tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/boeing-787-3075/articlesBoeing 787 – The Conversation2013-05-02T20:11:58Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/127532013-05-02T20:11:58Z2013-05-02T20:11:58ZOne flies planes, the other makes money: the two sides of aviation<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/21898/original/qh8rn866-1364717603.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Although tightly linked to each other, airlines and the aircraft manufacturing industry don't generally seem to be heading in the same direction.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Flickr/FreeFoto</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>A few months ago I was invited to a small gathering organised by executives from a large international airline (one you most certainly have heard of). About a dozen of us were there and the mix was varied: reps from CASA, Airservices Australia, Sydney airport, various banks and so on. The airline wanted to discuss parts of their strategic plan and a lively discussion ensued.</p>
<p>Before the presentation took place, I had a chat with some of the people around the room and I came across this banker who seemed particularly agitated. “This is my first one of these,” I say. “What should I expect?”. He replies with: “Well, you never know with these airlines. I still don’t know how they manage to stay in business after all these years without making any MONEY!” </p>
<p>Truth is, the airline that organised the gathering was doing quite well but most would agree with him - airlines don’t have the best record as profit-making organisations. Just last March, <a href="http://video.cnbc.com/gallery/?video=3000151858">Warren Buffett claimed</a> that the airline industry has “all the ingredients of a bad business”.</p>
<p>However, although the companies that are flying passengers from A to B (i.e. the airlines) don’t always do well financially, the large corporations selling them the planes (i.e. the aircraft manufacturers) are for the most part showing healthy numbers. There is clearly a discrepancy between the aircraft buyers (or leasers) and the aircraft makers - but why? How come these two inter-linked industries seem to fare so differently?</p>
<h2>Aircraft orders taking off</h2>
<p>The commercial aerospace industry can be broken down into two main components: the companies that make the aircraft - commonly referred as the OEM (Originial Equipment Manufacturer); and the airlines (the customers acquiring the planes). Most people could name at least two OEMs: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing">The Boeing Company</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airbus">Airbus</a> (which is a subsidiary of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EADS">EADS</a>). Other OEMs include <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombardier_Aerospace">Bombardier Aerospace</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embraer">Embraer</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_Stream">Gulf Stream</a> and many others. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/19372/original/jzq8m3vx-1358483517.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/19372/original/jzq8m3vx-1358483517.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/19372/original/jzq8m3vx-1358483517.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/19372/original/jzq8m3vx-1358483517.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/19372/original/jzq8m3vx-1358483517.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/19372/original/jzq8m3vx-1358483517.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/19372/original/jzq8m3vx-1358483517.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Boeing 787 being assembled.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Boeing</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>Boeing and Airbus have both broken several industry records in the last couple of years in terms of aircraft orders. Last year, Boeing took the largest commercial aviation order in its history for the <a href="http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-02-14/boeing-signs-record-order-from-lion-air-for-737-airplanes.html">delivery of 230 planes</a> worth a combined A$22.4 billion to Indonesian carrier Lion Air. Also last year, <a href="http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/bf624d78-47a2-11e1-9a92-00144feabdc0.html#axzz2PwyXeT3K">Southwest Airlines placed an order</a> for 208 single-aisle Boeing aircraft worth $19 billion while Norwegian Air Shuttle purchased 122 Boeing 737 aircraft for around A$11 billion. More recently, Airbus landed a <a href="http://www.news.com.au/business/breaking-news/airbus-orders-200-jets/story-e6frfkur-1226599534784">massive order from Lion Air</a> worth A$18 billion for 234 A320 jets. Airbus has even said it may have to ask for <a href="http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-04-08/airbus-juggles-order-book-to-meet-record-demand-for-a320neo-jet.html">increased flexibility</a> from its customers to cope with the incoming orders aiming for <a href="http://au.news.yahoo.com/world/a/-/world/16636053/airbus-sales-chief-aims-to-hit-750-plane-orders-in-2013/">750 plane orders in 2013</a>.</p>
<p>These large OEMs are also strengthening their position by absorbing some of the maintenance work previously done by maintenance repair and overhaul companies (commonly referred to as MROs). These companies are also struggling as the amount of aircraft maintenance work required is decreasing due to new technological advances, (including advanced materials, as previously <a href="https://theconversation.com/lets-stick-together-composite-materials-aeroplanes-and-you-7207">discussed in The Conversation</a>).</p>
<p>Some of the large OEMs have another advantage: their military portfolio. Defence projects are immensely important to many of the OEMs’ bottom line and some of the resulting project outcomes do eventually <a href="https://theconversation.com/military-backed-research-is-being-cut-back-but-will-this-affect-science-4890">trickle down to commercial aviation</a>. However, military budgets are being tightened as shown by flat defence revenues <a href="http://deloitte.wsj.com/cfo/2013/02/14/2013-outlook-on-aerospace-defense/">through the first nine months of 2012</a> at the global level, and global economic challenges in the near future will likely result in <a href="http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/11/07/us-boeing-defense-restructuring-idUSBRE8A61Z320121107">additional decreases in revenue</a>.</p>
<p>OEMs are also consolidating their place in the market by strengthening their position through mergers. Over the past 20 years, over <a href="http://www.imaa-institute.org/statistics-mergers-acquisitions.html#M&A_Ind_Aerospace&Defense">6000 mergers and acquisitions</a> totalling a value of more than A$600 billion took place worldwide. Airlines are experiencing <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-qantas-emirates-alliance-a-flight-path-to-future-growth-9363">a similar phenomenon</a> by merging or forging alliances as best shown by last month’s ACCC approval for the <a href="https://theconversation.com/accc-approves-qantas-emirates-deal-the-experts-respond-13117">Qantas-Emirates partnership</a> and Virgin Australia’s move to <a href="http://www.news.com.au/business/companies/accc-approves-virgins-tiger-acquisition/story-fnda1bsz-1226626858789">acquire a majority stake</a> in Tiger Airways. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/21899/original/2txqddhx-1364719673.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/21899/original/2txqddhx-1364719673.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/21899/original/2txqddhx-1364719673.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/21899/original/2txqddhx-1364719673.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/21899/original/2txqddhx-1364719673.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/21899/original/2txqddhx-1364719673.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/21899/original/2txqddhx-1364719673.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The number of airlines has skyrocketed in the US and Europe since deregulation in the 1990s.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Flickr/MomentsForZen</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A battle between legacy airlines and new emerging players</h2>
<p>The aviation industry is notoriously difficult with large capital and operating costs, high fuel costs and increasing competition at a global scale. In Australia, it is also particularly exposed to the rising dollar.</p>
<p>The memories of the Ansett’s agony to bankruptcy are still in most people’s mind although one does not need to look that far back, as shown by last year’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/qantas-cuts-jobs-air-australia-collapses-how-can-we-save-our-airlines-5435">Air Australia collapse</a>.</p>
<p>Looking at the latest half-yearly results, Qantas showed a <a href="http://blogs.crikey.com.au/planetalking/2013/02/21/flash-qantas-posts-improved-half-year-results/">statutory profit of A$111 million</a> for the six months ending in December 2012 but it suffered a 34% fall in earnings from domestic business travel with Virgin Australia increasingly competing in the corporate travel sector. Virgin Australia is also hurting with a net profit that <a href="http://www.businessspectator.com.au/news/2013/2/26/resources-and-energy/virgin-australia-hit-first-half-profit-slump">decreased by half to A$23 million</a> according to the latest half-yearly numbers. </p>
<p>On the international front, Qantas International reported a loss of A$91 million, although it will be interesting to see how the Qantas-Emirates partnership will impact Qantas International earnings in the years to come. But with both airlines ramping up capacity on domestic travel - in attempt to eat into the competition’s market share - the supply is exceeding demand and flying empty seats may result in future losses.</p>
<p>Airlines operating in Australia are hardly the only ones facing challenges. The collapses of long-established carriers such as <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-16787761">Spain’s Spanair</a> and <a href="http://aviationblog.dallasnews.com/2013/03/amr-american-airlines-ask-bankruptcy-judge-for-more-time-to-file-a-plan-of-reorganization.html/">American Airlines</a> underscore the grim financial reality the industry faces. In the past nine years, airlines as a whole suffered an <a href="http://www.bangkokpost.com/learning/learning-from-news/279650/global-airline-industry-unprofitable">aggregate loss of US$47.9 billion</a>.</p>
<p>However, Berkeley economist and commercial aviation expert <a href="http://facultybio.haas.berkeley.edu/faculty-list/borenstein-severin">Severin Borenstein</a> believes that high taxes and fuel costs play a minor role in airline operations. The major drivers are related to fluctuations in demand, government policy and the large cost differential between legacy airlines and new low-cost carriers. </p>
<p>These low-cost airlines are strengthening their position in the market as shown by <a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/business/2013/mar/19/ryanair-175-new-planes-boeing">Ryanair’s recent order for 175 new Boeing planes</a>. Legacy airlines have responded accordingly and the difference in price and service between legacy airlines and low cost carriers is becoming <a href="http://www.economist.com/blogs/gulliver/2013/03/legacy-vs-low-cost-carriers">increasingly narrow</a>. </p>
<p>Demand to use airways has been steadily increasing since the 1970s an the rapid growth in Asia will translate into demand for thousands of new aircraft over the next decades as <a href="http://airinsight.com/2012/09/25/comparing-the-oem-aircraft-market-forecasts/">forecasts</a> by both Airbus and Boeing show. </p>
<p>While airlines in “legacy markets” are struggling to beat an increasing competition, the OEMs are indeed adapting to new market movements by servicing customers from emerging markets.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/12753/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hamza Bendemra does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A few months ago I was invited to a small gathering organised by executives from a large international airline (one you most certainly have heard of). About a dozen of us were there and the mix was varied…Hamza Bendemra, Doctoral Candidate, Engineering, Australian National UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/116842013-01-19T01:00:14Z2013-01-19T01:00:14ZGrounded: looking at the 787 Dreamliner recent troubles<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/19378/original/fgwzxz5m-1358485219.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">US regulators have grounded all 787 Dreamliners until a battery fire risk is fully assessed and fixed.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Flickr: Drewski2112</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>This week, US civil aviation safety regulator, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Aviation_Administration">Federal Aviation Administration</a> (FAA) took the massive step of grounding all US Boeing 787 Dreamliners. Its equivalent European counterpart, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Aviation_Safety_Agency">European Aviation Safety Agency</a> (EASA), quickly <a href="http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/01/17/us-boeing-787-easa-idUSBRE90G05A20130117">followed suit</a>. </p>
<p>The 787 Dreamliner has been facing some <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-01-18/boeing-crisis-deepens-as-dreamliners-grounded/4470272">difficulties of late</a>. Reported issues include a fuel leak, engine cracks, an oil leak, and a damaged cockpit window. The final straw came when a Japanese All Nippon Airways (ANA) 787 made an <a href="http://edition.cnn.com/2013/01/15/travel/japan-dreamliner-emergency-landing/index.html">emergency landing in Japan</a> after the aircraft’s lithium batteries overheated. Those on board reported a burning smell in the cabin.</p>
<h2>Boeing 787 Dreamliner: first of its kind</h2>
<p>In terms of technological advancement, the Boeing Dreamliner 787 is not an innovation, it’s a revolution. </p>
<p>As previously <a href="http://theconversation.com/lets-stick-together-composite-materials-aeroplanes-and-you-7207">reported</a> on The Conversation, the 787 is made primarily of composite materials. Both the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_787_Dreamliner">Boeing 787</a> and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airbus_A350">Airbus A350</a> feature more than 50% of composite materials (by weight) – the largest amount ever used on a commercial aircraft.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/19372/original/jzq8m3vx-1358483517.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/19372/original/jzq8m3vx-1358483517.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/19372/original/jzq8m3vx-1358483517.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/19372/original/jzq8m3vx-1358483517.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/19372/original/jzq8m3vx-1358483517.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/19372/original/jzq8m3vx-1358483517.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/19372/original/jzq8m3vx-1358483517.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Boeing 787 being assembled.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Boeing</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Compared to metals, composites offer better strength- and stiffness-to-weight ratio, better corrosion properties, and better fatigue resistance. By using composites, Boeing has significantly reduced the aircraft weight increasing its fuel efficiency by 20%. </p>
<p>By using <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-fiber-reinforced_polymer">carbon fibre composites</a>, the plane can also be moulded back in single pieces during the assembly process. The manufacturing process relies on automated techniques (e.g. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_fiber_placement">automated fibre placement</a>) which provide increased accuracy and repeatability. </p>
<p>Initially, Boeing had to face a number of challenges with the use of composites. In 2008, the <a href="http://www.atsb.gov.au/">Australian Transport Safety Bureau</a> (ATSB) investigated the challenges around composite materials capabilities and safety. In 2011, the US <a href="http://www.gao.gov/">Government Accountability Office</a> (GAO) released a <a href="http://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-11-849">report</a> identifying concerns about the limited information on the behaviour of these new composite aircraft models. However, after years of being behind schedule, Boeing came through and received both <a href="http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/787-wins-certification-from-faa-and-easa-361346/">FAA and EASA certification</a>. </p>
<p>Another revolution in the making of the 787 Dreamliner is its power system. Indeed, part of the reason why the 787 is so light is that it relies far more than any other aircraft on electrical systems to function. Boeing opted for the use of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium-ion_battery">lithium-ion batteries</a>. However, it resulted in unanticipated issues. </p>
<h2>More power, more problems</h2>
<p>The main reason for the recent grounding resides in the <a href="http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-505123_162-57564492/revolutionary-batteries-at-heart-of-787-issues/">use of lithion-ion batteries</a>. These batteries generate a great amount of electrical power but they can also leak corrosive fluid and potentially start fires. </p>
<p>In the case of the ANA aircraft which prompted the grounding, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolyte">electrolytes</a> (a flammable battery fluid) were found to have leaked from the plane’s main lithium-ion battery and burn marks were found around the damage. It is <a href="http://business.time.com/2013/01/17/lithium-batteries-central-to-boeings-787-woes/">reported</a> that in the first battery incident (a JAL 787 auxiliary power unit caught fire), it took firefighters 40 minutes to put out the blaze.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/19367/original/hw9kpnxn-1358483190.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/19367/original/hw9kpnxn-1358483190.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=363&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/19367/original/hw9kpnxn-1358483190.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=363&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/19367/original/hw9kpnxn-1358483190.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=363&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/19367/original/hw9kpnxn-1358483190.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=456&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/19367/original/hw9kpnxn-1358483190.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=456&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/19367/original/hw9kpnxn-1358483190.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=456&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Burned auxiliary power unit battery from the JAL Boeing 787.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">US National Transportation Safety Bureau</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Battery fluid is extremely corrosive and can damage electrical wiring and components. It is a main safety concern even though composite materials are more resistant to corrosion than aluminium. </p>
<p>Boeing’s chief engineering, Mike Sinnett, <a href="http://www.theaustralian.com.au/business/aviation/battery-baffles-boeing-as-787s-grounded/story-e6frg95x-1226556207716">insisted</a> that the plane’s batteries have operated through a combined 1.3 million hours and never had an internal fault. </p>
<h2>Regulators: better be safe than sorry</h2>
<p>The last time the <a href="http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2013-01-17/the-787-and-the-dc-10-a-history-of-two-troubled-jets">FAA grounded an entire fleet was in 1979</a>, when it grounded the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_DC-10">DC-10</a> after a couple of fatal incidents: a Turkish Airlines DC-10 crashed over Paris in 1974 killing 346 people, and in 1979 an American Airlines DC-10 crashed during takeoff in Chicago resulting in 293 people killed.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/19373/original/s492mgd2-1358483904.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/19373/original/s492mgd2-1358483904.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/19373/original/s492mgd2-1358483904.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/19373/original/s492mgd2-1358483904.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/19373/original/s492mgd2-1358483904.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/19373/original/s492mgd2-1358483904.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/19373/original/s492mgd2-1358483904.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">FAA Administrator Michael Huerta called for the grounding of all US 787 Dreamliner.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">C-SPAN</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Compared to the troubles experienced by the DC-10, FAA’s decision may seem excessive as the Dreamliner hasn’t crashed in its 15 months of service. But the revolutionary aspects in the 787 Dreamliner design and production prompted the agencies to take a closer a look and ground of the fleet. </p>
<p>These “teething” issues (i.e. problems that arise when a new aircraft is put into service) are not <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-airbus-a380-wing-cracks-an-engineers-perspective-5318">uncommon</a> and <a href="http://edition.cnn.com/2013/01/17/travel/dreamliner-grounding-history/index.html?iref=allsearch">experts</a> expect them to be swiftly resolved. Fortunately, emergency procedure and built-in redundancies resulted in no lives being lost in the 787 incidents.</p>
<p>At this stage, it is up to the regulatory bodies to go in and have a look at the source and extent of the damage. It could be between two weeks and a couple of months before the fleet is allowed back in the air. </p>
<p>In the meantime, <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/travel/travel-news/qantas-cuts-dreamliner-order-prepares-for-emirates-alliance-20130118-2cx5s.html">Qantas has cut its order</a> of 15 Dreamliners by one but has said it is unrelated to the current issue.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/11684/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hamza Bendemra has previously received funding from Boeing in 2011. The research project outcomes did not directly relate to the 787 Dreamliner.</span></em></p>This week, US civil aviation safety regulator, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) took the massive step of grounding all US Boeing 787 Dreamliners. Its equivalent European counterpart, the European…Hamza Bendemra, Doctoral Candidate, Engineering, Australian National UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/72072012-05-29T04:48:37Z2012-05-29T04:48:37ZLet’s stick together: composite materials, aeroplanes and you<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/11142/original/84g2kncy-1338260587.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">More than 50% of the Airbus A350 is made of composite materials.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">EPA/DB/EADS</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>What do Novak Djokovic’s <a href="http://www.itftennis.com/technical/equipment/rackets/history.asp">tennis racket</a>, <a href="http://formula1.about.com/od/car1/a/carbon_fiber.htm">Mark Webber’s F1 car</a> and the new <a href="http://www.boeing.com/commercial/787family/">Boeing 787</a> have in common? They all extensively rely on composite materials.</p>
<p>A composite material is a strategic combination of multiple materials that results in a material with better properties than its individual components. In other words, by combining multiple materials, composite materials allow for a weakness in one material to be rectified by a strength in another.</p>
<p>Composite materials have been around for several decades but technological breakthroughs in engineering, materials sciences and manufacturing have resulted in a significant increase in their use over the past 20 years. Composite materials can now be found in aerospace, commercial and race cars, marine vessels, sporting goods and in many other industries.</p>
<p>Composites typically consist of two main components: fibres (providing great <a href="http://www.sciencedaily.com/articles/t/tensile_strength.htm">tensile strength</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flexural_rigidity">flexural stiffness</a>), and a “matrix” holding the fibres together (providing compressive strength and controlling the overall shape). </p>
<p>For instance, the “carbon fibre + epoxy resin” combination is widely used in aerospace. Another example is the “carbon fibre + PEEK (a crystalline polymer)” combination, which is a <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2040108/">biomaterial composite</a> used in spinal implants.</p>
<h2>Composite materials: a tricky combination</h2>
<p>Composite materials typically result in materials with increased strength, toughness and stiffness. Compared to metals, they offer a better strength- and stiffness-to-weight ratio, better corrosion properties, and better fatigue resistance.</p>
<p>In aerospace, this results in planes that last longer and require less maintenance work – a point <a href="http://www.qantas.com.au/travel/airlines/media-releases/may-2012/5398/">referenced</a> by Qantas CEO Alan Joyce last week.</p>
<p>Composite materials also mean a lighter aircraft, resulting in lower fuel consumption and a reduced carbon footprint.</p>
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<p>But there are disadvantages. For a start, composite materials don’t come cheap. Both material and equipment costs are high and constitute a considerable investment (up to several millions of dollars for a single set-up). </p>
<p>Still, prices overall have come down over the past decade which make composites more accessible and suitable for large-scale projects, such as the ones found in aerospace.</p>
<p>Also, special skills are required to appropriately handle composites. Indeed, the manufacturing process is labour-intensive and high engineering materials knowledge is required. New composites training courses are starting to appear to help businesses adequately train their staff, but these are expensive.</p>
<p>Composite materials also require special storage and handling. They usually come in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-preg">“prepreg”</a> form (fibres pre-impregnated with resin) that need frozen storage and have limited shelf-life (a few weeks/months).</p>
<p>Finally, there are serious concerns around health hazards for workers handling composites. <a href="http://www.osha.gov/dts/osta/otm/otm_iii/otm_iii_1.html#6">Health issues</a> include complications from inhaling fibres and exposure to suspected carcinogens. Indeed, several composite material components are classified as hazardous.</p>
<h2>Boeing 787 and Airbus A350: pushing the limits of commercial aerospace composite structures</h2>
<p>Boeing and Airbus have both increasingly embraced composite structures over the years, particularly with their latest aircraft models. Both the Boeing 787 and the <a href="http://www.airbus.com/aircraftfamilies/passengeraircraft/a350xwbfamily/">Airbus A350</a> feature more than 50% of composite materials (by weight) - the largest amount ever used on a commercial aircraft. </p>
<p>Airlines, such as <a href="http://www.engadget.com/2011/12/16/boeing-787-review-anas-dreamliner-flies-across-japan-we-join/">Japan’s ANA</a>, are currently using the Boeing 787, while Airbus is still <a href="http://atwonline.com/aircraft-engines-components/news/bernstein-research-airbus-a350-first-delivery-likely-delayed-2014-0">working on the A350</a> with a possible release date around 2013-14.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/11143/original/72k2tsdn-1338261108.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/11143/original/72k2tsdn-1338261108.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/11143/original/72k2tsdn-1338261108.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/11143/original/72k2tsdn-1338261108.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/11143/original/72k2tsdn-1338261108.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/11143/original/72k2tsdn-1338261108.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/11143/original/72k2tsdn-1338261108.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">The Boeing 787 under construction.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">markjhandel</span></span>
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<p>The process to commercialisation isn’t without several challenges as the aircraft has to go through a tightly regulated certification process before going into full production.</p>
<p>The US Federal Aviation Administration (<a href="http://www.faa.gov/">FAA</a>) and the European Aviation Safety Agency (<a href="http://www.easa.europa.eu">EASA</a>) are in charge of investigating aircraft safety and delivering the required certification.</p>
<p>In October last year, America’s <a href="http://www.gao.gov/">Government Accountability Office</a> (GAO) <a href="http://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-11-849">released a report</a> identifying concerns about the limited information on the behaviour of these new aircraft made of composite structures, as well as technical issues relating to the unique properties of composite materials.</p>
<p>Australia’s <a href="http://www.atsb.gov.au/">ATSB</a> (Australian Transport Safety Bureau) also investigated the challenges around using composites and released a <a href="http://www.atsb.gov.au/media/27758/ar2007021.pdf">report back in 2008</a> discussing composite materials’ capabilities and safety. </p>
<p>In August last year, Boeing finally got it right when the 787 was <a href="http://www.seattlepi.com/local/komo/article/After-years-of-delays-Boeing-787-Dreamliner-gets-2142808.php">certified by both the FAA and EASA</a>. It was a long time coming – Boeing was nearly three years behind schedule and billions of dollars over budget. However, with a backlog of more than 800 orders, there is clearly a strong demand for the 787.</p>
<h2>Automated fibre placement: using robots to make composite structures</h2>
<p>As the use of the composites structures increases, so does the manufacturing production rate required to meet that demand. Indeed, Boeing is planning to produce <a href="http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/04/27/us-boeing-idUSBRE83Q15Q20120427">ten Boeing 787s per month</a> by the end of next year.</p>
<p>As a consequence, the aerospace industry has been turning to automated processes. Automation has been investigated as a solution for composite manufacturing since the 1970s. But the large equipment cost required (up to several million dollars) limited their mainstream implementation. </p>
<p>For the last ten years, low-cost robotic arms have been used for a number of manufacturing processes. These low-cost robotic arms became prime candidate for a cheap, reliable and flexible composite manufacturing solution. </p>
<p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_fiber_placement">Robotic Fibre Placement</a> (RFP) heads started to appear on the market. These placement heads can lay composite materials (using different methods depending on the part at hand) either in a mould or directly on to a desired structure (see video below).</p>
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<p>Composite placement is a form of <a href="http://www.csiro.au/en/Organisation-Structure/Flagships/Future-Manufacturing-Flagship/Ti-Technologies/TT-Manufacturing.aspx">additive manufacturing</a> (as with <a href="http://www.gizmodo.com.au/tags/3d-printing/">3D printing</a>) as it “adds” material, layer after layer - a very powerful method that allows for quick implementation, and more flexibility when dealing with complex structures, such as the ones found in aerospace.</p>
<p>But robotic fibre placement has to be further developed. It is slower than other comparable (but more expensive) automated solutions. There are still issues around the “laying” of the material on curved structures and there are quality issues around defects such as voids, inadequate compaction and consolidation of the material.</p>
<h2>In with the new</h2>
<p>It’s a very exciting time in aerospace at the moment. The need to manufacture composite structures at higher rates has pushed researchers in industry and academia to further innovate and develop novel manufacturing methods. </p>
<p>In the long-term, this process will offer immense benefits for the aircraft manufacturers, the airlines and the passenger.</p>
<p>The ultimate goal here is a bold one: by using composite materials, aircraft manufacturers are aiming to raise the bar for safety, fuel economy and environmental sensitivity – making your trip safer and greener.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/7207/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hamza Bendemra does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>What do Novak Djokovic’s tennis racket, Mark Webber’s F1 car and the new Boeing 787 have in common? They all extensively rely on composite materials. A composite material is a strategic combination of…Hamza Bendemra, Doctoral Candidate, Engineering, Australian National UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.