tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/avatar-73083/articlesAvatar – The Conversation2024-03-25T19:06:12Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2258842024-03-25T19:06:12Z2024-03-25T19:06:12ZFrom Die Nibelungen to Dune: epic fantasy cinema has been thrilling audiences for 100 years<p>The second instalment of Denis Villeneuve’s <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U2Qp5pL3ovA">Dune</a> has dominated most conversations about cinema in the first few months of 2024. Adapted from Frank Herbert’s classic novel, the two-part epic has been credited with reviving the science fiction genre, and the <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2024-02-28/hollywood-is-banking-on-dune-part-two-to-revive-the-blockbuster-experience">blockbuster experience</a> in general.</p>
<p>Villeneuve’s latest movie, however, is not just a mere sci-fi blockbuster. Although Dune features many familiar sci-fi visual trappings – interstellar travel, atomic arsenals and distant planets inhabited by alien lifeforms – its <a href="https://reactormag.com/frank-herberts-dune-science-fictions-greatest-epic-fantasy-novel/">main strength</a> resides in telling a fantasy story outside the traditional confines of this genre. </p>
<p>After all, Dune is the story of an aristocratic hero who, after undergoing a series of religious trials, acquires supernatural powers that allow him to overthrow the leader of a feudal empire. Similarly, Dune’s dukes, barons and princesses engage in arcane traditions and ritualised sword fighting. Villeneuve’s films are clearly new classics of epic fantasy cinema.</p>
<p>Epic – or high – fantasy is a <a href="https://www.masterclass.com/articles/high-fantasy">sub-genre</a> defined by an emphasis on large narrative scale (in both geographic and temporal terms), detailed fantastical universes, and a mythical hero. Usually some kind of “chosen one”, this hero embarks on a journey full of magic, monsters and other creatures. </p>
<p>In epic fantasy films there is usually a clear opposition between good and evil, with the destiny of the imaginary universe within which the story takes place at stake. </p>
<p>The sweeping scope of epic fantasy cinema can also translate into gargantuan running times, while the spectacular foregrounding of imaginary worlds and creatures requires large budgets, extensive production infrastructures and advanced technology. </p>
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<h2>The origins of epic fantasy cinema</h2>
<p>In recent times, the epic fantasy label has been assigned to films and TV series such as Star Wars, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fZc0ED-GULk">Excalibur</a>, The Lord of the Rings, Game of Thrones and the Avatar franchise. But its origins can be traced back a century, to 1924, when Fritz Lang’s Die Nibelungen premiered at Berlin’s <a href="https://cinematreasures.org/theaters/11307">Ufa Palast am Zoo</a> theatre.</p>
<p>Die Nibelungen is a two-part film based on the German medieval epic poem the Nibelungenlied. The first movie, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ljT4kjBkhM8">Siegfried</a>, and the second, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1KJZfIWCK4Q">Kriemhild’s Revenge</a>, were released two months apart between February and April 1924. Together, the two films reach a total running time of nearly five hours, and are considered major landmarks of German film history. </p>
<p>Despite the social and economic crisis that followed Germany’s defeat in World War I, the German film industry in the 1920s was thriving, as audiences sought to escape the grim reality of the post-war period. Many of the German films of this era – including <a href="https://theconversation.com/100-years-of-the-cabinet-of-dr-caligari-the-film-that-inspired-virginia-woolf-david-bowie-and-tim-burton-131899">The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari</a>, The Golem, and Nosferatu – explored the theme of identity and reality through the lens of fantasy and horror. </p>
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<p>Similarly, Lang and his wife, screenwriter Thea von Harbou, felt the fantastic Nibelungen saga, which had been popularised by Wagner’s operatic adaptation in the 19th century, would resonate with the defeated people of Weimar Germany. By adapting one of the most powerful icons of German culture, Lang and von Harbou aimed to embolden the nation and foster national pride.</p>
<p>Die Nibelungen opens with a title dedicating the film to the German people. Shortly after, we are introduced to Siegfried, a forest-dwelling blacksmith. Upon hearing stories of the virtuous princess Kriemhild, the sister of King Gunther, he decides to win her heart. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/bagpipes-in-space-how-hans-zimmer-created-the-dramatic-sound-world-of-the-new-dune-film-224854">Bagpipes in space: how Hans Zimmer created the dramatic sound world of the new Dune film</a>
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<p>Siegfried embarks on an epic journey during which he kills both a dragon and a dwarf king, thus gaining treasure and a cloak of invisibility. In return for permission to marry Kriemhild, he agrees to use the cloak to help Gunther win the fierce warrior-queen Brunhild by trickery. </p>
<p>The two couples are married, but when Brunhild discovers the deception, she compels Gunther and his evil vassal Hagen into a conspiracy to murder Siegfried. In the second film, Kriemhild vows to avenge Siegfried’s murder by killing Hagen, who is protected by Gunther. </p>
<p>In order to fulfil her plans, Kriemhild marries Etzel, king of the Huns, and persuades him to attack Hagen. The film ends with a brutal battle during which Hagen, Kriemhild and all her family are massacred.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Die Nibelungen’s dragon-slaying scene was groundbreaking for its time.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Spectacle to rival Hollywood</h2>
<p>Lang conceived Die Nibelungen as a production to rival Hollywood in scale and ambition. And the making of the two films was as epic as the story itself. Production lasted more than nine months and featured complex special effects, innovative lighting techniques, lavish costumes and massive sets. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=45-8eZViYOE">spectacular scene</a> in which Siegfried slays the 16-metre dragon was a true standout for its time, and was considered an impressive feat of film puppetry. The success of Die Nibelungen paved the way to another large-scale German production, 1927’s <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZAvzaOxDt2c">Metropolis</a>, which would become Lang and von Harbou’s best known work. </p>
<p>The innovative use of film technology and special effects, so crucial to the success of Die Nibelungen, remains an essential feature of contemporary epic fantasy cinema. In the 21st century, the technical achievements of epic fantasy films such as The Lord of the Rings, Avatar and Dune are still central to their marketing.</p>
<p>However, the similarities between Die Nibelungen and contemporary fantasy epics are not confined to the narrative, aesthetic and technological dimensions. </p>
<p>Despite the fact that Lang held antifascist beliefs and fled Germany shortly after the rise of Hitler, Die Nibelungen was systematically used as propaganda tool by the Third Reich, which admired the film’s celebration of both nationalist sentiments and a heroic <a href="https://philosophybreak.com/articles/ubermensch-explained-the-meaning-of-nietzsches-superman/">Űbermensch</a>. </p>
<p>The movie’s association with the Nazi regime has remained an ideological stain on epic fantasy cinema that critics have often been quick to highlight. In the 1980s, Excalibur was attacked for supposedly advancing a <a href="https://brill.com/display/book/9789004489493/B9789004489493_s006.xml">fascist aesthetic</a>, while an early <a href="https://www.nzherald.co.nz/lifestyle/first-night-for-lord-of-the-rings/PHNLDZPBSFQHIDEPKEUI67EQNY/">review</a> of The Fellowship of the Ring stated: </p>
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<p>You can’t help feeling Hitler would have adored this film – with its hideous Untermenschen, its hobbits and its Aryan beauties. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/is-dune-an-example-of-a-white-saviour-narrative-or-a-critique-of-it-225656">Is Dune an example of a white saviour narrative – or a critique of it?</a>
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<p>Similarly, Dune has been criticised for both its “white saviour” narrative tropes and its celebration of a messianic, autocratic figure. </p>
<p>Is epic fantasy’s escape into archaic worlds intrinsically conservative? Maybe. Or perhaps it’s up to viewers to take what they want from these fantastical adventures. As J.R.R. Tolkien said of the function of fantasy: </p>
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<p>The authoritarians have us all in prison. If we value the freedom of mind and soul, if we’re partisans of liberty, then it’s our plain duty to escape. </p>
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<p>If that’s the case, thank God for epic fantasy movies and their ability to help us make that escape.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225884/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alfio Leotta does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A century before the Dune films became new classics of the genre, Fritz Lang was making epic fantasies that redefined cinema.Alfio Leotta, Associate Professor, School of English, Film, Theatre, Media and Communication, and Art History, Te Herenga Waka — Victoria University of WellingtonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2255692024-03-18T06:11:15Z2024-03-18T06:11:15ZAnime live-action adaptations are often hated by (Western) fans. Are they being too harsh?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582456/original/file-20240318-16-8vktzs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=32%2C9%2C2027%2C1425&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">IMDB</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Between Netflix’s 2023 live-action version of One Piece, and its latest take on Avatar: The Last Airbender, fans are once again asking: why are live-action anime adaptations so tricky to get right?</p>
<p>Despite the <a href="https://www.thebobaculture.com/anime/avatar-the-last-airbender-is-not-an-anime">ongoing debate</a> about whether Avatar (2005–08) is indeed an “anime” (since it’s made by US creators), the series has nonetheless gone down as a favourite among Western anime fans. </p>
<p>Netflix’s new rendition is rated highly by <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt9018736/ratings/?ref_=tt_ov_rt">fans</a> and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2024/feb/22/avatar-the-last-airbender-review-a-sparkling-return-for-one-of-the-greatest-fantasy-series-of-all-time">critics</a> alike. Viewers have flocked online to share their opinions on everything from the casting choices, to the sets and costumes, to changes in the story. </p>
<p>But while the new Avatar is being praised, that makes it an outlier in live-action anime adaptations. </p>
<p>What is it about these adaptations that leads to them being so closely scrutinised? And why are they so often met with disappointment? </p>
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<h2>‘Anime’ is evolving</h2>
<p>Before the original Avatar came out, defining “anime” or “Japanimation” was straightforward. Anime were cartoons made in Japan, often based on manga or Japanese comics. </p>
<p>However, Japanese studios are outsourcing more and more of their background and scenery animation to studios in South Korea and South-East Asia, creating only the main character animation in house. </p>
<p>So <a href="https://www.quora.com/Is-anime-only-defined-as-being-animation-from-Japan">anime purists</a> – who often seem to be Western viewers – may argue the above definition is no longer sufficient. (It’s helpful to remember that in Japanese, “anime” refers to all animated material, regardless of country of origin.)</p>
<p>Avatar is noted for its anime-inspired themes and action, and for laying the path for other US-made series such as Voltron (2016–18), and She-Ra and the Princesses of Power (2018–20). Both shows mix 1980s nostalgia with 2010s storytelling and a hybrid animation style. While they may not technically be anime (depending on whom you ask) the overlap can’t be ignored.</p>
<h2>Successful cases</h2>
<p>One successful anime live-action adaptation is the 2008 film Speed Racer, adapted from the 1967–68 anime of the same name. Directed by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wachowskis">the Wachowskis</a>, the film has become a camp classic. It uses the same comic book-style special effects developed for The Matrix franchise, which <a href="https://faroutmagazine.co.uk/how-the-matrix-was-inspired-by-the-greatest-anime-movies-of-all-time">itself was inspired by</a> anime and manga, and particularly by Mamoru Oshii’s 1995 film Ghost in the Shell. </p>
<p>A more recent adaptation success was Netflix’s One Piece. This show has arguably rewritten the rules of live-action anime adaptations by blending original anime and manga story lines with a diverse <a href="https://www.netflix.com/tudum/articles/one-piece-cast-live-action-netflix">cast of talented young actors</a>. </p>
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<span class="caption">The live-action One Piece actors hail from countries including Japan, the UK, Mexico and the US.</span>
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<p>Through a mix of expert writing, costuming, characterisation and visual effects, the essence of the long-running manga and anime series is retained for a new audience. The story of the boy who dreams of becoming king of the pirates – published over some 25 years – is distilled into a fast-paced series portrayed through childhood flashbacks and wacky hijinks. </p>
<p>Upon seeing the cast, original One Piece author and creator Oda Eiichiro said the crew <a href="https://variety.com/2023/tv/news/one-piece-creator-eiichiro-oda-netflix-series-snail-phone-1235707079/">was perfect</a>:</p>
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<p>It’s like you’re watching the Straw Hats in real life.</p>
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<h2>Notable failures</h2>
<p>So, does the opinion of the original creator determine the success of an adaptation?</p>
<p>Certainly it may if we consider the infamous 2009 film Dragon Ball: Evolution. This US remake, <a href="https://variety.com/2023/tv/news/one-piece-creator-eiichiro-oda-netflix-series-snail-phone-1235707079/">rated 2.5/10</a> on IMDB, was widely criticised for its lacklustre production and “whitewashing”. </p>
<p>It was such a failure that it inspired Dragon Ball creator Toriyama Akira, who passed away <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/2024/mar/08/akira-toriyama-dragon-ball-creator-manga-series-dies-aged-68">on March 1</a>, to return to the franchise after a 15-year hiatus. Toriyama felt the <a href="https://kotaku.com/didnt-like-hollywoods-dragon-ball-movie-well-neithe-465066558">film didn’t capture</a> the “world” or the “characteristics” of the series.</p>
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<p>Similarly, 2017 live-action film Ghost in the Shell was heavily criticised for its casting of Scarlett Johansson as the Major, with <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/film/2017/mar/31/ghost-in-the-shells-whitewashing-does-hollywood-have-an-asian-problem">fans saying</a> she should have been played by a Japanese actor.</p>
<p>In the various Ghost in the Shell anime, films and manga, the Major is an augmented cyborg whose original identity is never revealed. Indeed, the search for some kind of connection or identity forms part of her character. Johansson’s casting should therefore not really be an issue. Mamoru Oshii himself said there was “no basis” for an “Asian actress” to <a href="https://www.upi.com/Entertainment_News/Movies/2016/11/11/Ghost-in-the-Shell-featurette-Original-director-Mamoru-Oshii-praises-Scarlett-Johansson/1151478870706/">play the role</a>. </p>
<p>However, the 2017 film was ultimately too clever for its own good as the final twist reveals the Major is a … <a href="https://www.bustle.com/p/the-ghost-in-the-shell-twist-addresses-whitewashing-claims-in-a-disturbing-way-47138">Japanese woman</a> in a white woman’s body.</p>
<h2>An adaptation problem, or a fan problem?</h2>
<p>Besides issues of whitewashing, what makes anime adaptations so different to other adaptations that might also miss the mark?</p>
<p>For instance, the Marvel films – adapted from the original superhero comics – have <a href="https://editorial.rottentomatoes.com/guide/all-marvel-cinematic-universe-movies-ranked/">delivered hits</a> alongside horrible flops. Yet, one could argue the flops didn’t attract quite as much fan fury as botched anime adaptations often do. </p>
<p>It may be that live-action anime adaptations actually aren’t that bad when judged independently, but the change in medium, language – and the impossible task of casting humans as anime characters – is what sets fans’ collective teeth on edge.</p>
<p>So much of anime’s magic lies in the creativity and imagination of the animators who build massive fantasy worlds brimming with the impossible. Currently, no amount of CGI can perfectly replicate anime world-building.</p>
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<p>There’s also the issue of condensing anime narratives for live action. Whereas anime made for Japanese audiences can have hundreds, or even thousands, of episodes, US-made live-action versions tend to have much shorter seasons due to time and budget constraints. </p>
<p>This means creators have to scrap and condense much of the original content. While these scrapped scenes might be considered “filler” to them, they likely hold a lot of value in fans’ eyes and contribute to making the original anime so compelling.</p>
<h2>Japanese versus Western audiences</h2>
<p>There have been a number of incredibly successful Japanese-language anime and manga live-action adaptations. Some of these have been faithful to the original series, such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rurouni_Kenshin_(film)">Ruroni Kenshin</a> (2012-21). Others such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nana_(2005_film)">Nana</a> (2005) play with the source material to create new stories.</p>
<p>Anime fans in Japan arguably aren’t as offended by slightly off-kilter adaptations as Western audiences are. Perhaps this is because they’ve been raised on franchises where the same characters appear over and over in different shows, with a different backstory each time. </p>
<p>One example is manga artist <a href="https://tezukainenglish.com/wp/?page_id=912">Tezuka Osamu’s “star system”</a>. Throughout his career, Tezuka has reused the same character designs and names across different series. The character of Shunsaku Ban, for instance, appears as a detective in Metropolis, but as Astro Boy’s teacher in Astro Boy. </p>
<p>These disparate versions exist simultaneously, and fans are free to pick their favourites and ignore the others. It’ll be interesting to see whether this approach is eventually embraced in adaptations made for Western audiences.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225569/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Emerald L King does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Live-action anime adaptations have never been more popular. Yet there are many factors that make them difficult – but not impossible – to pull off.Emerald L King, Lecturer in Humanities, University of TasmaniaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2008172023-03-13T21:03:46Z2023-03-13T21:03:46Z‘Everything Everywhere All at Once’ and other Oscars 2023 films show a trend towards linguistic realism in Hollywood<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514986/original/file-20230313-22-5uc07c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C44%2C2245%2C1935&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Michelle Yeoh accepts the award for best performance by an actress in a leading role for 'Everything Everywhere All at Once' at the Oscars on March 12, 2023, at the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Chris Pizzello)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>At the 95th Academy Awards, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/film/2023/mar/13/daniel-kwan-and-daniel-scheinert-win-best-director-oscar-for-everything-everywhere-all-at-once">Daniel Scheinert and Daniel Kwan’s</a> <em>Everything Everywhere All at Once</em> took home <a href="https://variety.com/2023/awards/awards/everything-everywhere-all-at-once-oscars-record-1235544633/">wins in acting, editing and directing categories, and also won the coveted best picture</a> award.</p>
<p>The quirky and expansive sci-fi action film is famed for its absurdist take on the idea of a multiverse, yet it is still grounded in realness and humanity: In one masterfully choreographed scene in <em>Everything Everywhere</em>, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H2wID9_FFD0">three languages are spoken by three generations of one chaotic immigrant family</a> over dinner.</p>
<p>As a linguist, I am interested in how screenwriters and directors use language in film to <a href="https://books.google.ca/books/about/Multilingualism_in_the_Movies.html?id=hfhclpshb8UC&redir_esc=y">do much more than just convey dialogue</a>: Language and subtitles also provide characterization, establish the tone of a scene and ground fictional stories in reality.</p>
<p>Increasing use of non-English languages and subtitles demonstrates both a trend toward linguistic realism in Hollywood and also broader acceptance of linguistic diversity in a globalized society. </p>
<p>But filmmakers must negotiate the tension between narrative goals and audience engagement. By <a href="https://www.routledge.com/English-with-an-Accent-Language-Ideology-and-Discrimination-in-the-United/Lippi-Green/p/book/9780415559119">examining different ideologies held by filmmakers and audiences alike</a>, we can also still sometimes find long-standing associations between foreign language and villainy.</p>
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<span class="caption">Jonathan Wang, from left, Daniel Kwan and Daniel Scheinert pose with their awards for best picture for ‘Everything Everywhere All at Once’ after the Oscars on March 12, 2023, in Los Angeles. Kwan and Scheinert also won the awards for best original screenplay and best director for the film.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/John Locher)</span></span>
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<h2>Languages breaking through</h2>
<p>As South Korean filmmaker <a href="https://www.cjenm.com/en/news/director-bong-joonhos-parasite-wins-the-best-foreign-language-film-at-the-77th-golden-globe-awards/">Bong Joon-ho</a> described in his <a href="https://variety.com/2020/film/awards/south-koreas-parasite-crashes-the-subtitles-barrier-1203488979/">Golden Globes acceptance speech for 2019’s <em>Parasite</em></a>, when audiences move past the “one-inch tall barrier of subtitles” a richer world of film awaits.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0963947013519551">Telling authentic stories</a> in a modern, globalized and multicultural world means fairly portraying the languages spoken and signed all throughout our society. Hence, at times, the need for subtitles. </p>
<p>In another scene in <em>Everything Everywhere</em>, spoken language is eschewed altogether: Two rocks converse silently while gazing over a barren canyon, with black and white subtitles appearing on a bright blue sky. This simple yet <a href="https://twitter.com/Refinery29/status/1635118157206794243">emotionally resonant scene</a> was somehow enough to <a href="https://www.refinery29.com/en-gb/everything-everywhere-all-at-once-review">move many viewers to tears</a>.</p>
<p>Although <a href="https://ew.com/movies/movie-reviews/tar-cate-blanchett-todd-field-nina-hoss/">Todd Field’s <em>Tár</em></a> did not clinch any Oscar wins this year, star Cate Blanchett notched multiple <a href="https://www.vogue.com/article/full-winners-list-golden-globes-2023">other acting awards</a> <a href="https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2023/01/awards-insider-critics-choice-awards-2023-winners">for her role</a> as the titular orchestra conductor. In some of the film’s best scenes, the maestro uses only German during orchestra rehearsals and subtitles are dropped completely. </p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-we-are-fascinated-by-the-oscar-nominated-tar-a-story-of-rare-female-power-in-classical-music-198500">Why we are fascinated by the Oscar-nominated 'Tár,' a story of rare female power in classical music</a>
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<p>Non-Germanophone audiences might not understand the words Blanchett says, but they are instead encouraged to focus on the visual aspects of the character’s communication: her facial expressions, physical tics and tremors and the building tension, both visible and audible, between her ego and everyone around her.</p>
<p>The Oscar performance of “Naatu Naatu,” from the Indian <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-64935389">Telugu-language blockbuster</a> <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-64935389"><em>RRR</em></a>, which received a standing ovation, was evidence that performances can cross language boundaries by leaning into creative elements far beyond words.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Rahul Sipligunj and Kaala Bhairava perform ‘Naatu Naatu,’ at the 95th Academy Awards.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Two sides of language representation</h2>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="A man smiling against a patterned background." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514943/original/file-20230313-24-v6a7sg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514943/original/file-20230313-24-v6a7sg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=825&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514943/original/file-20230313-24-v6a7sg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=825&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514943/original/file-20230313-24-v6a7sg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=825&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514943/original/file-20230313-24-v6a7sg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1037&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514943/original/file-20230313-24-v6a7sg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1037&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514943/original/file-20230313-24-v6a7sg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1037&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Actor Tenoch Huerta studied Yucatec Maya for his role in ‘Black Panther: Wakanda Forever.’</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
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<p>The flip side of positive aspects of linguistic representation is that filmmakers, free to use the tool of multilingualism to provide characterization and establish tone, and even to showcase threatened languages, are also free to use it to entrench certain linguistic stereotypes, namely the association between foreignness and villainy.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://screenrant.com/black-panther-wakanda-forever-talokan-lore-phase-5-complicated/">warriors of the underwater Talokan kingdom</a> in Ryan Coogler’s <em>Black Panther: Wakanda Forever</em> never speak a word of English. In this Marvel Cinematic Universe story, the fictional kingdom of Atlantis was <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-mesoamerican-influences-behind-namor-from-black-panther-wakanda-forever-180981106">repositioned as a Mesoamerican-inspired society</a>.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://globalvoices.org/2023/01/05/indigenous-and-proud-a-maya-speakers-reaction-to-black-panther-wakanda-forever/">language of Talokan is the real-world language of Yucatec Maya</a>, spoken by Indigenous people in present-day <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Yucatec-language">Guatemala, Belize and southern Mexico</a>.</p>
<h2>Sharing an Indigenous language</h2>
<p>Yucatec Maya is stigmatized and marginalized in the geographic areas where it is traditionally spoken, one of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/in-mexico-how-erasing-black-history-fuels-anti-black-racism-175315">long-lasting consequences of colonization</a>.</p>
<p>But Coogler’s creative decision to use Yucatec Maya as the language of Talokan, as well as to borrow heavily from Mayan and Aztec cultures for <a href="https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-news/black-panther-wakanda-forever-ruth-e-carter-oscar-costume-design-1235349112/">visual inspiration</a>, has delighted some <a href="https://globalvoices.org/2023/01/05/indigenous-and-proud-a-maya-speakers-reaction-to-black-panther-wakanda-forever/">Maya-speaking Indigenous moviegoers</a> who say they saw their culture represented and are happy to see the language widely shared.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/national-indigenous-languages-day-keeping-languages-thriving-for-generations-to-come-179528">National Indigenous Languages Day: Keeping languages thriving for generations to come</a>
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<p>Two strong minor characters, Namora and Attuma, speak only in Yucatec Maya throughout the entire movie, with English subtitles in an elegant blue script. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Ryan Coogler discusses ‘Wakanda Forever’ and representation in an interview with Geek Culture.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Archetypes of antagonism?</h2>
<p>Yet, these characters are the primary villains of the story, portrayed as powerful and physically otherworldly. Thus, while the characters are not one-dimensional, their language seems to narratively underscore certain archetypes of antagonism, beyond simply showcasing a real Indigenous language of the world.</p>
<p>This is especially noticeable when contrasted with the protagonists, the mostly-anglophone Wakandans. Although the <a href="https://screenrant.com/black-panther-movie-wakanda-language-xhosa-explained">language of Wakanda is the real-world language of Xhosa</a>, spoken in South Africa, in <em>Wakanda Forever</em>, it was mostly relegated to greetings and asides. Instead, the protagonists speak a kind of pan-African accented English. Unlike in James Cameron’s <a href="https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-news/avatar-the-way-of-water-vfx-oscar-2023-1235343383/"><em>Avatar: The Way of Water</em></a>, viewers are never explicitly told that what the audience hears has been “translated” for us. </p>
<h2>Refreshing to see, hear more languages</h2>
<p>In <em>Avatar</em>, which took the <a href="https://www.nzherald.co.nz/entertainment/oscars-2023-all-the-kiwis-nominated-at-the-academy-awards-this-year/G7PU6REBKFDRVLTOTUZJ4TEM4A/">Oscar for best visual effects,</a> the protagonists all speak Na'vi, the language of <a href="https://gamerant.com/avatar-creation-human-navi-hybrids-explained/">the species living across</a> the fictional Pandora.</p>
<p>Most of the language has been “translated” in the mind of the narrator, Jake Sully. In a neat expositional trick, the main character narrates the beginning of the film and explains that he learned the alien language well enough that it just sounds like English to him.</p>
<p>This way, audiences won’t have to read for the entire film, and the heroes (and actors) can speak only English without sacrificing the “realism” of the science-fictional universe.</p>
<p>It has been refreshing to see, <a href="https://mashable.com/article/minari-korean-language">in recent years</a>, many productions in film achieve critical and commercial success in the anglophone world despite being in non-English languages and <a href="https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/movies/story/2021-03-04/sound-of-metal-deaf-actors-chelsea-lee-jeremy-lee-stone">using subtitles</a>. There’s much more room for films to highlight both linguistic diversity as well as authentic characterization of characters who speak and sign without resorting to potentially harmful tropes. </p>
<p>And I’m sure audiences wouldn’t mind hearing more Na'vi in <em>Avatar 3</em>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/200817/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew Cheng does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Despite increasing use of non-English languages demonstrating broader acceptance of linguistic diversity in a globalized world, films sometimes suggest associations between ‘foreignness’ and villainy.Andrew Cheng, Postdoctoral Researcher, Linguistics, Simon Fraser UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1983812023-02-05T12:54:24Z2023-02-05T12:54:24ZThe science of holding your breath: How could Kate Winslet stay underwater for over 7 minutes in Avatar 2?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508138/original/file-20230203-6934-sjo14p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=28%2C0%2C4639%2C3047&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Kate Winslet promoting 'Avatar: The Way of Water' in London in December 2022. Winslet held her breath for over seven minutes during filming of the movie.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Kate Winslet reportedly held her breath for <a href="https://variety.com/2022/film/news/kate-winslets-filmed-avatar-2-underwater-breath-hold-record-die-1235459216/">seven minutes and 15 seconds</a> on set for <em>Avatar: The Way of Water</em>. Some of the movie’s scenes were <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/12/16/movies/avatar-2-fx-cgi.html">filmed underwater</a>.</p>
<p>It’s a remarkable feat; anyone (including professional freedivers) would acknowledge that a breath hold over seven minutes is extremely difficult. Most professional freedivers must train for years before reaching a number like that — many never achieve it. Winslet apparently trained only for a few weeks. </p>
<p>While Winslet now holds the record for a breath hold on a movie set, let’s put it in wider context. The current world record for breath holding, using a technique that is likely the same one the actor employed, is <a href="https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/news/2021/5/freediver-holds-breath-for-almost-25-minutes-breaking-record-660285">24 minutes and 37 seconds</a>. This is held by Budimir Šobat — a professional breath hold diver with whom I have worked closely. </p>
<h2>Longest recorded breath holds</h2>
<p>I and other researchers have performed <a href="https://doi.org/10.1113/ep086269">extensive physiologic measures</a> on these professional divers to figure out how they can hold their breath for so long. One thing is certain: oxygen is important. In respect to the breath hold of almost 25 minutes by Šobat, it was accomplished by pre-breathing 100 per cent oxygen prior to holding the breath. Keep in mind the ratio of oxygen that we normally breathe in the atmosphere <a href="https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2491/10-interesting-things-about-air/">is 21 per cent</a>. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Actor Kate Winslet reacts after holding her breath for over seven minutes.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The world record for a <a href="https://www.aidainternational.org/WorldRecords/History">non-oxygen-assisted breath hold</a> is 11:35 minutes* by Stéphane Mifsud. For women it is 9:02 minutes, held by Natalia Molchanova. These are people who have trained for many years, and are the <a href="https://www.aidainternational.org/">top professional apneists</a> (apnea means temporarily stopped breathing). </p>
<p>How did Winslet do it then? And if you were to try this, why is it that you (probably) couldn’t come close to seven minutes, even after a few weeks of training? You would need to do what Winslet likely did, and that is pre-breathe with 100 per cent oxygen before holding your breath. Winslet also most likely hyperventilated (breathed faster and deeper than normal) on the 100 per cent oxygen. </p>
<p>To understand how this can increase the breath hold time, a brief overview of the control of breathing is needed. </p>
<h2>What happens when you hold your breath</h2>
<p>The most important signal to breathe comes from clusters of specialized cells in your brain and neck called chemoreceptors. These chemoreceptors respond to the level of carbon dioxide (CO2) and, to a lesser extent, the level of oxygen (O2) in your blood (yes, CO2 is more important in this case). </p>
<p>There are also signals from the brain stem itself (central controller) and lungs (pulmonary stretch receptors), but they are generally less important in relation to the topic at hand. Accordingly, the rate and depth of breathing is primarily controlled by these chemoreceptors that maintain the optimal level of blood O2 and CO2. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Professional breath hold diver Budimir Šobat’s world record of 24 minutes and 37 seconds holding his breath underwater.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>During a breath hold, the level of blood CO2 rises, and the O2 declines. The initial increase in the urge to breathe — let’s say 30 seconds into the breath hold — primarily comes from the rising CO2. At a particular threshold, the chemoreceptors also respond to the declining O2, at which point the drive to breathe increases dramatically. </p>
<p>Eventually, the urge to breathe intensifies to the point that the diaphragm (the primary respiratory muscle) contracts involuntarily — referred to as an <a href="https://doi.org/10.1113/ep086269">involuntary breathing movement</a>. This is the point at which the untrained breath holder will typically break and begin to breathe again (around three minutes if motivated and oxygen-unassisted). </p>
<h2>Pre-breathing oxygen</h2>
<p>However, with prior O2 inhalation, the onset of involuntary breathing movements is dramatically delayed. There is no longer any signal from O2 sensing. With about 15 minutes of prior 100 per cent O2 inhalation, a breath hold can be extended to nearly 20 minutes and the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0271678X16686093">blood oxygen will still be higher than normal</a>. </p>
<p>Still, even with 100 per cent O2, CO2 (the primary stimulus for breathing) rises during the breath hold. However, fortunately for the oxygen-assisted breath holder, elevated blood O2 <a href="https://doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.2010.187211">blunts the chemoreceptor response to CO2</a>. The combined effect of an absent O2 response, and a dampened CO2 response, allows someone to hold their breath for much longer. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508140/original/file-20230203-14078-ltl7gz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A man in a red wetsuit seen from underwater, holding his breath at the surface while a man in blue leggings assists him." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508140/original/file-20230203-14078-ltl7gz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508140/original/file-20230203-14078-ltl7gz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508140/original/file-20230203-14078-ltl7gz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508140/original/file-20230203-14078-ltl7gz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508140/original/file-20230203-14078-ltl7gz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508140/original/file-20230203-14078-ltl7gz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508140/original/file-20230203-14078-ltl7gz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">A freediver training in shallow water.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
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<p>Another trick is hyperventilating prior to breath holding. This will lower the initial blood CO2 levels. This lengthens the time before CO2 creeps above normal. </p>
<p>It’s important to note that hyperventilation before breath holding without prior 100 per cent O2 is dangerous in freediving because it increases the risk for <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK554620/">shallow water blackout</a>. </p>
<p>It’s likely that Winslet’s trainers had a keen understanding of respiratory physiology and that she benefited from that knowledge. Although Winslet’s impressive breath hold is a record on movie sets, it isn’t record-shattering off sets — even for previously untrained people. </p>
<p>Even as far back as 1959, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1959.14.5.689">researchers demonstrated</a> in seven untrained volunteers that breathing 100 per cent O2 prior to a breath hold resulted in maximum breath hold durations of six to 14 minutes. So Winslet’s seven-minute breath hold with only a few weeks’ training is definitely possible. </p>
<p><em>*The International Association for the Development of Apnea (AIDA) is the recognized governing body for the apnea disciplines, which does not recognize apnea with 100 per cent oxygen-assisted breathing. <a href="https://www.deeperblue.com/new-guinness-world-record-serbian-freediver-branko-petrovic/">Branko Petrovic</a> holds an oxygen-unassisted breath hold of 11:54 minutes through Guinness World Records, not accredited through AIDA.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/198381/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anthony Bain receives funding from the National Science and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) of Canada. </span></em></p>Kate Winslet held her breath for an impressive 7 minutes and 15 seconds while filming, but the current world record is over 24 minutes. Here’s how people learn to stay underwater for extended periods of time.Anthony Bain, Associate Professor, Kinesiology, University of WindsorLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1920052022-12-15T00:33:09Z2022-12-15T00:33:09ZCan you name a single character from Avatar? What is a ‘forgotbuster’ and is Avatar one of them?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500899/original/file-20221214-461-22jr1l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=3%2C0%2C2492%2C1403&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">20th Century Studios</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>James Cameron’s Avatar 2: The Way of Water, is released worldwide today. It’s the long-awaited sequel to Avatar (2009), also directed by Cameron, and has cost an enormous amount of money to make. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-news/avatar-the-way-of-water-box-office-china-release-1235268699/">Some sources</a> list the budget at around $350 million dollars, meaning it will need to make upwards of $2 billion at the worldwide box office just to break even.</p>
<p>But do we actually need this sequel? Do people remember the original Avatar? Aside from the 3D glasses and 10-foot tall aliens, what was memorable about it? Is Avatar in fact not a blockbuster, but a forgotbuster?</p>
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<p>When it comes to describing a certain type of film, the word blockbuster dates back nearly 80 years. It was <a href="http://shura.shu.ac.uk/6809/3/Hall_Etymology_of_Blockbuster_(rev).pdf">first used in the 1940s</a> in film trade magazines such as Variety and Motion Picture Herald. It was in the 1970s - with the release of <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0073195/?ref_=fn_al_tt_1">Jaws (1975)</a> and <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0076759/?ref_=nv_sr_srsg_0">Star Wars: A New Hope</a> (1977) - that the concept of the blockbuster became commonplace. </p>
<p>Ever since, the term has been used to described a certain type of (usually) Hollywood film – full of CGI and special effects, with a fast-paced and action-packed narrative, full of memorable heroes, villains and one-liners, and financially lucrative at the box office. </p>
<p>Blockbusters are not just highly mediatised, extraordinarily successful films on their own merits, but they also become part of the cultural conversation for years to come. Modern-day equivalents include the likes of <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt4154796/?ref_=nv_sr_srsg_0">Avengers: Endgame (2019)</a>, <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0133093/?ref_=nv_sr_srsg_0">The Matrix (1999)</a>, <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1745960/?ref_=nv_sr_srsg_1">Top Gun: Maverick (2022)</a>, and <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0468569/?ref_=fn_al_tt_1">The Dark Knight (2008)</a>.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/avatar-the-way-of-the-water-review-tired-climate-cliches-distract-from-camerons-vision-196522">Avatar: The Way of the Water review – tired climate clichés distract from Cameron’s vision</a>
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<h2>What is a forgotbuster?</h2>
<p>The term “forgotbuster” was <a href="https://thedissolve.com/features/forgotbusters/">first coined</a> by US film critic Nathan Rabin in 2013 to describe those movies that were among the top 25 grossing films the year of their release, but have receded culturally. </p>
<p>In other words, forgotbusters attracted huge numbers of audiences at the time, but have failed to endure. Rabin’s first example was Monster-In Law (2005), a now largely forgotten comedy vehicle for Jane Fonda and Jennifer Lopez. Rabin’s <a href="https://letterboxd.com/leologan09/list/forgotbusters/">subjective list</a> would also include the likes of Hannibal (2001), Disclosure (1994) and What Women Want (2000). By far his most controversial choice was Avatar.</p>
<p>On its release in December 2009, Avatar quickly became a staggering financial success. Unadjusted for inflation, it remains to this day <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_highest-grossing_films">the most successful film ever made</a> in terms of box office receipts. It was nominated for nine Academy Awards (winning three) and briefly brought 3D technology to the mainstream. It was lauded for its exquisite world-building and the IMAX grandiosity of its special effects. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501182/original/file-20221214-14389-tahjkr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501182/original/file-20221214-14389-tahjkr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501182/original/file-20221214-14389-tahjkr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=883&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501182/original/file-20221214-14389-tahjkr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=883&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501182/original/file-20221214-14389-tahjkr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=883&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501182/original/file-20221214-14389-tahjkr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1110&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501182/original/file-20221214-14389-tahjkr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1110&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501182/original/file-20221214-14389-tahjkr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1110&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Avatar (2009) film poster.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">20th Century Studios</span></span>
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<p><a href="http://edition.cnn.com/2010/SHOWBIZ/Movies/01/11/avatar.movie.blues/">Some fans</a> even admitted to experiencing depression after seeing the film as they realised the alien world Pandora where most of the film takes place was not real. Several billion dollars later, James Cameron announced he was not going to make just one sequel, <a href="https://www.vulture.com/2022/11/avatar-sequel-announcements-timeline-james-cameron.html">but potentially four</a>.</p>
<p>The critic Roger Ebert <a href="https://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/avatar-2009">described the film</a> as “an Event, one of those films you feel you must see to keep up with the conversation”. But do people still talk fondly or nostalgically about Avatar in the way they do, say, Lord of the Rings (2001-2003), Star Wars, or James Cameron’s other era-defining films like Terminator 2: Judgement Day (1991) and Titanic (1997)? </p>
<p>Why hasn’t Avatar seeped into our cultural consciousnesses the way other films have? Rubin’s answer was unequivocal - he <a href="https://thedissolve.com/features/forgotbusters/877-avatars-rapid-rise-sudden-downfall-and-endless-bil/">criticised</a> the film’s “weaknesses and instant datedness”, focusing particularly on the poor acting.</p>
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<h2>What makes Avatar a forgotbuster?</h2>
<p>I think there are three other reasons Avatar might be regarded as a forgotbuster.</p>
<p>Firstly, Avatar encouraged film studios to subsequently hike ticket prices based on a “<a href="https://www.theringer.com/platform/amp/movies/2022/12/13/23506729/james-cameron-avatar-3d-filmmaking-legacy">3D premium</a>”. Paying $15 for a regular ticket suddenly became $20 for Avatar and the dozens of movies that followed in the period from late 2009 to mid-2012. </p>
<p>Films were often retrofitted for 3D as studios sought to capitalise on Avatar’s success. This resulted in many sub-standard films being released that offered this supposed 3D experience – and cast Avatar as the film responsible for this surge in bad 3D.</p>
<p>Secondly, beyond its technological advances and impressive visual feats, what else do we remember from Avatar? What was the name of the lead character? Or the planet he landed on? Or the tribe he spent time with? </p>
<p>Avatar’s frozen-in-time memorability stems in large part from its status as an “event”. People went to the cinema multiple times, with family, then friends, then again alone, each time slipping on the 3D glasses and watching in awe at the immersive visual spectacle.</p>
<p>Unlike Cameron’s other classic films, full of indelible figures like Ripley in <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0090605/">Aliens (1986)</a> or Arnold Schwarzenegger in <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0088247/?ref_=nv_sr_srsg_0">The Terminator (1984)</a>, Avatar lacks memorable characters or iconic lines.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501183/original/file-20221214-14523-4uh6qv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501183/original/file-20221214-14523-4uh6qv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501183/original/file-20221214-14523-4uh6qv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=316&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501183/original/file-20221214-14523-4uh6qv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=316&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501183/original/file-20221214-14523-4uh6qv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=316&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501183/original/file-20221214-14523-4uh6qv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501183/original/file-20221214-14523-4uh6qv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501183/original/file-20221214-14523-4uh6qv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">A still from Avatar: The Way of Water (2022)</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">20th Century studios</span></span>
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<p>Thirdly, and perhaps most importantly, Avatar is not like other contemporary blockbusters. It is not a sequel, or part of a connected cinematic universe (yet), or based on an existing property. It is not full of star names. It trades heavily on ecological, pro-environmental, and <a href="https://screencrush.com/back-to-pandora-why-is-avatar-forgotten/">anti-military themes</a>. </p>
<p>Because Avatar isn’t a brand like Harry Potter, Star Wars or DC Comics, it lacks the cultural stickiness those franchises rely on to stay relevant in our saturated media landscape. Avatar burned brightly, and then was forgotten.</p>
<p>Avatar’s cultural footprint was temporary. What will happen to Avatar 2? Will it endure? </p>
<p>Despite the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/film/2022/dec/13/avatar-the-way-of-water-review-james-cameron">mixed reviews</a>, <a href="https://variety.com/2022/film/box-office/avatar-way-of-water-box-office-opening-weekend-projections-1235459227/">the early indications are</a> Cameron’s sequel will be a roaring commercial success, and will presumably gross in excess of $2 billion at the global box office. Avatar 3 is due in December 2024, and two more sequels have been greenlit.</p>
<p>Perhaps this extended Avatar universe will ultimately help both the sequels and the original re-enter popular culture and remind us of Cameron’s impressive skill at blending action, special effects, and the narrative beats that define the contemporary blockbuster.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/192005/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ben McCann does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Avatar 2 is released this week - but now it’s hard to remember a single detail from the original film. Does this make it a ‘forgotbuster’?Ben McCann, Associate Professor of French Studies, University of AdelaideLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1965222022-12-13T17:13:17Z2022-12-13T17:13:17ZAvatar: The Way of the Water review – tired climate clichés distract from Cameron’s vision<p>It’s been 13 long years since we last visited the planet of Pandora. During that time back here on Earth, we’ve seen huge tumultuousness: economic crises, the rise of populist politics, a deadly global pandemic and <a href="https://www.oxfam.org/en/5-natural-disasters-beg-climate-action">a growing climate emergency</a>. But on Pandora, very little has changed.</p>
<p>The main hero of the first Avatar film, Jake Sully (Sam Worthington), is still leader of the Na’vi tribe. The tribe still live a symbiotic life with nature and the forests are still awash with neon flora and exotic fauna. Sully now has a family though: four children including an adopted child called Kiri (Sigourney Weaver).</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">The trailer for James Cameron’s Avatar: The Way of the Water.</span></figcaption>
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<p>Perhaps in an attempt to keep in tune with the development of <a href="https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwirhvjhzvb7AhUFolwKHV5NBC8QFnoECCEQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fmcfarlandbooks.com%2Fproduct%2Fassembling-the-marvel-cinematic-universe%2F&usg=AOvVaw1QAiqy49yVpYS3W91p21xe">cinematic universe franchises</a> (one of the biggest popular culture changes in the last 13 years), director James Cameron has decided to rehash the themes of the first film only bigger, louder and with a more <a href="https://variety.com/2022/film/news/avatar-2-budget-expensive-2-billion-turn-profit-1235438907/">substantial CGI budget</a>. But in so doing, he has created a sequel that, while visually stunning, has stunted politics.</p>
<p>It isn’t long into the film that the “sky people” (the invading and colonising humans Sully was once among) make their return. </p>
<p>As if the last 13 years hadn’t happened, we are once again fed the plot of an evil imperialistic force fighting against a nature-loving indigenous population. Only this time it’s wetter and with bigger animals.</p>
<p>If the first instalment was <a href="https://blogs.commons.georgetown.edu/cctp-748-spring2013/2013/05/10/pocahontus-in-space/">Pocahontas in Space</a>, Avatar: The Way of the Water is Free Willy in Space.</p>
<h2>The Way of the Water’s climate catastrophe</h2>
<p>For those who haven’t kept up, Pandora is a far-away planet, rich in natural resources that the greedy human race is looking to mine. In the first film, it was the very valuable (if ridiculously named) <a href="https://www.thegamer.com/avatar-unobtanium-etymology-name-defense/">unobtainium</a> that they were willing to kill for.</p>
<p>This time, humans are looking for a new home away from a dying Earth. </p>
<p>This threat is explored through the familiar <a href="https://edisciplinas.usp.br/pluginfile.php/4374781/mod_resource/content/0/VV_Science_fiction_imperialism_postcolonial_lit_and_film.pdf%22%22">science fiction cinematic narrative</a> of an invading army (who are working for a corporation looking to extract resources) fighting against an insurgent indigenous people.</p>
<p>This is a common cinematic allegory used to depict practices of colonialism that tie military offences tightly with the motivations of profiteering international corporations. Last year’s Dune, a similar science fiction epic, has clear <a href="https://theconversation.com/dune-a-prophetic-tale-about-the-environmental-destruction-wrought-by-the-colonisation-of-africa-170583">colonial overtures</a>, and since 9/11, many American cinematic adventures have played on how the <a href="https://edinburghuniversitypress.com/book-the-war-on-terror-and-american-film.html">US waged it’s imperialistic war on terror</a>.</p>
<p>After a prolonged introductory conflict, Sully is forced to flee his forest home and take his family to a distant tribe living on and in the water.</p>
<p>We are invited into a serene, ethereal and shimmering world full of colour, strange creatures and clear blue vistas. That the film spends so much time creating this beautiful but “natural” landscape is deliberate. </p>
<p>It is emphasising how indigenous populations’ <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781315426617/indigenous-peoples-collaborative-stewardship-nature-jeffrey-snodgrass-henry-delcore-anne-ross-kathleen-pickering-sherman-richard-sherman">careful stewardship</a> of their habitats is an important corrective to the runaway climate catastrophe that we as a species (or more accurately, as a <a href="https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwiGqoOwz_b7AhVGY8AKHbPQApcQFnoECCQQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.simonandschuster.com%2Fbooks%2FThis-Changes-Everything%2FNaomi-Klein%2F9781451697391&usg=AOvVaw0x_HwhkdwSdpI7Xk3hRUsO">capitalist society</a>) are creating.</p>
<p>This Blue Planet aesthetic only charms for so long. The hours spent building this water world add little to the characters’ depth. Instead, a cliched rebellious child versus stern father subplot plays out in exactly the manner you would expect. This is particularly irksome as the complexities of being a parent are themes that Cameron has explored brilliantly in the past – <a href="https://www.slashfilm.com/516622/aliens-released-twentyfive-years-today/">motherhood</a> in Aliens and <a href="https://medium.com/far-from-professional/terminator-2-judgment-day-f54a0e57b158">fatherhood</a> in Terminator 2.</p>
<p>Given the clear links to the natural world and its destruction, this portion of the film could have leaned more into the current atmosphere of protest against climate catastrophe. Climate activism is <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/news/239251/majority-young-people-distressed-about-climate/">dominated by the collective action of young people</a>, yet The Way of the Water depicts the tribal children as passively submitting to the will of their parents and elders (with grave consequences for those who didn’t).</p>
<h2>Where the film falls short</h2>
<p>In Cameron’s third act, the rebellious unity of the indigenous tribes, the animal life and indeed the rocky edifices and outcrops come up against the mechanistic and militaristic invading humans. It’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/three-arguments-why-just-stop-oil-was-right-to-target-van-goghs-sunflowers-192661">nature versus capitalism</a>, the pervading battle of our contemporary age.</p>
<p>Given that there is already an Avatar 3 in the works, it’s not surprising that this battle is only partly concluded. Perhaps Cameron is saving the collective resistance of the younger Na’vi against invading forces for the third film? If so, it would be a more <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/jasp.12737">fitting allegory</a> for current climate activism.</p>
<p>Mainstream popular culture has <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9780203645161/introduction-theories-popular-culture-dominic-strinati">always been a vehicle</a> to speak truth to power. But in these turbulent times, it is <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2021/dec/29/climate-scientist-dont-look-up-madness">often mirroring back</a> to us the multiple troubles of our world with increasing detail and <a href="https://theconversation.com/star-wars-andor-captures-the-essence-of-resistance-that-is-happening-in-the-real-world-194566">artistic quality</a>. Avatar: The Way of Water doesn’t seem to go too far down this road. It tells a similar story to the one it told 13 years ago.</p>
<p>As geopolitical <a href="https://rgs-ibg.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/geoj.12078?casa_token=0Zk-JG616ngAAAAA:UIIBIxkVlA5Xip4ThXxUvaUX4quSHTJYRrsRAG8WstGHcvlI59X5OGmyOB65gvFEz07nlFtmBS_fFq4i">climate scholarship</a> tells us so emphatically, climate justice is only possible with a recognition of, and action against, the massive damage wrought by climate catastrophe.</p>
<p>In the 13 years since the first Avatar, these lessons have yet to be learned. Climate catastrophe is upon us more than ever. And yet <a href="https://faculty.fordham.edu/tampio/Tampio%20-%20Assemblages%20and%20the%20Multitude.pdf">the world</a> will need to take politically bold and perhaps even dangerous steps in fighting against it.</p>
<p>The inspiration for such bold action won’t necessarily be found in Avatar’s sequel. But what we do find is a reminder of the exquisite natural beauty in the world that we should all be fighting for.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/196522/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Oli Mould does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Fans hoping to find an incisive message about the climate crisis in the Avatar sequel will be disappointed, as a geopolitical climate expert explains.Oli Mould, Reader in Human Geography, Royal Holloway University of LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1218582019-09-06T11:35:42Z2019-09-06T11:35:42ZHow to build a ‘perfect’ language<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/291153/original/file-20190905-175673-1bw9fq3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5991%2C3988&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A document in Tengwar, the script of the Elvish languages invented by JRR Tolkien, Dozza, Italy.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Luca Lorenzelli via Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s well known that JRR Tolkien wrote the Lord of the Rings cycle to create people to <a href="https://www.tolkienestate.com/en/learning/languages-and-writing-systems/tolkiens-invented-languages.html">speak the languages he had invented</a>. But, in the television age, artificially created or invented languages – we call them “<a href="https://conlang.org/">conlangs</a>” – have been gaining increasing attention with the popularity of television series such as Star Trek and Game of Thrones, and films such as Avatar.</p>
<p>Fantasy and science fiction are the ideal vehicles for conlangs. Marc Okrand, an American linguist whose core research area is Native American languages, invented Klingon for Star Trek, while Paul Frommer of the University of Southern California created the Na'vi language for Avatar.</p>
<p>The fantasy series Game of Thrones involved several languages, including Dothraki and Valyrian, which were created by David J Peterson, a “conlanger” who has invented languages for several other shows. Most recently, fantasy thriller The City and The City featured the language Illitan, created by <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-i-invented-a-new-language-for-the-city-and-the-city-94189">Alison Long of Keele University</a> in the UK.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-i-invented-a-new-language-for-the-city-and-the-city-94189">How I invented a new language for The City and The City</a>
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<p>I teach how to construct languages and one question my students usually ask is: “How do I make a perfect language?” I need to warn that it’s impossible to make a language “perfect” – or even “complete”. Rather, an invented language is more likely to be appropriate for the context – convincing and developed just enough to work in the desired environment. But here are a few things to bear in mind.</p>
<h2>Who will speak this language and why?</h2>
<p>It is very important to be clear about the aims of the language and its (fictional or real) speakers. When conlangs are created for a specific fictional character, the aims and speakers are determined by the story, the author or producer.</p>
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<p>In some cases, fragments or descriptions of the language do exist. This was the case for Illitan, which was described as having “jarring” sounds in the novel The City and The City and there were a few Dothraki expressions in the first Game of Thrones novel. But what if there are no instructions? In <a href="https://search.proquest.com/openview/2128040261a9167704e671a8aca58ed7/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=636386">a survey I ran</a> a few years ago, many language creators pointed out that a sense of aesthetics and beauty guided them, along with the need to make the conlangs sound natural and a very pragmatic sense of how easily the languages could be pronounced.</p>
<p>There is also a strong link between language and culture, where some languages attract a large fan base because of the culture and community this language represents. <a href="https://journal.transformativeworks.org/index.php/twc/article/download/610/512?inline=1">A good example is Na’vi</a>, which attracts many learners because of its welcoming community of speakers. In some cases the language itself has developed a strong culture and community, as is the case for Esperanto, which <a href="https://esperanto.net/en/what-we-do/">aims to bring people together</a> regardless of their background and supports a strong sense of solidarity. </p>
<h2>Start with sounds</h2>
<p>The sound system is typically the starting point for language creators. This makes sense, given that sound is usually the first thing that we encounter in a new language. Do we want our conlang to sound harsh, alien or even aggressive? In <a href="https://www.kli.org/about-klingon/sounds-of-klingon/">the Klingon sound system</a> this effect is achieved as follows: </p>
<ol>
<li><p>Fricative consonants – like the initial sounds in the words “chair”, “show” and “jump” or the final sound in the Scottish word “loch”.</p></li>
<li><p>Plosive consonants – such as “t”, “p” and “k” – ideally produced with a stronger puff of air than is customary in spoken English. </p></li>
<li><p>Sounds that are unusual – at least to the ears of English speakers, who are typically the primary target audience. So imagine a consonant that sounds like a “k” that is produced far back in the throat (a sound which exists in Modern Standard Arabic) or a “g” that is produced more like a “gargle” and exists, for example, in Modern Greek and Icelandic. </p></li>
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<p>These sounds all contribute to Klingon’s alien quality. On the other hand, Tolkien’s Elvish languages of Sindarin and Quenya were developed to sound aesthetically pleasing and – according to Tolkien himself – are intended to sound “of a European kind”. So Tolkien’s Elvish languages have systems which are much closer to those of European languages such as Welsh, Finnish and Old English, all of which influenced Tolkien <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-invent-a-tolkien-style-language-57380">when creating these languages</a>. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-invent-a-tolkien-style-language-57380">How to invent a Tolkien-style language</a>
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<h2>Words and customs</h2>
<p>Once we know how our language sounds, we can develop words. Here, the link to the culture of the speakers is important in establishing the most important words and expressions. For example, the Na’vi are deeply connected to nature and this connection is ingrained in their words, metaphors and customs. For example, when the Na'vi kill an animal they speak a prayer to show respect, gratitude and humility. </p>
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<p>In contrast, the Dothraki – nomadic warriors relying on horses – literally say: “Do you ride well?” when asking: “Are you well?”</p>
<h2>Grammar</h2>
<p>Now we need to put our words together in a sensible way, including expressing tenses and plural forms. We can do this by adding different endings – so, for example, Esperanto uses the verb ending -as to express present tense, -os for past and -is for future, as in <em>amas</em> (love), <em>amos</em> (loved) and <em>amis</em> (will love). </p>
<p>We also need to decide on the word order and sentence structure. English has a typical structure of Subject-Verb-Object, but an alien-sounding conlang like Klingon may use a more unusual structure like Object-Subject-Verb – for example, the book (Object) – my friend (Subject) – reads (Verb).</p>
<h2>Writing systems</h2>
<p>Writing systems are bound to the culture of the speakers – and not all languages are written. Cultures with purely oral traditions, like the Dothraki, do not write. However, where such writing systems appear, they are often an artistic endeavour in themselves. The most famous example is <a href="https://www.tecendil.com/tengwar-handbook/">Tengwar</a>, one of the scripts Tolkien developed for the Elvish languages. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/291260/original/file-20190906-175714-gaf1iz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/291260/original/file-20190906-175714-gaf1iz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/291260/original/file-20190906-175714-gaf1iz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=617&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291260/original/file-20190906-175714-gaf1iz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=617&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291260/original/file-20190906-175714-gaf1iz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=617&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291260/original/file-20190906-175714-gaf1iz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=776&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291260/original/file-20190906-175714-gaf1iz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=776&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291260/original/file-20190906-175714-gaf1iz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=776&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The first article of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in JRR Tolkien’s Tengwar script (transcribed from English).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Alatius/Wikimedia Commons</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Klingon maintains its alien quality <a href="https://www.kli.org/about-klingon/writing-klingon/">through very spiky characters</a> and Esperanto, developed to be learned easily, contained some symbols which have subsequently been changed <a href="https://omniglot.com/writing/esperanto.htm">as they were too cumbersome</a>. </p>
<p>So, like natural languages, conlangs change and develop (for example, all conlangs <a href="https://www.reddit.com/r/conlangs/comments/5cqndy/how_do_i_create_new_words_logically/">regularly acquire new words</a>). What is important, though, is to keep the speaker community active, otherwise only fragments of your conlang may remain, <a href="http://tolkiengateway.net/wiki/Black_Speech">as is the case for Sauron’s Black Speech</a> in the Lord of the Rings. But given what we know about the evil Sauron, perhaps that is just as well.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/121858/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bettina Beinhoff does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>From Lord of the Rings to Game of Thrones, writers and linguists have invented an array of new languages.Bettina Beinhoff, Senior Lecturer, Applied Linguistics and English Language, Anglia Ruskin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1207492019-07-22T10:56:07Z2019-07-22T10:56:07Z‘Avengers: Endgame’ is nowhere near the worldwide box office record – here’s why<p>Marvel’s gambit to propel “Avengers: Endgame” to become the top-grossing movie of all time finally paid off.</p>
<p>The studio <a href="https://www.buzzfeed.com/noradominick/avengers-endgame-extra-footage-post-credits-scene">re-released</a> the final film in its “Avengers” series earlier this month with extra footage and a post-credit tribute in an effort to pass James Cameron’s 2009 film “Avatar” as the world box office record holder.</p>
<p>As of July 21, “<a href="https://www.marvel.com/movies/avengers-endgame">Avengers: Endgame</a>” had <a href="https://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=marvel2019.htm">collected US$2.79 billion in worldwide ticket sales</a>, <a href="https://www.boxofficemojo.com/alltime/world/">edging out “Avatar” by around $500,000</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.thewaltdisneycompany.com/avengers-endgame-is-the-no-1-global-release-of-all-time/">Marketing</a> and <a href="https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/adambvary/lion-king-box-office-avengers-endgame-record">bombast aside</a>, however, the reality is “Endgame” isn’t even close to the real record-holder – nor is, for that matter, “Avatar.” The reason why gives <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/cf_dev/AbsByAuth.cfm?per_id=385083">me an excuse</a> to offer a short lesson on inflation.</p>
<h2>Why adjust for inflation</h2>
<p>Prices from year to year cannot be directly compared with one another because the cost to buy things changes dramatically over time.</p>
<p>For example, in nominal terms, it costs more today <a href="https://www.foxnews.com/food-drink/coca-cola-is-raising-soda-prices-ceo-says-consumers-likely-to-feel-effect">to buy movie tickets, popcorn and soda</a> and get to the theater than it did in the past, while it <a href="https://theconversation.com/rise-and-fall-of-the-landline-143-years-of-telephones-becoming-more-accessible-and-smart-113295">costs much less to call</a> your friends and invite them to come along. </p>
<p>Without <a href="https://www.bls.gov/cpi/questions-and-answers.htm#Question_1">adjusting for inflation</a> and changes in purchasing power, comparisons from one time period to another are meaningless.</p>
<p>One of my grandfather’s favorite stories helps illustrate this. He used to talk about the “good old days” in the 1940s when a cup of coffee or a loaf of bread cost just 10 cents. But my grandpa didn’t consider how much lower his wages were back then. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.bls.gov/data/inflation_calculator.htm">Adjusting for inflation</a> means a 10-cent cup of coffee in 1940 would cost about $1.84 in 2019 dollars. Today you can buy <a href="http://www.wegotcoffee.com/cafe/sizes-and-prices-of-coffee-at-7-11.php">coffee at chains like 7-Eleven</a> for a lot less.</p>
<h2>The real box office king</h2>
<p>And that’s why “Avengers: Endgame” is a long way from becoming the box office king. The heralded numbers don’t reflect inflation.</p>
<p>To demonstrate, let’s first look just at U.S. domestic ticket sales since it’s easier to calculate and see the effect. </p>
<p>The current <a href="https://www.boxofficemojo.com/alltime/domestic.htm">list of top-grossing films</a> at the U.S. box office is led by “<a href="https://www.starwars.com/the-force-awakens">Star Wars: The Force Awakens</a>,” which came out in 2015 and earned a nominal $936 million, followed by “Endgame” at $854 million and “Avatar” at $761 million.</p>
<p>Adjusting for inflation alters the <a href="https://www.boxofficemojo.com/alltime/adjusted.htm">list dramatically</a>. Box Office Mojo, an online box-office reporting service operated by <a href="https://www.imdb.com">IMDb</a>, calculates inflation by multiplying <a href="https://www.mpaa.org/research-docs/2016-theatrical-market-statistics-report/">average ticket prices</a> in a given year by estimated admissions. </p>
<p><iframe id="6BezM" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/6BezM/3/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>As a result, “Endgame” drops to 16th place. “Avatar” slips to 15th with $877 million in adjusted ticket sales. “<a href="https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/gone_with_the_wind">Gone with the Wind</a>,” released in 1939, meanwhile, vaults to first place with $1.8 billion in adjusted ticket sales. </p>
<p>Calculating sales internationally is trickier because inflation is different in every country. IMDb, however, <a href="https://www.imdb.com/list/ls026442468">makes a valiant effort</a> making these adjustments. </p>
<p>Based on its estimates, “Gone with the Wind” is the worldwide box office leader with $3.4 billion to $3.8 billion in global sales. Cameron’s “Titanic” comes next at $3.2 billion to $3.4 billion, followed by “Avatar” with $3.2 billion.</p>
<p>With $2.79 billion, “Endgame” falls to fifth, leaving it with almost $1 billion in ticket sales to go to before it could legitimately lay claim to the top title. </p>
<h2>Don’t believe the hype</h2>
<p>We love Hollywood movies because they provide entertainment and escapism. </p>
<p>However, the marketing of Hollywood movies and the hype surrounding ticket sales records, like movies themselves, often play fast and loose with economic reality. This is something I expect we’ll see more of as films get released on far more screens and <a href="https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/china-box-office-total-revenue-2018-1172725">more people in countries like China</a> go to see them. </p>
<p>I liked “Avengers: Endgame,” whose plot is based on time-traveling superheroes. It was definitely three hours of escapist fun. But the hype surrounding its box office records, like its plot, shouldn’t be taken too seriously. </p>
<p><em>This is an updated version of an <a href="http://theconversation.com/thanks-avengers-endgame-for-reminding-us-why-inflation-matters-119735">article originally published</a> on July 2, 2019.</em></p>
<p>[ <em>Like what you’ve read? Want more?</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=likethis">Sign up for The Conversation’s daily newsletter</a>. ]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/120749/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jay L. Zagorsky does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Disney says the Marvel movie just beat ‘Avatar’ as the top-grossing movie of all time. Inflation tells a different story, as an economist explains.Jay L. Zagorsky, Senior Lecturer, Boston UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1193012019-07-03T20:00:42Z2019-07-03T20:00:42ZUsing virtual reality could make you a better person in real life<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/280879/original/file-20190624-97757-1z0kibw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=418%2C440%2C4653%2C2699&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">VR gives the user a sense of body ownership over a virtual avatar.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://assetbank.deakin.edu.au/asset-bank/action/viewAsset?id=24730">Deakin University Asset Bank</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you’ve ever participated in a virtual reality (VR) experience, you might have found yourself navigating the virtual world as an avatar. If you haven’t, you probably recognise the experience from its portrayal in film and on television.</p>
<p>Popular media has brought us characters like Jake Sully in <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0499549/">Avatar</a>, Wade Watts in <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1677720/">Ready Player One</a>, and Danny and Karl in the Black Mirror episode <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt8503298/">Striking Vipers</a>.</p>
<p>In these examples, the character’s virtual alter-ego is physically different from who they are in the real world. The connection between the real person and their virtual avatar is called “embodiment”. If you have a strong sense of embodiment when using VR, you might feel as if your virtual body is your own biological body.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/crEU1pcoWiw?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The moment in the film Avatar when Jake Sully experiences his virtual body for the first time.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Virtual embodiment provides an opportunity to explore the world from a different point of view. And studies have shown that experiencing new perspectives in the virtual world can alter your behaviour in real life.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/virtual-reality-adds-to-tourism-through-touch-smell-and-real-peoples-experiences-101528">Virtual reality adds to tourism through touch, smell and real people's experiences</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How virtual embodiment works</h2>
<p>Virtual embodiment isn’t entirely new. PC or console role-playing games generate a <a href="https://theconversation.com/gamer-disclaimer-virtual-worlds-can-be-as-fulfilling-as-real-life-29571">similar effect</a>, albeit to a lesser extent. VR technology creates a far greater sense of immersion in the virtual world than two-dimensional screen experiences.</p>
<p>That’s because successful 3D virtual environments use more senses, compared with just visual and audio in 2D screen-based technologies. This approach ensures the user is fully engulfed in the synthetic world, which they experience through their virtual avatar.</p>
<p>Immersive visuals in VR trick the user into believing they are elsewhere, such as <a href="https://www.lifewire.com/virtual-reality-tourism-4129394">atop Mount Everest</a> or at the Eiffel Tower. By presenting separate images to each eye, a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereoscope">3D</a> effect can be achieved when the user incorporates the information from each screen in the VR headset.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281075/original/file-20190625-81733-18kvjd3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281075/original/file-20190625-81733-18kvjd3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281075/original/file-20190625-81733-18kvjd3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281075/original/file-20190625-81733-18kvjd3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281075/original/file-20190625-81733-18kvjd3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=476&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281075/original/file-20190625-81733-18kvjd3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=476&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281075/original/file-20190625-81733-18kvjd3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=476&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Stereoscopic view of the Eiffel Tower.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://myvrgoggles.com/how-to-use-google-maps-street-view-in-vr-mode-pid-280366">Google Maps Street View in VR</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These visuals are captured with <a href="https://realvision.ae/blog/2014/08/the-language-of-visual-storytelling-in-360-virtual-reality/">360-degree photography or video cameras</a>. Alternatively, actual photography or video can be used in VR environments. </p>
<p>Appropriate <a href="http://thevrfilmmaker.com/2016/01/12/virtual-reality-sound-design-is-the-key-to-successful-storytelling/">360-degree sound</a> also plays an important role as it can help convince the user of the authenticity of the virtual world.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/walk-inside-a-plant-cell-or-glide-over-a-coral-reef-three-ways-virtual-reality-is-revolutionising-teaching-117022">Walk inside a plant cell or glide over a coral reef: three ways virtual reality is revolutionising teaching</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Touch, smell and ‘body ownership’</h2>
<p>The sense of touch is a common form of sensory feedback. Every time you feel your mobile vibrate in your pocket, you’re interacting with “haptic” technology. </p>
<p>In VR, haptic devices simulate physical sensations that are triggered when avatars interact with virtual objects. There are devices that can alter an avatar’s <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7UJIGggLQWM">weight distribution</a> or <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kiNHqsaoJxc">aerodynamics</a> to mimic what is happening in the virtual environment. Real physical props can also be used to introduce <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Orpd5cYX4Z4">real-life challenges to VR sports</a>. Haptic sensations can even be created in mid-air.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/xaFBjUJj00M?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>Smell, or olfactory sense, is another important mechanism that improves engagement within a virtual world. A Kickstarter campaign for a <a href="https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/feelreal/feelreal">VR mask</a> that can simulate the sense of smell using aroma capsules has exceeded its funding target, demonstrating the level of interest in multisensory VR. </p>
<p>In addition to extra senses, VR gives the user a sense of body ownership over the virtual avatar. Body ownership refers to the self-attribution of a (virtual) body. This can be achieved by synchronising multiple sensory feedback. </p>
<p>For example, when the user can see their virtual hand being touched and can feel the haptic sensation at the same time, they are more likely to believe the virtual body is theirs. This is demonstrated by the famous rubber hand experiment.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/DphlhmtGRqI?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
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<h2>How virtual bodies affect behaviour</h2>
<p>People respond differently to virtual avatars depending on who they are and the characteristics of the avatar. For example, a <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YyOmFtJJC7k">recent study found</a> that women dislike their virtual avatar having male hands, whereas men are more likely to accept avatar hands of any gender. </p>
<p>Another study found that <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RcBJ1sCPv_I">racial bias decreases</a> when caucasians are represented by avatars that have darker compared with lighter skin. </p>
<p>The body shape of the avatar also affects behaviour. Researchers found that game players showed increased <a href="https://medicalxpress.com/news/2016-02-thin-obese-avatars-motion-controlled-gaming.html">physical activity</a> in the real world if they regularly played games with thin avatars as opposed to obese ones.</p>
<p>This suggests that the identities of virtual avatars can take precedence over our usual identities.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-virtual-reality-is-giving-the-worlds-roller-coasters-a-new-twist-101395">How Virtual Reality is giving the world's roller coasters a new twist</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Choosing the right path</h2>
<p>The ability to embody a virtual avatar blurs the lines between what’s going on in the headset and what’s happening in real life. It feeds the freedom to explore and experiment, whether that’s with a different personality, gender or physicality. </p>
<p>But the option has to be available in the first place if it’s going to have an impact. PC Gamer <a href="https://www.pcgamer.com/rampant-racism-and-toxicity-are-driving-players-away-from-mordhau/">reported this week</a> that the developers of the medieval multiplayer game Mordhau were considering introducing female and racially diverse skin tones into the game. The suggestion (which <a href="https://twitter.com/mordhaugame/status/1145867144225316864">they deny</a>) that they were also planning to give players the option to turn off this diversity if they don’t like it led to a wave of backlash within the gaming community. </p>
<p>Our own research with older adults has also <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320280765_To_be_Me_or_Not_to_Be_Photorealistic_Avatars_and_Older_Adults">revealed frustrations</a> with the lack of flexibility in avatar creation tools, such as the inability to modify personal characteristics like facial features and fitness levels.</p>
<p>Embodiment is powerful. It can influence your self-identity, perception, and behaviours both in and outside of virtual worlds. The onus is on the future designers and developers of this technology to ensure this power is used for good.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/119301/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Thuong Hoang received funding from Australian Research Council Discovery Project for his work on Ageing Bodies, Embodied Interactions, and Social Inclusion (DP160101368)</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Guy Wood-Bradley does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>In VR you can explore the world from a different point of view. And studies have shown that experiencing new perspectives in the virtual world can alter your behaviour in real life.Thuong Hoang, Lecturer in Virtual and Augmented Reality, Deakin UniversityGuy Wood-Bradley, Lecturer in IT, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1197352019-07-02T23:42:04Z2019-07-02T23:42:04ZThanks, ‘Avengers: Endgame,’ for reminding us why inflation matters<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282370/original/file-20190702-126369-1qu4kna.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Cap is probably not a fan of inflation.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Marvel Studios</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Editor’s note: This story has been updated. Please see the <a href="https://theconversation.com/avengers-endgame-is-nowhere-near-the-worldwide-box-office-record-heres-why-120749">new version</a>.</em></p>
<p>Marvel <a href="https://www.buzzfeed.com/noradominick/avengers-endgame-extra-footage-post-credits-scene">recently re-released</a> the final film in its “Avengers” series with extra footage and a post-credit tribute in hopes of breaking the worldwide record for top-grossing movie of all time.</p>
<p>So far, the gambit <a href="https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/heat-vision/box-office-avengers-endgame-wont-overtake-avatar-now-1221918">seems to have failed</a>. As of July 2, “<a href="https://www.marvel.com/movies/avengers-endgame">Avengers: Endgame</a>” had <a href="https://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=marvel2019.htm">collected US$2.77 billion in worldwide ticket sales</a>. This is still <a href="https://www.boxofficemojo.com/alltime/world/">$22 million shy</a> of James Cameron’s 2009 film “Avatar.” </p>
<p>But in reality, “Endgame” isn’t even close to the real record-holder – nor is, for that matter, “Avatar.” The reason why gives <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/cf_dev/AbsByAuth.cfm?per_id=385083">me an excuse</a> to offer a short lesson on inflation.</p>
<h2>Why adjust for inflation</h2>
<p>Prices from year to year cannot be directly compared with one another because the cost to buy things changes dramatically over time.</p>
<p>For example, in nominal terms, it costs more today <a href="https://www.foxnews.com/food-drink/coca-cola-is-raising-soda-prices-ceo-says-consumers-likely-to-feel-effect">to buy movie tickets, popcorn and soda</a> and get to the theater than it did in the past, while it <a href="https://theconversation.com/rise-and-fall-of-the-landline-143-years-of-telephones-becoming-more-accessible-and-smart-113295">costs much less to call</a> your friends and invite them to come along. </p>
<p>Without <a href="https://www.bls.gov/cpi/questions-and-answers.htm#Question_1">adjusting for inflation</a> and changes in purchasing power, comparisons from one time period to another are meaningless.</p>
<p>One of my grandfather’s favorite stories helps illustrate this. He used to talk about the “good old days” in the 1940s when a cup of coffee or a loaf of bread cost just 10 cents. But my grandpa didn’t consider how much lower his wages were back then. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.bls.gov/data/inflation_calculator.htm">Adjusting for inflation</a> means a 10-cent cup of coffee in 1940 would cost about $1.84 in 2019 dollars. Today you can buy <a href="http://www.wegotcoffee.com/cafe/sizes-and-prices-of-coffee-at-7-11.php">coffee at chains like 7-Eleven</a> for a lot less.</p>
<h2>The real box office king</h2>
<p>And that’s why “Avengers: Endgame” is a long way from becoming the box office king. The heralded numbers don’t reflect inflation.</p>
<p>To demonstrate, let’s first look just at U.S. domestic ticket sales since it’s easier to calculate and see the effect. </p>
<p>The current <a href="https://www.boxofficemojo.com/alltime/domestic.htm">list of top-grossing films</a> at the U.S. box office is led by “<a href="https://www.starwars.com/the-force-awakens">Star Wars: The Force Awakens</a>,” which came out in 2015 and earned a nominal $936 million, followed by “Endgame” at $841 million and “Avatar” at $761 million.</p>
<p>Adjusting for inflation alters the <a href="https://www.boxofficemojo.com/alltime/adjusted.htm">list dramatically</a>. Box Office Mojo, an online box-office reporting service operated by <a href="https://www.imdb.com">IMDb</a>, calculates inflation by multiplying <a href="https://www.mpaa.org/research-docs/2016-theatrical-market-statistics-report/">average ticket prices</a> in a given year by estimated admissions. </p>
<p><iframe id="6BezM" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/6BezM/3/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>As a result, “Endgame” drops to 17th place. “Avatar” slips to 15th with $877 million in adjusted ticket sales. “<a href="https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/gone_with_the_wind">Gone with the Wind</a>,” released in 1939, meanwhile, vaults to first place with $1.8 billion in adjusted ticket sales. </p>
<p>Calculating sales internationally is trickier because inflation is different in every country. IMDb, however, <a href="https://www.imdb.com/list/ls026442468">makes a valiant effort</a> making these adjustments. </p>
<p>Based on its estimates, “Gone with the Wind” is the worldwide box office leader with $3.4 billion to $3.8 billion in global sales. Cameron’s “Titanic” comes next at $3.2 billion to $3.4 billion, followed by “Avatar” with $3.2 billion.</p>
<p>With $2.77 billion, “Endgame” falls to fifth, leaving it with almost $1 billion in ticket sales to go to before it could legitimately lay claim to the top title. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282360/original/file-20190702-126382-bkf8q6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282360/original/file-20190702-126382-bkf8q6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282360/original/file-20190702-126382-bkf8q6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282360/original/file-20190702-126382-bkf8q6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282360/original/file-20190702-126382-bkf8q6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=571&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282360/original/file-20190702-126382-bkf8q6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=571&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282360/original/file-20190702-126382-bkf8q6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=571&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">‘Gone with the Wind’ came out in 1939, when ticket prices were less than 25 cents.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gone_with_the_Wind_(film)#/media/File:Gone_With_the_Wind_Atlanta_premiere_1939.jpg">ACME News Photos</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Don’t believe the hype</h2>
<p>We love Hollywood movies because they provide entertainment and escapism. </p>
<p>However, the marketing of Hollywood movies and the hype surrounding ticket sales records, like movies themselves, often play fast and loose with economic reality. This is something I expect we’ll see more of as films get released on far more screens and <a href="https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/china-box-office-total-revenue-2018-1172725">more people in countries like China</a> go to see them. </p>
<p>I liked “Avengers: Endgame,” whose plot is based on time-traveling superheroes. It was definitely three hours of escapist fun. But the hype surrounding its box office records, like its plot, shouldn’t be taken too seriously. </p>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jay L. Zagorsky does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>It’s why Marvel’s effort to break the worldwide box office record is doomed, as an economist explains.Jay L. Zagorsky, Senior Lecturer, Boston UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.