term-for-a-coming-civil-war">race war or an all-white nation</a>.</p>
<h2>President Trump and the 1807 Insurrection Act</h2>
<p>This new focus on “the boogaloo” became clear on June 1, when President Trump indicated he might invoke the <a href="https://www.ajc.com/news/fires-burn-capital-another-round-violent-george-floyd-protests/wOD3akX8YQEyBCCqcLkhNK/">1807 Insurrection Act</a> to use federal military forces against civilians inside the U.S. </p>
<p>That threat would seem to line up very closely with what Constitutionalists say they fear – a forceful expansion of government power against its people. But most militia groups have been silent. To date, only a few have made any sort of public statement.</p>
<p>I’ve been asking movement leaders what is going on behind the scenes and have started a survey of some of the larger groups’ members to try to understand this apparent contradiction. The groups are actively discussing among themselves what to do, in comments on Facebook groups and other websites. </p>
<h2>A new divide</h2>
<p>Some militia members from both Constitutionalist and Millenarian members take a position they call “back the boog” – meaning they believe it is important to capitalize on this moment to resist or punish excessive police power. </p>
<p>One post called attention to <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2020/06/04/asheville-police-destroy-medic-area-mayor-calls-actions-senseless/3148803001/">Asheville, North Carolina police destroying a volunteer-run medical station</a> for treating injured protesters. The poster suggested distracting police by having militia members “Set up fake medical supplies […] have bottles filled with flammable liquids and other solvents that react … watch as hilarity ensues.” </p>
<p>Some may want to go farther, <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2020/06/03/us/boogaloo-extremist-protests-invs/index.html">to incite violence or even start a civil war</a>. Another post tried to stir people into actively attacking police, saying “If anybody really wants to boog rather than larp, let me know.” But this is not the majority outlook in the public postings. </p>
<p>Others “back the blue,” generally supporting the police and objecting to riots and looting as destructive of the American dream of working hard and being free to enjoy the rewards of that labor. They also imagine their livelihoods or personal safety at risk from looters.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/340103/original/file-20200605-176554-1o5wy5k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/340103/original/file-20200605-176554-1o5wy5k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/340103/original/file-20200605-176554-1o5wy5k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340103/original/file-20200605-176554-1o5wy5k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340103/original/file-20200605-176554-1o5wy5k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340103/original/file-20200605-176554-1o5wy5k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340103/original/file-20200605-176554-1o5wy5k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340103/original/file-20200605-176554-1o5wy5k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">What constitutes insurrection?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/demonstrator-protests-as-police-forces-hold-a-line-near-news-photo/1217490213?adppopup=true">Drew Angerer/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Concerned about self-contradiction</h2>
<p>Both factions, especially those who “back the blue,” report believing that the damage to property is being coordinated by antifa, a loose-knit antifascist group that encourages people to oppose, sometimes violently, white supremacist demonstrations. There is <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/fbi-no-intelligence-antifa-weekend-violence-george-floyd-protests-2020-6">little evidence to support that claim</a>. </p>
<p>However, many militia members have long believed that antifa is an organized terrorist organization that threatens the First Amendment through frequent violence to suppress public speech they disagree with. This belief has likely been fostered by <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/security/twitter-takes-down-washington-protest-disinformation-bot-behavior-n1221456">social media bots</a> possibly run by overt white supremacists and, most recently, the <a href="https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/antifa-group-trump-designate-terrorist-organization/story?id=71045287">president himself</a>.</p>
<p>As a result, these followers tell me they worry that open criticism of the president would amount to supporting antifa.</p>
<p>One leader in the movement told me that the “back the blue” faction believes military action to suppress a domestic coup would be a legitimate use of the Insurrection Act. But they also believe that using the act to suppress completely peaceful protesters would be a clear government overreach, because then that power could be directed against anyone. This leader told me military force against protesters “is not acceptable, even if it seems necessary at this moment, because tomorrow, WE will be the protesters, the dissidents.”</p>
<p>He said there is no agreement across groups on how to categorize the range of actions on the spectrum between coup and peaceful protest – for instance, whether a riot qualifies as an insurrection that could justify the use of federal troops.</p>
<h2>Putting race aside?</h2>
<p>Both groups’ discussions tend to ignore the fact that the Insurrection Act has historically been used specifically to <a href="https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/insurrection-act-invoked/story?id=71020988">quell black people fighting for justice</a>. “Back the boog” affiliates generally insist that race does not matter, and that police violence is a danger to all citizens. </p>
<p>“Back the blue” believers do not address race overtly. However, as part of blaming antifa for violence, they sometimes seem to imply that black people are unwittingly drawn into looting and rioting. Those comments reflect <a href="https://www.opportunityagenda.org/explore/resources-publications/review-public-opinion-research-related-black-male-achievement/perceptions-of-and-by-black-men">racist stereotypes of black people as inherently less intelligent</a> and prone to committing crimes.</p>
<p>There is no monolithic militia with a single ideological perspective, and groups are still figuring out their own responses to these ongoing events. Dismissing their current silence as merely hypocritical or <a href="https://www.10tv.com/article/michigan-governor-says-some-worst-racism-fueled-protests-over-coronavirus-response-2020-may">racist</a> misses nuance that will be crucial for understanding potential threats and other outcomes from this shift.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/140123/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amy Cooter is a prior National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship recipient. </span></em></p>Many militia members have championed the importance of individual rights, but have also backed a president who is now threatening the kind of crackdown they fear.Amy Cooter, Senior Lecturer in Sociology, Vanderbilt UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1182112019-06-09T09:03:47Z2019-06-09T09:03:47ZBurkina Faso: a weakened state is paving the way for terrorism<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/278101/original/file-20190605-40743-cm07ja.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Military victims of a suspected terrorist attack in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, 2018. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">EPA-EFE/STR</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Last month in northern Burkina Faso there were <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/05/killed-church-attack-burkina-faso-190526192956228.html">attacks</a> on a church and on a procession of Catholics. These have raised fears of religious strife in a country where security remains a major challenge. These attacks <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/burkina-faso-church-attack-soum-silgadji-priest-killed-terror-police-a8890866.html">follow the</a> murder of a pastor and five congregants in Silgadji, in the north, and <a href="https://www.panapress.com/Priest-kidnapped-in-Burkina-Faso-a_630585774-lang2.html">the kidnapping</a> of a Catholic priest.</p>
<p>These events are part of a violent trend that is mostly affecting the country’s northern and eastern regions. <a href="https://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2018/03/02/a-ouagadougou-recit-d-une-journee-marquee-par-des-attaques-meurtrieres_5265018_3212.html">Terrorist attacks</a> and inter-communal conflict – like the <a href="https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/special-report/2019/04/18/burkina-faso-part-2-communities-buckle-conflict-ripples-through-sahel">massacre</a> of Fulani in Yirgou (north) in early 2019 – there <a href="https://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2019/02/18/au-burkina-faso-la-degradation-de-la-situation-securitaire-gagne-du-terrain_5424915_3212.html">are concerns</a> have many concerned for the West African nation.</p>
<p>Who is responsible for the violence plaguing part of Burkina Faso? Why have Christian communities become targets? To answer these questions, we must first look closely at the country’s political context.</p>
<h2>Political instability</h2>
<p>The rise in attacks in Burkina Faso is largely attributable to the weakening of the state over the last ten years. This has been driven by political instability. For instance 2011 saw clashes between police and students and a military mutiny, during which several soldiers committed acts of theft and pillage against the populace.</p>
<p>With some difficulty, the then-president Blaise Compaoré eventually re-established control. He dissolved the government to appease critics. But hostilities flared up again when he proposed a change to the constitution to run in the 2015 presidential election. As parliamentarians prepared to vote on the constitutional amendment, he was <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-34277045">overthrown</a> in a popular uprising in 2014.</p>
<p>In September 2015, after a period of uncertainty during which the army temporarily took power, the Regiment of Presidential Security attempted a coup. Later that year the transitional government organised a presidential election that brought former prime minister and president of the National Assembly, Roch Marc Christian Kaboré, to the nation’s highest office.</p>
<p>But since his election, the government has had resistance from some groups who believe it is incapable of confronting the country’s multiple challenges.</p>
<p>The central powers in Burkina Faso, <a href="https://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2018/12/04/au-burkina-faso-les-forces-de-securite-demunies-face-aux-djihadistes_5392399_3212.html">and the army in particular</a>, have been substantially weakened by these crises.</p>
<p>In addition to domestic instability, the region is also experiencing significant insecurity, particularly neighbouring Mali. Some attacks have been claimed by Al-Qaeda, <a href="https://www.france24.com/fr/20160116-hotel-splendid-ouagadougou-aqmi-revendique-attaque-jihadiste-burkina-faso">who are present in northern Mali</a>. The weakening of the Burkinabe State means it can’t cope with the challenges within its borders or effectively police the borders, which have become very porous.</p>
<h2>Weak state</h2>
<p>A weakened central power makes it easier for violent groups – like highway bandits, local militias and armed bands of jihadists – to emerge and thrive. These groups carry out various forms of violence, from pillaging to religiously motivated attacks. Jihadi groups flourish in this growing atmosphere of insecurity.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/278477/original/file-20190607-52748-mlfmaq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/278477/original/file-20190607-52748-mlfmaq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=367&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278477/original/file-20190607-52748-mlfmaq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=367&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278477/original/file-20190607-52748-mlfmaq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=367&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278477/original/file-20190607-52748-mlfmaq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278477/original/file-20190607-52748-mlfmaq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278477/original/file-20190607-52748-mlfmaq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Burkinabe protesters march against terrorism.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ahmed Ouoba/AFP</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Although these groups usually act under the banner of Al-Qaeda or the Islamic State, they are often homegrown. They rely on local ethnic or religious divisions to gain traction. </p>
<p>This is the case of Ibrahim Dicko’s Ansar ul Islam, operating in the north of Burkina Faso. They exploit the historical rift between the Fulani and the Rimmayɓe communities, whose ancestors were <a href="https://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2017/04/11/comment-est-ne-ansaroul-islam-premier-groupe-djihadiste-de-l-histoire-du-burkina-faso_5109520_3212.html">enslaved by the Fulani</a>.</p>
<p>The actions of jihadi groups like this have led to violence, revenge and retaliation, as demonstrated by the <a href="https://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFKCN1OZ09Q-OZATP">Yirgou massacre</a>. Terrorism targets State institutions, like the police, <a href="http://lefaso.net/spip.php?article75952">local governments</a> and, increasingly, other religious communities, like Catholics and Protestants.</p>
<h2>Targeting other communities to target the State</h2>
<p>A look at other groups, like <a href="https://ctc.usma.edu/boko-haram-escalates-attacks-on-christians-in-northern-nigeria/">Boko Haram in Nigeria</a>, shows how jihadists will often other religious groups to spark and sustain open religious strife. In Burkina Faso, Christians are a religious minority, accounting for around <a href="https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/scr/2016/cr16390.pdf">20-25%</a> of the population. Repeated attacks against Christian churches, including killings and kidnappings, are part of the terrorists’ strategy to generate tensions between religious communities.</p>
<p>They also attack Christians, particularly Catholics, because of their relationship with the state. The government in Burkina Faso generally protects religious minorities. So an attack against Christians is also an attack against the State. And although a minority, Catholics have had a strong influence on the history of Burkina Faso. Since independence, many of the country’s leaders have been Catholic.</p>
<p>The Catholic Church <a href="http://www.documentation.ird.fr/hor/fdi:010012012">has a huge</a> influence on society and has acted as a moderator in the country’s times of crisis. By targeting Catholics, these attacks are targeting one of the main pillars of Burkinabe society.</p>
<p>Attacks on churches are also a way to get media attention in a conflict that has so far garnered little international attention. Attacks targeting Christians are a kind of publicity stunt. They are designed to provoke reactions from various groups including potential recruits, competing terrorist groups, the general public, and western embassies.</p>
<h2>A central position</h2>
<p>Given its central geographical position in West Africa, Burkina Faso is vulnerable to the political instability and influence of neighbouring countries. The gradual weakening of the state has left it open to the actions of violent groups.</p>
<p>From the start, the occupation of northern Mali by jihadists raised concerns among Burkinabe Catholics who are committed to the delicate balance between religious communities. They are also determined to maintain dialogue between Christians and Muslims. It remains to be seen if this will help the country overcome these new threats. </p>
<p><em>Translated from French by Alice Heathwood for <a href="http://www.fastforword.fr/en/">Fast ForWord</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/118211/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ismaila Kane received a government grant to carry out his research in Burkina Faso.</span></em></p>A weakened central power makes it easier for violent groups - like highway bandits, local militias and armed bands of jihadists - to emerge and thrive.Ismaila Kane, Politologue, chargé de cours, L’Université d’Ottawa/University of OttawaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1004382018-10-25T10:47:47Z2018-10-25T10:47:47ZCollaboration, not fighting, is what the rural West is really about<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/241547/original/file-20181021-105767-1wnv6i4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Harney County, Ore., sign.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/kenlund/2580127305/">Wikimedia/Ken Lund</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Dick Jenkins is a fourth-generation rancher living in Oregon’s most remote county. I wanted to know why he continues living in a rural community, even though life elsewhere might be easier.</p>
<p>“Taking care of [the land] is worth more than all the money in the world,” he told me. “Taking care of the animals, taking care of the environment, it all goes together and we’re very proud of it.”</p>
<p>While Dick’s answer was more evocative than I could’ve hoped for, I can’t say I was surprised by it. </p>
<p><a href="https://history.uoregon.edu/profile/sbeda/">I’m a historian who studies the rural Northwest</a>, and I’ve spent a fair amount of time talking with loggers, miners, fisherman and ranchers like Dick. </p>
<p>Each one of them, in their own way, articulates a similar sentiment: Whatever hardships contemporary rural life may pose – and <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/rural-america-is-the-new-inner-city-1495817008">there are many</a> – it’s their love of the land and desire to protect it that keeps them put.</p>
<p>This is not a description of rural life you typically hear.</p>
<p>Many stories about rural America, particularly during election cycles like we’re in now, portray rural communities as <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/18/magazine/fear-of-the-federal-government-in-the-ranchlands-of-oregon.html">political monoliths</a> made up of nothing more than <a href="https://www.vox.com/2016/1/5/10718128/federal-land-west-oregon-militia">angry ranchers</a> frustrated with the Bureau of Land Management, what’s commonly called “the BLM.” Or you see camouflage-clad <a href="https://www.hcn.org/articles/politics-anti-government-groups-in-the-west-right-now">militia members</a> hoping to overthrow the government.</p>
<p>These people do exist in rural communities. The <a href="https://www.politicalresearch.org/2016/10/03/oregon-three-percenters/">Three Percenters</a>, a heavily-armed militia whose members advocate the violent overthrow of the U.S. government, has a sizable presence in Harney County, the same county Dick lives in. </p>
<p>And the <a href="https://www.oregonlive.com/oregon-standoff/2016/08/sheriff_glenn_palmer_makes_his.html">sheriff of Grant County</a>, just to the north, is a self-described “constitutional sheriff” who believes his power supersedes the federal government’s.</p>
<p>But for every AR-15 wielding militia member or rancher angrily shaking his fist at the BLM, there’s likely a dozen like Dick who want to find peaceful ways to protect their interests and the environment. </p>
<h2>Rebellion vs. collaboration</h2>
<p>The tone in recent news coverage of rural issues was largely set in the late 1970s, when ranchers started protesting new BLM limits on grazing in what became known as the <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/opinions/1979/11/11/the-sagebrush-revolution/7ebf91e7-cbed-4bae-80c9-9a0cce5fe5d7/?utm_term=.c9c6ed3f7927">“Sagebrush Rebellion.”</a> These protests were sometimes <a href="https://s3.amazonaws.com/hcn-media/archive-pdf/1988_09_12_Wheeler.pdf">dramatic</a>, like when ranchers bulldozed road barriers that had been erected to limit access to wilderness areas. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/242122/original/file-20181024-71032-fmx12l.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/242122/original/file-20181024-71032-fmx12l.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/242122/original/file-20181024-71032-fmx12l.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/242122/original/file-20181024-71032-fmx12l.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/242122/original/file-20181024-71032-fmx12l.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/242122/original/file-20181024-71032-fmx12l.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/242122/original/file-20181024-71032-fmx12l.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/242122/original/file-20181024-71032-fmx12l.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Sagebrush Rebellion made the cover of Newsweek in 1979.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://uni.edu/carrchl/wp/cv/the-sagebrush-rebellion/">Newsweek</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While the origins of many present-day rural extremist movements can be traced back to frustrations with BLM policy in the 1970s, the Sagebrush Rebellion spawned another less talked-about movement: collaborative land management.</p>
<p>Many people recognized that fighting over wilderness, grazing rights, timber harvests and endangered species protections was getting them nowhere. </p>
<p>So in the 1990s, rural workers sat down with environmentalists, government agents and tribal representatives, and together they worked out agreements that would protect the land, preserve tribal resource rights and allow for continued grazing, mining and logging. </p>
<p>Rarely were these conversations easy. </p>
<p>One early collaborative effort, Northern California’s <a href="http://www.qlg.org/">Quincy Library Group</a>, was so named because members met in a setting that would force them to keep their voices – and tempers – in check.</p>
<p>But these difficult conversations bore results. </p>
<p>To name just two examples, <a href="https://www.blm.gov/get-involved/partnerships/featured-partners/idaho">ranchers and environmentalists in Idaho</a> have collectively used conservation funds to preserve agriculture and critical habitat along the Snake River. And in Dick Jenkins’ Harney County, ranchers, BLM agents, environmentalists and members of the Burns Paiute Tribe work together through the <a href="http://highdesertpartnership.org/">High Desert Partnership</a> to collectively manage the land.</p>
<p>As several scholars have <a href="http://osupress.oregonstate.edu/book/sagebrush-collaboration">documented</a>, these collaborative partnerships are a source of local pride in many rural communities.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/241549/original/file-20181021-105773-11b7h52.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/241549/original/file-20181021-105773-11b7h52.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/241549/original/file-20181021-105773-11b7h52.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=460&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/241549/original/file-20181021-105773-11b7h52.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=460&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/241549/original/file-20181021-105773-11b7h52.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=460&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/241549/original/file-20181021-105773-11b7h52.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=578&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/241549/original/file-20181021-105773-11b7h52.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=578&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/241549/original/file-20181021-105773-11b7h52.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=578&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Forester Ed Murphy, a member of the Quincy Library Group, tells a House subcommittee about the group’s plan for balancing logging and environmental interests in Northern California forests.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Associated-Press-Domestic-News-California-Unite-/1ea3a6e587e6da11af9f0014c2589dfb/2/0">AP/Rich Pedroncelli</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Competing images</h2>
<p>So if many rural people are proud of their ability to collaborate, why are we seeing more anger and more high-profile protests directed at environmentalists and the federal government throughout the rural West, what some have called a <a href="https://www.hcn.org/articles/a-new-and-more-dangerous-sagebrush-rebellion">“second Sagebrush Rebellion”</a>? </p>
<p>The answer is that in recent years it’s mostly been newcomers or outsiders who’ve attempted to mobilize imagined rural anger in order to advance their own narrow political goals. </p>
<p>This was certainly the case during the highly publicized <a href="https://www.opb.org/news/series/burns-oregon-standoff-bundy-militia-news-updates/">takeover of the Malheur Wildlife Refuge</a> in 2016. </p>
<p>Led by a group calling itself the Citizens for Constitutional Freedom, <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2016/01/04/us/oregon-wildlife-refuge-what-bundy-wants/index.html">the occupiers argued that</a> the Constitution did not give the federal government the right to own land. They hoped to turn BLM land over to local control and turn <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rqL9NGRTGss">Harney County into the first “Constitutional county.”</a> </p>
<p>Of the roughly dozen occupiers who said they were fighting for the rights of Oregon ranchers, only one, <a href="https://www.oregonlive.com/oregon-standoff/2016/01/robert_lavoy_finicum_killed_in.html">Robert “LaVoy” Finicum</a>, was actually a rancher – from Arizona. The group’s leader, <a href="https://www.oregonlive.com/pacific-northwest-news/index.ssf/2016/01/oregon_militant_profiles_list.html">Ammon Bundy</a>, is the son of an <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/24/us/politics/rancher-proudly-breaks-the-law-becoming-a-hero-in-the-west.html">infamous Nevada rancher</a>, but he worked as a car fleet manager prior to leading the standoff. And only one, Walter “Butch” Eaton, was from Oregon, and he stayed with the occupiers for just a half hour before deciding to <a href="https://www.oregonlive.com/oregon-standoff/2016/09/burns_man_who_rode_in_first_ca.html">walk home</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/241858/original/file-20181023-169825-qxcjsb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/241858/original/file-20181023-169825-qxcjsb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/241858/original/file-20181023-169825-qxcjsb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/241858/original/file-20181023-169825-qxcjsb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/241858/original/file-20181023-169825-qxcjsb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/241858/original/file-20181023-169825-qxcjsb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/241858/original/file-20181023-169825-qxcjsb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/241858/original/file-20181023-169825-qxcjsb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Harney County billboard erected during the occupation of a local wildlife refuge by militia members.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Peter Walker</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Their ‘own voice’</h2>
<p>These outsiders have been challenged by people in rural communities. </p>
<p>At least in Oregon, the <a href="http://www.rop.org/">Rural Organizing Project</a> has been at the forefront of efforts to help rural communities fight outside extremist groups.</p>
<p>Founded in the early 1990s to help people in rural communities organize against local anti-gay ordinances, the project has since grown into a <a href="http://www.rop.org/about-the-rural-organizing-project/our-history/">network of rural activists</a> who, according to the group’s website, “facilitate local organizing, communication and political analysis.” </p>
<p>When the paramilitary group <a href="https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/group/oath-keepers">the Oath Keepers</a> occupied the <a href="https://www.hcn.org/issues/48.2/showdown-at-sugar-pine-mine">Sugar Pine Mine</a> in Oregon’s Josephine County in April 2015, project activists and local community members quickly mobilized to communicate to both politicians and the media that the militia members did not have the support of the community. </p>
<p>According to a <a href="http://www.rop.org/up-in-arms/up-in-arms-section-iii/stories-from-the-field/">statement</a> released by the coalition, the Oath Keepers were “individuals from outside our community” there to “advance their own agenda.”</p>
<p>A year later, during the Malheur occupation, the project organized a day of action, coordinating rallies, meetings and press conferences in rural communities across Oregon to again clearly communicate to the media and decision-makers that a handful of armed protesters did not speak for most rural people.</p>
<p>A <a href="http://btimesherald.com/2016/02/10/new-harney-county-billboards-donated/">billboard</a> that Harney County residents put up during the 2016 occupation speaks volumes about the way many rural people feel about these outsiders. It read: “We Are HARNEY COUNTY. We Have OUR OWN VOICE.”</p>
<h2>A less divisive future</h2>
<p>To be perfectly clear, many ranchers, loggers and miners have problems with federal bureaucracies and environmental organizations. </p>
<p>Underfunded and overburdened by arcane rules, the BLM has a massive <a href="https://www.opb.org/news/article/backlog-grows-for-rangelands/">backlog of grazing permit applications</a>. Federal timber sales are <a href="http://www.capitalpress.com/Timber/20180523/environmental-groups-challenge-oregon-timber-sale-over-voles">routinely tied up in litigation</a>. </p>
<p>Many rural people are likewise troubled by the federal government’s <a href="https://press.princeton.edu/titles/11239.html">waning investment in rural economies</a> and rapidly <a href="https://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2017/01/18/how-education-is-failing-rural-america.html">declining funding for rural education and social services</a>.</p>
<p>The journalists who report on the radical fringes of rural America are doing important work. Their stories shine light on dangerous political trends that, if allowed to grow in the shadows, might become something even more dangerous than they already are.</p>
<p>But ranchers like Dick Jenkins, groups like the Rural Organizing Project and other rural people committed to collaboration need to have their stories heard, too. </p>
<p>Paying as much attention to them as so-called Sagebrush Rebels just might show that while there are indeed many problems in rural America, most rural people are committed to bringing about a more amicable future.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/100438/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Steven C. Beda does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Rural Westerners have been stereotyped as angry ranchers who hate government. But for every gun-wielding militia member, there are many others who work collaboratively to protect what they value.Steven C. Beda, Assistant Professor, University of OregonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/950002018-04-13T12:07:29Z2018-04-13T12:07:29ZFar Cry 5: cults, radicalism and why this video game speaks to today’s divided America<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/214716/original/file-20180413-577-1god2nb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ubisoft</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>You are a rookie law enforcement officer, onboard a helicopter heading into the main compound of Project at Eden’s Gate, a religious cult operating across a huge stretch of Montana. A towering statue of the militia’s leader, Joseph Seed, rises into the sky. With a warrant for the arrest of Seed, you navigate a warren of buildings patrolled by aggressive white men and their snapping dogs, before entering a white-boarded church. A haunting rendition of Amazing Grace plays in the background as you meet Seed for the first time, in an almost dream-like sequence. From there, you are transported to an intense face-off between militia extremists and federal officials.</p>
<p>This is what you would experience on playing the new Ubisoft video game <a href="https://www.wired.com/story/far-cry-5-review/">Far Cry 5</a> (2018). Its story speaks to what seems a powerful political moment, of an American nation literally at war with itself.</p>
<p>While already a huge financial success (with <a href="https://www.vg247.com/2018/04/06/far-cry-5-week-one-sales-5-million-estimated/">reports</a> of nearly five million copies sold in its first week of release), Ubisoft’s title has been <a href="https://www.theverge.com/2018/4/6/17202546/ubisoft-far-cry-5-politics-social-commentary-irrelevance">widely criticised</a> for its overt lack of political message. The Montreal-based company may have promoted its game as a serious take on religious and political radicalism, but so far journalists have labelled Far Cry 5 a title unwilling to squarely take aim at <a href="https://waypoint.vice.com/en_us/article/qvxbeb/far-cry-5-review">Trump’s America</a>, or speak directly to matters of <a href="https://www.pastemagazine.com/articles/2018/03/far-cry-5.html">contemporary racism</a>, endemic <a href="http://uk.businessinsider.com/far-cry-5-release-gun-debate-march-for-our-lives-american-culture-2018-3">gun culture</a>, or <a href="https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/entry/far-cry-5-review-a-game-about-extremism-in-america-that-says-nothing-about-extremism-huffpost-verdict_uk_5aba92c9e4b03e2a5c76e887">right-wing extremism</a>. Instead, reviewers have called it “totally unconvincing” (<a href="https://www.pcgamer.com/far-cry-5-is-fun-but-its-tone-is-all-over-the-place/">PC Gamer</a>), “a missed opportunity” (<a href="https://theoutline.com/post/4042/far-cry-5-review-trump?zd=1&zi=24hlokfa">The Outline</a>), and a game that ultimately “says pretty much nothing about” modern America (<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/games/2018/mar/26/far-cry-5-review-playstation-4-xbox-one-pc-ubisoft">The Guardian</a>).</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/Kdaoe4hbMso?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
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<p>Are we being too harsh on the game? After all, most entertainment companies hype their products. Equally, would a film or novel tackling religious cults be criticised for not engaging with the wider problems of Trump’s America? In my view, video games do not need to make blatant political statements to be considered art or satire, nor do they need strong messages to have impact. Ultimately, gamers make their own readings and experiences, without the need to be constantly “billboarded”.</p>
<h2>The Last Supper</h2>
<p>Far Cry 5 also still has a message; just more subtle, and yes, peripheral, than first imagined. The core image of the game is a digital recreation of the Last Supper, reminiscent of Leonardo da Vinci’s mural of the late 15th century. Ubisoft depicts Seed as a preacher at the centre of a long table, with open hands gesturing to his gathered disciples – all white, hardy and unkempt survivalists. The table features a mass of armaments from hunters knifes to bazookas. Seed uses the Stars and Stripes as his tablecloth.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/Bgoroozn_ZH/?taken-by=ubisoft","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<p>It is a great picture: subversive and satirical, intriguing and ambiguous. It is true that the game play rarely reaches such iconographic heights, but it asserts the same sense of destabilisation and decay. The game has something to say if you listen.</p>
<p>While Far Cry 5 is set in contemporary Montana (and speaks to a <a href="http://www.mhrn.org/publications/fact%20sheets%20and%20adivsories/20%20Montana%20extremist%20Groups%20Identified%20by%20National%20Monitoring%20Organization;%20State%20Experts%20Echo%20Concerns.pdf">recent rise</a> in home bred extremism), its sense of conflict evokes an earlier period, specifically the mid-1990s, when militia groups resembling Seed’s seemed on the verge of having real impact on American society. Specifically, the game character of Seed closely resembles David Koresh, leader of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Branch-Davidian">Branch Davidians</a>, a religious cult whose members committed mass suicide during a federal-led siege at Waco, Texas, in 1993. Beginning with the Ruby Ridge siege of 1992, events climaxed in 1995, when Timothy McVeigh planted a bomb at the Alfred P Murrah federal building in Oklahoma City that ripped the structure apart, and killed 168 people. </p>
<p>Seeking to understand the ascendency of such radicalism, <a href="https://news.wsu.edu/1999/05/06/new-book-examines-northwest-militia-movements/">scholars discovered</a> issues of rural impoverishment (linked with Reaganomics), isolation, and disenfranchisement. Transposing the mid-1990s to 2018, Far Cry 5 suggests we have something to learn from that difficult moment. It leaves questions for the player to ponder, such as at what point does disillusionment turn into rebellion, as well as highlighting the paradoxes of religious groups who worship their weaponry. As one rescued civilian puzzles: “For holy folks, they sure put a lot of faith in their guns.” The game leaves the player to decide the bigger lessons.</p>
<h2>Doomsday</h2>
<p>The image of Joseph Seed itself smacks of prophecy. Lead writer Drew Holmes <a href="http://business.financialpost.com/technology/gaming/why-sales-wont-be-the-only-measure-of-success-for-ubisoft-montreals-far-cry-5">explains</a>: “We wanted to tell a story about a man who believes the end of the world is coming.” </p>
<p>Far Cry 5 is about one American who invites doomsday. Like most post-9/11 video games, Ubisoft’s title explores the dystopian theme of a nation falling apart, with the player, as hero, sent in as a loyal serviceman (in this case, a sheriff’s deputy) to raise the flag. Like many games, it is a decidedly cathartic, adrenaline-fuelled and redemptive campaign. The player actively saves small-town America from a lurking threat, and while action dominates the narrative, there is always a sense of righteousness and patriotic duty on display.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/Bg1adC9nTBp/?taken-by=ubisoft","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<p>The game is also about hope. Far Cry 5 counterposes the natural beauty of Montana (introduced as “America the beautiful” – a land of grain silos, pick-up trucks, and the Jeffersonian agrarian idyll) against scenes of darkness, such as a dank bar where locals talk of unwelcome and ugly thugs taking over. The fight for Hope County, the fictional territory where the game takes place, is actually a fight over hope itself: the hope offered by a misled leader with vague talk of saving people, especially the disenchanted white, versus the truer hope offered by traditional American values and governance. Illusions to false messiahs and even a mission “Make Hope Great Again” to some degree satire Trump’s America. </p>
<p>But the real danger of Joseph Seed lies in the mystery of where he’s planning on taking his Americans. As heard on a radio at one survivalist’s bunker: “You are my children, and together, we will march to …” Then the transmission fails. </p>
<p>It is important that as players we interpret the clues, think for ourselves, and co-create the stories. Far Cry 5 offers an immersive and atmospheric digital America for us to explore. It’s a good game precisely because it shies from outright criticism of Trump’s America. After all, we already have that in spades in the real world.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/95000/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>John Wills will be exhibiting his latest research on videogame representations of the United States at the British Academy Summer Showcase on 22-23 June 2018.
</span></em></p>The story of this video game speaks to what seems a powerful political moment, of an American nation literally at war with itself.John Wills, Reader in American History and Culture, University of KentLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/946212018-04-09T10:47:10Z2018-04-09T10:47:10ZRemind us: What exactly is the National Guard?<p>President Donald Trump recently <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/trump-says-he-wants-to-send-2000-to-4000-national-guard-troops-to-mexican-border/2018/04/05/bab01f6a-391a-11e8-8fd2-49fe3c675a89_story.html?utm_term=.f42d68b9b804">announced</a> his plan to dispatch National Guard troops to the southern border to assist with security efforts. </p>
<p>The Army National Guard is the <a href="http://www.nationalguard.mil/About-the-Guard/How-We-Began/">oldest defense force in the nation</a>, formed in 1636 as three militia regiments in the Massachusetts Bay Colony armed to defend against the Pequot Indians. </p>
<p>The actual term “National Guard” was first used in 1824 for <a href="http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Gilbert_du_Motier,_Marquis_de_La_Fayette">New York state militia units</a> who wished to honor the Marquis de Lafayette and his French National Guard. The title was officially adopted in 1903 and describes the force which, unusually, falls under both federal and state control. </p>
<p>The National Guard – both Army and Air – is the only military force that is shared by the states and the federal government, and both <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/10">the president</a> and <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/32">state governors</a> can order their deployment. As “commander in chief” of their states, governors may send their state National Guard to respond to natural disasters – floods, fires or earthquakes – but also emergencies such as the 1999 <a href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/WPcap/1999-12/01/089r-120199-idx.html">rioting during the Seattle World Trade Organization meeting</a>. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.usconstitution.net/xconst_A1Sec8.html">U.S. Constitution’s “militia clause”</a> authorizes the use of the National Guard by the federal government to “execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions.” It was this authority that allowed governors to answer President George W. Bush’s call for Guard assistance in airports immediately after the Sept. 11 terrorist attacks.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/213639/original/file-20180406-5584-1s8rycq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/213639/original/file-20180406-5584-1s8rycq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/213639/original/file-20180406-5584-1s8rycq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/213639/original/file-20180406-5584-1s8rycq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/213639/original/file-20180406-5584-1s8rycq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=599&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/213639/original/file-20180406-5584-1s8rycq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=599&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/213639/original/file-20180406-5584-1s8rycq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=599&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">National Guardsmen were sent to maintain order at Little Rock’s Central High School, after federal Judge Ronald N. Davies ordered the school integrated in 1958.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Associated Press</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There are national guards in every state plus Puerto Rico, the District of Columbia, Guam and the Virgin Islands. Each of the 54 organizations is headed by an Adjutant General, who reports to the governor of the state or Territory. A four-star general heads the National Guard Bureau, and has been a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff since 2012. </p>
<p>The majority of the Guard’s <a href="https://www.dmdc.osd.mil/appj/dwp/dwp_reports.jsp">435,000 members</a> have civilian jobs elsewhere. Their duties are augmented by an <a href="http://www.jcs.mil/Portals/36/Documents/Doctrine/pubs/dictionary.pdf">Active Guard and Reserve</a> – a full-time National Guardsman who keeps the Guard and Reserve running full time. </p>
<p>But there are limits – laid out in the aftermath of Civil War – that restrict the use of federal military personnel domestically. The <a href="https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/monograph_reports/MR1251/MR1251.AppD.pdf">Posse Comitatus Act</a> was signed in 1878; it effectively removed federal troops from occupying the South. </p>
<p>Grumbling has already begun that Trump’s plan to deploy the Guard to the border violates the Posse Comitatus Act, since the act restricts federal military support of domestic law enforcement. Yet <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/onpolitics/2018/04/05/history-troop-deployments-mexico-us-border/491317002/">earlier presidents</a>, including both Barack Obama and both Presidents Bush, sent the Guard to the U.S.-Mexico border to help with security. </p>
<p>There’s a significant exception in the legal framework that covers the Guard that can be used in this situation: At the suggestion of the president, governors could deploy their Guardsmen to the border as long as they remained under state, not federal, jurisdiction. The <a href="https://www.npr.org/2018/04/05/599895184/why-president-trump-cant-directly-order-national-guard-troops-to-u-s-mexico-bord">legal debates</a> have just begun.</p>
<p><em>This article has been updated to correct the person to whom each adjutant general reports. It is the governor of the state or territory.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/94621/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Frances Tilney Burke is a non-resident fellow at the Modern War Institute at West Point. </span></em></p>President Trump proposes to send the National Guard to protect the southern US border. Instead of searching for your old civics textbook, here’s a pocket history of the soldiers in the spotlight.Frances Tilney Burke, PhD student, Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy, Tufts UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/828632017-08-25T07:39:29Z2017-08-25T07:39:29ZRuby Ridge: 25 years since the siege that fired up the US’s radical right<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/183173/original/file-20170823-4869-1dhpuv8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C140%2C1200%2C752&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A surveillance photograph of Vicki Weaver at Ruby Ridge, 1992.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3ASurveillance_photograph_of_Vicki_Weaver_21_Aug_1992.jpg">U.S. Marshal Service/Wikimedia Commons</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>History matters a great deal on the American right – and a highly significant anniversary is just around the corner.</p>
<p>On August 30 1992, negotiators brought an end to the violent siege of an isolated homestead in mountainous northern Idaho. The standoff at Ruby Ridge claimed the lives of a federal agent, a 14-year-old boy, and a mother with a baby in her arms, though the man at the centre of the siege, Randy Weaver, <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1995/09/03/standoff-at-ruby-ridge/3704b446-abed-4cf9-9a89-7b19208079b9/?utm_term=.4dbac158c925">never fired a shot</a> in retaliation.</p>
<p>Weaver had taken his family into seclusion near the Canadian border as part of his <a href="http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/ruby-ridge-part-one-suspicion/">ideological transition</a> from fundamentalist Protestantism to an idiosyncratic blend of visionary religion, conspiracy theory and racial separatism. Before the siege began, an undercover informant had tried and failed to coerce Weaver into spying on a community of neo-Nazis in nearby <a href="https://timeline.com/white-supremacist-rural-paradise-fb62b74b29e0">Hayden Lake</a>, but succeeded in setting him up for a firearms offence. Weaver did not appear for his court hearing – it later transpired that a letter requiring this appearance had <a href="https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/opr/legacy/2006/11/09/rubyreportcover_39.pdf">given the wrong date</a> – and became the subject of year-long surveillance by US Marshals. </p>
<p>Believing himself to be the victim of entrapment, Weaver’s anti-government paranoia was confirmed by his discovery of listening devices that had been planted around his cabin. On August 21, marshals disturbed the family dogs, triggering a short firefight that killed both Deputy US Marshal Bill Degan and Sammy Weaver, who had been shot in the back. The next day, Vicki Weaver was killed by a sniper while standing in the doorway of her cabin home. </p>
<p>The siege of the Weaver cabin grew to involve hundreds of federal agents, and lasted 12 days, until civilian negotiators were able to strike a deal. The court case that followed cleared Randy Weaver of all charges other than missing his court date and violating bail, for which he was fined US$10,000 and given a short custodial sentence. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1995/09/03/standoff-at-ruby-ridge/3704b446-abed-4cf9-9a89-7b19208079b9/?utm_term=.4dbac158c925">investigation</a> that followed the court case determined that the situation at Ruby Ridge had escalated thanks to the carelessness and overreach of federal agencies, <a href="http://articles.latimes.com/1995-08-16/news/mn-35756_1_ruby-ridge">awarded the family</a> a US$3.1m settlement, and confirmed that Weaver’s paranoia had not been misplaced. But the lessons were not quickly learned. </p>
<h2>Up in flames</h2>
<p>In March and April 1993, the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Ruby-Ridge-incident#ref1197110">same sniper</a> who shot Vicki Weaver in the Ruby Ridge incident was sent to Waco, Texas, to take part in another siege. This time, the government confronted a large and well-established religious community known as the Branch Davidians, an offshoot of the Seventh-day Adventists, who were suspected of hoarding <a href="http://articles.latimes.com/2000/jul/07/news/mn-49078">illegal firearms</a> in their compound. After a <a href="http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/10-things-you-may-not-know-about-waco/">protracted standoff</a>, federal forces attempted to flush out the community’s members with tear gas, but the complex was engulfed by a fire that killed 76 people.</p>
<p>Apart from their hostility to the federal government and its agencies, the Weaver family and the Waco community had little in common. Randy Weaver was a racial separatist who had some informal association with the Aryan Nations movement; the Branch Davidians were a mixed-race religious community whose only association with extreme politics was an intense suspicion of government power and faith in guns.</p>
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<p>Nevertheless, the deaths at Ruby Ridge and Waco provided the emerging radical right with a <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PTR7AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA8&lpg=PA8&dq=ruby+ridge+formation+militia+culture&source=bl&ots=4Cb-XaxTC9&sig=eSzca3uRWGXTe9XE7ij4t0YDd0I&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiiyJT2oOnVAhXpDcAKHVfNDUoQ6AEIQzAH#v=onepage&q=ruby%20ridge%20fo">pantheon of martyrs</a> that a then-nascent modern militia movement could claim as its own. </p>
<p>The seemingly out-of-control actions of government agencies at Ruby Ridge and Waco pulled competing elements of the radical, conservative and libertarian right into an informal coalition, one that contributed to the conspiratorial popular cultures of the mid- and late-1990s. </p>
<p>This tendency’s most extreme and lethal expression came on April 13 1995, the second anniversary of the Waco fire, when <a href="https://www.vanityfair.com/news/2001/09/mcveigh200109">Timothy McVeigh</a> planted a bomb next to a federal building in Oklahoma City. The <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QZ9Li_sxljk">ensuing explosion</a> killed 168 individuals, making it the worst incident of domestic terrorism in American history.</p>
<h2>On the march again</h2>
<p>As a <a href="http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/films/oklahoma-city/">recent PBS documentary</a> suggests, the events of Ruby Ridge, Waco and Oklahoma City are as politically potent as ever, and not just as turning points in the rise of the radical right of the 1990s.</p>
<p>Despite the events in <a href="https://theconversation.com/confederate-and-black-america-why-clashes-at-charlottesville-show-civil-war-alt-histories-are-more-than-just-fantasy-82348">Charlottesville</a>, when it comes to the fight over whose politics can be acceptably commemorated in public, the left is winning. In the name of eradicating slaveholders and Confederate leaders from commemorative public life, universities have changed the lyrics of <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-39559232">university hymns</a> and the <a href="http://college.usatoday.com/2017/02/14/renaming-university-buildings-with-racist-namesakes-is-an-uphill-battle/">names of prominent campus buildings</a>. Confederate battle flags have been removed from public display across the South, including by <a href="http://edition.cnn.com/2015/07/10/politics/nikki-haley-confederate-flag-removal/index.html">state governments</a>. Campaigners are now turning their attention to other examples of the exhibition of Confederate iconography, including the Charlottesville statues whose fate sparked the recent fracas.</p>
<p>This campaign is gathering pace. After Charlottesville, anti-racist protesters gathered in Durham, North Carolina, to <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H-uAZa4H1vk">topple a statue of General Robert E. Lee</a>; city authorities in <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2017/aug/16/baltimore-takes-down-confederate-statues-in-middle-of-night">Baltimore</a> and <a href="http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/maryland/politics/bs-md-taney-statue-removed-20170818-story.html">Annapolis</a> removed Confederate memorials by night in a bid to forestall further public action, and authorities <a href="http://edition.cnn.com/2017/08/15/us/confederate-memorial-removal-us-trnd/index.html">elsewhere</a> are reportedly planning to follow suit.</p>
<p>But insofar as these efforts are meant to erase the memory of the Confederate past, they are almost certainly futile. It is almost impossible to police cultures of commemoration: the American right, newly reconfigured, radicalised and increasingly agitated, is searching for historical roots and historical identity, and it will find them somewhere. After all, history will always offer some sort of <a href="http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/ruby-ridge-siege-25-years-called-rallying-cry/story?id=49296439">vindication</a> for anyone who seeks it out.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/82863/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Crawford Gribben has received funding for his work on radical religion from the Irish Research Council and the Ministerial Advisory Group on Ulster Scots (DCAL, Northern Ireland). He is writing about cultures of survivalism in north Idaho in a current book project.</span></em></p>The radical right has a keen sense of its own history, and the violence of the 1990s is still fresh in its memory.Crawford Gribben, Professor of history, Queen's University BelfastLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/575342016-04-14T10:40:38Z2016-04-14T10:40:38ZFive years after Gaddafi’s fall, is Libya any closer to political stability?<p>After five years of violence and political instability, Libya may be on the verge of forming a stable government, after the self-declared administration in Tripoli stepped down in favour of the UN-backed unity government. But the violent political conflicts that have wracked the country since 2011 are far from resolved. </p>
<p>It wasn’t meant to be this way. Many Libyans were optimistic about the future of their country after the <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-18880908">elections of July 2012</a>. An autocratic leader had been overthrown and there were high hopes that the coming period would be one of democracy and freedom. </p>
<p>Expressing the mood of the time, the elected leader Mahmoud Jibril <a href="http://amanpour.blogs.cnn.com/2012/07/12/bucking-the-trend-of-the-arab-spring/">declared</a> that “the Libyan people have managed to prove one thing: they are the real decision makers. That the destiny of this country is not in the hands of an individual, of any political force or political party. It’s only in their hands.” </p>
<p>Nearly four years later, however, rather than controlling its own destiny, the world has watch Libya slide further into chaos. </p>
<p>More than <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-19744533">2,000 militias</a> are currently active in Libya, but several main factions exercise control over large territories. Since August 2014, a group known as Libya Dawn has controlled much of western Libya, including the capital Tripoli and the city of Misrata. Benghazi, the country’s second-largest city, is controlled by another group, <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-27732589">Ansar al-Sharia</a>, considered the most dangerous Islamist militia in Libya until the emergence of Islamic State (IS). </p>
<p>Al-Qaeda also appears to have a foothold – the eastern town of Derna, once held by IS, is now under the control of the al-Qaeda linked <a href="http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/isis-libya-islamic-state-driven-out-derna-stronghold-by-al-qaeda-linked-militia-1506241">Muhahideen Shura Council of Derna</a>. IS now dominates more than 150 miles of coastline around the city of <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/libya/12106859/Inside-Islamic-States-new-stronghold-in-Libya-Isil-beheaded-my-friend-for-witchcraft-he-did-acupuncture.html">Sirte</a>. And, although the Islamist group lacks home-grown individuals who know Libya well, it is still growing fast and now has up to <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/mar/10/isis-libya-united-nations-gaddafi-sirte-nationalistic-narrative">6,000 fighters</a> in the country.</p>
<p>Aiming to combat the growing power of militias, particularly IS, <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-27492354">General Khalifa Haftar</a> launched a raid dubbed <a href="http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2014/06/khalifa-hifter-operation-dignity-20146108259233889.html">Operation Dignity</a> against supposed terrorist groups in Benghazi. But despite his claims that he is the main opponent of Islamist militias in Libya and that he supports the democratically elected government, he too controls large areas in the east of the country by force and has also directed his military might against non-terrorist groups.</p>
<p>So for all that some things have improved recently, violent chaos still reigns much in much of the country. But how did Libya get into this mess?</p>
<h2>Forward, then backwards</h2>
<p>After the overthrow of Gaddafi in 2011, the elected General National Congress (GNC) <a href="http://www.thenational.ae/news/world/libyas-elected-congress-due-to-take-power-in-early-august">took power</a> in Libya. Equipped with a weak and dismembered military left over from Colonel Gaddafi, it faced the monumental challenge of restoring stability after more than a year of fighting. Ousting Gaddafi from power was the easy part – disarming the militias that emerged to overthrow him has so far been impossible. </p>
<p>Instead of being disarmed, militias were funded by political parties seeking to assure their own protection. This, and the lack of a unified army or police force, enabled different militias to seize control throughout almost the entire country.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, the GNC was also tasked with forming an interim government and drafting a constitution, which was <a href="https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Libya_2012.pdf?lang=en">meant to be approved in a referendum</a> – something that still hasn’t happened. </p>
<p>The process suffered a major setback in October 2012, when the incoming GNC prime minister, <a href="http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2012/10/08/libya-sacks-prime-minister-mustafa-abushagur.html">Mustafa Abushagur</a>, was ousted after failing a second time to win parliamentary approval for a new cabinet. Former GNC member and human rights lawyer Ali Zeidan was elected in his place, but, less than two years later, he too was replaced – this time by Abdullah al-Thani, who then <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-27011294">stepped down</a> himself in April 2014 after his family was attacked by militia members. </p>
<p>After that, elections were held to the House of Representatives, a new legislative body that took over from the GNC. But these elections were marred by violence and a low turnout. Because secularists and liberals dominated the elections, Islamist lawmakers in the GNC refused to recognise the Council of Deputies’ mandate. So militias supporting the GNC (such as <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/aug/31/tripoli-residents-libya-dawn-islamist-militias">Libya Dawn</a>) occupied Tripoli and forced the newly elected parliament to flee to the city of <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/sep/09/libyan-parliament-refuge-greek-car-ferry">Tobruk</a> in eastern Libya. </p>
<p>Talks to bring the two sides together initially failed when the GNC refused to participate. But in December 2015, the UN managed to broker an <a href="http://www.reuters.com/article/us-libya-security-idUSKBN0U00WP20151217">agreement</a> that it hoped would restore stability to the country. Under the deal, the House of Representatives would remain the nation’s legislative body, while the GNC would become the State Council, a second chamber with an advisory role and veto powers. </p>
<p>And so, in March 2016, seven members of the House of Representatives – including the prime minister-designate, <a href="http://www.thenational.ae/world/middle-east/who-is-libyas-new-prime-minister-designate-fayez-al-sarraj">Fayez al-Sarraj</a> – sailed into Tripoli and set up a temporary government at a naval base. However, refusing to accept the UN-backed government, GNC leaders responded by threatening <a href="https://www.alaraby.co.uk/english/news/2016/3/31/tripoli-leadership-takes-action-against-unity-government-infiltration">legal action</a> against any individuals who helped the new government to enter the city. </p>
<p>But in a rapid change of heart, GNC leaders announced on April 5 that to prevent further bloodshed, they had finally decided to <a href="http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-libya-security-politics-idUKKCN0X22MD">abandon</a> their claim to power and step aside. But, unable to admit defeat gracefully, the very next day GNC prime minister, Khalifa al-Ghweil, again reversed his decision, releasing a <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-35982308">statement</a> denouncing the UN-backed unity government and threatening any ministers who may choose to cooperate with it. </p>
<p>Clearly the political conflict in Libya is still much more complicated than merely being the GNC versus the UN-backed government. It seems that within the GNC there is confusion, with some members supporting the UN deal, while others are staunchly opposed. And these internal struggles in the GNC reflect the disunity between the various Islamist factions throughout the whole country. </p>
<p>Yet the bigger issue for Libyan politics is the question of if, and how, the new administration will be able to assert its authority. It remains to be seen who is really in charge in Libya.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/57534/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Natasha Lindstaedt does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Since 2011, Libya has been trying to fashion itself into a functioning democratic state – but instead, it’s still mired in violent chaos.Natasha Lindstaedt, Senior Lecturer, University of EssexLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/549432016-02-19T16:39:13Z2016-02-19T16:39:13ZMalheur occupation is over, but the war for America’s public lands rages on<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/112011/original/image-20160218-1233-1bb21vm.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Author Peter Walker meets with Robert 'LaVoy' Finicum at the occupied Malheur National Wildlife refuge on January 20.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Occupier Jason Patrick</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Editor’s note: University of Oregon geography professor Peter Walker has just returned from Harney County, Oregon, where armed occupiers took over the Malheur National Wildlife Refuge. He spent several weeks attending community meetings and watching the events unfold, which he describes here.</em></p>
<p>On January 2, 2016, some 300 local citizens and outside militia members <a href="http://www.opb.org/news/series/burns-oregon-standoff-bundy-militia-news-updates/">marched in Harney County, Oregon</a>, to protest the resentencing for arson of local father-and-son ranchers Dwight and Steven Hammond. </p>
<p>At stake was far more than the fate of the Hammonds. In the works was nothing less than an armed insurrection against virtually all federal ownership of land in the United States – and even against the very existence of the federal government as we know it. Had the almost surreally audacious plan succeeded, communities and economies across the American West, and the entire country, would have been changed profoundly.</p>
<p>As a researcher in the politics of public land, I went to Harney County to see what was going on <a href="https://www.facebook.com/peter.walker.31542">firsthand</a>. Having spent five weeks going back and forth between my home and the community, I’m convinced that the Malheur occupation was part of a much larger, well-funded and politically connected movement to transfer public lands to private owners. I’m also convinced it is not over, and we must expect to see more violent attempts to seize public land in the future.</p>
<h2>The spark</h2>
<p>Among the protesters in Harney County that early January day were a small number of anti-federal government activists who had been involved in the <a href="http://www.cnn.com/2016/02/16/us/cliven-bundy-bail-hearing-oregon/">April 2014 armed standoff in Bunkerville, Nevada</a>, between rancher Cliven Bundy and the federal government over Bundy’s nonpayment of fees for grazing on federal land. </p>
<p>Bundy and his supporters had in effect declared war on the federal government by pointing guns at Bureau of Land Management (BLM) employees to resist the removal of his cattle from federal land. For almost two years it appeared Bundy had won (he was <a href="http://www.oregonlive.com/oregon-standoff/2016/02/nevada_rancher_cliven_bundy_de.html">arrested</a> on February 10 in Portland, Oregon, while on his way to support the Malheur occupation). </p>
<p>Taking inspiration from that perceived success, a small splinter group among the protesters hoped to launch a larger-scale rebellion. The group would later <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rqL9NGRTGss">state openly</a> that they intended to make Harney County the first “constitutional” county in America – by which they meant a county where the federal government owns almost no land and has almost no direct authority. Simply put, the goal was to overthrow the federal government of the United States as we know it, through force of arms. </p>
<p>What happened next was reported extensively by journalists and social media to a national and international audience riveted by what at times seemed a bizarre spectacle. Roughly a dozen heavily armed men left the protest in the city of Burns (the seat of Harney County) and seized the then-closed headquarters of the Malheur National Wildlife Refuge. </p>
<h2>The case for rebellion</h2>
<p>The Malheur Refuge is an expanse of 187,757 acres designated in 1908 by President Theodore Roosevelt to protect an astonishing variety of birds, including sandhill cranes, sage grouse, snow geese, tundra swans, ducks, grebes, ibises, egrets and pelicans – to name a few. The refuge provides opportunities for bird watching, hunting and grazing for local ranchers’ cattle, and is a key source of tourist revenue for the local economy. It is a critically important place for millions of migratory birds to rest and feed on their journey along the Pacific Flyway.</p>
<p>With the arrival of armed men from Nevada, Arizona, Montana and Idaho (none of the leaders were local, or even from Oregon), the Malheur Refuge was given a profoundly different role. It became center stage for the latest act in the long-running <a href="https://kuecprd.ku.edu/%7Eupress/cgi-bin/978-0-7006-1895-8.html">Sagebrush Rebellion</a> — a sometimes violent <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-twisted-roots-of-u-s-land-policy-in-the-west-52740">political movement with roots in the 1970s and 1980s</a> that aims to transfer federal land to private ownership. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/112014/original/image-20160218-1236-e5s5si.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/112014/original/image-20160218-1236-e5s5si.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/112014/original/image-20160218-1236-e5s5si.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112014/original/image-20160218-1236-e5s5si.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112014/original/image-20160218-1236-e5s5si.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112014/original/image-20160218-1236-e5s5si.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112014/original/image-20160218-1236-e5s5si.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112014/original/image-20160218-1236-e5s5si.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Occupiers Ammon and Ryan Bundy ask Harney County Ranchers whether they will ‘live free or be a slave?’ just before imploring Harney County ranchers to break their BLM grazing leases. Taken in Crane, Oregon, on January 18.</span>
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</figure>
<p>The core leaders of the group were veterans of the 2014 armed standoff in Bunkerville, Nevada, led by Cliven Bundy, including his sons Ammon and Ryan Bundy, Arizona rancher Robert “LaVoy” Finicum and Montana militant Ryan Payne. While the occupiers at first spoke of a desire to see the sentences of Dwight and Steven Hammond overturned, in time they declared a much broader <a href="http://www.pacificpatriotsnetwork.com/downloads/Proposed%20Resoulition%20of%20Peacful%20Occupation%20-%20Malheur%20National%20Wildlife%20Refuge.pdf">agenda</a> – one consistent with the goals of national right wing groups that seek the handover of federal land to private ownership. These groups also seek the “<a href="http://krisannehall.com/nullification-the-duty-and-right-of-the-states-pt-1/">nullification</a>” of federal authority broadly and the establishment of so-called “constitutional” sheriffs who <a href="http://www.politicalresearch.org/2013/11/22/profiles-on-the-right-constitutional-sheriffs-and-peace-officers-association/#sthash.gsHC3qo4.dpbs">claim authority to keep federal authorities out of their counties</a>. </p>
<p>While the press often reported on the groups’ stated goals of freeing the Hammonds and handing over land in the Malheur Refuge to private owners, the occupiers’ goals were in fact far more ambitious. </p>
<p>At a community meeting that I attended near the town of Crane, Oregon, on January 18, Ammon and Ryan Bundy, LaVoy Finicum and Ryan Payne presented their grand vision in no uncertain terms. In the audience were roughly 30 local ranchers. The Bundy group gave a lengthy presentation of their interpretation of the U.S. Constitution in which they claimed the federal government has essentially no authority beyond the powers specifically enumerated in the verbatim text of the Constitution, and that the federal government cannot own land outside Washington, D.C. except with the consent of the states. </p>
<p>Based on this interpretation, the Bundys, Finicum and Payne told local ranchers that they had no obligation to pay fees for grazing on federal land because, in their view, federal ownership of land is unconstitutional. The group implored the Harney County ranchers in the meeting to tear up their grazing leases.</p>
<p>Their goal, ultimately, was to wrest virtually all power from the federal government through armed action in the name of “We The People.” Arizona rancher LaVoy Finicum said that he and Cliven Bundy were the only ranchers to have faced off against the federal government by refusing to pay grazing fees and that they had succeeded by using their Second Amendment right to bear arms – arms that they had literally pointed directly at federal employees. </p>
<p>Harney County ranchers at the meeting complained that the occupiers were asking too much – for example, if ranchers tear up their grazing leases, then the value of their former grazing rights is subtracted from their net worth and they cannot borrow against it. And none welcomed an armed standoff with federal authorities. </p>
<p>Finicum responded that his group was there to defend the ranchers from federal authorities by force of arms. Finicum insisted that if only half a dozen ranchers in the room stood together, with armed protection by the Bundy militants, they could defeat the United States government and start a national movement that would spread like wildfire. Revealing his frustration at the reluctance of the assembled ranchers to join the revolution, Finicum practically begged, saying, “If not now, when? If not here, where? If not us, who?”</p>
<h2>Tearing up grazing leases</h2>
<p>Not a single rancher from Harney County or the state of Oregon was persuaded. On Saturday, January 23, the occupiers <a href="http://www.oregonlive.com/ostandoff/2016/01/post_1.html">held a ceremony</a> at the Malheur Refuge that symbolically represented the fruits of their revolutionary labors: in front of TV cameras and newspaper and radio reporters, a single rancher, from 1,300 miles away in New Mexico, stood beside Ryan Bundy and <a href="http://bigstory.ap.org/article/ec4fbc27f67a429982b500c539fe9c20/armed-group-plans-event-renounce-federal-land-policy">pledged to break his BLM lease</a>. </p>
<p>The New Mexico rancher, Adrian Sewell, had a violent criminal past that included <a href="http://www.oregonlive.com/oregon-standoff/2016/01/post_1.html">assault with an ax</a>. Another eight ranchers made similar commitments – all in Utah, where the movement to privatize public land is <a href="http://www.capitalpress.com/Nation_World/Nation/20160211/federal-land-ownership-battle-heads-for-court">particularly strong</a>. The Bundy group claimed, without presenting any evidence, that other ranchers would soon make the pledge to tear up their grazing leases, igniting a national movement. Three days later, the Bundys and Payne were arrested and <a href="http://www.oregonlive.com/oregon-standoff/2016/01/bundys_in_custody_one_militant.html">Finicum was killed, according to reports, after resisting arrest by state police</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/112012/original/image-20160218-1243-r4cm05.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/112012/original/image-20160218-1243-r4cm05.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/112012/original/image-20160218-1243-r4cm05.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112012/original/image-20160218-1243-r4cm05.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112012/original/image-20160218-1243-r4cm05.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112012/original/image-20160218-1243-r4cm05.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112012/original/image-20160218-1243-r4cm05.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112012/original/image-20160218-1243-r4cm05.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Harney County rancher Scott Franklin, left, tells Ammon and Ryan Bundy that they are asking for too much and disputes their political theory that the federal government has no constitutional governing authority in western states. Taken in Crane, Oregon, on January 18.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Peter Walker</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Harney County’s ranchers were not the only ones to reject the Bundy group’s radical anti-federal agenda. </p>
<p>It is important to understand that for virtually all Harney County residents, the rally in Burns on January 2 was about the sentencing of the Hammonds – not about opposing federal ownership of land and certainly not about turning over the Malheur Refuge to private ownership. </p>
<p>Dwight and Steven Hammond were not universally well-liked in the community, and there was little dispute that they had committed crimes. But Harney County is a very close-knit community that takes care of its own. For the community, the rally was about supporting neighbors in need and redressing what they considered to be the Hammonds’ inappropriate sentences; it was not about any <a href="http://koin.com/2016/01/02/anti-govt-protesters-expected-in-burns-saturday/">broader political agenda</a>. </p>
<p>Later, at a community meeting on January 19, when the Bundy group arrived unexpectedly (causing much tension), some community members looked Bundy straight in the eye and accused him of taking advantage of the community’s distress about the Hammonds’ sentences to push a different agenda. Quietly and <a href="http://www.oregonlive.com/oregon-standoff/2016/01/bundy_militia_leader_plotted_o.html">behind the scenes</a>, even militia leaders <a href="http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/armed-takeover-oregon_us_568abc3ce4b0b958f65c4fa8">advised</a> the Bundys against using the community’s anger over the Hammonds’ sentences to create an armed standoff similar to the one led by Cliven Bundy in Nevada two years earlier.</p>
<h2>Community opposition</h2>
<p>After the Bundys seized the Malheur Refuge, it quickly became clear why the Bundys might have been wise to heed the militia leaders’ advice against an armed occupation. </p>
<p>The overwhelming majority of Harney County citizens were clearly opposed to the occupation and angry that their peaceful rally for the Hammonds had been hijacked to launch a violent campaign in pursuit of a broader agenda. </p>
<p>Even community members generally sympathetic to the Bundys’ goals were incensed that outsiders from afar were now telling them how to run their county and what to do with local land. No one failed to note the hypocrisy that outsiders claiming to cherish local control were now telling the community what to do. One resident whom I spoke with estimated that 97 percent of the community opposed the Bundys’ methods and goals.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/112007/original/image-20160218-21502-kla3ii.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/112007/original/image-20160218-21502-kla3ii.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/112007/original/image-20160218-21502-kla3ii.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112007/original/image-20160218-21502-kla3ii.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112007/original/image-20160218-21502-kla3ii.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112007/original/image-20160218-21502-kla3ii.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112007/original/image-20160218-21502-kla3ii.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112007/original/image-20160218-21502-kla3ii.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A billboard in Harney County during the Malheur Occupation reflected most locals’ unhappiness with the occupiers from outside the county.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Peter Walker</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The community’s opposition became very clear at community meetings, where Harney County residents almost unanimously voted to request that the occupiers leave. At one community meeting, when almost the entire leadership of the Bundy group arrived unexpectedly, citizens of Harney County stood on their feet, pointed fingers at the Bundys and chanted “Go home! Go home! Go home!” </p>
<p>When asked about the opposition by the community, the occupiers claimed that the “majority” of local people supported them but provided no evidence to support the claim. All <a href="http://www.opb.org/news/series/burns-oregon-standoff-bundy-militia-news-updates/harney-county-residents-speak-out-on-occupation/">objective observers agreed</a>: from the beginning, the community strongly rejected the occupation. Over time, the mood escalated from indignation to intense anger that an outside group claiming to speak for the county was ignoring repeated requests to leave. The community posted a large billboard on the main highway that read, “We are Harney County. We have our own voice.”</p>
<h2>Start of something?</h2>
<p>In the end, the unwillingness of the community to rally to the Bundys’ side was probably the group’s undoing. Had the community come to the aid of the occupiers at the Malheur Refuge in large numbers, as the Bundys seemed to have been counting on, it would have been much more difficult for law enforcement to bring about a mostly peaceful end. </p>
<p>Many believe the conflagration and mass causalities that resulted a generation earlier when law enforcement moved against a <a href="http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/federal-agents-raid-the-branch-davidian-compound-in-waco-texas">religious sect in Waco, Texas</a>, had made federal authorities extremely wary of using potentially lethal force. Had the Bundys succeeded in bringing large numbers of local people into the occupation of the Malheur Refuge, they might well have blocked law enforcement and set off a national wave of similar occupations.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/112029/original/image-20160218-1236-1qh8u4a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/112029/original/image-20160218-1236-1qh8u4a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/112029/original/image-20160218-1236-1qh8u4a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112029/original/image-20160218-1236-1qh8u4a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112029/original/image-20160218-1236-1qh8u4a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112029/original/image-20160218-1236-1qh8u4a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112029/original/image-20160218-1236-1qh8u4a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/112029/original/image-20160218-1236-1qh8u4a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">At a memorial for killed occupier LaVoy Finicum, there were many guns openly displayed.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Peter Walker</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Instead, on February 11, after 41 days of armed occupation, all the occupiers had fled or were arrested, and one was killed in a confrontation with police. Not a day was shaved off the Hammonds’ sentences, and not an acre of federal land was privatized. The sheriff of Harney County is still the kind recognized by established law, not a so-called “constitutional” sheriff. And the Harney County judge and commissioners – whom the Bundys demanded be removed – are still in charge. By the measure of its own stated goals, the Bundy occupation of the Malheur National Wildlife Refuge was a dismal failure.</p>
<p>There are no guarantees, however, that similar attacks on the federal government will not happen in the future. In fact there is every reason to believe they will. </p>
<p>The national movement to transfer federal land to private ownership (including groups with direct ties to the Bundy family) remains as active as ever, and appears to have access to <a href="http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2016/02/11/3748602/koch-brothers-funding-bundy-agenda/">enormous resources</a> from wealthy conservative supporters with interests in oil, gas and coal development. Militia groups are active, angry and eager for a win.</p>
<p>Those who value public lands – for economic, environmental, recreational and aesthetic values – owe a debt of gratitude to Harney County. A violent branch of the Sagebrush Rebellion came to town in Harney County, and the community told it to go away. </p>
<p>This would-be revolution proved that geography matters: the people of Harney County are not the people of Bunkerville, Nevada – and on the whole they are not interested in overthrowing the federal government. In fact, Harney County is a recognized national leader in <a href="http://www.fws.gov/endangered/map/ESA_success_stories/OR/OR_story4/index.html">collaborative efforts</a> between local land users, conservationists and federal natural resource agencies designed precisely to avoid unnecessary hardships to local communities that can set off conflicts.</p>
<p>But other communities in the American West may be more welcoming to radical action, and those who want to see public land handed over to private interests are certain to seek them out. The war for western lands goes on.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/54943/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter Walker does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A geography professor reports from the front lines of the Malheur occupation. Despite strong local opposition to occupiers, he foresees more conflicts to come.Peter Walker, Professor of Geography, University of OregonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/527932016-01-11T11:08:52Z2016-01-11T11:08:52ZFederal control of western land: two perspectives<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/107598/original/image-20160107-13983-2dq4p2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument, Utah</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/achillifamily/20736599294/in/photolist-xAquw3-yfPbv5-yxsHPx-bvtY4-bvu3w-bvtBA-bvtJ2-bvtKF-bvtD6-bvtJX-bvtC4-bvtEC-bvtB6-bvtDN-bvtFE-bvtGa-bvtWz-bvtLG-bvtH7-bvtMB-u7f9KF-anCXqR-bvu2V-bvtZj-bvtSH-bvtUJ-bvtYL-bvtPM-bvtPa-sBs2As-sk3Mm5-szom5A-rEPz1a-cQBw6-cQBvb-cQBuD-6UmMrx-sznNpG-yfNQwN-xAqWZU-szm6iA-cQBtm-szmJzj-sBEDPP-2mPuwB-dLXai6-9Y2HCr-4Bv2Jm-3KDemg-bvtSa">Achill Family/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Why are many people – including the militiamen occupying the Malheur National Wildlife Refuge in Oregon – angry that the federal government owns almost half of the land in the American West? We consulted two experts on public lands and natural resources about the longstanding controversies over federal control of public lands.</em></p>
<p><strong>Robert Keiter, Professor of Law at the University of Utah:</strong> The fact that public lands cover much of the West is a recipe for conflict over national and local values. Many rural western communities earn major revenues from public lands, so federal efforts to manage these lands more actively have historically provoked negative responses. The <a href="https://kuecprd.ku.edu/%7Eupress/cgi-bin/series/development-of-western-resources/978-0-7006-0613-9.html">1970s Sagebrush Rebellion</a> and the <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/1996/03/16/us/court-puts-down-rebellion-over-control-of-federal-land.html">1990s County Supremacy Movement</a> are examples. </p>
<p>Changes at the national and international levels in recent decades have altered federal land management policies and reduced activities such as logging, mining and livestock grazing that provide revenues to western communities. Demographically, the West is the nation’s <a href="http://wrdc.usu.edu/files/publications/publication/pub__5817878.pdf">fastest-growing</a> and <a href="https://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/2010_census/cb12-50.html">most urban</a> region. Newcomers with strong environmental values are moving in and diversifying western state economies. In many ranching communities, wealthy outsiders who don’t share local residents’ values or concerns are buying up ranches. And when the federal government designates land for new national parks and wilderness areas, it puts those acres off-limits for traditional activities. </p>
<p>Laws such as the Endangered Species Act and the National Environmental Policy Act have increased regulation of public lands over the past several decades. And the courts have become more involved in public land controversies. These changes fuel local anger toward the federal government because critics see them as threats to rural western communities and lifestyles.</p>
<p><strong>Robert Nelson, Professor of Public Policy at the University of Maryland:</strong> The West has historically been more ambivalent about federal ownership of western land than current rhetoric might suggest. Perhaps the truest statement ever made about the West and its attitude to the large federal presence there is, “Go away and give us more money.” </p>
<p>Today westerners of all political stripes resolutely oppose proposals to privatize public lands. At the same time, they are increasingly willing to consider transferring federal lands to the states or other steps that would radically decentralize management authority while keeping land in public ownership. I have recently proposed, for example, the creation of “<a href="http://www.perc.org/articles/charter-forests-new-management-approach-national-forests">charter forests</a>,” modeled after urban charter schools.</p>
<p>From the western point of view, however, rather than going away, federal control has been steadily tightening, especially under the Obama administration. Most public land decisions involve deep conflicts over competing values, such as economic development versus protecting and restoring nature in its historic natural condition. An example would be choosing whether to build a ski resort or establish a mountain wilderness. This means that nationally based values, most forcefully advocated by the environmental movement, often are coercively imposed on rural westerners who have very different values. In some cases these conflicts can even take on a <a href="http://www.psupress.org/books/titles/978-0-271-03581-9.html">quasi-religious character</a>. </p>
<p>Elsewhere in the United States, where there is far less federal land, similarly deep value conflicts are much more frequently resolved among state and local governments and private land-owners. This discrepancy is a major reason why rural westerners believe that they are being treated unequally and unjustly. Moreover, federal land management in the West has become increasingly dysfunctional, reflecting wider trends at the federal level. And in recent years the federal government has had less money to send to the West. The federal-state mutual accord has been federally and unilaterally abrogated.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/107597/original/image-20160107-14013-16ympyn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/107597/original/image-20160107-14013-16ympyn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107597/original/image-20160107-14013-16ympyn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107597/original/image-20160107-14013-16ympyn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107597/original/image-20160107-14013-16ympyn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=487&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107597/original/image-20160107-14013-16ympyn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=487&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107597/original/image-20160107-14013-16ympyn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=487&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Commercial logging in the Kaibab National Forest, Arizona.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/kaibabnationalforest/4557411081/in/photolist-7WHVx8-fpm3Jb-eRzyWx-9D6y85-ef8AzR-6m8mUW-eacHCm-efekRJ-3gpr3-kC3gD-kC433-htySTK-7MW7ZC-p2ZLG7-3gpqc-8xqu64-efes5L-z13t9X-4Qe8Lw-efekeY-7WHVjc-eaoHZm-ef8BND-7djDbg-5yzfne-d9ZRXG-fpm6J1-ea72wX-ef8Bma-4z5wrn-eaoHMA-ea74Xz-6zG9iq-8vNCZP-mt3P7y-nt4GpP-kC3zU-6vCKxu-hddzpC-eahYW8-eacJmE-pcgxon-eB2gjv-otY9Tz-ef8ASx-354gvy-ef8HVB-ZJE8p-eahEvk-eapdEL">U.S. Forest Service, Southwestern Region, Kaibab National Forest</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong>What does the Constitution say about federal land ownership? Where have courts come down on this question?</strong></p>
<p><strong>Robert Keiter:</strong> Article Four of the U.S. Constitution gives Congress the “Power to … make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the … Property belonging to the United States.” Most of the West’s lands were originally acquired by the national government by purchase or treaties from foreign nations that originally claimed them from Native Americans. </p>
<p>Congress enacted laws such as the Homestead Acts that created mechanisms for transferring these lands into private ownership. But in the 1890s Congress started keeping forest lands in federal ownership in order to conserve watersheds and timber resources. When this decision was challenged, the Supreme Court <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/220/523">upheld</a> Congress’ power to create forest reservations and rejected the argument that continued federal ownership of these lands intruded on state sovereignty. More recently, the Supreme Court <a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=5533598699102508441&q=kleppe+v.+New+Mexico+426+U.S.+529&hl=en&as_sdt=40000006&as_vis=1">affirmed</a> in 1976 that “the power over the public land entrusted to Congress is without limitations.” </p>
<p><strong>Robert Nelson:</strong> Over the past several decades, some leading American scholars have increasingly questioned the current system. For example, Roger Sedjo, director of the forest economics and policy program at <a href="http://www.rff.org/home">Resources for the Future</a>, <a href="http://object.cato.org/sites/cato.org/files/serials/files/regulation/2000/4/sedjo.pdf">questioned in 2000</a> whether the U.S. Forest Service still had a clear mission. The longtime dean of American political scientists studying the public lands, Sally Fairfax at the University of California at Berkeley, has raised similar questions. These are inherently political, but that has not stopped the Supreme Court before from interjecting itself into issues such as the proper role of the federal government in the West under the American federal system.</p>
<p><strong>Robert Keiter:</strong> It is worth noting that except for some national parks, the states share legal authority with the federal government over national forests and other federal lands under the concept of concurrent jurisdiction. So state laws and policies generally govern wildlife and water management on the federal lands. Western congressional delegations closely supervise federal land management agencies, including the agencies’ budgets. Many of the problems that Robert Nelson alludes to regarding the Forest Service and the Bureau of Land Management can be traced to congressional budget cuts and Congress’ reluctance to provide the agencies with a separate budget for fighting wildfires on public lands, which has become extremely costly in recent years.</p>
<p>*<em>Are there examples of peaceful land transfers from federal ownership back to state or local control?
*</em></p>
<p><strong>Robert Keiter:</strong> President Herbert Hoover sought to transfer public lands to the western states during the early 1930s, but western governors rejected those efforts because the federal offer did not include mineral deposits underneath the land. But it is hard to imagine that Congress would agree to transfer federally owned minerals to the states or local governments. Coal, oil and gas development provide billions of dollars in revenue for the national treasury, and these energy sources also are important to national security.</p>
<p>However, the federal government has carried out major land exchanges with individual states, most notably Arizona in the 1980s and Utah in the 1990s. These exchanges eliminated checkerboard ownership patterns that made it hard to manage federal resources efficiently. </p>
<p>The real solution is to engage westerners in resource management decisions through collaborative initiatives that let people voice their interests and concerns as part of an inclusive decision-making process. These types of initiatives have successfully addressed numerous conflicts across the West and ensured that local concerns are reflected in resource management decisions. </p>
<p>Congress also should stabilize the payment-in-lieu-of-taxes system, so that western states receive funds that have been promised them to compensate for federal lands not subject to local property taxes. And federal land agencies should consider keeping managers in the same location for longer periods of time so they can build relationships with local residents.</p>
<p><strong>Robert Nelson:</strong> I agree that land exchanges are a useful incremental step, but they also illustrate federal land management dysfunction. It typically takes many years to work out an agreement, and sometimes Congress has to intervene to complete exchanges that may not involve more than a few hundred acres. </p>
<p>I also agree that the historic relationship between western states and the federal government is more complicated than it might seem. When I worked in the Interior Department in the early 1980s, I learned that the Sagebrush Rebellion was mostly western political rhetoric that sought to reverse four years of actions by President Jimmy Carter’s administration and reestablish the old system, where the federal government followed western wishes and sent the states more money. </p>
<p>But times may have changed. Utah recently produced a detailed <a href="http://publiclands.utah.gov/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/1.%20Land%20Transfer%20Analysis%20Final%20Report.pdf">study</a> of the practical implications of transferring “ordinary” public lands (not including national parks or wilderness areas) within Utah to state control. Using the state’s data, I estimate that if federal surface lands and mineral rights in Utah had been transferred to the state in 2012, the federal government would have saved about [about] million annually starting in 2013, and Utah would have incurred an added fiscal burden of about US$100 million. Contrary to Robert Keiter’s suggestion, the federal government could give away all of its mineral rights, and still benefit fiscally from a large-scale transfer of federal lands to the state of Utah. </p>
<p>If I lived in Utah, I would call $100 million a year a cheap price for my “freedom.” Moreover, with better land management and less cumbersome federal regulation, it would probably not take long for Utah to start earning a good profit on those lands.</p>
<p><strong>Robert Keiter:</strong> As for a possible transfer of federal lands to the state of Utah, it is not at all clear how the state would manage the lands. To pay the basic management costs, however, the state would have to promote extensive mineral development at the expense of other resource values. And even then the state would face a significant revenue shortfall at current oil and natural gas prices, and even if these prices went up well beyond current levels. Further, there are no mechanisms under state law for the public to participate in land planning and project decisions. I recently <a href="http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2555922">coauthored a paper</a> on this issue which concluded that management of previously public lands would change dramatically because states would struggle to offset millions of dollars in new management costs, and thus would prioritize commodity production over resource protection.
</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/52793/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Robert B. Keiter serves on several non-profit boards, including the National Parks Conservation Association, Rocky Mountain Mineral Law Foundation, and Greater Yellowstone Coalition.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Robert Nelson is affiliated with the Property and Environmental Research Center (PERC) where he has attended past conferences and for whom he has written policy papers relating to federal lands. . </span></em></p>Behind the armed takeover of the Malheur National Wildlife Refuge in Oregon lie decades of controversy over federal control of public land in western states.Robert B. Keiter, Wallace Stegner Professor of Law, University Distinguished Professor, University of UtahRobert H. Nelson, Professor of Public Policy, University of MarylandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/527792016-01-05T17:36:27Z2016-01-05T17:36:27ZOregon siege: the US militia movement is resurgent – and evolving<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/107305/original/image-20160105-28980-1d79yfd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Cliven and Ammon Bundy.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cliven_%26_Ammon_Bundy_(14742520503).jpg#/media/File:Cliven_%26_Ammon_Bundy_(14742520503).jpg">Gage Skidmore via Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>For several days now, a small group of armed men have <a href="http://edition.cnn.com/2016/01/04/us/oregon-wildlife-refuge-what-bundy-wants/">occupied an office of the National Wildlife Refuge</a> in southeastern Oregon, 300 miles from Portland. They are demanding the “return” of land from the federal government to the American people, and leniency for two ranchers convicted of arson on federal lands. </p>
<p>By chance or by design, the siege overlapped with President Obama’s announcement of a sweeping <a href="http://edition.cnn.com/2016/01/05/politics/obama-executive-action-gun-control/">executive order</a> to restrict the unlicensed sale of guns and enforce background checks for gun buyers – measures widely decried by gun ownership advocates on the right.</p>
<p>The Oregon protesters are led by the sons of <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/jun/01/cliven-bundy-standoff-grazing-rights-nevada-ranch">Cliven Bundy</a>, a Nevada rancher who in March and April 2014 precipitated an extended stand-off with federal agents over unpaid grazing fees on federally owned land. That episode drew the approval of prominent conservative pundits, which in turn encouraged scores of protesters to rally to Bundy’s defence, and identified his clan as martyrs and ideologues in the re-birth of America’s anti-government militia culture.</p>
<p>Shortly after the occupation of the wildlife centre, Cliven’s son Ammon Bundy, the spokesman of the militia, set up a new <a href="https://twitter.com/Ammon_Bundy">Twitter account</a> (now suspended). Identifying his group as <a href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/CitizensForConstitutionalFreedom?src=hash">#CitizensforConstitutionalFreedom</a>, he began laying out his principles.</p>
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<p>But these pronouncements aside, he’s given very little further detail on his aims, identifying no obvious exit strategy. And with his call for other militias to join the rising, Ammon Bundy may have initiated one of the thorniest domestic challenges of President Obama’s final year in office. </p>
<p>So where did the militia movement come from – and why has it suddenly come back?</p>
<h2>Tragedy and terror</h2>
<p>There is of course a long history of distrust towards the federal government in America, one of which the militias of recent decades are acutely aware. Drawing on anti-Communist organisations of the 1950s and the paranoia of the Cold War, militia culture grew towards a fever pitch in the 1980s and 1990s. Novels such as 1978’s <a href="http://archive.adl.org/learn/ext_us/turner_diaries.html">The Turner Diaries</a> spun myths about the condition of American modernity that provided both ideas and inspiration to violent and unstable white supremacist movements. Many of the same ideas were presented to the wider public in less political and racist terms in hugely popular films, among them Red Dawn (1984). </p>
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<p>The tragedy and incompetence of the security agencies’ responses to the sieges of the Weaver family on <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/27/us/an-idaho-family-and-federal-tactics-under-siege.html">Ruby Ridge, Idaho</a> (three deaths, August 1992) and the <a href="http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2014/03/31/sacred-and-profane-4">Branch Davidian compound in Waco, Texas</a> (76 deaths, April 1993) only confirmed to many patriots that the government was willing to pursue unconstitutional methods to attack liberty-loving, gun-owning religious communities and political conservatives. </p>
<p>But the popularity of this newly radicalised “paranoid style” came to a sudden halt on the second anniversary of the burning of the Waco compound, when Timothy McVeigh and Terry Nichols <a href="https://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2015/april/oklahoma-city-bombing-20-years-later/oklahoma-city-bombing-20-years-later">bombed a federal building in Oklahoma City</a> in what was then the most significant terrorist incident in American history, killing 168 people. </p>
<p>One year later, the <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/1997/03/26/us/for-radical-freemen-all-the-courts-are-stages.html">siege of the Montana Freemen</a> seemed like a last hurrah for militia culture. Its peaceful conclusion suggested that security agencies had learned the lessons of earlier disasters, and were now willing to engage with armed patriots in a manner that would both deny them martyrdom and ensure public safety.</p>
<p>But now the Bundys’ invasion of the wildlife sanctuary has announced that militias are back. Their popularity <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/mar/04/us-surge-rightwing-extremist-groups">began to grow again</a> after President Obama was first elected, as commentators on the radical right began to wonder whether conservatives might ever regain power. Many among their number began to speculate how best to survive or resist what they thought a perverse and illegitimate new direction in American culture. </p>
<p>Increasingly, they turned to websites such as <a href="http://survivalblog.com/">survivalblog.com</a> and the survivalist novels and manuals of James Wesley Rawles, a bestselling Penguin author whose website claims more than <a href="http://www.conservapedia.com/Talk:James_Wesley_Rawles">320,000 hits per week</a>. </p>
<p>In 2011, Rawles began to promote the evacuation of religious conservatives to the “<a href="http://survivalblog.com/redoubt/">American Redoubt</a>”, a territory covering several states in the Pacific northwest. As I was told by several of my interviewees during fieldwork in Idaho, several thousand people have heeded his call. Many will have been shocked by the horrors of the <a href="http://www.redstate.com/2015/10/28/new-video-confirms-illegal-abortion-methods-used-planned-parenthood/">Planned Parenthood videos</a>, the Supreme Court’s recent <a href="http://www.conservativehq.com/article/20588-patriot-county-clerks-defy-supreme-court-same-sex-%E2%80%9Cmarriage%E2%80%9D">ruling on same-sex marriage</a>, and the possibility of an <a href="http://www.thefederalistpapers.org/us/the-islamic-invasion-of-america-has-already-begun">invasion</a> of Muslim refugees. </p>
<p>And the number of migrants to the Redoubt could increase dramatically now President Obama has issued his executive order on gun control, which sidesteps the Congress to limit freedoms that many believed were guaranteed by the Second Amendment. </p>
<p>So it’s perhaps not especially surprising that the latest Bundy stand-off is taking place in the Pacific northwest, nor that it is happening now. What may be more surprising is that the Bundys and their supporters are moving away from some of the old militia movement’s fundamental tenets.</p>
<h2>Young guns</h2>
<p>The new coalition is broad and ideologically diverse, and its principal spokesmen explicitly repudiate racism. Some of its leaders promote the goal of a theocratic society: Rawles’ Penguin bestseller, <a href="http://www.penguin.co.uk/books/how-to-survive-the-end-of-the-world-as-we-know-it/9780141049342/">How to Survive the End of the World as we Know It</a> (2010), argues that the Ten Commandments provide the most secure basis for society. Other leaders are emphatically political: the <a href="http://iiipercent.blogspot.co.uk">III Per Cent societies</a> promote a particular libertarianism that justifies physical force only in self-defence. </p>
<p>Notably, the Oregon occupation is not being supported either by <a href="http://survivalblog.com/">survivalblog.com</a> or III Per Cent leaders, and it may represent the Bundys’ jockeying for position in the intensely competitive world of anti-government activism. But Ammon Bundy represents the breadth and innovation of these new interests. His new Twitter account evidences respectful engagement with at least one self-described “Afrocentrist”:</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/107384/original/image-20160106-14970-4m6a36.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/107384/original/image-20160106-14970-4m6a36.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107384/original/image-20160106-14970-4m6a36.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107384/original/image-20160106-14970-4m6a36.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107384/original/image-20160106-14970-4m6a36.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107384/original/image-20160106-14970-4m6a36.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107384/original/image-20160106-14970-4m6a36.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p>One irony of the occupation may be to demonstrate that the militia movement is turning its back upon racism – even as the government’s lack of immediate armed intervention fuels fears that its response may be racist. </p>
<p>That suggests that <a href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/oregonunderattack?ref_src=twsrc%5Egoogle%7Ctwcamp%5Eserp%7Ctwgr%5Ehashtag">#OregonUnderAttack</a> could be the first significant example of a new militia ethos in action – one that could potentially reach across racial divisions to enable a broader discussion of constitutional issues as they affect all Americans. But the “double standard” argument over the authorities’ tentativeness shows that there’s still a way to go – as did a New York Times interview in which the elder Bundy wondered aloud if black Americans were <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/24/us/politics/rancher-proudly-breaks-the-law-becoming-a-hero-in-the-west.html?_r=0">better off under slavery</a>. </p>
<p>Meanwhile, Twitter commentators have played upon the rural background of the Oregon militia to deride its members as <a href="http://www.rawstory.com/2016/01/yall-qaeda-twitter-users-mock-oregon-right-wing-militia-action-and-its-awesome/">#YallQaeda</a> – yet the aspirations of #CitizensforConstitutionalFreedom for political change in America go far beyond the complaints about agricultural zoning that supposedly began the occupation. </p>
<p>The invasion of the wildlife sanctuary may demonstrate the power of social media to do for American militia culture what Facebook and Twitter contributed to the Arab Spring – even though Ammon Bundy’s most useful asset may be President Obama’s increasingly hard-line moves against guns.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/52779/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Crawford Gribben does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The violent American militias of the 1990s faded from view long ago – but have they begun coming back in a new form?Crawford Gribben, Professor of early modern British history, Queen's University BelfastLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/490062015-10-14T03:55:34Z2015-10-14T03:55:34ZIllegal guns fuel violent crime, wreak deadly havoc in South Africa<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/98250/original/image-20151013-31126-j4uo6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A man walks among crosses outside Pretoria, South Africa, representing farmers killed in violent attacks.
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Reuters/Juda Ngwenya</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Police statistics in South Africa show a worrying trend: the increased use of illegal small arms and light weapons in the country’s growing problem of <a href="http://www.saps.gov.za/resource_centre/publications/statistics/crimestats/2015/crime_stats.php">violent crime</a>.</p>
<p>Gun-related murders are the leading cause of violent death, placing the country <a href="http://businesstech.co.za/news/government/91284/south-africa-is-the-second-worst-country-for-gun-deaths-in-the-world/">second</a> in the world after the US. South Africa’s population is <a href="http://www.statssa.gov.za/">51,8 million</a> compared to the US’ <a href="http://www.census.gov/popclock/">321,9 million</a>. </p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.genevadeclaration.org/">Geneva Declaration Secretariat</a> says South Africa’s homicide rates are indicative of a warzone or a country in crisis, struggling with stability.</p>
<p>Although South Africa’s <a href="http://www.smallarmssurvey.org/fileadmin/docs/A-Yearbook/2013/en/Small-Arms-Survey-2013-Chapter-6-EN.pdf">homicide rates</a> have declined consistently since democracy, they remain among the highest in the world. They are about four times the global average at more than 30 per 100,000 people. </p>
<p>The South African Police Service stopped publishing disaggregated <a href="http://www.thepresidency.gov.za/docs/reports/15year_review/jcps/firearms.pdf">firearm data</a> in 2000. Different processes are used to collect and monitor data, so firearm statistics have become fragmented and speculative. </p>
<p>A consistent and disturbing trend in post-apartheid South Africa is the rate that state-owned guns land in the hands of criminals through theft, negligence, <a href="https://www.issafrica.org/iss-today/will-fewer-firearms-make-south-africa-safer">fraud</a> and <a href="http://www.gfsa.org.za/gfsa-condemns-theft-of-guns-by-corrupt-cops/">corruption</a>. The police’s secretariat recently said that more than <a href="http://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2015-03-24-national-firearms-summit-the-battle-over-sas-guns-rages-on/#.Vhy5Mfmqqko">1900 guns</a> belonging to the police, defence force and the prisons went missing over the past year.</p>
<p>Police sting operations frequently uncover and destroy large illegal <a href="https://www.issafrica.org/iss-today/south-africas-efforts-to-collect-and-destroy-firearms-losing-the-battle-but-winning-the-war">caches</a>. Several <a href="https://www.issafrica.org/uploads/Paper134.pdf">amnesty programmes</a> have been used to <a href="https://www.issafrica.org/iss-today/assessing-the-impact-of-firearm-amnesties-for-south-africa">reduce</a> the number of illegal firearms in circulation. The 2005 amnesty netted 100,000 guns. But without reliable, transparent crime statistics and ongoing research, measures to eliminate illegal small arms and light weapons will remain largely “hit and miss”. Their proliferation will remain largely misunderstood.</p>
<h2>A continental problem</h2>
<p>Africa is awash with arms. It has the greatest number of <a href="http://paperroom.ipsa.org/papers/paper_33138.pdf">armed conflicts</a>. Numerous <a href="https://www.issafrica.org/pubs/Books/SocietyUnderSiege1/Batchelor.pdf">intra-state clashes</a>, extremist insurgencies and resource conflicts dominate the post-Cold War geopolitical landscape.</p>
<p>A distinct feature of these <a href="http://essays.ssrc.org/sept11/essays/kaldor.htm">“new wars”</a> is the use of fast-paced, mobile, guerrilla warfare tactics. The tools, increasingly hi-tech, are <a href="http://www.un.org/disarmament/convarms/salw/">small arms and light weapons</a> – the perfect instruments in this theatre of violence.</p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.un.org/disarmament/convarms/salw/">United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research</a> categorises small arms as revolvers, self-loading pistols, rifles, submachine guns and light machine guns. Light weapons are heavy machine guns, hand-held under-barrel and mounted grenade launchers, portable launchers of antitank and antiaircraft missile systems and mortars of less than 100mm calibre.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/98232/original/image-20151013-31132-1gdxbtj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/98232/original/image-20151013-31132-1gdxbtj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98232/original/image-20151013-31132-1gdxbtj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98232/original/image-20151013-31132-1gdxbtj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98232/original/image-20151013-31132-1gdxbtj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=521&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98232/original/image-20151013-31132-1gdxbtj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=521&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98232/original/image-20151013-31132-1gdxbtj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=521&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Turkana boys play with rifles in the Turkana, northwest Kenya.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Reuters/Goran Tomasevic</span></span>
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<p>Small arms and light weapons have distinctive <a href="http://www.ajol.info/index.php/ai/article/view/94921">advantages</a> which make them ideally suited to “modern” guerrilla warfare and urban armed crime. They are:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>low cost and widely available. They are accessible, cheaply manufactured and easily distributed by illegal trading and trafficking;</p></li>
<li><p>increasingly lethal. Non-state actors, informal militias, and extremists have lethal firepower that often exceeds that of state military forces;</p></li>
<li><p>simple and durable. They are easy to maintain, can be recycled and can last decades; and</p></li>
<li><p>in need of little training. Their utility is unrestrained by gender or age, increasing their use by informal militias and child soldiers.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>The <a href="http://www.militaryfactory.com/smallarms/detail.asp?smallarms_id=19">AK-47</a>, an iconic struggle weapon of African liberation, lasts 20 to 40 years. It is also the weapon of choice for terrorists and drug lords globally. It is easily transported, smuggled to conflict zones and cached.</p>
<p>The sources of the proliferate weapons in Africa are many and diverse, legal and illegal. Their flow is extremely difficult to track or monitor. One important source is the <a href="http://www.smallarmssurvey.org/fileadmin/docs/A-Yearbook/2001/en/Small-Arms-Survey-2001-Chapter-02-EN.pdf">stockpiles of Cold War weaponry</a> still circulating throughout the continent. Small arms and light weapons are frequently <a href="http://www.accord.org.za/publications/conflict-trends/downloads/476-conflict-trends-2009-1">recycled</a> from conflict zone to conflict zone, and among fighters, security forces and war profiteers.</p>
<p>The scourge of the weapons has transformed the landscape of African armed violence. Their accumulation has devastating <a href="http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2484743">consequences</a>, with huge humanitarian costs, human rights violations and abuses. They are implicated in the massive flows of refugees and internally displaced people in Africa.</p>
<p>The weapons fuel, aggravate and escalate conflicts. They also spawn a culture of <a href="https://www.essex.ac.uk/armedcon/story_id/Social%20Impact%20.pdf">violence</a> and impunity. Their intractability thwarts conflict resolution and peace-building efforts on the continent.</p>
<p>Given the accessibility, low cost and portability of the weapons, the lucrative, illicit arms trade is extremely challenging to governments. Even the most comprehensive, long standing arms <a href="http://www.sipri.org/databases/embargoes">embargoes</a>, non-proliferation <a href="http://www.aefjn.org/index.php/366/articles/africa-fight-against-small-arms-and-light-weapons.html">treaties</a>, and <a href="http://www.poa-iss.org/FirearmsProtocol/FirearmsProtocol.aspx">UN protocols</a> have <a href="http://www.ajol.info/index.php/ai/article/view/94921">failed</a> to shut down their illicit trade and trafficking.</p>
<h2>Structural violence in South Africa</h2>
<p>Arms are entrenched in the South African psyche, thanks to a militarised police state under apartheid and a history of protracted armed conflicts. Accumulating small arms and light weapons was rife during apartheid. </p>
<p>With post-Cold War <a href="https://www.issafrica.org/Pubs/Newsletters/OAU/OAUISS1.html">weapons</a> still in circulation and <a href="http://www.smallarmssurvey.org/fileadmin/docs/A-Yearbook/2001/en/Small-Arms-Survey-2001-Chapter-02-EN.pdf">caches of arms</a> of the liberation armies seemingly not accounted for, post-apartheid South Africa was always at risk of continued instability from armed crime.</p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/98238/original/image-20151013-31132-1v930ov.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/98238/original/image-20151013-31132-1v930ov.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98238/original/image-20151013-31132-1v930ov.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98238/original/image-20151013-31132-1v930ov.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98238/original/image-20151013-31132-1v930ov.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98238/original/image-20151013-31132-1v930ov.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98238/original/image-20151013-31132-1v930ov.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A child soldier with the Mai Mai militia in the DRC brandishes an AK-47.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Reuters</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This has been the post-conflict experience in Africa, where criminal syndicates fill the vacuum caused by the cessation of political hostilities, capitalising on existing arms networks. Porous and extensive <a href="https://www.issafrica.org/pubs/CRIMEINDEX/00VOL4NO3/Borders.html">borders</a> such as those of South Africa facilitate the illegal trafficking of weapons, other illicit goods and the movements of crime syndicates.</p>
<p>Research confirms that the proliferation of arms and the <a href="https://www.essex.ac.uk/armedcon/story_id/Social%20Impact%20.pdf">process of militarisation</a> in regions where structural violence is the norm exacerbate societal dysfunction, political turmoil and erode state authority.</p>
<h2>Disconcerting future</h2>
<p><a href="http://sanews.gov.za/south-africa/police-arrested-ficksburg-killing-appear-court">Incidents</a> in South Africa reflect the growing <a href="http://www.smallarmssurvey.org/fileadmin/docs/A-Yearbook/2013/en/Small-Arms-Survey-2013-Chapter-6-EN.pdf">militarisation</a> of the police, reminiscent of apartheid policing and armed struggle. This speaks to serious regression in South Africa’s progressive agenda of human rights, dignity and democracy.</p>
<p>The 2012 <a href="http://theconversation.com/marikana-tagedy-must-be-understood-against-the-backdrop-of-structural-violence-in-south-africa-43868">Marikana massacre</a> epitomises this military-style brutality by police, who killed 34 striking miners. The <a href="http://www.sahrc.org.za/home/21/files/Annual%20International%20Report%202012.pdf">Human Rights Commission</a> criticised the police for using excessive and lethal force.</p>
<p>Research suggests armed violence, systemic poverty and inequality are <a href="http://www.smallarmssurvey.org/fileadmin/docs/A-Yearbook/2013/en/Small-Arms-Survey-2013-Chapter-6-EN.pdf">linked</a>. Countries with entrenched armed violence, as experienced in South Africa, are in danger of being trapped in cycles of <a href="http://www.smallarmssurvey.org/fileadmin/docs/A-Yearbook/2013/en/Small-Arms-Survey-2013-Chapter-6-EN.pdf">under-development</a>. The proliferation of weapons contributes to <a href="https://www.essex.ac.uk/armedcon/story_id/Social%20Impact%20.pdf">disintegrative trends</a> in society, accelerating tensions through criminal activities and civil conflict.</p>
<p>South Africa, which is one of the most <a href="http://theconversation.com/factcheck-is-south-africa-the-most-unequal-society-in-the-world-48334">unequal societies</a> in the world, with severe levels of structural violence and poverty, is particularly vulnerable to ever widening socioeconomic cleavages. Proliferating illicit weapons pose a real threat to sustainable peace and the fabric of society as they accelerate armed criminal violence.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/49006/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lyn Snodgrass receives funding from the National Research Foundation. </span></em></p>South Africa’s homicide rates have declined consistently since democracy, but remain among the highest in the world. They are about four times the global average at more than 30 per 100,000 people.Lyn Snodgrass, Associate Professor and Head of Department of Political and Conflict Studies, Nelson Mandela UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.