tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/buddhism-8136/articles
Buddhism – The Conversation
2024-03-19T12:25:00Z
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/207471
2024-03-19T12:25:00Z
2024-03-19T12:25:00Z
What the Buddhist text Therigatha teaches about women’s enlightenment
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582247/original/file-20240315-30-zf0ojy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=13%2C8%2C2939%2C1529&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Tibetan Buddhist nuns offering prayers in Kathmandu.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/female-tibetan-buddhist-monks-offer-prayers-as-a-part-of-an-news-photo/1552145729?adppopup=true">Prakash/Mathema /AFP via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Images of Buddha’s enlightenment often portray him <a href="https://www.clevelandart.org/art/1986.70">sitting alone under the bodhi tree</a>, his body emaciated from fasting. Some depictions show the Buddha’s right hand pointing down, asking the earth goddess to bear witness to his enlightenment.</p>
<p>Demonic armies or dangerous temptresses can be shown on both sides of the Buddha, <a href="https://www.clevelandart.org/art/1971.18">demonstrating his fortitude</a> in the face of violent threats and seduction. In some images, he may also be flanked by two male disciples while <a href="https://www.clevelandart.org/art/1935.146">expounding his teachings</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582235/original/file-20240315-28-xnpmro.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A headless statue of an emaciated person, revealing the ribcage, tendons and veins, with human figures at its base." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582235/original/file-20240315-28-xnpmro.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582235/original/file-20240315-28-xnpmro.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582235/original/file-20240315-28-xnpmro.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582235/original/file-20240315-28-xnpmro.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582235/original/file-20240315-28-xnpmro.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582235/original/file-20240315-28-xnpmro.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582235/original/file-20240315-28-xnpmro.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A third- to fifth-century statue of a fasting Buddha from the Kushan period.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo/buddha-bodhi-tree.html?sortBy=relevant">Samuel Eilenberg Collection, Ex Coll.: Columbia University, Purchase, Rogers, Dodge, Harris Brisbane Dick and Fletcher Funds, Joseph Pulitzer Bequest, and Lila Acheson Wallace Gift, 1987</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>What is missing, however, from these images are Buddhist women. What does enlightenment look like for them?</p>
<p>I’m <a href="https://case.academia.edu/JueLiang">a scholar of women and gender in Buddhism</a>, and one of the key questions driving my research is the unique ways in which enlightenment is experienced in a female body. This led me to the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Theragatha-Therigatha">Therigatha</a>, a collection of poems written in the Pāli language by female disciples of the Buddha. </p>
<p>Part of the <a href="https://palitextsociety.org/">Theravada Buddhist canon</a>,
this collection reveals an intimate picture of enlightenment that is deeply embodied, does not necessarily require the renunciation of domestic life and is supported by a community of sisterhood. </p>
<h2>Embodied enlightenment</h2>
<p>The term “theri” means “female elders,” while “gatha” refers to the genre of songs or verses. These poems, compiled not long after the Buddha’s passing, are the oldest evidence of women’s religious experiences in Buddhism. Many of these female authors were disciples of the Buddha. </p>
<p>Their writings reveal a version of enlightenment that is not occupied by the usual image of a solitary meditating monk. Instead of seeking liberation from life and death through monastic discipline or meditation, enlightenment is experienced in the mind as well as in the body. It is found not just in remote hermitages but also in domestic spaces. </p>
<p>Moreover, the path to liberation for women is usually communal. Nuns learn from and with each other, as they become free from the human condition of suffering, one of Buddhism’s <a href="https://www.lionsroar.com/what-are-the-four-noble-truths/">Four Noble Truths</a>.</p>
<p>Consider the following verses from the Therigatha. The <a href="https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674427730">nun Uttama says</a>:</p>
<blockquote>For seven days I sat in one position, legs crossed,<br>
Given over to joy and happiness.<br>
On the eighth day I stretched out my feet,<br>
After splitting open the mass of mental darkness.</blockquote>
<p>Uttama may have meditated just like the Buddha, but in the end, she stretched out her feet – a movement of ease and freedom and a gesture of release from the hardship she endured.</p>
<p>Contrary to other Buddhist teachings that view the body as <a href="https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/C/bo3633534.html">an undesirable container</a> punctured by several openings that constantly leaked foul and revolting substances, here in the Therigatha, the body is present, even prominent, in the enlightened experience of Uttama.</p>
<p>In the Therigatha, the Buddha instructs the nuns repeatedly to take care of the body. Instead of <a href="https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674427730">letting it become a vehicle for death</a>, they should cherish the human body they possess and make it a vehicle for liberation. </p>
<p>Another poem by Ambapali, a royal courtesan turned Buddhist nun, expresses a similar sentiment. Ambapali observes the changes in her body in detail: She remarks how her once glossy, black hair that was perfumed with flowers is now like jute; her eyes, once brilliant like jewels, have lost their luster; her neck, hands, arms, thighs and feet, which were all once beautiful, also bear witness to old age and impermanence. </p>
<p>Instead of being disgusted by these changes, <a href="https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674427730">her reflection</a> focuses on the teaching of impermanence: “It’s just as the Buddha, the speaker of truth, said, nothing different than that.” </p>
<p>Here, the body is not viewed as only the enemy but a vehicle necessary for human liberation. </p>
<h2>Finding liberation at home</h2>
<p>The setting of poems in the Therigatha also frequently highlights domestic spaces women occupy. In one, Punna, a servant girl of low caste, taught a high-caste Brahmin <a href="https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674427730">a lesson on karma</a>. While doing her morning chores of fetching water, she saw a priest performing his bathing purification ritual in ice-cold water. She questioned the efficacy of this ritual, and told him that liberation comes from the Buddha’s teaching, not by tormenting one’s body. </p>
<p>In another, Patachara, who was once the wife of a wealthy man but turned to renunciation after the untimely death of her children, <a href="https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674427730">relates the following</a>:</p>
<blockquote>First I looked at the bed, then I sat on the couch<br>
I used a needle to pull out the lamp’s wick.<br>
Just as the lamp went out, my mind was free.</blockquote>
<p>While the nuns followed a monastic path of abandoning domestic life, it was the bondage of servitude, not the daily experience of living, that they left behind. For Patachara, there was no need for a bodhi tree; her mind was set free from suffering and entered enlightenment right in her hut after the mundane act of putting out her lamp. </p>
<h2>Becoming enlightened, together</h2>
<p>Nuns learned from not only the Buddha but from other nuns as well. They were encouraged to care for and support each other. In fact, the phrase “she seemed like someone I could trust” shows up multiple times in the Therigatha, when the nuns recalled how they started on the path in the first place. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674427730">A nameless nun</a> writes:</p>
<blockquote>With no peace in my heart, dripping with sexual desire,<br>
I entered the monastery, wailing, my arms outstretched.<br>
I approached the nun,<br>
She seemed like someone I could trust.<br>
She taught me the dhamma<br>
About what makes a person<br>
About the senses and their objects<br>
And about the basic elements that make up everything.</blockquote>
<p>The community of fellow practitioners in Buddhism is called the sangha. It is one of the Three Jewels, the other two being the teacher, the Buddha, and his teaching, the “dhamma.” Anyone who wishes to become a Buddhist will vow to take refuge <a href="https://www.lionsroar.com/what-are-the-three-jewels/">in the Three Jewels</a>, which support Buddhist practice. These are the teacher, the teaching and the community. In the case of this nameless nun – and many others – the Buddhist path is paved not only by the Buddha and his teachings but also by a community of trust and shared aspiration.</p>
<p>The poems in the Therigatha are a reminder that enlightenment does not always have to be a long trek in the woods but can happen right within one’s humble abode. For some, it could simply mean the joy of finding community.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207471/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jue Liang does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
The Therigatha, a collection of poems written in Pāli by Buddhist nuns, reveals that women’s enlightenment may not necessarily require renunciation of domestic life.
Jue Liang, Assistant Professor of Religion, Case Western Reserve University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/220026
2024-03-12T12:29:06Z
2024-03-12T12:29:06Z
What is the Japanese ‘wabi-sabi’ aesthetic actually about? ‘Miserable tea’ and loneliness, for starters
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580795/original/file-20240309-24-70pplt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C3%2C2046%2C1454&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A perfectly imperfect tea bowl.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/earthenware-bowl-with-glazing-against-black-royalty-free-image/1689830483?phrase=wabi+sabi&adppopup=true">Zen Rial/Moment via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>On a recent visit to New York I stopped at a Japanese bookstore in Manhattan. Among the English-language books about Japan, I encountered a section of a shelf marked “WABI-SABI” and stocked with titles such as “Wabi Sabi Love,” “The Wabi-Sabi Way,” “Wabi-Sabi for Artists, Designers, Poets & Philosophers,” and, in all lowercase, “simply imperfect: revisiting the wabi-sabi house.” </p>
<p>What is wabi-sabi, and why does it rate its own section alongside such topics as sushi and karate?</p>
<p>Wabi-sabi is typically described as a traditional Japanese aesthetic: the beauty of something perfectly imperfect, in the sense of “flawed” or “unfinished.” Actually, however, wabi and sabi are similar but distinct concepts, yoked together far more often outside Japan than in it. Even people who have been brought up in Japan may struggle to define wabi and sabi precisely, though each is certainly authentically Japanese and neither is especially obscure.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580796/original/file-20240309-30-4z3p0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two rows of books displayed spine-out in a store." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580796/original/file-20240309-30-4z3p0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580796/original/file-20240309-30-4z3p0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=680&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580796/original/file-20240309-30-4z3p0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=680&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580796/original/file-20240309-30-4z3p0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=680&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580796/original/file-20240309-30-4z3p0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=855&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580796/original/file-20240309-30-4z3p0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=855&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580796/original/file-20240309-30-4z3p0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=855&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A wabi-sabi sighting in New York.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Paul S. Atkins</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As <a href="https://asian.washington.edu/people/paul-s-atkins">a scholar of classical Japanese language, literature and culture</a>, I too have a professional interest in wabi and sabi and how they have come to be understood outside Japan. A cursory search of Google Books shows that the term began to appear in print in English around 1980. Perhaps this was a delayed reaction to a book by <a href="https://trc-leiden.nl/trc-needles/people-and-functions/authors-scholars-and-activists/yanagi-soetsu-1889-1961">Japanese art critic Yanagi Soetsu</a>, “<a href="https://kodansha.us/product/the-unknown-craftsman/">The Unknown Craftsman</a>,” which was translated into English and published in 1972.</p>
<p>In it, in an essay titled, “The Beauty of Irregularity,” Yanagi wrote about the art of the tea ceremony and its simple grace. More broadly, as the title suggests, he was captivated by a sense of beauty apart from traditional ideals of perfection, refinement and symmetry. </p>
<p>Behind “roughness,” Yanagi wrote, “lurks a hidden beauty, to which we refer in our peculiar adjectives ‘shibui,’ ‘wabi,’ and ‘sabi.’” </p>
<p>Shibui means austere or restrained, yet it was wabi and sabi that caught on abroad – perhaps because they rhyme.</p>
<p>After taking off in America and other countries, the phrase wabi-sabi was imported back to Japan as a compound term; the mentions I found in online Japanese sources typically addressed such topics as how to explain wabi-sabi to foreigners. Wabi-sabi does not appear in standard dictionaries of the Japanese language.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580798/original/file-20240309-20-kp1zde.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="The interior of a simple room with faded walls, wooden beams, and a simple scroll hanging in the background." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580798/original/file-20240309-20-kp1zde.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580798/original/file-20240309-20-kp1zde.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580798/original/file-20240309-20-kp1zde.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580798/original/file-20240309-20-kp1zde.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580798/original/file-20240309-20-kp1zde.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580798/original/file-20240309-20-kp1zde.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580798/original/file-20240309-20-kp1zde.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A tearoom in Kyoto, Japan.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/tea-room-low-angle-view-royalty-free-image/200552152-001?phrase=japan+tea+room&adppopup=true">Karin Slade/Corbis Documentary via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Miserable poetry</h2>
<p>Wabi is a noun derived from the classical Japanese verb “wabu,” related to the modern verb “wabiru” and adjective “wabishii.” Wabu means to languish or be miserable. </p>
<p>Here is a celebrated example from a ninth-century waka poem, <a href="http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/japan_600ce_waka.htm">the brief verse of 31 syllables</a> that forms the backbone of classical Japanese poetry. The poet, a courtier named Yukihira, was a provincial governor who, by some accounts, <a href="https://asia453.wordpress.com/literary-locations/locations2016/lack-and-loneliness-on-the-shores-of-suma/">was exiled to Suma Bay</a>, a famous stretch of coastline in western Japan.</p>
<blockquote>Should by chance<br>
Someone ask for me,<br>
Answer that I languish<br>
At Suma Bay, shedding<br>
brine upon the seaweed.</blockquote>
<p>Suma Bay wasn’t all misery for Yukihira; according to legend, <a href="https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/78554">he loved and was loved</a> by two sisters there. But his poem well captures the pain of wabi – the misery of having been exiled from the courtly world he knew.</p>
<h2>Miserable tea</h2>
<p>Eventually, the misery of wabi made its way into one of Japan’s most iconic traditions: tea.</p>
<p>The custom of drinking powdered green tea, called matcha, entered Japan around 1200. Zen monks returning from China brought the powder home, using it as a medicine and a stimulant. Over time, tea spread to the rest of the population; by the middle of the 16th century, it was a mundane part of everyday life.</p>
<p>It was precisely then that the preparation and serving of tea was sublimated to high art, now known as “chadō” or “sadō,” <a href="https://www.urasenke.or.jp/texte/about/chado/">the so-called Way of Tea</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577821/original/file-20240226-20-q7p9f5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two people kneeling in a small, roofed room open to the outdoors, set in a garden, look at the photographer." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577821/original/file-20240226-20-q7p9f5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577821/original/file-20240226-20-q7p9f5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577821/original/file-20240226-20-q7p9f5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577821/original/file-20240226-20-q7p9f5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577821/original/file-20240226-20-q7p9f5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=602&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577821/original/file-20240226-20-q7p9f5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=602&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577821/original/file-20240226-20-q7p9f5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=602&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A Japanese couple in a 19th-century tearoom.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/japanese-couple-in-teahouse-news-photo/534244298?adppopup=true">Historical Picture Archive/Corbis Historical via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As the tea ceremony gained in popularity, powerful warlords competed in acquiring the most coveted utensils, including braziers, kettles, scoops, whisks and the bowllike cups in which the tea was whipped and sipped. The tearoom itself might be decorated with rare works of art, such as paintings or calligraphy mounted on hanging scrolls, elaborate flower vases and incense burners.</p>
<p>Then there emerged a group of connoisseurs and teachers of tea who championed a more severe and austere style of presentation: “wabi-cha,” which literally means miserable tea. Whereas newly ascendant warriors and merchants used the tea gathering to flaunt their wealth, <a href="https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/76335">wabi-style tea</a> emphasized subtlety, frugality and restraint.</p>
<p>It is not hard to see traces of wabi in old tearooms, with their patina of age and elegant but unobtrusive furnishings, and in the utensils themselves – in particular, the misshapen, cracked or somber-hued teabowls. </p>
<p>Wabi-style tea perhaps reached its pinnacle in the 16th century, when the celebrated tea master <a href="https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1028&context=arch_facultyschol">Sen no Rikyū</a> introduced innovations still used today. These include bamboo tea scoops, black raku-style ceramic teabowls and the “crawling entrance”: the 2-by-2-foot door through which attendees wriggle in order to enter the cozy, womblike tearoom.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580799/original/file-20240309-30-b210tf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A plain black bowl with a faint golden pattern, resting against a white backdrop." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580799/original/file-20240309-30-b210tf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580799/original/file-20240309-30-b210tf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580799/original/file-20240309-30-b210tf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580799/original/file-20240309-30-b210tf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580799/original/file-20240309-30-b210tf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=521&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580799/original/file-20240309-30-b210tf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=521&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580799/original/file-20240309-30-b210tf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=521&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A raku-ware teabowl with a design of geese, made in the 18th or 19th century.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/raku-ware-tea-bowl-with-design-of-descending-geese-18th-news-photo/1365697034?adppopup=true">Heritage Art/Heritage Images via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A lovely loneliness</h2>
<p>Like wabi, sabi is a noun: in this case, derived from the classical verb “sabu.” Today, the verb “sabiru” means to rust, with its connotations of age and decay. The modern adjective “sabishii” means lonely.</p>
<p>Classical poems yield many examples of sabi but it really took off as an aesthetic ideal in the 17th century. Poets often tried to capture its particular kind of loneliness in the 17-syllable poetic form of haiku.</p>
<p>As the scholar <a href="https://news.stanford.edu/2020/10/02/makoto-ueda-stanford-japanese-literature-professor-emeritus-dies-89/">Makoto Ueda</a> remarked, sabi is “not the loneliness of a man who has lost his dear one, but <a href="https://press.umich.edu/Books/L/Literary-and-Art-Theories-in-Japan">the loneliness of the rain</a> falling on large taro leaves at night, or the loneliness emerging out of a cicada’s cry amid the white, dry rocks, or the Milky Way extending over the rough sea, or a huge river torrentially rushing in the rainy season.” </p>
<p><a href="https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/basho">Matsuo Bashō</a>, a 17th-century master of haiku, saw sabi <a href="https://www2.yamanashi-ken.ac.jp/%7Eitoyo/basho/shitibusyu/sumidawara1.htm">in this verse</a> by his disciple Mukai Kyorai, translated by Ueda: </p>
<blockquote>Under the blossoms<br>
Two aged watchmen,<br>
With their white heads together—.</blockquote>
<p>The juxtaposition of wabi-sabi as a single term is of recent, not ancient, vintage, and it does not seem to have occurred in Japan. Nonetheless, the terms originated in Japanese aesthetics: sabi out of poetry and wabi out of tea. </p>
<p>Combined, they appear to fill a gap in the Western vocabulary for talking about art and life – a leaning away from perfection, completion and excess, and a yearning toward leaving something undone, broken or unsaid.</p>
<p><em>This story has been updated to correct the description of a tearoom door’s dimensions.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220026/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>I was a student of Professor Makoto Ueda.</span></em></p>
‘Wabi’ and ‘sabi’ are Japanese words with long histories, but they are rarely used together in the way Western designers have come to use the term.
Paul S. Atkins, Professor of Japanese, University of Washington
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/222953
2024-03-06T13:34:46Z
2024-03-06T13:34:46Z
Reeling religion: From anime and sci-fi to rom-coms, films are full of faith in unexpected places
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579737/original/file-20240304-26-ehe5mp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2305%2C1156&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Seeing the light − at the movies.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/people-in-the-cinema-auditorium-with-empty-white-royalty-free-image/1494642262?phrase=%22movie+theater%22&adppopup=true">igoriss/iStock via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In some movies, religion hits viewers over the head – including films that take home the industry’s biggest prizes. No one could miss religion’s importance in “<a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0070047/?ref_=fn_al_tt_1">The Exorcist</a>” or “<a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0070239/?ref_=fn_al_tt_1">Jesus Christ Superstar</a>,” both nominated for Oscars 50 years ago. Martin Scorsese, whose “Killers of the Flower Moon” is up for 10 at the 2024 Academy Awards, is working on a new project <a href="https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/awards/story/2024-01-08/martin-scorsese-killers-of-the-flower-moon-new-jesus-film">on the life of Jesus</a>. </p>
<p>Anyone can find a religious meaning <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0119485/">in “Kundun</a>,” Scorsese’s epic about the Dalai Lama’s youth, or “<a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0067093/">Fiddler on the Roof</a>,” the story of life in a Russian Jewish shtetl at the turn of the 20th century. Cinematic Christ figures <a href="https://www.routledge.com/The-Routledge-Companion-to-Religion-and-Film/Lyden/p/book/9780415601870">are a dime a dozen</a>.</p>
<p>But for <a href="https://people.cal.msu.edu/stowed/">scholars of religion and popular culture</a> like myself, movies that engage religion less directly are often more intriguing. </p>
<h2>Free from illusion</h2>
<p>Take the hugely influential science fiction franchise “<a href="https://www.imdb.com/find/?q=the%20matrix&ref_=nv_sr_sm">The Matrix</a>.” Depicting characters caught in a diabolical computer simulation, held prisoner to AI, the film feels particularly timely in 2024.</p>
<p>Seeing past illusions to a deeper cosmic reality, as the film’s protagonists must do, is of course a theme of many faiths. “The Matrix” is peppered with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1163/9781904710165_017">many other allusions to religion</a> and mythology. Main character Neo, referred to as “the One,” is killed and resurrected. A hacker even tells him, “You’re my savior, man, my own personal Jesus Christ.” One central character is named Trinity. Another is called Morpheus, after the Greek god of dreams.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579329/original/file-20240302-30-et24uz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A woman with short hair and a blue shirt touches the chin of a reclining man whose eyes are closed and whose head is almost touching a computer screen." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579329/original/file-20240302-30-et24uz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579329/original/file-20240302-30-et24uz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579329/original/file-20240302-30-et24uz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579329/original/file-20240302-30-et24uz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579329/original/file-20240302-30-et24uz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579329/original/file-20240302-30-et24uz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579329/original/file-20240302-30-et24uz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Carrie-Anne Moss and Keanu Reeves as Trinity and Neo in ‘The Matrix.’</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/carrie-anne-moss-and-keanu-reeves-in-the-matrix-news-photo/590691556?adppopup=true">Ronald Siemoneit/Sygma/Sygma via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>More specifically, religion scholars see explicit <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/american-gnosis-9780197653210?cc=gb&lang=en&">themes of Gnosticism</a>, a <a href="https://theconversation.com/this-tiny-minority-of-iraqis-follows-an-ancient-gnostic-religion-and-theres-a-chance-they-could-be-your-neighbors-too-160838">variant of Christianity</a> that flourished during the faith’s first few centuries. A central focus of Gnostic texts is attaining liberation from worldly illusion through direct inner knowledge of truth. Its teachings include stark dualism – light vs. dark, mind vs. body, good vs. evil – and belief in a hidden God operating in a hostile cosmos, both of which have analogues in “The Matrix.”</p>
<p><a href="https://digitalcommons.unomaha.edu/jrf/vol5/iss2/4/">Buddhist themes</a> are also unmistakable. The film begins with Neo waking up, both literally and figuratively, as he discovers the truth: Machines have trapped humanity in pods to harvest their energy. The world in which humans believe they are living is actually “the matrix,” an illusory world created to distract them.</p>
<p>“Buddha” means “<a href="https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/buda/hd_buda.htm">awakened one</a>,” and many viewers <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26975089?seq=1">have drawn comparisons</a> between Keanu Reeves’ character’s journey and Buddhism. Once <a href="https://library.scotch.wa.edu.au/ld.php?content_id=45331773">awakened to reality</a>, Neo is no longer bound to the illusions of ignorance and desire. Just as importantly, he must help other humans awaken and escape the cycle of suffering.</p>
<h2>Spirits on screen</h2>
<p>Even apart from specific allusions like these, cinema shares something important with religion. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.hamilton.edu/academics/our-faculty/directory/faculty-detail/s-brent-plate">S. B. Rodriguez-Plate</a>, a religion scholar at Hamilton College, argues that <a href="https://theconversation.com/when-do-moviegoers-become-pilgrims-81016">films can function something like religions</a> in the lives of their audiences, “playing God” by <a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Religion_and_Film/PeQvDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0">creating imaginary worlds</a> – worlds that may make viewers see their real lives in a different light.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579328/original/file-20240302-20-gruasj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Three children stare up at a large, very colorful structure that looks like a coral reef with clay characters on it." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579328/original/file-20240302-20-gruasj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579328/original/file-20240302-20-gruasj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=749&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579328/original/file-20240302-20-gruasj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=749&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579328/original/file-20240302-20-gruasj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=749&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579328/original/file-20240302-20-gruasj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=942&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579328/original/file-20240302-20-gruasj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=942&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579328/original/file-20240302-20-gruasj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=942&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Visitors gaze at a clay model of Hayao Miyazaki’s film ‘Ponyo’ at an exhibition in Tokyo in 2008.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/visitors-gaze-at-clay-model-of-the-animation-movie-ponyo-on-news-photo/81959495?adppopup=true">Yoshikazu Tsuno/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>That power is nowhere more evident than in animated films, which create vivid realms that live action can only dream of. In films like “<a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0245429/?ref_=fn_al_tt_1">Spirited Away</a>” and “<a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0347149/?ref_=fn_al_tt_1">Howl’s Moving Castle</a>,” legendary anime director Hayao Miyazaki <a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Miyazaki_and_the_Hero_s_Journey/GUhpEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0">creates his own mythic worlds</a> populated with fanciful “<a href="https://aboutjapan.japansociety.org/yokai-fantastic-creatures-of-japanese-folklore#sthash.ghWYL1Ap.DkhdklQi.dpbs">yōkai</a>”: creatures that are inspired by Japanese legends but not quite Shinto or Buddhist.</p>
<p>Many of Miyazaki’s films also include spirits that inhabit inanimate objects, which he associates with Japanese tradition. “In my grandparents’ time … it was believed that spirits (kami) existed everywhere – in trees, rivers, insects, wells, anything,” <a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Drawing_on_Tradition/gB_HDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0">he once said</a>. “My own religion, if you can call it that, has no practice, no Bible, no saints, only a desire to keep certain places and my own self as pure and holy as possible.”</p>
<p>“<a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0119698/?ref_=fn_al_tt_1">Princess Mononoke</a>,” Miyazaki’s 1997 film set in medieval Japan, tells the story of a young prince drawn into an epic struggle between forest gods and humans who exploit natural resources. It’s a challenge religions have often ignored but are increasingly trying to engage: how to live responsibly in the natural world. </p>
<p>While the movie has <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BoZpCmcnM_s">an environmental message</a>, it avoids oversimplifying the struggle to “good nature” besieged by “bad humans.” San, a human girl who leads an army of wolves, tries to kill the prince, while Iron Town provides support for lepers and outcasts, even as it degrades the environment.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/BoZpCmcnM_s?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A.O. Scott reviews ‘Princess Mononoke,’ which highlights environmental themes.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Birth and rebirth – and groundhogs</h2>
<p>What about comedy, though? Can a religious film be funny? Could a romantic comedy have religious overtones? </p>
<p>Each February, many Americans <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-do-groundhogs-emerge-on-february-2-if-its-not-to-predict-the-weather-36376">celebrate Groundhog Day</a>, waiting to see if the famous Punxsutawney Phil will see his shadow. But for some, Feb. 2 is a day to celebrate “<a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0107048/?ref_=fn_al_tt_1">Groundhog Day</a>” – the film about the moral evolution of an arrogant Pittsburgh weatherman sent to report on the groundhog but forced to <a href="https://theconversation.com/when-each-pandemic-day-feels-the-same-phil-the-weatherman-in-groundhog-day-can-offer-a-lesson-in-embracing-life-mindfully-153605">live the same day over and over again</a> until he gets it right.</p>
<p>Given “Groundhog Day’s” cult-classic status, it evidently speaks to followers of many religions and none. But it’s hard to think of a film that better <a href="https://tricycle.org/article/groundhog-day/">captures the concept of samsara</a>: the Sanskrit term for the tedious human condition, with its endless cycles of birth and rebirth. Helping people find release from samsara is central to both Hinduism and Buddhism. Phil, the weatherman stuck reliving Feb. 2 over and over, is caught on such a treadmill. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579327/original/file-20240302-24-2pk6ne.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A dark-haired main in a blue shirt and dark tie runs through a snowy street with his arms outstretched." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579327/original/file-20240302-24-2pk6ne.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579327/original/file-20240302-24-2pk6ne.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579327/original/file-20240302-24-2pk6ne.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579327/original/file-20240302-24-2pk6ne.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579327/original/file-20240302-24-2pk6ne.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=507&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579327/original/file-20240302-24-2pk6ne.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=507&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579327/original/file-20240302-24-2pk6ne.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=507&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Bill Murray, once again frozen in time on Feb. 2.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/bill-murray-runs-through-the-snow-in-a-scene-from-the-film-news-photo/163063811?adppopup=true">Columbia Pictures/Archive Photos/Moviepix via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Only by gradually transforming himself into a more virtuous person – performing acts of merit among the people of Punxsutawney – does he finally escape from the nightmare of recurring Groundhog Days.</p>
<p>Director Harold Ramis was brought up Jewish but <a href="https://www.lionsroar.com/harold-ramis-profile-by-perry-garfinkel/">became a Buddhist</a> who carried a laminated card, “<a href="https://red40entertainment.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/THE-5-MINUTE-BUDDHIST.pdf">The 5 Minute Buddhist</a>”: a kind of cheat sheet of core ideas of Buddhism. So it’s not surprising to find them in his movie.</p>
<p>One is “pratītyasamutpāda,” another Sanskrit term: the idea that everything in the cosmos <a href="https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195393521/obo-9780195393521-0027.xml">is linked by causal chains</a>. All causes and effects are connected; nothing stands wholly apart on its own. By the end of “Groundhog Day,” the prideful Phil has fully connected with people in the quaint Pennsylvania village – and won his love, Rita – having learned how his own well-being depends on the well-being of everyone around him. </p>
<h2>Close to awe</h2>
<p>There’s one more way to think about religion in film. Apart from specific spiritual themes, a powerful movie can offer an almost religious experience. </p>
<p>Nathaniel Dorsky, an experimental filmmaker <a href="https://open.bu.edu/handle/2144/34777">influenced by Buddhism</a>, writes of <a href="https://nathanieldorsky.net/dv">cinema as a devotional experience</a>. The act of sitting in darkness, watching an illuminated world flicker by, Dorsky says, may be as close to approaching the transcendent as many of us will come – getting a glimpse of something beyond our normal range of experience.</p>
<p>Of course, all these films can be enjoyed fully without reading them on this religious level. Some movie fans would object that these interpretations spoil the fun, and they may have a point. But part of the excitement of studying religion in popular culture is to be aware of its many permutations, hidden in plain view.</p>
<p><em>This article has been updated to correct the name of religion scholar S. B. Rodriguez-Plate.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222953/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David W. Stowe does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Plenty of movies have explicitly religious themes, but some of the most interesting examples of faith or transcendence on screen are much more subtle.
David W. Stowe, Professor of Religious Studies, Michigan State University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/218992
2024-03-01T13:33:52Z
2024-03-01T13:33:52Z
The tools in a medieval Japanese healer’s toolkit: from fortunetelling and exorcism to herbal medicines
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578362/original/file-20240227-20-ng0qz.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C979%2C466&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">An 'onmyoji,' an expert on yin and yang, performs divination with counting rods in an Edo-period illustration.
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tamamonomae_Onmyoji.jpg">Kyoto University Library/Wikimedia</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>“The Tale of Genji,” often called <a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/530271/the-tale-of-genji-by-murasaki-shikibu/">Japan’s first novel</a>, was written 1,000 years ago. Yet it still occupies a powerful place in the Japanese imagination. A popular TV drama, “Dear Radiance” – “<a href="https://www.nhk.jp/p/hikarukimie/ts/1YM111N6KW/">Hikaru kimi e</a>” – is based on the life of its author, Murasaki Shikibu: the lady-in-waiting whose experiences at court inspired the refined world of “Genji.”</p>
<p>Romantic relationships, poetry and political intrigue provide most of the novel’s action. Yet illness plays an important role in several crucial moments, most famously when one of the main character’s lovers, Yūgao, <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/66057/pg66057-images.html#page_92">falls ill and passes away</a>, killed by what appears to be a powerful spirit – as later happens <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/66057/pg66057-images.html#page_250">to his wife, Aoi</a>, as well.</p>
<p>Someone reading “The Tale of Genji” at the time it was written would have found this realistic – as would some people in different cultures around the world today. Records from early medieval Japan document numerous descriptions <a href="https://academiccommons.columbia.edu/doi/10.7916/d8-46cs-wq63">of spirit possession</a>, usually blamed on spirits of the dead. As has been true in many times and places, physical and spiritual health were seen as intertwined.</p>
<p>As <a href="https://ealc.wustl.edu/people/alessandro-poletto">a historian of premodern Japan</a>, I’ve studied the processes its healing experts used to deal with possessions, and illness generally. Both literature and historical records demonstrate that the boundaries between what are often called “religion” and “medicine” were indistinct, if they existed at all.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578356/original/file-20240227-28-gqyl6g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An intricate illustration of a ceremony attended by people in robes, with the background covered in a golden color." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578356/original/file-20240227-28-gqyl6g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578356/original/file-20240227-28-gqyl6g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578356/original/file-20240227-28-gqyl6g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578356/original/file-20240227-28-gqyl6g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578356/original/file-20240227-28-gqyl6g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578356/original/file-20240227-28-gqyl6g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578356/original/file-20240227-28-gqyl6g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A 17th-century scroll, ‘Maboroshi no Genji monogatari emaki,’ showing the funeral of Genji’s wife, Aoi.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/leaves-of-wild-ginger-from-the-phantom-genji-scrolls-mid-news-photo/1206222207?adppopup=true">Heritage Art/Heritage Images via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Vanquishing spirits</h2>
<p>The government department in charge of divination, the Bureau of Yin and Yang, established in the late seventh century, played a crucial role. Its technicians, known as <a href="https://nirc.nanzan-u.ac.jp/journal/6/issue/186">onmyōji</a> – yin and yang masters – were in charge of divination and fortunetelling. They were also responsible for observing the skies, interpreting omens, calendrical calculations, timekeeping and eventually a variety of rituals.</p>
<p>Today, onmyōji appear as wizardlike figures in <a href="https://books.bunshun.jp/sp/onmyoji">novels</a>, <a href="https://www.viz.com/twin-star-exorcists">manga</a>, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LEiZuDTEq6A">anime</a> and <a href="https://en.onmyojigame.com/">video games</a>. Though heavily fictionalized, there is a historical kernel of truth in these fantastical depictions.</p>
<p>Starting from around the 10th century, Onmyōji were charged with carrying out iatromancy: divining the cause of a disease. Generally, they distinguished between disease caused by external or internal factors, though boundaries between the categories were often blurred. External factors could include local deities known as “kami,” other kami-like entities the patient had upset, minor Buddhist deities or malicious spirits – often revengeful ghosts. </p>
<p>In the case of spirit-induced illness, Buddhist monks would work to winnow out the culprit. Monks who specialized in exorcistic practices were known as “genja” and were believed to know how to <a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/300922/the-pillow-book-by-sei-shonagon">expel the spirit from a patient’s body</a> through powerful incantations. Genja would then transfer it onto another person and force the spirit to reveal its identity before vanquishing it.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578368/original/file-20240227-26-dx583p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A faded picture of a broom, branch with a few leaves, and a fan, as well as Japanese script on top of it." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578368/original/file-20240227-26-dx583p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578368/original/file-20240227-26-dx583p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=665&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578368/original/file-20240227-26-dx583p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=665&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578368/original/file-20240227-26-dx583p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=665&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578368/original/file-20240227-26-dx583p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=836&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578368/original/file-20240227-26-dx583p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=836&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578368/original/file-20240227-26-dx583p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=836&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A 19th century print by Kubo Shunman shows objects representing the New Year’s ceremony of exorcising demons.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/objects-representing-the-ceremony-of-exorcising-demons-one-news-photo/1338629689?adppopup=true">Heritage Images/Hulton Archive via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Court physicians</h2>
<p>While less common than spirit possessions, the idea that physical factors could also cause illness appears in sources from this period. </p>
<p>Since the late seventh century, the government of the Japanese archipelago had established a bureau in charge of the well-being of aristocratic families and high-ranking members of the state bureaucracy. This <a href="https://rekihaku.repo.nii.ac.jp/records/2657">Bureau of Medications</a>, the Ten’yakuryō, was based on similar systems in China’s Tang dynasty, <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/title/3414658">which Japanese officials</a> adapted for their own culture.</p>
<p>The bureau’s members, whom scholars today often call “court physicians” in English, created medicinal concoctions. But the bureau also included technicians tasked with using spells, perhaps to protect high-ranking people from maladies.</p>
<h2>Not either/or</h2>
<p>Some scholars, both Japanese and non-Japanese, compare the practices of members of the Bureau of Medications with what is now called “traditional Chinese medicine,” or just “medicine.” They typically consider the onmyōji and Buddhist monks, meanwhile, to fall under the label of “religion” – or perhaps, <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/title/7306973">in the case of onmyōji, “magic</a>.”</p>
<p>But I have found numerous signs that these categories do not help people today make sense of early medieval Japan.</p>
<p>Starting in the seventh century, as a centralized Japanese state began to take shape, Buddhist monks from the Korean Peninsula and present-day China brought healing practices to Japan. These techniques, such as herbalism – treatments made of plants – later became associated with court physicians. At the same time, though, monks also employed <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.980">healing practices rooted in Buddhist rituals</a>. Clearly, <a href="https://academiccommons.columbia.edu/doi/10.7916/d8-46cs-wq63">the distinction between ritual and physical healing</a> was not part of their mindset.</p>
<p>Similarly, with court physicians, it is true that sources from this period mostly show them <a href="https://rekihaku.repo.nii.ac.jp/records/2657">practicing herbalism</a>. Later on, they incorporated simple needle surgeries and moxibustion, which involves burning a substance derived from dried leaves from the mugwort plant near the patient’s skin.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578349/original/file-20240227-28-9evlnl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A drawing showing the outline of the human body from behind and in front, with one arm outstretched, and Chinese characters written on it." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578349/original/file-20240227-28-9evlnl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578349/original/file-20240227-28-9evlnl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=453&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578349/original/file-20240227-28-9evlnl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=453&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578349/original/file-20240227-28-9evlnl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=453&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578349/original/file-20240227-28-9evlnl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=569&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578349/original/file-20240227-28-9evlnl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=569&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578349/original/file-20240227-28-9evlnl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=569&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An 18th-century engraving identifying parts of the body treated by moxibustion.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/engraving-of-the-meridian-points-on-the-human-body-which-news-photo/90731089?adppopup=true">Science & Society Picture Library via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>However, they also incorporated ritual elements from various Chinese traditions: spells, divination, fortunetelling and hemerology, the practice of identifying auspicious and inauspicious days for specific events. For example, moxibustion was supposed to be avoided on certain days because of the position of a deity, <a href="https://cir.nii.ac.jp/crid/1520853832664346880">known as “jinshin</a>,” believed to reside and move inside the human body. Practicing moxibustion on the body part where “jinshin” resided in a specific moment could kill it, therefore potentially harming the patient. </p>
<p>Court physicians were also expected to ritually “rent” a place for a pregnant woman to deliver, <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12110907">producing talismans</a> written in red ink that were meant to function as “leases” for the birthing area. This was done in order to keep away deities who might otherwise enter that space, possibly because childbirth was believed to be a source of defilement. They also used hemerology to determine where the birthing bed should be placed.</p>
<p>In short, these healing experts straddled the boundaries between what are often called “religion” and “medicine.” We take for granted the categories that shape our understanding of the world around us, but they are the result of complex historical processes – and look different in every time and place.</p>
<p>Reading works like “The Tale of Genji” is not only a way to immerse ourselves in the world of a medieval court, one where spirits roam freely, but a chance to see other ways of sorting human experience at work.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/218992/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alessandro Poletto does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
In medieval Japan, healing might mean taking medicine, undergoing an exorcism or sidestepping harm in the first place by avoiding inauspicious days.
Alessandro Poletto, Lecturer in East Asian Religions, Arts & Sciences at Washington University in St. Louis
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/223519
2024-02-20T15:17:04Z
2024-02-20T15:17:04Z
Religious diversity is exploding – here’s what a faith-positive Britain might actually look like
<p>The future of the UK’s Inter Faith Network (IFN), a long-standing charity that promotes dialogue and cooperation between Britain’s religious groups, is in doubt after the government announced it was <a href="https://religionmediacentre.org.uk/rmc-briefings/devastating-outrageous-impending-closure-of-the-inter-faith-network/">withdrawing funding</a> for the group. Communities secretary Michael Gove has cited concerns that a member of the Muslim Council of Britain (MCB), with which the government has <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2009/mar/23/muslim-council-britain-gaza">suspended cooperation</a> since 2009, has been appointed an IFN trustee. </p>
<p>In response to Gove’s letter, the IFN <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/feb/16/inter-faith-network-headed-for-closure-as-gove-minded-to-withdraw-funding">has said</a> it had never been advised “to expel the MCB from membership”. It also said that while the government might choose not to engage with the MCB, doing so “is not a sensible option open to the IFN if it is to achieve the purposes for which the government funds it in the first place”. </p>
<p>Founded in 1987, the IFN represents Baha’i, Buddhist, Christian, Hindu, Jain, Jewish, Muslim, Sikh and Zoroastrian faith groups. In the charity’s 37-year history, religious pluralism in the UK has grown exponentially – and is still growing despite an overall <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jul/11/uk-secularism-on-rise-as-more-than-half-say-they-have-no-religion">decline in religiosity</a>. </p>
<p>This underlines the importance of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/bringing-people-of-different-faiths-together-to-solve-the-worlds-problems-is-a-noble-goal-but-its-hard-to-know-what-it-achieves-170047">interfaith</a> dialogue the charity exists to promote. Indeed, the government-commissioned <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/64478b4f529eda00123b0397/The_Bloom_Review.pdf">Bloom review</a> of England’s growing religious pluralism, published in 2023, made a similar point when examining how the government might best acknowledge the value different faith groups bring to society.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A crowd of women in colourful saris." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576736/original/file-20240220-20-io09l1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576736/original/file-20240220-20-io09l1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576736/original/file-20240220-20-io09l1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576736/original/file-20240220-20-io09l1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576736/original/file-20240220-20-io09l1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576736/original/file-20240220-20-io09l1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576736/original/file-20240220-20-io09l1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Performers take part in the Sikh festival of Vaisakhi in Gravesend.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/gravesend-apr-6-performers-take-part-1078636838">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The UK’s increasingly diverse faith landscape</h2>
<p>In 2018, the Pew Research Centre published “Being Christian in Western Europe,” a survey of religion in <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2018/05/29/being-christian-in-western-europe/">15 western European countries</a>. The majority of the adults surveyed in 14 of the 15 countries considered themselves “non-practicing Christians”. </p>
<p>The survey found that the UK had roughly three times as many non-practicing Christians (55%) than church-going Christians (18%). It concluded that the notion of Christian identity remains a meaningful religious, political and sociocultural marker. </p>
<p>It also noted that many people have “gradually drifted away from religion, stopped believing in religious teachings, or were alienated by scandals or church positions on social issues.”</p>
<p>The rising number of people who subscribe to no religion belies the fact that the Christian proportion of the population is changing too. In 2023, British journalist Tomiwa Owolade <a href="https://www.newstatesman.com/politics/religion/2023/03/future-christianity-britain-african-christian">reported</a> on how demographic shifts are reshaping churches across the UK. Between 1980 and 2015, churches saw a 19% rise in attendance by non-white worshippers. </p>
<p>“Without immigration,” he wrote, “the decline of Christianity would be even more profound: it is largely white British people who are abandoning their faith.” </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An interior shot of a modernist church in England." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576589/original/file-20240219-30-38pqkp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576589/original/file-20240219-30-38pqkp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576589/original/file-20240219-30-38pqkp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576589/original/file-20240219-30-38pqkp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576589/original/file-20240219-30-38pqkp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=518&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576589/original/file-20240219-30-38pqkp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=518&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576589/original/file-20240219-30-38pqkp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=518&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The St Francis of Assisi church on the Mackworth estate in Derby.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/church-altar-4COdbEnGCmA">Rachael Cox|Unsplash</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Recent migration from <a href="https://www.churchtimes.co.uk/articles/2023/27-october/news/uk/chinese-church-is-fastest-growing-in-the-uk-study-reveals">Hong Kong</a> has seen the Chinese Christian community in the UK grow substantially. As of 2023, there are about 115,000 Chinese Christians worshipping at over 200 churches across the UK. </p>
<p>Newly arrived Chinese Christians bring with them a belief in the importance of Bible reading. They are strengthening Church of England congregations in cities including Manchester, Liverpool and Bristol. </p>
<p>This highlights how migrant populations in the UK and more broadly in western Europe wield <a href="https://theconversation.com/tarry-awhile-how-the-black-spiritual-tradition-of-waiting-expectantly-could-enrich-your-approach-to-lent-222007">increasing influence</a> in terms of spirituality and belief. Between 2011 and 2021, the proportion of the population of England and Wales that identifies as Muslim has grown, from 4.8% (2.71 million people) to 6.5% <a href="https://mcb.org.uk/2021-census-as-uk-population-grows-so-do-british-muslim-communities/">(3.87 million)</a>. </p>
<p>Other fast-growing religious groups in the UK include Shamanism, whose followers have increased from 650 people in 2011 to <a href="https://www.economist.com/britain/2023/02/09/shamanism-is-britains-fastest-growing-religion">at least 8,000 in 2021</a>. Its emphasis on all things in nature – from people to the environment – being treated with dignity and respect distinctively appeals to the growing number of people in the UK who live with <a href="https://theconversation.com/religious-communities-can-make-the-difference-in-winning-the-fight-against-climate-change-172192">climate anxiety</a>. </p>
<h2>How the government engages with faith groups</h2>
<p>Until now, UK politicians have largely only engaged with local faith groups in public when it has been politically expedient to do so. A primary motivation has often been to not be criticised by detractors for excluding communities on the basis of religion. This approach is underpinned by an Enlightenment theory of secularism, which sees engaging with issues of religion as unworthy of the looming headaches such engagement might cause. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="People kneel down in a carpeted space with tall windows." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576590/original/file-20240219-22-yr113h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576590/original/file-20240219-22-yr113h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576590/original/file-20240219-22-yr113h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576590/original/file-20240219-22-yr113h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576590/original/file-20240219-22-yr113h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576590/original/file-20240219-22-yr113h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576590/original/file-20240219-22-yr113h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Worshippers in prayer in the Regents Park Central Mosque, London.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/london-england-february-18th-2009-crowd-1704858379">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The 2023 Bloom review, by contrast, calls for government to build constructive relationships with faith groups. “It should be the government’s responsibility,” Bloom writes, “to equip all civil and public servants with the basic factual knowledge to be able to recognise and understand the diverse religious life of the population.” </p>
<p>Appointed in 2019 by Boris Johnson, who was then prime minister, Colin Bloom was commissioned to explore what the government could do to better acknowledge and support the contribution faith groups make to society. He investigated how to better promote shared values and tackle harmful practices and how to promote both freedom of religion and freedom of speech. He also looked at how government officials might improve their faith literacy.</p>
<p>To be <a href="https://bristoluniversitypress.co.uk/religion-and-belief-literacy">faith literate</a> is to understand how belief systems differ and how those distinct from your own shape other people’s attitudes, values and experiences. In a bid to boost equality, Bloom recommends that government workplaces and educational settings adopt the term “faith-sensitive”. </p>
<p>As opposed to the flattening out of difference that a “faith-blind” approach can take, promoting faith-sensitivity encourages people in positions of authority to acknowledge, understand and treat with respect diverse belief systems. </p>
<p>The language the UK government uses on faith-related subjects matters. It models – for everyone living in the UK – how to best engage with <a href="https://theconversation.com/glasgows-museum-of-religion-has-been-saved-from-closure-heres-why-its-important-for-multicultural-britain-180002">diverse manifestations of belief</a>. </p>
<p>I would argue that Bloom’s emphasis on a faith-sensitive government approach does not go far enough. It implies that the government’s priority should be to not cause offense. Even better would be a “faith-positive” approach that actively ascribes value to the contributions faith communities can make to everyday British life.</p>
<p>Back in 2001, the IFN <a href="https://www.interfaith.org.uk/uploads/ar2002.pdf">said</a>, “Greater awareness about the faith of others is crucial as we enter the 21st century in the UK because ignorance is a major contributor to prejudice and even to conflict.” Two decades on, the shocking rises in incidents of <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/news/2024/feb/15/huge-rise-in-antisemitic-abuse-in-uk-since-hamas-attack-says-charity">antisemitism</a> and <a href="https://www.itv.com/news/2023-11-09/i-was-terrified-islamophobic-incidents-up-by-600-in-uk-since-hamas-attack">Islamophobia</a>, in recent months, point to how urgently that remains true. </p>
<p>Early 20th century English writer G.K. Chesterton once affectionately wrote, “Let your religion be less a theory and more a love affair.” He was offering a framework to help British Christians better understand their faith. A similarly faith-positive approach to all of Britain’s belief systems would both recognise and value quite what people of faith can bring to wider British society.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223519/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr Christopher Wadibia receives funding from a postdoctoral research fellowship specialising in race, theology, and religious studies based at Pembroke College, University of Oxford.</span></em></p>
The language the UK government uses on faith-related subjects matters. It models – for everyone living in the UK – how to best engage with diverse manifestations of belief.
Christopher Wadibia, Junior Research Fellow in Theology, University of Oxford
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/221399
2024-02-13T13:22:45Z
2024-02-13T13:22:45Z
Why having human remains land on the Moon poses difficult questions for members of several religions
<p>Sending human remains to the Moon on the first commercial lunar lander, Peregrine 1, on Jan. 8, 2024, <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/human-remains-are-headed-to-the-moon-despite-objections/">along with scientific instruments</a>, caused a controversy.</p>
<p>Buu Nygren, president of the Navajo Nation, objected, saying that “<a href="https://www.cnn.com/2024/01/05/world/peregrine-moon-mission-navajo-nation-objection-human-remains-scn/index.html">the moon holds a sacred place</a>” in Navajo and other tribal traditions and should not be defiled in this way. The inside of the lander was to be a kind of “<a href="https://elysiumspace.com/">space burial</a>” for remains of some 70 people. Each of the families had <a href="https://www.celestis.com/experiences-pricing/">paid over US$12,000 for a permanent memorial on the Moon</a>. </p>
<p>As <a href="https://www.holycross.edu/academics/programs/religious-studies/faculty/joanne-pierce">professors</a> <a href="https://www.holycross.edu/academics/programs/religious-studies/faculty/mathew-schmalz">of religious studies</a> who have taught courses on death rites, we know that death rituals in the world’s religions have been shaped by millennia of tradition and practice. While these ashes didn’t make it to the Moon because of a <a href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=PEREGRN-1">propellant leak</a>, their presence on the lander raised some important religious issues: Beliefs about the polluting nature of the corpse, the acceptability of cremation and the sacredness of the Moon vary across traditions. </p>
<h2>Jewish death rituals and purification</h2>
<p>In ancient Judaism, certain activities were believed to be polluting, rendering a person unfit to participate in prayers and animal sacrifices offered exclusively at the Temple in Jerusalem. There were many ways in which one could become ritually unclean, and each level of pollution was cleansed by an appropriate purification rite. <a href="https://www.religiousrules.com/Judaismpurity03corpse.htm">Direct contact with a human corpse</a> was believed to cause the most intense form of pollution; even touching a person or object that had been in contact with a corpse would cause a lesser level of defilement.</p>
<p>After the Romans <a href="https://rpl.hds.harvard.edu/faq/destruction-second-temple-70-ce">destroyed the Temple in 70 C.E.</a>, Jewish religious practice changed dramatically, including rules about purification. These days, after a burial or visit to a cemetery, many Jewish people wash their hands to wash away negative <a href="https://outorah.org/p/64492/">spirits or energy</a>.</p>
<p>In Judaism, the bodies of the dead are to be buried or entombed in the earth. Cremation of human bodies, <a href="https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/510874/jewish/Why-Does-Judaism-Forbid-Cremation.htm">rejected for centuries</a>, has become more popular but <a href="https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/judaism-on-cremation/">still remains a controversial option</a> due to the older tradition of respect for the body as a creation of God – to be buried intact and without mutilation.</p>
<h2>Christian death rituals over the centuries</h2>
<p>Before Christianity developed in the first century C.E., <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-9497-3_1">Roman civil religion</a> stressed the need to separate the living from the dead. Corpses or cremated remains were interred in burial places outside cities and town – in <a href="https://www.laphamsquarterly.org/city/necropolis">the necropolis</a>, literally a city of the dead. As in Judaism, <a href="https://doi.org/10.4314/actat.v26i2.52569">any visitor needed purification</a> afterward. </p>
<p>As monotheists, Christians rejected belief in the Greek and Roman gods and goddesses, including the <a href="https://www.theoi.com/Titan/Selene.html#:%7E:text=SELE%E2%80%B2NE%20(Sel%C3%AAn%C3%AA)%2C,371%2C%20%">Moon goddess called Selene or Luna</a>. They also refused to participate in Roman state religious rituals or activities based on pagan polytheism. Decades later, after Christianity became the official imperial religion, Christians moved the <a href="http://csla.history.ox.ac.uk/record.php?recid=E01019">remains of people they considered holy into towns and cities</a> to be re-entombed for easier veneration inside churches.</p>
<p>During the medieval period, ordinary Christians desired to be buried close to these saints in anticipation of the resurrection of the body at the second coming of Christ. Graveyards around the church were <a href="https://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/book/9781501753855/standing-on-holy-ground-in-the-middle-ages/">consecrated as “holy ground</a>.” In this way, Christians believed that the departed might continue to <a href="https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopedia-of-medieval-pilgrimage/burial-ad-sanctos-SIM_00143#:%7E:text=Burial%20">benefit from the holiness of the saints</a>. Their bodies were considered sources of spiritual blessing rather than causes of spiritual pollution.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574710/original/file-20240209-26-yavs36.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A relief showing a corpse being placed in a coffin as people stand around, one holding a tall crucifix." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574710/original/file-20240209-26-yavs36.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574710/original/file-20240209-26-yavs36.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574710/original/file-20240209-26-yavs36.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574710/original/file-20240209-26-yavs36.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574710/original/file-20240209-26-yavs36.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574710/original/file-20240209-26-yavs36.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574710/original/file-20240209-26-yavs36.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Fourth-century Christian burial depicted in relief at the Shrine of San Vittore in Ciel d'Oro, Basilica of Sant'Ambrogio, Milan.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/9691_-_Milano_-_S._Ambrogio_-_San_Vittore_in_Ciel_d%27oro_-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto_25-Apr-2007.jpg">G.dallorto, Attribution/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Increasingly today, cremation is considered acceptable, although the Catholic Church requires that cremated remains <a href="https://www.usccb.org/prayer-and-worship/sacraments-and-sacramentals/bereavement-and-funerals/cremation-and-funerals">must not be scattered or partitioned</a> but buried or placed elsewhere in cemeteries. </p>
<p>Unlike some other religions, neither Judaism nor Christianity considers the Moon divine or sacred. As part of God’s creation, it <a href="https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/when-easter#:%7E:text=The%20">plays a role</a> in setting the religious calendars. In both Jewish and Christian spiritual writing, the <a href="https://blog.nli.org.il/en/jewish_moon">Moon is used as a spiritual analogy</a>: in Judaism, of the majesty of God, and in Christianity, of Christ and the church.</p>
<h2>Islamic beliefs on burial</h2>
<p><a href="https://blogs.icrc.org/law-and-policy/2018/11/01/respect-for-the-dead-under-islamic-law-considerations-for-humanitarian-forensics/">Cremation is strictly prohibited in Islam</a>. After death, the deceased is <a href="https://www.islamicity.org/5586/preparation-of-te-deceased-and-janazah-prayers/">ritually washed, wrapped in shrouds</a> and brought for burial in a cemetery as soon as possible.</p>
<p>After a <a href="https://yaqeeninstitute.org/watch/series/ep-1-the-janazah-prayer-for-those-left-behind">funeral prayer</a>, led by an imam or senior member of the community, the deceased is buried – usually without a coffin – with their head oriented toward the holy city of Mecca. The soul of the deceased is <a href="https://zamzam.com/blog/life-after-death-in-islam/">said to visit their loved ones</a> on the seventh and 40th days after death. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://quran.com/en/fussilat/37">Quran warns against worshiping the Moon</a>, as was done in pre-Islamic culture, because worship is due to God alone.</p>
<p>In September 2007, when the first Muslim astronaut from Malaysia got ready to go into space, the Malaysian National Space Agency <a href="https://mg.co.za/article/2007-09-20-islamic-body-rules-on-how-to-pray-wash-die-in-space/">published religious directives</a> on burial rituals for Muslims in space. These directives said if bringing the body back wasn’t possible, then he would be “interred” in space after a brief ceremony. And if no water was available in space for the ceremonial rituals, then “holy dust” should be swept onto the face and hands “even if there is no dust” in the space station. </p>
<h2>Hindu and Buddhist funerary practices</h2>
<p>Hinduism is a diverse religion, and so funeral practices often vary according to culture and context. Most commonly, death and the period following a person’s death are associated with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/006996689023001007">ritual pollution</a>. Because of this, the deceased should be cremated within 24 hours after death.</p>
<p>The cremation of the corpse cuts the ties of the soul, or the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/atman">atman</a>, to the body, allowing it to move on to the next level of existence and eventually be reincarnated. The ashes are collected and placed into an urn on the third day after cremation and immersed in a body of water, ideally a sacred river such as the Ganges.</p>
<p>Within Hinduism, the Moon has played an important role in conceptualizing what happens to the dead. For example, the ancient Hindu texts describe the spirits of the virtuous dead as entering Chandraloka, or the realm of the Moon, where they experience happiness for a time before being reincarnated.</p>
<p>In the many forms of Buddhism, death provides an opportunity for mourners to reflect <a href="https://tricycle.org/magazine/buddhist-death-rites/">on the impermanence of all things</a>. While in Tibetan Buddhism there is the tradition of “<a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/29757283">sky burial</a>,” in which the deceased is dismembered and left to the elements, in most forms of Buddhism the dead are usually cremated and, as in Hinduism, the corpse is considered polluting beforehand. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574713/original/file-20240209-16-vrekcw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A person lighting a candle at an altar, painted in red color, with white flowers in two vases and incense sticks in a small pot." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574713/original/file-20240209-16-vrekcw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574713/original/file-20240209-16-vrekcw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574713/original/file-20240209-16-vrekcw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574713/original/file-20240209-16-vrekcw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574713/original/file-20240209-16-vrekcw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574713/original/file-20240209-16-vrekcw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574713/original/file-20240209-16-vrekcw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A ritual being performed at a Thai funeral ceremony.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/funeral-watering-ceremony-thai-cultural-ritual-royalty-free-image/1831759719?phrase=buddhist+cremation&adppopup=true">Surasak Suwanmake/Moment via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In older forms of Buddhism in Nepal and Tibet, the Moon was understood to be <a href="https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/38344#:%7E:text=Worship%20of%20the%20moon%20god">identified with the god Chandra</a>, who rides on a chariot. The Moon is also one of the nine astrological deities whose movement provides insight for reckoning individual and collective futures.</p>
<h2>Difficult questions</h2>
<p>In response to the Navajo objection that landing ashes on the Moon was a defilement, the CEO of Celestis, the company that paid for capsules containing the ashes, <a href="https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/biden-administration-to-consult-with-navajo-about-human-remains-on-the-moon/">issued a statement</a> stressing that launching containers of human ashes to the Moon is “the antithesis of desecration … it’s celebration.” </p>
<p>In the end, the question was moot. Peregrine 1 <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2024/01/15/world/peregrine-moon-lander-failure-nasa-scn/index.html">never made its soft landing on the Moon</a> because of an engine malfunction, and its <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-67962397">payload was destroyed</a> after entering the atmosphere. </p>
<p>As more people decide to send their ashes into space, however, religious conflicts are bound to arise. The key concern, and not just for the Navajo Nation, will be how to respect all religious traditions as humans explore and commercialize the Moon. It still remains a problem today here on Earth.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221399/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Two scholars who study death rituals explain that the corpse is considered spiritually polluting in many religious traditions, while the Moon holds a sacred place.
Joanne M. Pierce, Professor Emerita of Religious Studies, College of the Holy Cross
Mathew Schmalz, Professor of Religious Studies, College of the Holy Cross
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/216977
2024-01-03T13:43:29Z
2024-01-03T13:43:29Z
The Lotus Sutra − an ancient Buddhist scripture from the 3rd century − continues to have relevance today
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566359/original/file-20231218-23-ldln3o.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=1%2C0%2C1189%2C601&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A Lotus Sutra scroll praising the manifold mercies of the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/44849">Universal Gateway chapter of the Lotus Sutra/Calligrapher: Sugawara Mitsushige/The Metropolitan Museum of Art Collection</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>State legislatures across the United States have introduced <a href="https://www.equalityfederation.org/tracker/cumulative-anti-transgender">over 400 bills to limit transgender Americans’ rights</a>. Many of these bills’ sponsors, such as the Christian nonprofit Alliance Defending Freedom, cite Christian values as well as the values of the other <a href="https://brill.com/view/journals/rag/11/1/article-p67_5.xml">Abrahamic faiths</a> – Judaism and Islam – to justify their anti-trans positions. </p>
<p>The Alliance Defending Freedom claims that Christians, Jews and Muslims view gender as binary and defined only by biology, though these religions’ <a href="https://therevealer.org/beloved-transgender-children-and-holy-resistance/">diverse followers</a> actually hold a <a href="https://theconversation.com/muslims-protesting-against-lgbtq-pride-are-ignoring-islams-tradition-of-inclusion-209949">range of views</a> on <a href="https://therevealer.org/turning-to-the-talmud-to-find-gender-diversity-that-speaks-to-today/">LGBTQ+ issues</a>. Historically, these religions were often more accepting of varied gender identities before <a href="https://publicseminar.org/2018/07/gender-as-colonial-object/">colonialism imposed binary gender</a> as a universal concept. </p>
<p>Religious <a href="https://www.ihs.gov/lgbt/health/twospirit/">values from multiple</a> <a href="https://theconversation.com/for-indonesias-transgender-community-faith-can-be-a-source-of-discrimination-but-also-tolerance-and-solace-193063">traditions</a> have supported <a href="https://therevealer.org/many-paths-to-freedom-transgender-buddhism-in-the-united-states/">transgender identity</a>. <a href="https://cup.columbia.edu/book/buddhist-masculinities/9780231210478">As a scholar of Buddhism and gender</a>, I know that several Buddhist texts treat gender as fluid. One such text is the Lotus Sutra, one of the most popular Buddhist scriptures in East Asia. Its core message is that everyone, no matter their gender or status, has the potential to become a Buddha. </p>
<p>The Lotus Sutra conveys its <a href="https://tricycle.org/magazine/greater-awakening/">message of universal Buddhahood</a> in several stories that depict transformations between male and female bodies. For example, a dragon girl instantly transforms into the masculine body of a Buddha, proving that female bodies are not barriers to awakening.</p>
<p>Elsewhere, the Lotus Sutra describes how the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.167">bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara</a>, known as Guanyin in Mandarin and Kannon in Japanese, takes on male or female forms depending on the needs of the audience. </p>
<h2>The dragon girl’s gender transformation</h2>
<p>To understand the story of the dragon girl, it is important to understand how Buddhas’ bodies were defined as masculine in early Buddhism. Most people are familiar with the historical figure Siddhartha Gautama as “the Buddha,” but Buddhists believe that <a href="https://tricycle.org/beginners/buddhism/why-do-buddhists-talk-about-many-buddhas/">several “Buddhas,”</a> or enlightened teachers, have been born throughout history. All of these Buddhas are said to possess 32 marks that distinguished their bodies from regular bodies. </p>
<p>One of these marks was a sheathed penis, which meant that Buddha bodies were male by definition. In addition, Buddhist texts identified five roles, including Buddha, that were off-limits to women. </p>
<p>In the <a href="https://cup.columbia.edu/book/the-lotus-sutra/9780231081610">Lotus Sutra</a>, the Buddha’s disciple, Shariputra, refers to these limitations when he rejects the idea that the dragon girl could quickly attain Buddhahood: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“You suppose that in this short time you have been able to attain the unsurpassed way. But this is difficult to believe. Why? Because the female body is soiled and defiled, not a vessel for the Law. How could you attain the unsurpassed bodhi? … Moreover, a woman is subject to the five obstacles. First, she cannot become a Brahma heavenly king. Second, she cannot become the king Shakra. Third, she cannot become a Mara demon king. Fourth, she cannot become a wheel-turning sage king. Fifth, she cannot become a Buddha. How then could your female body attain Buddhahood so quickly?”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>However, the dragon girl proves Shariputra wrong by instantly attaining Buddhahood, transforming her young, female, nonhuman body into the male body of a Buddha. Women in premodern East Asia <a href="https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/rec3.12270">found inspiration</a> in the dragon girl’s story because it showed that their own female bodies were not barriers to enlightenment. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A scroll with golden etching on a black background depicting a scene from the life of the Buddha." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557848/original/file-20231106-21-qgdfq9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557848/original/file-20231106-21-qgdfq9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=655&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557848/original/file-20231106-21-qgdfq9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=655&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557848/original/file-20231106-21-qgdfq9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=655&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557848/original/file-20231106-21-qgdfq9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=824&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557848/original/file-20231106-21-qgdfq9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=824&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557848/original/file-20231106-21-qgdfq9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=824&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This scroll from the ‘Devadatta’ chapter of the Lotus Sutra depicts the 8-year-old daughter of the Dragon King emerging from her palace beneath the sea to offer a precious, radiant jewel to the Buddha on Eagle Peak.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/44851">The Metropolitan Museum of Art</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The bodhisattva’s gender fluidity</h2>
<p>Another inspiration from the Lotus Sutra can be found in the Chapter of Universal Salvation, which focuses on the <a href="https://south.npm.gov.tw/english/ExhibitionsDetailE003110.aspx?Cond=c176e479-7c87-462c-9b58-9b3900ca851e&appname=Exhibition3112EN">bodhisattva of compassion, Avalokiteshvara</a>. A bodhisattva is an advanced spiritual being who postpones enlightenment to help people in the world. </p>
<p>According to this chapter, Avalokiteshvara will adopt any form to save people. Avalokiteshvara can become a monk, nun, layman, laywoman, rich man, rich man’s wife, young boy, young girl, human or nonhuman, depending on the audience’s needs. </p>
<p>In China, this passage provided scriptural support for Avalokiteshvara’s perceived <a href="https://cup.columbia.edu/book/kuan-yin/9780231120296">transformation from a male to female figure</a>. Indian Buddhist texts described Avalokiteshvara as male, but in China people came to see Avalokiteshvara as female. </p>
<p>Though scholars have not found one single explanation for this transformation, the Lotus Sutra passage offers justification for Avalokiteshvara’s gender fluidity. Images of Avalokiteshvara from China, Japan and Korea can depict the bodhisattva as masculine, feminine or androgynous.</p>
<h2>The Lotus Sutra and transgender inspiration</h2>
<p>Due to the Lotus Sutra, Avalokiteshvara has become an inspiration and icon for transgender, gender-fluid and nonbinary people in and beyond East Asia. At Japan’s <a href="https://matcha-jp.com/en/9828">Shozenji Temple</a>, head nun Soshuku Shibatani, who underwent gender reassignment surgery, has said, “The Kannon Bodhisattva has no gender identity,” using Avalokiteshvara’s Japanese name. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://blog.stheadline.com/article/detail/1116787/%E9%9D%9E%E7%94%B7%E9%9D%9E%E5%A5%B3">blog post</a> from Taiwan quotes from the Lotus Sutra in describing Avalokiteshvara as a nonbinary figure who transcends any single gender identity. </p>
<p>However, Avalokiteshvara’s role as a transgender icon is not universally accepted. Another <a href="https://n.yam.com/Article/20130509462739">Taiwanese blogger</a> reported that a friend of theirs argued with their description of the bodhisattva as transgender. In April 2022, an Avalokiteshvara statue in The Burrell Collection in Glasgow, Scotland, labeled as a transgender icon, <a href="https://www.museumsassociation.org/museums-journal/news/2022/04/glasgow-life-defends-trans-label-in-burrell-collection-after-politicisation-row/">resulted in protests</a>. The anti-trans group For Women Scotland argued that the label unnecessarily politicized the statue. </p>
<p>Despite these objections, more and more people have found inspiration in Avalokiteshvara as a transgender, nonbinary or gender-fluid figure. Just as the Lotus Sutra’s story of the dragon girl inspired Buddhist women in premodern East Asia, Avalokiteshvara’s gender fluidity offers inspiration to people today. </p>
<p><em><a href="https://www.linkedin.com/authwall?trk=bf&trkInfo=AQHFNdxAPOLqfAAAAYyDQhP4XlW43CSxFWDpq9-1rWWyWub3I-5Wq7BJL_wg5vkC0-EEWdyTHjmNbcHqNfYuNJ4krmD_PiPpjOatEpoVecRRhBp70u5VgTWb2HOF7POqNQMpnmg=&original_referer=&sessionRedirect=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.linkedin.com%2Fin%2Fmarissa-posani-8473432a6%2F">MJ Posani</a>, an undergraduate student at the University of Tennessee, contributed to the research for this article.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216977/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Megan Bryson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
For many Buddhists today, both in East Asia and across the world, the Lotus Sutra offers religious support for various gender identities.
Megan Bryson, Associate Professor of Religious Studies, University of Tennessee
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/210539
2023-12-05T13:17:24Z
2023-12-05T13:17:24Z
How sacred images in many Asian cultures incorporate divine presence and make them come ‘alive’
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559865/original/file-20231116-23-care6q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C19%2C3264%2C2423&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A gilded statue of the Buddha at Wat Phanan Choeng Temple in Thailand.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/wat-phanan-choeng-temple-this-highly-respected-royalty-free-image/1217280251?phrase=eye-opening+Buddhist+ritual&searchscope=image%2Cfilm&adppopup=true">Kittipong Chararoj/ iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Walking into a favorite restaurant here in Knoxville, Tennessee, I was immediately greeted by a golden statue of Buddha, its sparkling gemstone eyes meeting my own as I made my way through the door. The aromas of Thai curries beckoned, but as I was led to a table, I kept thinking about those glinting eyes.</p>
<p>Sacred objects are everywhere: Statues and paintings of gods fill museum galleries and catalog pages alike. You might also see them gracing a neighbor’s yard or upon an altar in your friend’s home.</p>
<p>Some dazzle in bejeweled splendor. Others may appear more humble, their luster softened through generations of hands passing them down. Oftentimes, it can feel as though sacred images are looking back.</p>
<p>I <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/michael-naparstek-1457307">research the ways in which objects express the power of divine presence</a> in Asian religious contexts. Studying different perspectives on sacred objects helps us think beyond religious contexts and allows us to rethink how objects and images play an active role in our lives.</p>
<h2>Sacred visual culture</h2>
<p>Hindu practice is defined by “<a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/darshan">darśan” – a ritual act of interacting with the divine</a> through the visual experience. Scholar <a href="https://scholar.harvard.edu/dianaeck/home">Diana Eck</a> describes this interaction in her seminal study of Indian visual culture, “<a href="https://cup.columbia.edu/book/darsan/9780231112659">Darśan</a>,” in the following way: “to stand in the presence of the deity and to behold the image with one’s own eyes, to see and be seen by the deity.”</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559867/original/file-20231116-17-nxv3h6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A couple, with a young child in the woman's lap, sitting before the Hindu God Ganesha, with folded hands." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559867/original/file-20231116-17-nxv3h6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559867/original/file-20231116-17-nxv3h6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559867/original/file-20231116-17-nxv3h6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559867/original/file-20231116-17-nxv3h6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559867/original/file-20231116-17-nxv3h6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559867/original/file-20231116-17-nxv3h6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559867/original/file-20231116-17-nxv3h6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A family prays to the Hindu god Ganesha.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/family-praying-royalty-free-image/548295807?phrase=hindu+worship&adppopup=true">IndiaPix/IndiaPicture via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-theravada-buddhism-a-scholar-of-asian-religions-explains-205737">Theravada Buddhist</a> rituals in Southeast Asia include all-night chanting sessions to recharge statues’ power. As scholar of Theravada Buddhism <a href="https://www.swarthmore.edu/Humanities/dsweare1/">Donald Swearer</a> notes in “<a href="https://press.princeton.edu/books/hardcover/9780691114354/becoming-the-buddha">Becoming the Buddha</a>,” monastics and laypeople in northern Thailand will gather to recite Buddhist sutras while holding cords attached to an image of the Buddha, forming an intricate web of connection between the image and the Buddhist community. </p>
<p>The benefits gained from these chants is understood to enter the statue, recharging its karmic power and reanimating it to once again interact with the community.</p>
<p><a href="https://asiasociety.org/education/buddhism-japan">Japanese Buddhist</a> statues <a href="https://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/fellows-book/behold-the-buddha-religious-meanings-of-japanese-buddhist-icons/">contain multiple items ritually placed</a> within their wooden cavities: bones of saints, robes from eminent monastics and even silk-fashioned replicas of visceral organs like lungs and kidneys. As art historian <a href="https://oberlin.academia.edu/JamesDobbins">James Dobbins</a> notes, certain Buddhist rituals are performed in order to transform the body of a statue into a living body. </p>
<p>In cases like this, inanimate objects are believed to transform into not only sacred things, but also active, living beings who can see, hear, taste and respond to the concerns of those who worship them.</p>
<h2>‘Eye-opening’ ritual</h2>
<p>There are many different ways to enliven an image, and each ritual tradition carries its own unique process. However, the most well-known across Asia is commonly referred to as the “<a href="https://pluralism.org/news/eye-opening-ceremony-buddhist-statues-draws-hundreds-connecticut">eye-opening” ceremony</a>. The term “eye-opening” gets its name from the culmination of an intense ritual process wherein the monk paints in the pupils of the image, thus opening its eye to see. </p>
<p>In Sri Lanka, Buddhist monks perform a version known as the netra-pinkama, which loosely translates to “meritorious action of the eyes.” </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/gt5jY93AD2w?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The netra-pinkama ritual.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/research/research-in-conversation/how-live-happy-life/professor-richard-gombrich#:%7E:text=Richard%20Gombrich%20is%20the%20Emeritus,of%20the%20Clay%20Sanskrit%20Library.">Richard Gombrich</a>, a scholar of Buddhism and Sanskrit, <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307/2051829">noted in his study of Buddhism in Sri Lanka</a> that “Before consecration, a statue is treated with no more respect than one would give the materials of which it is composed. … The very act of consecration indicates that a statue is being brought to life.” </p>
<p>Enlivening an image is not a task undertaken lightly, as it is believed in some cases that any demonic spirits loitering around could interrupt the process, thereby resulting in an ineffective ritual or even a malevolent icon. Both the temple grounds and the ritual specialists must undergo purification rites before beginning. The whole process is filled with strict procedures and avoidance of taboos – a common theme among consecration rituals across Asian religious traditions. </p>
<p>Perhaps most importantly, the monk must refrain from looking directly into the icon’s eyes, and thus uses a mirror to look over their shoulder in order to paint in the icon’s pupils.</p>
<p>In Taiwan, statues and paintings of Buddhist, Daoist and local gods will undergo a similar kind of practice known as “kaiguang,” meaning “<a href="https://www.hup.harvard.edu/books/9780674504363">opening the radiance</a>.” Monks, Daoist masters and even the artists who carve the statues may perform the rite on behalf of the individuals or temple communities that commission the image.</p>
<p>Once completed, shops will wrap a piece of red paper around to cover the statue’s eyes to ensure that the first thing that the image sees is the face of the one who requested it. The power of sacred vision is such that it must literally be kept under wraps.</p>
<h2>Living images</h2>
<p>Once its eyes have been opened, the image becomes a living thing capable of performing powerful deeds. As such, people may behave much differently – making offerings of incense and taking pains to follow social etiquette lest they offend. The care with which these objects are treated once they have been “activated” suggests that there is a lot more here than meets the eye. </p>
<p>As <a href="https://cup.columbia.edu/book/darsan/9780231112659">Eck’s observation attests</a>, being seen is critical to understanding what images do. By seemingly looking back at us, sacred images remind us that we are not alone in this world. In so doing, they also send a message that the world is not there for our eyes only, but that other viewpoints are just as powerful as our own.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/210539/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Naparstek does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Through the power of rituals, inanimate objects can be understood to transform into agents who can see, hear, taste and respond to the concerns of those who worship them.
Michael Naparstek, Lecturer in Religious Studies, University of Tennessee
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/213206
2023-10-31T12:33:18Z
2023-10-31T12:33:18Z
From India and Taiwan to Tibet, the living assist the dead in their passage
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556195/original/file-20231026-27-b64ql7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1024%2C679&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Hindu devotees prepare to scatter ashes of the deceased into the sea as part of Ngaben, a mass cremation ceremony, in Surabaya, Indonesia.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/hindu-devotees-prepare-to-scatter-ashes-of-the-deceased-news-photo/1243611860?adppopup=true">Juni Kriswanto/AFP via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Many people see death as a rite of a passage: a journey to some new place, or a threshold between two kinds of being. Zoroastrians believe that there is <a href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803133541542">a bridge of judgment</a> that each person who dies must cross; depending on deeds done during life, the bridge takes the deceased to different places. Ancient Greek sources depict the deceased <a href="https://www.hellenic.org.au/post/the-final-journey-crossing-the-styx">crossing the river Styx</a>, overcoming obstacles with the help of coins and food.</p>
<p>But the dead cannot make this transition alone – surviving family or friends play key roles. Ritual actions the living perform on behalf of the dead are said to help the deceased with their journey. At the same time, these actions give the living a chance to grieve and say goodbye. </p>
<p>As <a href="https://miamioh.edu/profiles/cas/liz-wilson.html">a scholar of South Asian religions</a> specializing in death and dying, I have seen how much surviving family depend on these rituals for peace of mind. Traditions vary widely by region and religious tradition, but all of them help mourners feel that they have given one last gift to their loved one.</p>
<h2>Fire, water and food</h2>
<p><a href="https://openfolklore.org/content/make-sesame-rice-please-appetites-dead-hinduism-1">Some Hindu death rituals</a> have roots in ancient Vedic rites as old as 1,500 B.C.E. The survivors’ goal is to ensure that a dead person separates from the realm of the living and makes a safe transition to a blessed afterlife or rebirth.</p>
<p>Death rites <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/28709299">typically use fire, water and food</a> in a sequence of three stages.</p>
<p>Stage one is cremation, the fiery incineration of a corpse on a stack of wood infused with flammable oils. Cremation is considered the dead person’s willing, final gift to the god of fire, <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-57894855">traditionally officiated by the oldest son</a> of the deceased.</p>
<p>Stage two is the immersion of cremated remains in a flowing body of water, such as the Ganges River. There are many sacred rivers in India where the ashes of a loved one can be immersed, and Hindus <a href="https://www.clevelandart.org/art/1966.119">regard them as goddesses</a> who carry off impurities and sins, assisting the soul on its journey.</p>
<p>Many Hindus believe the ideal place to immerse a loved one’s ashes is in the sacred city of Varanasi, in northern India, where the Ganges flows in a broad stream. Families carry corpses in festive processions to the cremation site, hopeful that their rituals will help loved ones move to another state of existence.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/TEOBW1PvMqo?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Though the Ganges is considered the holiest river, many rivers are viewed as sacred.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Stage three is entrance into the realm of the ancestors. Ancient Hindu belief depicts relatives who have died living in a realm where they are maintained by offerings given by their living descendants, whom they assist with fertility and wealth.</p>
<p>Hindu beliefs and practices are extremely diverse. In many communities, however, descendants perform rites that offer nourishment to the dead person, <a href="https://scroll.in/article/1032342/devdutt-pattanaik-on-the-3000-year-old-hindu-ritual-of-feeding-the-dead">represented in the form of a ball of rice</a>. Through these offerings, which can be performed after the death or during certain holidays and anniversaries, the deceased spirit is said to gradually become an embodied ancestor, reborn thanks to the ritual labor of their offspring. </p>
<h2>Colorful processions</h2>
<p>Buddhist death rituals differ considerably from culture to culture, yet one commonality is the amount of human effort that goes into sending off the dead. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556237/original/file-20231026-22-sh2stu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Nine men in black outfits with brightly colored patterns on them hold a huge puppet of a dragon outside a building with Chinese characters on it." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556237/original/file-20231026-22-sh2stu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556237/original/file-20231026-22-sh2stu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556237/original/file-20231026-22-sh2stu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556237/original/file-20231026-22-sh2stu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556237/original/file-20231026-22-sh2stu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=482&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556237/original/file-20231026-22-sh2stu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=482&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556237/original/file-20231026-22-sh2stu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=482&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dragon dancers perform during a funeral for Taiwanese TV star Chu Ke-liang in New Taipei City on June 20, 2017.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/dragon-dancers-perform-outside-a-funeral-hall-during-a-news-photo/698172402?adppopup=true">Sam Yeh/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In Chinese and Taiwanese culture, it is thought best to send off the deceased with a well-attended funeral procession, full of pageantry for deities and mortals alike. Many people rent “Electric Flower Cars,” trucks that serve as moving stages for performers – even pole dancers are not uncommon. Fifty jeeps with pole-dancing women graced <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-38528122">the funeral procession of a Taiwanese politician</a> who died in 2017. </p>
<p>Though pole dancers are a newer phenomenon, Taiwanese funerals and religious processions have long showcased women and young people, including female mourners hired to wail. Scholars such as <a href="https://www.harvard-yenching.org/person/chang-hsun/">anthropologist Chang Hsun</a> suggest that a combination of such traditions <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZCRmmSdYwDc">led to the inclusion</a> of women dancing and singing in some modern funeral processions. </p>
<p>By the 1980s, scantily clad women were a fixture of rural Taiwanese funeral culture. In 2011, <a href="https://sc.edu/study/colleges_schools/artsandsciences/anthropology/our_people/directory/moskowitz_marc.php">anthropologist Marc L. Moskowitz</a> produced a short documentary called “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZCRmmSdYwDc">Dancing for the Dead: Funeral Strippers in Taiwan</a>” about the phenomenon. </p>
<p>Funeral performances show tremendous freedom and innovation; one sees drummers, marching bands and Taiwanese opera singers. Paper objects in the shape of things the deceased is believed to use in the afterlife are burned, from microwaves to cars. Likewise, specially printed money called “ghost money” is burned to provide the deceased with funds.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556448/original/file-20231029-27-6pbk83.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A man in a yellow monk's robe and someone wearing black stand behind what looks like a dollhouse, as the monk rings a bell." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556448/original/file-20231029-27-6pbk83.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556448/original/file-20231029-27-6pbk83.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556448/original/file-20231029-27-6pbk83.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556448/original/file-20231029-27-6pbk83.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556448/original/file-20231029-27-6pbk83.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556448/original/file-20231029-27-6pbk83.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556448/original/file-20231029-27-6pbk83.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A paper model of a villa, used as an offering for the dead during a ceremony in New Taipei City, Taiwan.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/this-picture-taken-on-march-16-2019-shows-a-relative-news-photo/1134772913?adppopup=true">Sam Yeh/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Guiding the dead</h2>
<p>In Tibet, Buddhists believe that the vital energy of a person who has died stays with the body <a href="https://theasiadialogue.com/2016/05/04/tibetan-death-rituals/">for 49 days</a>. During this time, the dead person receives instruction from priests to help them navigate the journey ahead.</p>
<p>This journey toward the next stage of being involves a series of choices that will determine the realm of their rebirth – including rebirth as an animal, a hungry ghost, a deity, a being in hell, another human being or immediate enlightenment. </p>
<p>Priests whisper instructions into the ear of the dead person, who is believed to be capable of hearing so long as they retain their vital energy. Being told what to expect after death allows a person to face death with equanimity.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556238/original/file-20231026-25-lx55xi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A black and white photo shows a man seated in prayer on top of a mountain, as other people work in the background." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556238/original/file-20231026-25-lx55xi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556238/original/file-20231026-25-lx55xi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=728&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556238/original/file-20231026-25-lx55xi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=728&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556238/original/file-20231026-25-lx55xi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=728&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556238/original/file-20231026-25-lx55xi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=915&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556238/original/file-20231026-25-lx55xi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=915&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556238/original/file-20231026-25-lx55xi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=915&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A Tibetan Buddhist priest chants prayers and repeats passages from religious scrolls while his helpers make a funeral pyre.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/lamaist-priest-chants-prayers-and-repeats-passages-from-news-photo/646273502?adppopup=true">Hulton Deutsch/Corbis via Getty Images</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>The instructions given to the dead are described in a sacred text called the “Bardo Thodol,” often translated in English as “<a href="https://theconversation.com/guide-to-the-classics-the-tibetan-book-of-the-dead-172962">The Tibetan Book of the Dead</a>.” “Bardo” is the Tibetan term for an intermediate or in-between state; one might think of the bardo of death as a train that stops at various destinations, opening doors and giving the passenger opportunities to depart. </p>
<p>Tibetan Buddhists believe that these instructions allow the deceased to make good choices in the 49-day interim between their death and the next life. Different rebirth realms will appear to the person, taking the form of colored lights. Based on the karma of the deceased, some realms will seem more alluring than others. The person is told to be fearless: to let themselves be drawn toward higher realms, even if they appear frightening.</p>
<p>For several days before burial, the deceased is visited by friends, family and well-wishers – all able to work out their grief while assisting the dead in a postmortem journey.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/213206/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Liz Wilson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Across cultures, death rituals give mourners a chance to grieve. But they also offer one last opportunity to help the deceased as they transition to the next stage of existence.
Liz Wilson, Professor of Comparative Religion, Miami University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/207290
2023-09-21T12:44:59Z
2023-09-21T12:44:59Z
‘Journey to the West’: Why the classic Chinese novel’s mischievous monkey – and his very human quest – has inspired centuries of adaptations
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/548883/original/file-20230918-19-ngcwb3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C1%2C1024%2C680&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">'Monkey: Journey To The West,' a nine-act opera adaptation performed at the Chatelet Theater in France.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/monkey-journey-to-the-west-9-acts-opera-at-the-chatelet-news-photo/171031522?adppopup=true">Bertrand Rindoff Petroff/French Select via Getty Image</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>One summer afternoon in the late 1980s, my mother and I passed by a tea house on our trip out of town. The crowded building was usually a boisterous place filled with chatter, laughter, and the happy, clacking shuffle of mahjong tiles. At the moment we were passing, however, a great hush came over the teahouse: People were held spellbound by the black-and-white glow of a small TV in a corner, playing an episode of the series “Journey to the West.”</p>
<p>The TV series was adapted from <a href="https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/J/bo12079590.html">a 16th century Chinese novel</a> with the same title that has <a href="https://uwapress.uw.edu/book/9780295743196/transforming-monkey/">undergone numerous adaptations</a> and has captured the imagination of Chinese people to this day. Like many kids in China, I was fascinated by the magic Monkey King, the beloved superhero in the novel, who went through amazing adventures with other pilgrims in their quest for Buddhist scriptures. While I had to quickly walk by the teahouse in order to catch our bus that day, this moment flashed back to me from time to time, making me wonder what made “Journey to the West” so fascinating for people of all ages and backgrounds.</p>
<p>After graduating from college, I embarked on the next chapter of my academic journey in the United States and reconnected with “Journey to the West” from a different perspective. Now, as <a href="https://www.holycross.edu/academics/programs/world-languages-literatures-and-cultures/faculty/ji-hao">a scholar with expertise in traditional Chinese literature</a>, I am interested in the development of literary and cultural traditions around the story, including <a href="https://brill.com/view/journals/joch/2/1/article-p77_5.xml">how it has been translated</a> and <a href="https://www.netflix.com/title/80237245">reimagined by many artists</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/548872/original/file-20230918-27043-s33v7a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A dozen children in bright gold costumes and red face paint pose in a dance formation." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/548872/original/file-20230918-27043-s33v7a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/548872/original/file-20230918-27043-s33v7a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548872/original/file-20230918-27043-s33v7a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548872/original/file-20230918-27043-s33v7a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548872/original/file-20230918-27043-s33v7a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548872/original/file-20230918-27043-s33v7a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548872/original/file-20230918-27043-s33v7a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Students of a Beijing opera school dance during a performance about the ‘Monkey King’ in 2006.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/students-of-an-opera-school-dance-during-a-performance-news-photo/72889325?adppopup=true">China Photos/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While deeply enmeshed in Chinese traditions, the story also resonates with readers from diverse cultures. “Journey to the West” creates shared ground by highlighting the quest for a common humanity, epitomized by its best-loved character, the Monkey King – a symbol of the human mind.</p>
<h2>One journey, many stories</h2>
<p>Scholars usually trace the beginning of this literary tradition to <a href="https://www.shambhala.com/xuanzang.html">a Buddhist monk, Xuanzang</a>, who set out on an epic pilgrimage to India in 627 C.E. He was determined to consult and bring back Sanskrit copies of Buddhist scriptures, rather than rely on previous Chinese translations. He did so after nearly 17 years and devoted the rest of his life to translating the scriptures.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/548870/original/file-20230918-19-u5edwp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A detail from a Chinese scroll painting of a man with short hair in a green robe and sandals." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/548870/original/file-20230918-19-u5edwp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/548870/original/file-20230918-19-u5edwp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1341&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548870/original/file-20230918-19-u5edwp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1341&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548870/original/file-20230918-19-u5edwp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1341&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548870/original/file-20230918-19-u5edwp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1686&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548870/original/file-20230918-19-u5edwp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1686&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548870/original/file-20230918-19-u5edwp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1686&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The seventh-century monk and translator Xuanzang traveled far and wide in India for Buddhist scriptures.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/xuanzang-was-a-famous-chinese-buddhist-monk-scholar-news-photo/1485117238?adppopup=true">Pictures from History/Universal Images Group via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The journey has inspired a wide variety of representations in literature, art and religion, making a lasting impact on Chinese culture and society. Legends began to emerge during Xuanzang’s lifetime. Over centuries, they gradually <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/us/universitypress/subjects/literature/european-and-world-literature-general-interest/hsi-yu-chi-study-antecedents-sixteenth-century-chinese-novel?format=PB&isbn=9780521102810">evolved into a distinct tradition</a> of storytelling, often focused on how Xuanzang overcame obstacles with the help of supernatural companions.</p>
<p>This culminated in a 16th century Chinese novel, “Journey to the West.” By this point, the hero of the story had already shifted from Xuanzang to one of his disciples: the Monkey King of Flower-Fruit Mountain, who serves as Xuanzang’s protector. The Monkey King possesses strong magical powers – transforming himself, cloning himself and even performing somersaults that fly him more than 30,000 miles at once.</p>
<p>Despite this novel’s dominance, the broader tradition around “Journey to the West” encompasses a wide variety of stories in diverse forms. The canonic novel itself grew out of this collective effort, and its authorship is still debated – even as it continues to inspire new adaptations.</p>
<h2>The deeper journey</h2>
<p>Central to all Journey to the West stories is a theme of pilgrimage, which immediately raises a question regarding the nature of the novel: What is the journey really about?</p>
<p>Centuries-long debates <a href="https://doi.org/10.7312/yu--14326-009">about the journey’s deeper message</a> center on the 16th century novel. Traditional commentators in late imperial China adopted a variety of approaches to the novel and underscored its connections with different religious and philosophical doctrines: Confucianism, Daoism, Buddhism and syntheses of those teachings.</p>
<p>For example, all these teachings highlight the role of the “xin” – a Chinese word for mind and heart – in self-cultivation. While Confucian readers might see the plot of “Journey to the West” as the quest for a more moral life, Buddhists might decipher it as an inward journey toward enlightenment. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/548873/original/file-20230918-17-kwrct8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Four small, brightly painted clay figurines of people and animals in clothing." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/548873/original/file-20230918-17-kwrct8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/548873/original/file-20230918-17-kwrct8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548873/original/file-20230918-17-kwrct8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548873/original/file-20230918-17-kwrct8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548873/original/file-20230918-17-kwrct8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548873/original/file-20230918-17-kwrct8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548873/original/file-20230918-17-kwrct8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Four of the characters from ‘Journey to the West,’ made in the clay figurine technique of Huishan, China, including the Monkey King on the right.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/characters-of-journey-to-the-west-made-in-huishan-clay-news-photo/524791578?adppopup=true">Zhang Peng/LightRocket via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the early 20th century, <a href="https://c250.columbia.edu/c250_celebrates/remarkable_columbians/hu_shih.html#:%7E:text=A%20onetime%20cultural%20critic%20who,late%201910s%2C%20he%20joined%20other">Chinese scholar and diplomat Hu Shi</a> criticized traditional allegorical interpretations, which he feared would make the novel seem less approachable for the general public.</p>
<p>His opinion influenced <a href="https://groveatlantic.com/book/monkey/">Arthur Waley’s “Monkey</a>,” an abridged English translation of “Journey to the West” published in 1942, which has contributed to <a href="https://www.proquest.com/docview/2584781824/9CC4031C8094A1CPQ/1">the canonization of the novel abroad</a>. To a considerable extent, “Monkey” turns the pilgrims’ journey into Monkey’s own journey of self-improvement and personal growth.</p>
<p>Recent scholarship has further underlined <a href="https://doi.org/10.1163/9789047415893_015">religious and ritual connotations</a> of the novel from different perspectives, and debates over the issue continue. But few people would deny that one idea plays a crucial role: the Monkey King as a symbol of the mind.</p>
<h2>Mind monkey</h2>
<p>There has been a long tradition in Chinese culture that associates <a href="https://brill.com/display/title/3488?language=en">the image of a simian creature</a> with the human mind. On the one hand, a monkey often symbolizes a restless mind, calling for discipline and cultivation. On the other hand, an active mind also opens up the opportunity to challenge the status quo and even transcend it, progressing to a higher state.</p>
<p>The Monkey King in the novel <a href="https://doi.org/10.7817/jaos.141.4.2021.ar035">demonstrates this dual dimension of the mind</a>. He vividly displays adaptability in exploring uncharted territories and adjusting to changing circumstances – and learning to rely on teamwork and self-discipline, not merely his magic powers.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/548876/original/file-20230918-27-jeg8si.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A Japanese ink sketch of a monkey creating small, flying creatures out of his breath." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/548876/original/file-20230918-27-jeg8si.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/548876/original/file-20230918-27-jeg8si.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548876/original/file-20230918-27-jeg8si.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548876/original/file-20230918-27-jeg8si.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548876/original/file-20230918-27-jeg8si.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548876/original/file-20230918-27-jeg8si.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548876/original/file-20230918-27-jeg8si.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Monkey King creates an army by plucking out his fur and blowing it into the air – each hair becomes a monkey-warrior. From the Japanese series ‘Yoshitoshi ryakuga.’</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/the-magic-monkey-songoku-from-the-chinese-story-journey-to-news-photo/526988270?adppopup=true">John Stevenson/Asian Art & Archaeology, Inc./Corbis Historical/Corbis via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Before being sent on the pilgrimage, the Monkey King’s quest for self-gratification wreaked havoc in heaven and led to his imprisonment by the Buddha. The goddess Guanyin agreed to give him a second chance on the condition that he join the other pilgrims and assist them. His journey is fraught with the tensions between self-discipline and self-reliance, as he learns how to channel his physical and mental powers for good. </p>
<p>The Monkey King’s human qualities, from arrogance to fear, endow him with universal appeal. Readers gradually witness his self-improvement, revealing a common human quest. They may frown upon how the Monkey King is entrapped within his own ego, yet respect his courage in challenging authority and battling adversity. While his mischievous tricks give a good laugh, his loyalty to the monk Xuanzang and his sense of righteousness make a lasting impression.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1943/03/14/archives/monkey-a-chinese-folk-novel-the-arm-and-the-darkness-and-other.html">Reviewing Waley’s “Monkey” in 1943</a>, Chinese-American writer Helena Kuo commented of the pilgrims: “Humanity would have missed a great deal if they have been exemplary characters.” Indeed, each one depicts humanity’s quest for a better self, particularly the main character. Monkeying around on the path of life, this simian companion captivates readers – and makes them consider their own journey.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207290/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ji Hao does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
There is a long tradition in China of associating monkeys with the mind – symbolism that has helped the novel’s most memorable character, the Monkey King, find universal resonance.
Ji Hao, Associate Professor of Chinese Studies , College of the Holy Cross
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/210679
2023-09-19T12:17:30Z
2023-09-19T12:17:30Z
AI won’t be replacing your priest, minister, rabbi or imam any time soon
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/548135/original/file-20230913-23-yeyvza.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=311%2C42%2C6850%2C4939&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">An android called 'Kannon Mindar,' which preaches Buddhist sermons.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/in-this-march-9-2019-shows-android-called-kannon-mindar-news-photo/1129444044?adppopup=true">Richard Atrero de Guzman/NurPhoto via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Early in the summer of 2023, robots projected on a screen <a href="https://www.worldreligionnews.com/religion-news/artificial-intelligence/">delivered sermons to about 300 congregants</a> at St. Paul’s Church in Bavaria, Germany. Created by ChatGPT and Jonas Simmerlein, a theologian and philosopher from the University of Vienna, the experimental church service drew immense interest. </p>
<p>The deadpan sermon delivery prompted many to doubt whether AI can really displace priests and pastoral instruction. At the end of the service, an attendee remarked, “There was no heart and no soul.” </p>
<p>But the growing use of AI may prompt more churches to debut AI-generated worship services. A church in Austin, Texas, for example, has put a banner out <a href="https://www.mysanantonio.com/news/local/article/chatgpt-ai-sermon-austin-18360010.php.">advertising a service with an AI-generated sermon</a>. The church worship will also include an AI-generated call to worship and pastoral prayer. Yet this use of AI has prompted concerns, as these technologies are believed to disrupt authentic human presence and leadership in religious life. </p>
<p>My research, alongside others in the <a href="https://oaktrust.library.tamu.edu/handle/1969.1/198190">interdisciplinary fields of digital religion</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.4135/9781529782783">human-machine communication</a>, illuminates what is missing in discussions of AI, which tend to be machine-centric and focused on extreme bright or dark outcomes. </p>
<p>It points to how religious leaders are still the ones influencing the latest technologies within their organizations. AI cannot simply displace humans, since storytelling and programming continue to be critical for its development and deployment. </p>
<p>Here are three ways in which machines will need a priest. </p>
<h2>1. Clergy approve and affirm AI use</h2>
<p>Given rapid changes in emerging technologies, priests have historically served as gatekeepers to <a href="https://www.peterlang.com/document/1109122">endorse and invest in new digital applications</a>. In 2015, in China, the adoption of Xian'er, the robot monk, was promoted as a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0196859920977133">pathway to spiritual engagement</a> by the master priest of the Buddhist Longquan Temple in Beijing. </p>
<p>The priest rejected claims that religious AI was sacrilegious and described innovation in AI as spiritually compatible with religious values. He encouraged the incorporation of AI into religious practices to help believers gain spiritual insight and to elevate the temple’s outreach efforts in spreading Buddhist teachings. </p>
<p>Similarly, in 2019, the head priest of the Kodai-ji Buddhist temple in Kyoto, Japan, named an adult-size android “<a href="https://www.scmp.com/news/asia/east-asia/article/3022716/meet-mindar-humanoid-robot-preaches-sermons-buddhist-temple?module=perpetual_scroll_0&pgtype=article&campaign=3022716">Kannon Mindar</a>,” after the revered Goddess of Mercy. </p>
<p>This robotic deity, who can preach the Heart Sutra, a classic and popular Buddhist scripture, was intentionally built in partnership with Osaka University, with a cost of about US$1 million. The idea behind it was to stimulate public interest and connect religious seekers and practitioners with Buddhist teachings. </p>
<p>By naming and affirming AI use in religious life, religious leaders are acting as key influencers in the development and application of robots in spiritual practice. </p>
<h2>2. Priests direct human-machine communication</h2>
<p>Today, much of AI data operations remain invisible or opaque. Many adults do not recognize how much AI is <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/science/2023/02/15/public-awareness-of-artificial-intelligence-in-everyday-activities/">already a part of our daily lives</a>, for example in customer service chatbots and custom product recommendations. </p>
<p>But human decision making and judgment about technical processes, including providing feedback for reinforcement learning and interface design, is vital for the day-to-day operations of AI. </p>
<p>Consider the recent robotic initiatives at the Grand Mosque in Saudi Arabia. At this mosque, <a href="https://gulfnews.com/world/gulf/saudi/recitation-sermon-robots-launched-at-grand-mosque-1.90474824">multilingual robots</a> are being deployed for multiple purposes, including providing answers to questions related to <a href="https://gulfnews.com/world/gulf/saudi/watch-multilingual-robot-interacts-with-pilgrims-at-kaaba-kiswa-facility-in-mecca-1.96458732">ritual performances in 11 languages</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/548137/original/file-20230913-15-umu34w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A man in red checked head scarf and flowing white shirt with a robot." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/548137/original/file-20230913-15-umu34w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/548137/original/file-20230913-15-umu34w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548137/original/file-20230913-15-umu34w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548137/original/file-20230913-15-umu34w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548137/original/file-20230913-15-umu34w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548137/original/file-20230913-15-umu34w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548137/original/file-20230913-15-umu34w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A robot at the Grand Mosque in Saudi Arabia’s holy city of Mecca.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/saudi-staff-works-on-a-smart-sterilising-robot-at-the-grand-news-photo/1234087266?adppopup=true">Fayez Nureldine / AFP via Getty images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Notably, while these robots stationed at the Grand Mosque can recite the Holy Quran, they also provide visitors with connections to local imams. Their touch-screen interfaces are equipped with bar codes, allowing users to learn more about the weekly schedules of mosque staff, including clerics who lead Friday sermons. In addition, these robots can connect visitors with Islamic scholars via video interactions to answer their queries around the clock.</p>
<p>What this shows is that while robots can serve as valuable sources of religious knowledge, the strategic channeling of inquiries back to established religious leaders is reinforcing the credibility of priestly authority. </p>
<h2>3. Religious leaders can create and share ethical guidelines</h2>
<p>Clergy are trying to raise awareness of AI’s potential for human flourishing and well-being. For example, in recent years, Pope Francis has been vocal in addressing the potential benefits and disruptive dangers of the new AI technologies. </p>
<p>The Vatican has hosted technology industry leaders and called for <a href="https://www.vaticannews.va/en/pope/news/2023-01/pope-francis-receives-rome-call-vatican-audience.html">ethical guidelines</a> to “safeguard the good of the human family” and maintain “vigilance against technology misuse.” The ethical use of AI for religion includes a concern for human bias in programming, which can result in inaccuracies and unsafe outcomes. </p>
<p>In June 2023, the Vatican’s culture and education body, in partnership with Santa Clara University, released a 140-page <a href="https://www.scu.edu/ethics/media-mentions/stories/the-vatican-releases-its-own-ai-ethics-handbook.html">AI ethics handbook</a> for technology organizations. The handbook stressed the importance of embedding moral ideals in the development of AI, including respect for human dignity and rights in data privacy, machine learning and facial recognition technologies. </p>
<p>By creating and sharing ethical guidelines on AI, religious leaders can speak to future AI development from its inception, to guide design and consumer implementation toward cherished values.</p>
<p>In sum, while religious leaders appear to be undervalued in AI development and discourse, I argue that it is important to recognize the ways in which clergy are contributing to skillful communication involving AI technologies. In the process, they are co-constructing the conversations that chatbots such as the one at the church in Bavaria are having with congregants.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/210679/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Pauline Hope Cheong does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
A scholar of digital religion explains why the use of AI isn’t necessarily displacing religious leadership: It is the clergy who are helping with the programming, critical for its deployment.
Pauline Hope Cheong, Professor of Human Communication and Communication Technologies, Arizona State University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/212253
2023-09-19T00:55:09Z
2023-09-19T00:55:09Z
‘Don’t say anything about it’: why so many LGBTQIA+ Buddhists feel pressure to hide their identities
<p>More than half of Australia’s LGBTQIA+ Buddhists feel reluctant to “come out” to their Buddhist communities and nearly one in six have been told directly that being LGBTQIA+ isn’t in keeping with the Buddha’s teachings.</p>
<p>These are some of the findings from my <a href="https://www.surveymonkey.com/r/LGBTQIABuddhistResearchInterviews">research</a> looking at the experiences of LGBTQIA+ Buddhists in Australia. </p>
<p>I’m a genderqueer, non-binary Buddhist myself and I was curious about others’ experiences in Australia since there has been no research done on our community before. So, in 2020, I surveyed 82 LGBTQIA+ Buddhists and have since followed this up with 29 face-to-face interviews.</p>
<p>Some people may think Buddhism would be quite accepting of LGBTQIA+ people. There are, after all, no religious laws, commandments or punishments in Buddhism. My research indicates, however, this is not always true. </p>
<p>Buddhism does have five <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zf8g4qt/revision/9">precepts</a>, or rules for behaving in a moral or ethical way, that monastics and some lay practitioners are meant to follow to have a morally good life. The precept of “sexual misconduct” has been interpreted as referring to <a href="https://info-buddhism.com/Buddhism-Sexuality-Cabezon.html">homosexuality</a>.</p>
<p>As a result, many LGBTQIA+ Buddhists here continue to experience discrimination. For example, some trans and non-binary Buddhists have been subjected to gender segregation at meditation retreats, while others have been forced to lie about being LGBTQIA+ out of fear of being denied access to ordination.</p>
<h2>Difficulties of coming out</h2>
<p>In my research, I found that many LGBTQIA+ Buddhists are reluctant to come out because, as Lang* (a pansexual, non-binary man) explained: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>there is a profound lack of understanding of how heteronormative and puritan many Buddhist spaces are. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Similarly, Helen (a pansexual transwoman) described the monastery she visits as “a ‘male’ institution”, adding that </p>
<blockquote>
<p>judgements and phobias do not disappear because of ordination. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Traci (a lesbian woman) was told explicitly by monastics that being LGBTQIA+ is not in keeping with the Buddha’s teachings. She was not allowed to join a Tibetan <em>sangha</em> (community) in Australia because of her sexuality. </p>
<p>And when Annie (a pansexual transwoman) came out to her teacher (a monastic), he gave her an hour and a half lecture that focused in part on the “evils of gay sex”, despite the fact she stressed she isn’t gay.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/traditional-buddhist-teachings-exclude-lgbtq-people-from-monastic-life-but-change-is-coming-slowly-191567">Traditional Buddhist teachings exclude LGBTQ people from monastic life, but change is coming slowly</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Barriers to meditation and ordination</h2>
<p>Meditation is one of the key elements of <a href="https://theconversation.com/friday-essay-how-the-west-discovered-the-buddha-182140">Buddhism</a> and many Buddhist groups offer meditation retreats.</p>
<p>Some trans and non-binary Buddhists I spoke to, however, have had difficulties attending these retreats because they always segregate participants into two groups based on a binary view of gender. Nano (a queer non-binary man) reflected on how it felt when they attended a retreat: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>I remember going and sitting with the women, and all the old [local] ladies laughing at me and pushing me back into the midsection [next to the men]. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Gender segregation is meant to support practitioners by removing the distraction of “the opposite sex”, but this ignores the experiences of LGBTQIA+ people. Raja (a polyamorous gay man) said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I would have to potentially deal with my own possible lusts should they arise within the shared environment. Others who identify as heterosexuals would be in a slightly more advantageous setting.</p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/friday-essay-how-the-west-discovered-the-buddha-182140">Friday essay: how the West discovered the Buddha</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>A common image associated with Buddhism is a monastic in robes. I found that some LGBTQIA+ celibate monastics who are “out” have, at times, been encouraged to keep their sexual and gender identities a secret so they would not be denied access to ordination. </p>
<p>When the Venerable Daiji (a queer man) lived in a monastery, he was approached by a woman who asked if he was gay and then said: “Then you can’t ordain. You can’t be a monk.” He notes that in a monastery, </p>
<blockquote>
<p>there was a lot of pressure to not identify with my sexuality […] which of course, no one else seemed to have to do that work on their sexuality. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>An ordained Buddhist priest, Daiden (a gay man), was told by his teacher to not say anything about his sexuality. </p>
<blockquote>
<p>If somebody asks, of course, you’re not going to lie. But don’t just say anything about it. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>When he is asked if he has a partner, he still says no.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>That is lying I guess […] because I do have a partner. </p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Ways to build a more inclusive community</h2>
<p>To build a more supportive and inclusive community, some LGBTQIA+ practitioners are forming groups to connect with others internationally, such as the <a href="https://iqbc.org/schedule-2023/">Third International Queer Buddhist Conference</a>, which brings together hundreds of LGBTQIA+ Buddhists every year. </p>
<p>This is happening within Australia, as well. <a href="https://rainbodhi.org/">Rainbodhi</a> was founded in Sydney in 2019 as a “spiritual friendship group” for LGBTQIA+ Buddhists to organise and advocate for greater inclusion and acceptance within the broader Buddhist community. This has led to the formation of other Rainbodhi groups in Singapore, Spain, Poland, Canada and the US. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1505979735779672064"}"></div></p>
<p>In 2021, Rainbodhi published “<a href="https://rainbodhi.org/welcoming-the-rainbow-booklet/">Welcoming the Rainbow</a>”, a booklet promoting awareness and understanding of diversity for use in Buddhist temples, organisations and retreat centres. It has now been translated into Dutch, French, Polish, Spanish and Thai, with a Portuguese translation on the way. </p>
<p>For many of my survey participants, these efforts have gone a long way to create a greater sense of belonging and community. </p>
<p>Venerable Atid, another openly gay Buddhist monk, said he’s happy being part of a LGBTQIA+ Buddhist group </p>
<blockquote>
<p>because people there are striving to lead authentic lives as faithful Buddhists, practicing Buddhists, and LGBTQIA+ Buddhists. </p>
</blockquote>
<p><em>* All names in this article are pseudonyms.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/212253/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stephen Kerry is a member of Rainbodhi. </span></em></p>
New research shows how LGBTQIA+ Buddhists in Australia struggle to come out, feel pressure to lie about their sexuality and experience discrimination.
Stephen Kerry, Lecturer in Sociology, Charles Darwin University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/210857
2023-08-24T12:26:44Z
2023-08-24T12:26:44Z
With fewer than 1,500 Catholics in Mongolia, Pope Francis’ upcoming visit brings attention to the long and complex history of the minority religious group
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542225/original/file-20230810-19-5i7hoe.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=25%2C0%2C1630%2C1070&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Hulagu Khan, grandson of Genghis Khan, seated with his Eastern Christian queen Doquz Khatun.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/hulagu-khan-also-known-as-hulegu-hulegu-or-halaku-was-a-news-photo/1354437053?adppopup=true">History/Universal Images Group via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Pope Francis is set to <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/pope-visit-mongolia-will-thrill-tiny-catholic-community-cardinal-says-2023-07-17/">make the first-ever visit to Mongolia</a>, a country with fewer than 1,500 Catholics, all of whom have come to the faith since 1992. But the pope’s visit is a reminder that the country has a long and complex history with Christianity, among many other faiths. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/mongolia">Mongolia has only 3.4 million people, and at least 87.4% are Buddhists</a>. The small Catholic community came into existence after this landlocked country, bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south, began to abandon its <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2645157">communist ideology and embraced different religions</a>. At that time, it also restored diplomatic relations with the Vatican and welcomed Catholic missionaries.</p>
<p>But Catholicism has been known to the Mongols <a href="https://www.routledge.com/The-Mongols-and-the-West-1221-1410/Jackson/p/book/9781138848481">since the early 13th century</a>. As a <a href="https://search.asu.edu/profile/1268668">scholar of religions in Asia</a>, I am aware that Nestorianism, a Christian tradition commonly known as the Church of the East, reached the periphery of the Mongolian plateau as early as the eighth century, long before the Mongols became active in that area. Several old tribes in the Mongolian steppes were <a href="https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/13943/">converted to Nestorianism around 1000 C.E.</a> </p>
<h2>The Mongol Empire</h2>
<p>The Mongol Empire was founded by Genghis Khan in 1206 after he conquered all the other nomadic tribes on the Mongolian Plateau. Later on, <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-history-of-the-mongol-empire/339475953C6AECE567FA50F1AED951A7">the empire extended from Mongolia to the Eastern Mediterranean regions</a>.</p>
<p>Initially the Mongols practiced a Shamanic religion, worshipping the God Tengri. However, to be able to rule all conquered subjects across the vast empire, Genghis Khan issued the “Great Yasa,” a regulation allowing people under his regime the freedom to freely practice their faiths. Under the Mongol Empire, people practiced <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40109471">Buddhism, Christianity, Judaism and Islam</a>. </p>
<p>The conquered tribes included Nestorian Christians, who believed that Jesus Christ had both human and divine natures and rejected that Mary was the mother of God. Christian women dominated the inner court of the Mongol Empire <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25183572">following their marriages with several Mongol Khans</a>. </p>
<h2>The messengers of the papacy</h2>
<p>The Mongol conquest paved the way for long-distance cultural, religious and commercial exchanges across the vast Eurasian continent. For the first time Catholic missionaries were able to travel along the land route to East Asia.</p>
<p>Genghis Khan and his sons launched a series of military campaigns in Central Asia and West Asia, conquering vast land across the Eurasian continent and reaching the <a href="https://www.medievalists.net/2022/02/mongol-conquest-hungary/">borders of modern-day Hungary and Turkey</a>.</p>
<p>During the conquest, the Mongols often <a href="https://www.routledge.com/The-Mongols-and-the-West-1221-1410/Jackson/p/book/9781138848481">spared many Christians in Central and West Asia</a>, even though they killed those who resisted the Mongol rule. </p>
<p>The conquest shocked many in the Latin world in Europe and Muslims in the Middle East. In 1241, soon after the Mongol troops invaded Hungary and Romania, Pope Innocent IV sent Catholic missionaries, including an Italian Franciscan priest called <a href="https://open.bu.edu/handle/2144/585">John of Plano Carpini</a>, to the Mongol court seeking peace. </p>
<p>In 1246, on orders of the pope, Carpini visited the Mongol court and urged the new ruler of the Mongol Empire, Güyük Khan, Genghis Khan’s grandson, to convert to Catholicism. Güyük Khan instead asked that he summon the pope and other European rulers to <a href="https://open.bu.edu/handle/2144/585">swear allegiance to him</a>.</p>
<p>Catholic missionaries could not find a way to convert the Mongols but continued their efforts with the successive rulers. </p>
<p>In 1248 a Franciscan priest named William of Rubruck, a companion of French King Louis IX, met a Dominican priest, Andrew of Longjumeau, during his visit to Jerusalem. At that time, Louis IX was leading the crusades against Muslims in the Eastern Mediterranean region, and William of Rubruck was fascinated with Andrew of Longjumeau’s suggestion of building an alliance with the Mongols against the Muslims. </p>
<p>In 1253, William of Rubruck visited the Mongol court in Karakorum to urge Genghis Khan’s grandson Möngke Khan to convert. <a href="https://www.routledge.com/The-Mongols-and-the-West-1221-1410/Jackson/p/book/9781138848481">Möngke Khan instead handed him a letter for Louis IX</a> in which he not only refused to convert to Christianity but threatened to invade the heartland of Europe if the Europeans did not accept the Mongols’ eternal God, Tengri. </p>
<h2>Catholicism and Nestorianism</h2>
<p>William of Rubruck’s visit did not bring any immediate results in terms of conversions, but it left a more far lasting impact. </p>
<p>Before his visit there was not much communication between Catholic missionaries and Nestorians, but William of Rubruck was able to chronicle the activities of the Nestorian community within the Mongol Empire. The visits of Catholic missionaries also prompted many <a href="https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004288867_005">Mongol Nestorians to start going on pilgrimages to West Asia</a> as a way to expand their influence beyond their comfort zone under the Mongol Empire. </p>
<p>In 1287 a Nestorian monk, Rabban Bar Sauma, embarked on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem from Khanbaliq, near modern Beijing. Later Sauma’s student Rabban Markos became a patriarch with a title Yahballaha III, <a href="https://uni-salzburg.elsevierpure.com/en/publications/two-letters-of-yahballaha-iii-to-the-popes-of-rome-historical-con/publications/?type=%2Fdk%2Fatira%2Fpure%2Fresearchoutput%2Fresearchoutputtypes%2Fcontributiontobookanthology%2Fchapter">or the chief of the Nestorian Church</a>, in the Mongol-ruled Ilkhanate Empire in modern-day Iran.</p>
<p>At the same time, the Catholic missionaries also started to expand their influence in Central Asia. In 1307 a Franciscan priest, John of Montecorvino, built a Catholic church in Khanbaliq and <a href="https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/corvino1.asp">became the patriarch under the order of Pope Clement V</a>. He had converted about 6,000 people in Mongolia by 1313. </p>
<h2>Religious revivals in Mongolia</h2>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544343/original/file-20230823-27-51fiyz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A priest leads a service while worshippers, including two nuns, stand with prayer books and heads bowed." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544343/original/file-20230823-27-51fiyz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544343/original/file-20230823-27-51fiyz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544343/original/file-20230823-27-51fiyz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544343/original/file-20230823-27-51fiyz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544343/original/file-20230823-27-51fiyz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544343/original/file-20230823-27-51fiyz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544343/original/file-20230823-27-51fiyz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Catholic Mongolians pray during a Mass at St. Peter and St. Paul parish church in Ulan Bator, Mongolia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/catholic-mongolians-pray-during-a-mass-at-st-peter-and-st-news-photo/2178763?adppopup=true">Oleg Nikishin/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Over the next few centuries, the religious landscape in Mongolia continued to change, depending on who was ruling the region. </p>
<p>Many Mongols converted to Tibetan Buddhism during the later part of the 13th-century reign of the Kublai Khan, another grandson of Genghis Khan, who favored the religion. But after 1368, when <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108687645">the Mongols withdrew from central China and left Khanbaliq</a>, the practice of Tibetan Buddhism and Catholicism was suppressed. The Nestorian community gradually disappeared and never revived again.</p>
<p>However, <a href="https://uhpress.hawaii.edu/our-great-qing-now-available-in-paperback/">under the Qing dynasty</a> that ruled China and Mongolia in the 17th century, Buddhism was revived. But again, in the 20th century Mongolian politics changed drastically when the country adopted communism following the Soviet Union’s intervention, and the practice of <a href="https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520244191/modern-mongolia">Buddhism declined again</a>.</p>
<p>After Mongolia became a democracy in 1992, Mongols were allowed to freely practice their faiths again: Buddhism began to flourish, and Catholic missionaries arrived in the country and built a small Catholic community.</p>
<p>When the pope visits this complex religious terrain, his visit will be significant from the geopolitical and religious perspective: In June 2023, the pope’s peace envoy visited Russia as part of international peacemaking efforts. But no pope has ever visited its other close neighbor, China, which <a href="https://thediplomat.com/2022/05/china-vatican-relations-in-the-xi-era/">does not have diplomatic relations</a> with the Vatican. </p>
<p>Overall, I argue that the pope’s groundbreaking visit to Mongolia might <a href="https://aleteia.org/2023/08/06/vietnam-oks-permanent-papal-representation-in-the-country">send important signals</a> in East Asia and, in particular, to the much larger Catholic community in China.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/210857/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Huaiyu Chen does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
The Catholic community that Pope Francis will visit later this month has a complex history that goes back to the 13th century, when the Mongol Empire was founded by Genghis Khan.
Huaiyu Chen, Professor of Religious Studies, Arizona State University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/211587
2023-08-23T12:26:21Z
2023-08-23T12:26:21Z
Navigating the intersection between AI, automation and religion – 3 essential reads
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542839/original/file-20230815-23-3fs34t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">AI is slowly becoming part of the religious sphere. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/rosary-prayer-online-holy-mass-conducted-online-royalty-free-image/1221601837?phrase=religion+and+technology&adppopup=true">robertprzybysz/iStock via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In a era marked by rapid technological advancement, we are seeing everything from artificial intelligence to robots slowly seep into our everyday lives. But now, this technology is increasingly making inroads into a realm that has long been uniquely human: religion. </p>
<p>From the creation of <a href="https://apnews.com/article/germany-church-protestants-chatgpt-ai-sermon-651f21c24cfb47e3122e987a7263d348">ChatGPT sermons</a> to <a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/robots-are-performing-hindu-rituals-some-worshippers-fear-theyll-be-replaced">robots performing sacred Hindu rituals</a>, the once-clearer boundaries between faith and technology are blurring. </p>
<p>Over the last few months, The Conversation U.S. has published a number of stories exploring how AI and automation are weaving themselves into religious contexts. These three articles from our archives shed light on the impacts of such technology on human spirituality, faith and worship across cultures. </p>
<h2>1. Prophets come to life</h2>
<p>As one of the most prominent religious figures in the world, Jesus has been continually reinterpreted to fit the norms and needs of each new historical context, from <a href="https://theconversation.com/panama-celebrates-its-black-christ-part-of-protest-against-colonialism-and-slavery-122171">Cristo Negro</a> or “Black Christ” to being depicted as a Hindu mystic. </p>
<p>But now the prophet is on Twitch, a video live-streaming platform. And it’s all thanks to an AI chatbot. </p>
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<img alt="A bearded white man wearing a brown hooded jacket has a halo around him." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543072/original/file-20230816-17-mzi6vx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543072/original/file-20230816-17-mzi6vx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543072/original/file-20230816-17-mzi6vx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543072/original/file-20230816-17-mzi6vx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543072/original/file-20230816-17-mzi6vx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543072/original/file-20230816-17-mzi6vx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543072/original/file-20230816-17-mzi6vx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">AI Jesus provides insight on both spiritual and personal questions users ask on his channel.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.twitch.tv/ask_jesus">Twitch user ask_jesus</a></span>
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<p>Presented as a bearded white man wearing a brown hood, “AI Jesus” is available 24/7 on his Twitch channel “<a href="https://www.twitch.tv/ask_jesus">ask_Jesus</a>” and is able to interact with users who can ask him anything from deep religious-in-nature questions to lighthearted inquiries. </p>
<p>AI Jesus represents one of the newest examples in the growing field of AI spirituality, noted Boston College theology faculty member <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/joseph-l-kimmel-1441171">Joseph L. Kimmel</a>, and may help scholars better understand how human spirituality is being actively shaped by the influence of AI.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-chatbot-willing-to-take-on-questions-of-all-kinds-from-the-serious-to-the-comical-is-the-latest-representation-of-jesus-for-the-ai-age-208644">A chatbot willing to take on questions of all kinds – from the serious to the comical – is the latest representation of Jesus for the AI age</a>
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<h2>2. Robotic rituals</h2>
<p>A unique intersection of religion and robotic technology has emerged with the introduction of robots performing Hindu rituals in South Asia. While some have welcomed the technological inclusion, others express worries about the future that ritual automation could lead to. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/LH5yqpCWKqs?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A robotic arm performs “aarti” — a Hindu practice in which light is ritually waved for the veneration of deities.</span></figcaption>
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<p>Many believe that the growth of robots within Hindu practices could lead to an increase in people leaving the religion, and question the use of robots to embody religious and divine figures.</p>
<p>But there is another concern: whether robots could eventually replace Hindu worshippers. Automated robots would be able to perform rituals without a single error. This is significant because religions like Hinduism and Buddhism emphasize the correct execution of rituals and ceremonies as a means to connect with the divine rather than emphasizing correct belief. </p>
<p>It’s a concept referred to as orthopraxy, according to Wellesley College anthropology lecturer <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/holly-walters-1406163">Holly Walters</a>. “In short, the robot can do your religion better than you can because robots, unlike people, are spiritually incorruptible,” she explained. “Modern robotics might then feel like a particular kind of cultural paradox, where the best kind of religion is the one that eventually involves no humans at all.”</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/robots-are-performing-hindu-rituals-some-devotees-fear-theyll-replace-worshippers-197504">Robots are performing Hindu rituals -- some devotees fear they'll replace worshippers</a>
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<h2>3. AI preachers</h2>
<p>According to College of the Holy Cross religious studies scholar <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/joanne-m-pierce-156953">Joanne M. Pierce</a>, preaching has always been considered a human activity grounded in faith. But what happens when that practice is taken over by an AI chatbot? </p>
<p>In June 2023, hundreds of Lutherans gathered in Bavaria, Germany, for a service designed and delivered by ChatGPT. But many are cautious about using AI to conduct these religious practices. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/xmXghWi2lf8?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">St. Paul’s Church in Fürth, Bavaria was packed with over 300 Lutherans who attended a church service generated almost entirely by artificial intelligence.</span></figcaption>
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<p>In their sermons, preachers not only offer advice, but “speak out of personal reflection in a way that will inspire the members of the congregation, not just please them,” Pierce said. “It must also be shaped by an awareness of the needs and lived experience of the worshiping community in the pews.”</p>
<p>For the time being, it seems as though the inability to understand the human experience is AI’s biggest flaw within the preaching sphere. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/can-chatbots-write-inspirational-and-wise-sermons-208825">Can chatbots write inspirational and wise sermons?</a>
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<p><em>Editor’s note: This story is a roundup of articles from The Conversation’s archives.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/211587/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
The merging of technology and faith is sparking a transformative shift in redefining spirituality and religious practices.
Meher Bhatia, Editorial Intern, The Conversation
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/207117
2023-08-15T20:03:13Z
2023-08-15T20:03:13Z
Can a Buddhist eat meat? It’s complicated
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539416/original/file-20230726-19-4qafpf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=67%2C0%2C5523%2C3724&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Buddhist monks eating breakfast in Cambodia.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Some Buddhists are strictly vegetarian, and others eat meat. Both justify their positions on the basis of Buddhist texts and teachings. </p>
<p>In the <a href="https://medium.com/@matthieu_ricard/buddhism-and-eating-meat-8bba7846118e">Mahayana Buddhist traditions</a> of China, Taiwan, Vietnam and Korea, meat-eating is prohibited. In others, such as in some <a href="https://bswa.org/teaching/vunaya-buddha-says-eating-meat/">Theravadin traditions</a> and Tibetan Buddhism, meat-eating is acceptable. In certain circumstances it may be encouraged for health, or for ritual tantric practices, comparable to Christians eating the host – the body of Christ. </p>
<p>Being minimally Buddhist requires the practitioner to follow at least the first precept of non-killing. When someone makes a commitment to become a part of the Buddhist Community (called Sangha), the Buddha asks them to take five basic precepts. The first precept is usually formulated along these lines: “I shall abstain from destroying any breathing beings.” </p>
<p>This tradition of precept-taking was introduced by the Buddha himself. The implication is that the first precept pertains to all living sentient creatures. Dedicated practitioners will go to great lengths to avoid destroying any life, to the extent of being careful where they step so that they do not squash even an ant. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539434/original/file-20230726-15-vd98wa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539434/original/file-20230726-15-vd98wa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539434/original/file-20230726-15-vd98wa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539434/original/file-20230726-15-vd98wa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539434/original/file-20230726-15-vd98wa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539434/original/file-20230726-15-vd98wa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539434/original/file-20230726-15-vd98wa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539434/original/file-20230726-15-vd98wa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Dedicated practitioners will take care not to step on an ant.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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<p>In the <a href="https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/25548348-digha-nikaya?from_search=true&from_srp=true&qid=7UJobOF33e&rank=6">Long Discourses of the Buddha (Dīgha Nikāya)</a>, it is written that the Buddhist practitioner must act in a manner that is “scrupulous, compassionate, trembling for the welfare of all living beings”. </p>
<p>Geography is a crucial factor in explaining why Tibetans have traditionally been big meat-eaters. Rice, vegetables and fruit were impossible to cultivate at the high elevations of the Himalayan mountains and plateaus. Altitude combined with the inaccessibility of much of Tibet thus prevented a diverse source of nutrition and so goat or yak meat, and various milk products, all high calorie foods, ensured survival. </p>
<p>To get around the direct responsibility for killing, Tibetan villages traditionally had resident Muslims who butchered the animals. Understandably, some might suggest this was a rather convenient arrangement. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539417/original/file-20230726-25-m444w2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539417/original/file-20230726-25-m444w2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539417/original/file-20230726-25-m444w2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=313&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539417/original/file-20230726-25-m444w2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=313&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539417/original/file-20230726-25-m444w2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=313&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539417/original/file-20230726-25-m444w2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539417/original/file-20230726-25-m444w2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539417/original/file-20230726-25-m444w2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Geography is a key reason why Tibetan Buddhists have traditionally eaten meat.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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<p>Meat-eating in the Theravadin tradition may have been justified partly because of legal precedent or permissibility. Firstly, the monks are required to dutifully accept whatever food is given to them by the laity to avoid attachment to any particular tastes, so if somebody offers meat to a monk, he has to consume it. </p>
<p>Secondly, a monk is allowed to consume meat if it is deemed “pure” on three grounds: if the killing of the animal has not been witnessed or heard by that monk and if it is not suspected to have been killed on purpose for them.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/guide-to-the-classics-the-tibetan-book-of-the-dead-172962">Guide to the classics: the Tibetan Book of the Dead</a>
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<h2>An irony</h2>
<p>In one of the key Buddhist texts, <a href="https://www.simonandschuster.com/books/The-Connected-Discourses-of-the-Buddha/Bodhi/Teachings-of-the-Buddha/9780861713318#:%7E:text=Collected%20into%20their%20different%20themes,and%20joy%2C%20awareness%20and%20meditation.">The Connected Discourses of the Buddha</a> (Saṃyutta Nikāya), Buddha presents the case against meat-eating within the context of a broader rejection of violence – which causes suffering to both victim and perpetrator. Connected with this is a rejection of working in the meat trades.</p>
<p>But this is challenged by the fact that under the <a href="https://bswa.org/teaching/vunaya-buddha-says-eating-meat/">Buddhist Vinaya (moral codes)</a> meat-eating is permissible for monks. A great irony is that the Buddha himself died eating contaminated pork. </p>
<p>As a monk he was obliged to eat whatever was offered, and so it is said that he ate the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19813312/">contaminated pork</a> – some suggest knowingly. Others dispute this by asserting he consumed poisoned mushrooms.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539418/original/file-20230726-25-g6qffv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539418/original/file-20230726-25-g6qffv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539418/original/file-20230726-25-g6qffv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=462&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539418/original/file-20230726-25-g6qffv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=462&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539418/original/file-20230726-25-g6qffv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=462&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539418/original/file-20230726-25-g6qffv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=581&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539418/original/file-20230726-25-g6qffv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=581&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539418/original/file-20230726-25-g6qffv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=581&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Nehan: Death of the Buddha by an anonymous artist, circa 1600-1700.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons</span></span>
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<p>Two key Buddhist texts, <a href="https://www.mnzencenter.org/uploads/2/9/5/8/29581455/lankavatara_sutra.pdf">the Descent into Lanka-sūtra (Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra)</a> and <a href="http://www.buddhism.org/Sutras/2/GreatParinirvana.htm">The Great Passing Away-Sūtra (Mahāparinirvāna Sūtra</a>) address the issues of meat-eating. They stress the importance of compassion and not using the Vinaya as an excuse to eat meat. </p>
<h2>Comparisons with Christianity</h2>
<p>Nevertheless, the contemporary Buddhist stance on animal ethics and meat-eating appears very inconsistent to outsiders and sometimes even to Buddhists themselves. </p>
<p>Here, a brief comparison with Christianity is instructive. Christian authorities propose that God gave humans dominion over animals. For much of the history of Christianity, the suffering of animals has been ignored. Humans are seen as higher on the Chain of Being due to their having souls.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539424/original/file-20230726-29-8dy1u1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539424/original/file-20230726-29-8dy1u1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539424/original/file-20230726-29-8dy1u1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539424/original/file-20230726-29-8dy1u1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539424/original/file-20230726-29-8dy1u1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539424/original/file-20230726-29-8dy1u1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539424/original/file-20230726-29-8dy1u1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539424/original/file-20230726-29-8dy1u1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Meat in a butcher’s shop: Christianity proposes that God gave humans dominion over animals.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Natacha Pisarenko/AP</span></span>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/friday-essay-what-do-the-5-great-religions-say-about-the-existence-of-the-soul-156205">Friday essay: what do the 5 great religions say about the existence of the soul?</a>
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<p>More recently, stewardship has been emphasised – while humans can use animals for survival they must do so in a humane manner. </p>
<p>Buddhism presents two conflicting views. All sentient beings deserve compassion and have Buddha-Nature. However, humans are a higher life-form by virtue of their capacities to pursue ethical and meditational practices leading to enlightenment.</p>
<p>The inherent Buddha Nature of any animal or even insect is the same as that of a human being. Nonetheless, some Buddhists would argue that meat-eating is acceptable for health as long as the energy gained from the dead animal is dedicated to pursuing an ethical life, which ultimately benefits all sentient beings. </p>
<p>Indeed it is said in the <a href="https://tricycle.org/article/vegetarian-tibetan-buddhism/">tantric tradition of Buddhism</a>, that when a highly realised teacher eats meat it serves to benefit the dead animal in the next life. Within the context of tantric ritual practice, both meat and alcohol are consumed. However, a tiny meat morsel, as well as a finger-dip of alcohol, is sufficient.</p>
<p>Buddhist meat-eaters thus invoke a very particular form of human exceptionalism grounded in metaphysics and in the spiritual aspirations and capacities of humans. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-the-buddha-became-a-christian-saint-142285">How the Buddha became a Christian saint</a>
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<h2>Animal ethics</h2>
<p>Why might this be of interest to the general public? Thanks to the UK’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/animal-sentience-bill-is-necessary-for-the-uk-to-be-a-true-world-leader-in-animal-welfare-165576">Animal Welfare (Sentience) Act, 2022</a>), animals are now formally recognised as sentient beings. This is a momentous advance for animal ethics. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539421/original/file-20230726-21-e0zlj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539421/original/file-20230726-21-e0zlj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539421/original/file-20230726-21-e0zlj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539421/original/file-20230726-21-e0zlj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539421/original/file-20230726-21-e0zlj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539421/original/file-20230726-21-e0zlj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539421/original/file-20230726-21-e0zlj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539421/original/file-20230726-21-e0zlj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Under UK law, animals are now recognised as sentient beings.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Robin Van Lonkhuijsen/EPA</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Buddhism is one of the fastest growing religions in many countries due to migration patterns and the religion’s adaptability and coherence with science, so its stance on <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/religion/the-place-of-ethics-in-buddhism/10101436">animal ethics</a> is important. </p>
<p>What this non-violent religion proposes on such issues is especially relevant in our times with many people adopting vegetarian and vegan lifestyles due to the link between meat-eating, industrial farming and climate change.</p>
<p>Can or even should a Buddhist eat meat? The answer is complicated and needs to take account of tradition and circumstances. Many practising Buddhist Tibetans in the West have now become vegetarian due to the diversity of foods available. There are even vegetarian <a href="https://www.yowangdu.com/tibetan-food/momos-tibetan-dumplings.html">momos</a>!</p>
<p><em>For those interested in the broader debates around animal ethics and Buddhism try <a href="https://figshare.utas.edu.au/articles/journal_contribution/Sentience_and_the_primordial_we_contributions_to_animal_ethics_from_phenomenology_and_Buddhist_philosophy/23005274">Sentience and the Primordial ‘We’: Contributions to Animal Ethics from Phenomenology and Buddhist Philosophy</a> or <a href="https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/whp/ev">Environmental Values, online.</a></em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207117/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Being minimally Buddhist requires a practitioner to abstain from destroying any breathing beings. So how is it ok for some Buddhists to eat meat? Two philosophers explain.
Anya Daly, Senior Lecturer in Philosophy and Ethics, University of Tasmania
Sonam Thakchoe, Senior Philosophy Lecturer, University of Tasmania
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/205480
2023-05-29T02:06:56Z
2023-05-29T02:06:56Z
Milton Moon: the Australian artist who brought a Zen Buddhist, modernist and painterly sensibility to pottery
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528731/original/file-20230529-157612-dcx4y4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=5%2C0%2C1991%2C1410&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Milton Moon in his studio in Tarragindi, Queensland, 1966, photo: John McKay, Milton Moon archive</span> </figcaption></figure><p>Milton Moon (1926-2019) was not your regular potter. He was deeply imbued with Zen Buddhism and once said each vessel is a container for thoughts, “a fundamental expression of life’s forces”. </p>
<p>His work produced over six decades is on show in a new exhibition at the Art Gallery of South Australia that calls for close looking. </p>
<p>He took to his craft in his early 30s from the base of a successful career in ABC radio. </p>
<p>Once his hands were working with clay, he never looked back. </p>
<p>On show are some of his earliest ceramics, made and exhibited in 1959 when living in Brisbane. His influences were artists living or showing in Brisbane then, including <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/figurative-artist-stepped-out-from-his-brothers-shadow-20111211-1opnc.html">David Boyd</a>, son of Merric Boyd, and <a href="https://www.ngv.vic.gov.au/explore/collection/artist/2892/">Hermia Boyd</a> whose studio ceramics were on show in July 1959 at the progressive <a href="https://www.slq.qld.gov.au/discover/exhibitions/johnstone-gallery-archive">Johnstone Gallery</a>. </p>
<p>Studio ceramics – with its hallmark folk tradition, figurative form and applied decoration – appears briefly in some early Moon work such as his Sculptural vase, 1960. Owl-like, the eyes at the top look down on viewers, while the decorative markings double as plumage and drawing on clay. </p>
<p>More elemental even, but in the same style, is his Antipodean head, 1962, whose rough torso looks hewn from a rock-face.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528734/original/file-20230529-159170-8vpr49.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528734/original/file-20230529-159170-8vpr49.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528734/original/file-20230529-159170-8vpr49.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=826&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528734/original/file-20230529-159170-8vpr49.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=826&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528734/original/file-20230529-159170-8vpr49.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=826&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528734/original/file-20230529-159170-8vpr49.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1038&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528734/original/file-20230529-159170-8vpr49.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1038&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528734/original/file-20230529-159170-8vpr49.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1038&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Milton Moon, born Melbourne 1926, died Adelaide 2019, Vase, Antipodean head, 1962, Tarragindi, Brisbane, stoneware, 26.67 cm, 9.2 cm (diam.); Estate of the artist, © Estate of Milton Moon.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The art of Zen</h2>
<p>While the earthy nature of some of Moon’s pots are in response to the Australian landscape, he had a deep interest in matters philosophical, formally studying philosophy in the mid-1960s. This was greatly extended by a year in Japan in 1974. </p>
<p>It wrought changes to Moon himself. He studied meditation in the Zen style with Kobori Nanrei Sōhaku, Abbot of the Rinzai sect, whose teachings influenced his life course, and his ceramics. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528724/original/file-20230529-146903-utt3ql.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528724/original/file-20230529-146903-utt3ql.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528724/original/file-20230529-146903-utt3ql.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528724/original/file-20230529-146903-utt3ql.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528724/original/file-20230529-146903-utt3ql.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528724/original/file-20230529-146903-utt3ql.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528724/original/file-20230529-146903-utt3ql.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528724/original/file-20230529-146903-utt3ql.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Milton Moon, born Melbourne 1926, died Adelaide 2019, Plate, with blossom pattern, 1978, Summertown, Adelaide Hills, stoneware, 11.0 x 53.0 cm; Estate of the artist, © Estate of Milton Moon.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As Moon said, “no one ever leaves Japan unaltered”. In his 2006 book <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books/about/The_Zen_Master_the_Potter_the_Poet.html?id=4bMzAAAACAAJ&redir_esc=y">The Zen Master, the Potter and the Poet</a>, he explores this journey. </p>
<p>On display are a series of ceramic landscape platters that point to those deep changes such as Plate with blossom pattern, 1978. Its abstract marks meld an Australian landscape base with finely drawn blossom, while the calligraphic gestures on his Dish, 1982, point to a deep infusion of a Zen way of thinking and making.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/friday-essay-how-the-west-discovered-the-buddha-182140">Friday essay: how the West discovered the Buddha</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>A painterly potter</h2>
<p>Moon was a painterly potter. He saw little difference between painting on a canvas and painting with glazes on the surface of a pot, and two of his abstract paintings, mark making on canvas, are in the exhibition. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528725/original/file-20230529-23-tv54m1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528725/original/file-20230529-23-tv54m1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528725/original/file-20230529-23-tv54m1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528725/original/file-20230529-23-tv54m1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528725/original/file-20230529-23-tv54m1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528725/original/file-20230529-23-tv54m1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528725/original/file-20230529-23-tv54m1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528725/original/file-20230529-23-tv54m1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Milton Moon, born Melbourne 1926, died Adelaide 2019, Fairweather pot, 1966, Tarragindi, Brisbane stoneware, thrown flaring cylindrical shape with calligraphic brush decoration over brushed ash glaze, 40.0 cm, 27.3 cm (diam.); Gift of Patrick and Pam Wilson 1987, Queensland Art Gallery | Gallery of Modern Art, © Estate of Milton Moon, photo: Natasha Harth.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Moon’s delicate, refined Fairweather pot, 1966, made in homage to his friend <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-new-study-of-artist-ian-fairweather-considers-how-chinese-ideas-influenced-this-wanderer-and-adventurer-164077">Ian Fairweather</a>, is very much a painted pot. Its calligraphic lines, inspired by the artist’s paintings, sweep around and down the rounded pot with grace and beauty. </p>
<p>Moon, though, observed at the time “it is difficult to achieve the fragility and impermanence Fairweather gives his paintings”.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528726/original/file-20230529-146903-syzrq4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528726/original/file-20230529-146903-syzrq4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528726/original/file-20230529-146903-syzrq4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=691&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528726/original/file-20230529-146903-syzrq4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=691&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528726/original/file-20230529-146903-syzrq4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=691&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528726/original/file-20230529-146903-syzrq4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=868&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528726/original/file-20230529-146903-syzrq4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=868&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528726/original/file-20230529-146903-syzrq4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=868&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Milton Moon, born Melbourne 1926, died Adelaide 2019, Folded pot, early 1970s, Rose Park, Adelaide, stoneware, 27.0 cm, 30 cm (diam.); Richard Boland Collection, © Estate of Milton Moon.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Some ceramic pieces are functional. Others, like the early 1970s Folded pot, have their functionality denied. </p>
<p>The allure lies in the harmony of the shape, the gradation of glazes, and its changing texture governed by a sense of restraint: not too much, not too little.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-new-study-of-artist-ian-fairweather-considers-how-chinese-ideas-influenced-this-wanderer-and-adventurer-164077">A new study of artist Ian Fairweather considers how Chinese ideas influenced this wanderer and adventurer</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>‘Let nature take its course’</h2>
<p>Moon was fascinated by the geological nature of clay itself. </p>
<p>What stands out is the texture of much of the work on show such as his Platter, 1962-64, which Moon achieved by the quality of the clay he used, his mode of firing the pots and his innovative application of glazes. The word “experimentation” comes to mind. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528728/original/file-20230529-205367-d6ohwl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528728/original/file-20230529-205367-d6ohwl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528728/original/file-20230529-205367-d6ohwl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528728/original/file-20230529-205367-d6ohwl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528728/original/file-20230529-205367-d6ohwl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528728/original/file-20230529-205367-d6ohwl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528728/original/file-20230529-205367-d6ohwl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528728/original/file-20230529-205367-d6ohwl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Milton Moon, born Melbourne 1926, died Adelaide 2019, Platter, 1962–64, Tarragindi, Brisbane, stoneware, 10.2 x 45.5 x 47.0 cm; Estate of the artist, © Estate of Milton Moon.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the accompanying catalogue, his son Damon (<a href="https://damonmoon.com/">also a master potter</a>), talks about the technical aspects of his father’s work and how he applied glazes to clay like an artist – drawing or painting onto the surface with a brush, a stick or his fingers, scratching back layers of oxides and adding wood ash to achieve the colours and textures of the landscape he was after. </p>
<p>The quirks in the firing process were yet another element in Milton Moon’s experimentation, Damon observing:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>in this funny business of mud and water and fire, he was willing to let nature take its course. I think he liked that aspect of ceramics.</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Hybrid space</h2>
<p>While the curatorial intent in Crafting Modernism is to contextualise Milton Moon’s ceramics in the broader narrative of Australian art, his location in that narrative is more complex. </p>
<p>This stands out when looking at his impressively large floor pots such as his Yourambulla landscape pot, 1990, standing close on a metre high with its earthy tones, and inscribed, scratched-in lines to convey the dense scrubby nature of the bush. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528729/original/file-20230529-104407-hlgs3o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528729/original/file-20230529-104407-hlgs3o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528729/original/file-20230529-104407-hlgs3o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=771&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528729/original/file-20230529-104407-hlgs3o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=771&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528729/original/file-20230529-104407-hlgs3o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=771&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528729/original/file-20230529-104407-hlgs3o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=969&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528729/original/file-20230529-104407-hlgs3o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=969&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528729/original/file-20230529-104407-hlgs3o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=969&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Milton Moon, born Melbourne 1926, died Adelaide 2019, Yourambulla landscape pot, 1990, Summertown, Adelaide Hills, stoneware wheel-thrown, 83.5 x 46.0 cm (diam.); South Australian Government Grant 1990, Art Gallery of South Australia, Adelaide, © Estate of Milton Moon.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Over and above the obvious references to the landscape is an underlying sense of the calligraphic gestures to evoke the bush. </p>
<p>In this and many other works he dances between two worlds and two cultures, crafting a hybrid space. That is what is so alluring about his work.</p>
<p>Moon was a prolific potter. He spoke through his ceramics, once writing making marks on the surfaces of pots “are my words”; they are a “whispered secret”. </p>
<p>The beauty of the exhibition curated by Rebecca Evans is its distilling of his output over 60 years to a coherent and poetic display. Its framing in a white space, in a top-lit gallery with natural light augmented by artificial light, makes the works sing. </p>
<p>A Zen-Buddhist vision lives on in works of great beauty.</p>
<p><em>Milton Moon: Crafting Modernism is on display at the Art Gallery of South Australia until August 6.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-japanese-avant-garde-ceramicists-have-tested-the-limits-of-clay-184470">How Japanese avant-garde ceramicists have tested the limits of clay</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/205480/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Catherine Speck has, with Joanna Mendelssohn, Catherine De Lorenzo and Alison Inglis, received funding from the ARC to investigate exhibitions of Australian art. </span></em></p>
Milton Moon’s work produced over six decades is on show in a new exhibition at the Art Gallery of South Australia.
Catherine Speck, Emerita Professor, Art History and Curatorship, University of Adelaide
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/205455
2023-05-24T12:17:15Z
2023-05-24T12:17:15Z
Happy birthday, Buddha! Why the founder of Buddhism has so many different birthdays around the world
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527291/original/file-20230519-23-vli0td.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=1%2C1%2C1020%2C709&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A devotee bathes a Buddha statue during celebrations of the Buddha's birthday in Malaysia.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/devotee-baths-a-buddha-statue-during-the-wesak-day-news-photo/1252636581?adppopup=true">Wong Fok Loy/SOPA Images/LightRocket via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When Siddhartha Gautama was born, he was clearly no ordinary infant. According to Buddhist texts, he raised his hand to the skies and <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/little-buddhas-9780199945610?cc=us&lang=en&#">declared</a>, “In the heavens above and below the heavens, I am the world’s most honored one. I will free all beings from birth, old age, sickness, and death.” </p>
<p>Then the remarkable baby is believed to have received a first bath: <a href="https://reichert-verlag.de/en/series/religious_studies_series/religionswissenschaft_publications_of_the_lumbini_international_research_institute_nepal/9783895004520_the_birth_of_the_buddha-detail">streams of water</a> poured by the gods Brahma and Indra – or flowing from two dragon kings’ mouths, depending on the legend. This cleansing consecrated the Buddha-to-be as holy, signaling that even the gods recognized him as worthy of veneration. </p>
<p>Buddhists believe that several “buddhas,” or enlightened teachers, have been born throughout history. Yet the title “the Buddha” <a href="https://www.lionsroar.com/who-was-the-buddha/">typically refers to this historical figure</a>, Siddhartha Gautama, who went on to found Buddhism. Each year on the Buddha’s birthday, East Asian Buddhists recreate his first bath by <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/little-buddhas-9780199945610?cc=us&lang=en&#">pouring water or sweetened tea</a> over a statue of the infant.</p>
<p>The holiday has been observed in different parts of Asia for hundreds of years, but its significance varied by region. In Sri Lanka, for example, it was a religious day simply celebrated at temples, <a href="https://ixtheo.de/Record/1638710988">not a public celebration</a>. In Korea, on the other hand, the Buddha’s birthday <a href="https://doi.org/10.1353/jkr.2011.0006">became a more commercial festival</a> under the Choson dynasty, which frowned upon Buddhist religious practices and ended in 1910.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674987197">Buddhist reformers in the 19th and 20th centuries</a>, however, deliberately emphasized the Buddha’s birthday in their efforts to unite Buddhist populations across countries and protect traditions from Christian missionaries. In the late 1800s, Sri Lankans successfully petitioned the British colonial government to allow celebrations for the Buddha’s birthday, <a href="https://ixtheo.de/Record/1638710988">which they deliberately modeled on Christmas</a> – a model that caught on around Asia. </p>
<p>These efforts helped the Buddha’s birthday become a major global holiday, but celebrations still take place on different dates and with different traditions. <a href="https://religion.utk.edu/faculty/bryson.php">As a scholar of Buddhism who studies the religion’s transmission from India to China</a>, I am keenly aware of how people adapt practices and ideas to their own cultures.</p>
<h2>One Buddha, many dates</h2>
<p>In South Asia and Southeast Asia, the Buddha’s birthday is celebrated on the full moon of the second lunar month, known as Vesākha or Vaiśākha. In Sanskrit, a full moon is “Pūrṇimā,” which is why the holiday is often called Buddha Pūrṇimā, Vesak or Wesak.</p>
<p>Vaiśākha corresponds to April and May of the Gregorian calendar, so in 2023, people in countries like Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Laos and Burma <a href="https://www.lionsroar.com/celebrating-vesak-or-buddha-day/">celebrated the Buddha’s birthday</a> on the full moon of May 5.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527290/original/file-20230519-23-jhb4g9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two monks in dark red and bright orange robes carefully handle a large gold statue of a seated Buddha." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527290/original/file-20230519-23-jhb4g9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527290/original/file-20230519-23-jhb4g9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527290/original/file-20230519-23-jhb4g9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527290/original/file-20230519-23-jhb4g9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527290/original/file-20230519-23-jhb4g9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527290/original/file-20230519-23-jhb4g9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527290/original/file-20230519-23-jhb4g9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Buddhist monks in Kolkata, India, prepare a statue of the Buddha during the Buddha Pūrṇimā festival.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/buddhist-monks-preparing-the-statue-of-gautama-buddha-at-news-photo/1252924648?adppopup=true">Avishek Das/SOPA Images/LightRocket via Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>Buddhists in East Asia, however, mark the Buddha’s birthday on the eighth day of the fourth lunar month – and follow a different lunisolar calendar, too. In China, Vietnam and Korea, Buddha’s birthday will be celebrated in 2023 on May 26.</p>
<p>But there are even more variations. The Taiwanese government decided in 1999 to celebrate the Buddha’s birthday <a href="https://www.taipeitimes.com/News/front/archives/2011/05/09/2003502765">jointly with Mother’s Day</a>, on the second Sunday in May. In Japan, meanwhile, the Buddha’s birthday is called “Flower Festival” – Hana Matsuri in Japanese – and celebrated on April 8, following the government’s decision to <a href="https://www.meijishowa.com/calendar/4659/01-01-1873-japan-starts-using-the-gregorian-calendar">adopt the Gregorian calendar</a> in 1873. </p>
<p>Yet another date for the Buddha’s birthday in 2023 is <a href="https://tnp.org/important-tibetan-buddhist-holidays-in-2023/">June 4</a>: the full moon of the fourth lunar month in the Tibetan lunisolar calendar. The entire month, called Saga Dawa, is considered holy because it includes the Buddha’s birth, awakening and death. Tibetan Buddhists believe that <a href="https://digitalcommons.macalester.edu/himalaya/vol39/iss2/9/">good deeds generate exponentially more positive karma</a> during Saga Dawa than at other times of the year.</p>
<p>The date of the Buddha’s birthday isn’t the only difference between cultures. In South Asia and Southeast Asia, including Tibetan regions, Vesak doesn’t just commemorate the Buddha’s birth, but also <a href="https://operations.du.edu/sites/default/files/2020-03/2017-Wesak-Day-Fact-Sheet2.pdf">his attainment of nirvāṇa, or enlightenment, and his death, known as parinirvana</a>. In East Asia, however, the Buddha’s enlightenment and passing are honored on separate days, so the spring holiday only focuses on the Buddha’s birth.</p>
<h2>China: Care for creatures</h2>
<p>Throughout East Asia, Buddhists will bathe statues of the infant Buddha-to-be, recite Buddhist scriptures and make donations to Buddhist temples – but there will still be a lot of diversity in these celebrations. </p>
<p>In China, the practice of “fangsheng,” releasing animals, <a href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/791149">has been part of celebrating the Buddha’s birthday since the 11th century</a>. Devout Buddhists purchase animals otherwise destined for slaughter and release them into the wild. Recently, some cities in China have encouraged greater consideration of local ecosystems to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1353/jcr.2021.0004">prevent invasive species that worshippers release from crowding out native animals</a>. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527149/original/file-20230519-25-1xstuj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A group of people crowds around a hand-held cage with small green birds inside." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527149/original/file-20230519-25-1xstuj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527149/original/file-20230519-25-1xstuj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527149/original/file-20230519-25-1xstuj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527149/original/file-20230519-25-1xstuj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527149/original/file-20230519-25-1xstuj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527149/original/file-20230519-25-1xstuj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527149/original/file-20230519-25-1xstuj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Buddhists prepare to free birds during a ceremony to mark the Buddha’s birthday in 2006 in Chongqing municipality, China.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/buddhists-prepare-to-free-birds-during-a-ceremony-to-mark-news-photo/57538866?adppopup=true">China Photos/Stringer via Getty Images News</a></span>
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<p>Another way Chinese Buddhists express compassion for all living beings is by avoiding meat for three days around the Buddha’s birthday – similar to the Tibetan practice of following a vegetarian diet during the month of Saga Dawa.</p>
<h2>Korea: Lighting up the sky</h2>
<p>Korea <a href="https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674987197">was under Japanese imperial rule</a> from 1910 to 1945. During that period, the Japanese government sponsored a joint Japanese-Korean celebration of the Buddha’s birthday that revived the holiday’s religious significance. Though many Koreans opposed the Japanese occupation, some Korean Buddhists appreciated the opportunity to celebrate the Buddha’s birthday as a new pan-Buddhist holiday.</p>
<p>Korean celebrations of the Buddha’s birthday are distinctive for their use of lanterns, which represent the light of awakening and can also be used as vehicles for prayers and vows sent up toward the heavens. Today in South Korea, colorful lantern displays and lantern parades mark the national holiday.</p>
<p>The Buddha’s birthday has even been <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23943353">observed in North Korea since 1988</a>, despite the country’s <a href="https://www.nknews.org/2021/11/us-again-designates-north-korea-as-violator-of-religious-freedoms/">general suppression of religious activity</a>. In 2018, the holiday served as an <a href="https://www.buddhistdoor.net/news/two-koreas-celebrate-vesak-with-joint-prayer/">occasion for Korean unity</a>, with Buddhists in North and South Korea jointly composing and reciting a prayer for the occasion.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527148/original/file-20230519-15-ldumw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Five monks in robes stand beneath a canopy of brightly colored paper lanterns." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527148/original/file-20230519-15-ldumw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527148/original/file-20230519-15-ldumw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527148/original/file-20230519-15-ldumw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527148/original/file-20230519-15-ldumw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527148/original/file-20230519-15-ldumw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527148/original/file-20230519-15-ldumw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527148/original/file-20230519-15-ldumw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">A ceremony to prepare children to live as Buddhist monks for three weeks in Seoul, South Korea, as part of the celebration of the Buddha’s birthday,</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/south-korean-monks-pray-during-a-ceremony-to-prepare-news-photo/1488506515?adppopup=true">Chung Sung-Jun/Getty Images</a></span>
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<h2>Vietnam: Renewed traditions</h2>
<p>In Vietnam, the celebration of the Buddha’s birthday – known as Phật Đản – was <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mnLO4l5Kk64C&lpg=PP1&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false">observed in the medieval period</a>, often alongside prayers for rain. However, celebrations seem to have faded over time until the festival was <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199362387.013.11">reintroduced in the early 20th century</a>, when the holiday was gaining popularity throughout the region.</p>
<p>The holiday still remains somewhat obscure in northern Vietnamese villages, but has gained popularity elsewhere in the country. Today, Buddha birthday celebrations in Vietnam involve lighting paper lanterns, making offerings to the Buddha and praying for health and well-being. Lotus-shaped lanterns are especially popular because they symbolize <a href="https://www.lionsroar.com/what-is-the-lotus/#:%7E:text=The%20white%20lotus%20represents%20mental,the%20achievement%20of%20complete%20enlightenment.">the ability to remain pure in an impure world</a>, just like beautiful lotuses grow from murky swamps.</p>
<p>Buddha birthday celebrations that fall earlier in the spring are often the ones international groups focus on. In 1950, the <a href="https://www.wfbhq.org/general-conference-detail.php?id=015000018">World Fellowship of Buddhists</a> decided to make Vesak an international Buddhist holiday, commemorated on the first full moon of May. Nearly 50 years later, the United Nations <a href="https://www.un.org/en/observances/vesak-day">passed a resolution</a> to recognize Vesak on the same day, in line with South Asian and Southeast Asian celebrations. </p>
<p>These official acts of recognition mark the importance of this holiday for Buddhists worldwide, but we should also remember the just-as-meaningful celebrations that come a few weeks later.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/205455/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Megan Bryson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Buddha’s birthday has not always been a major holiday for Buddhists, but is now celebrated in diverse ways throughout Asia.
Megan Bryson, Associate Professor of Religious Studies, University of Tennessee
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/205125
2023-05-12T12:19:57Z
2023-05-12T12:19:57Z
Meditative mothering? How Buddhism honors both compassionate caregiving and celibate monks and nuns
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524897/original/file-20230508-250130-k3g9u0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=6%2C3%2C1016%2C676&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Buddhism prizes both compassion and undivided focus – which can be hard to combine.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/buddhist-mother-news-photo/169362752?adppopup=true">Godong/Universal Images Group via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Buddhist saints are often described as maternally compassionate, with the endless patience of a mother who feeds, cleans and cares for children around the clock. In fact, the Theravada branch of Buddhism holds mothers in such high esteem that two men among the Buddha’s chief disciples, Sariputta and Mogallana, are said to be “<a href="https://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.141.than.html">like the mother giving birth</a>” and “the nurse raising a child.” </p>
<p>Yet in Buddhism, as in some other religions, views of motherhood are complex. Motherlike compassion is idealized – yet so are celibacy and monasticism. Historically, the faith does not have a core ideology that values marriage and procreation as central virtues to be pursued at the cost of spiritual study and enlightenment. However, as <a href="https://www.miamioh.edu/cas/academics/departments/comp-religion/about/faculty-staff/wilson/index.html">a scholar of gender and family in Buddhism</a>, I have noticed shifting views about how spirituality and motherhood can be combined.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524930/original/file-20230508-242259-95s5b0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A woman in a simple white shirt ceremonially hands a rolled piece of fabric to a young man with a shaved head in a white shirt." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524930/original/file-20230508-242259-95s5b0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524930/original/file-20230508-242259-95s5b0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524930/original/file-20230508-242259-95s5b0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524930/original/file-20230508-242259-95s5b0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524930/original/file-20230508-242259-95s5b0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=473&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524930/original/file-20230508-242259-95s5b0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=473&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524930/original/file-20230508-242259-95s5b0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=473&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">A Sri Lankan mother hands over a begging bowl and robes to her son during a ceremony, granting him permission to enter priesthood.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/polgahawela-sri-lanka-sri-lankan-mother-w-b-gnanawathi-news-photo/57559915?adppopup=true">Lakruwan Wanniarachchi/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
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<h2>Repaying a mother’s debt</h2>
<p>Cultivating gratitude toward sentient beings is a central focus of Buddhist practice, particularly toward elders. Buddhists are exhorted to be <a href="https://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/lessonsofgratitude.html">grateful for the sacrifices parents make</a> to bring them into the world and raise them. In fact, failure to repay debts owed to parents can land one in a realm of hell exclusively for ungrateful children, according to one sutra that is often called <a href="http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/filial-sutra.htm">the filial piety teaching</a>.</p>
<p>Buddhists might show reverence for mothers or motherlike figures in their lives by preparing a meal or offering a gift. Year-round there are many other specific ways Buddhist children might honor a parent. In Thailand, for example, some boys seek to repay what is known as the “milk debt” to their mothers by <a href="https://www.thailandfoundation.or.th/culture_heritage/buat-nak-rituals-before-monkhood/">temporarily taking monastic vows</a> and spending a few weeks living with monks – a tradition meant to <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-rescued-thai-boys-are-considering-becoming-monks-heres-why-99992">show deep respect</a>. </p>
<p>If someone’s mother is no longer alive, however, there are still many ways to direct loving kindness toward her. One of the most common ways is to make food offerings, such as rice balls, at ancestral shrines, altars to the family lineage and the like. As with feeding a living parent, the ritual is meant to make Buddhists aware of the sacrifices their parents made to feed them.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525502/original/file-20230510-27-2zidvp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A young boy in a gray monk robe stands as a woman holding flowers kneels and smiles next to him." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525502/original/file-20230510-27-2zidvp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525502/original/file-20230510-27-2zidvp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=427&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525502/original/file-20230510-27-2zidvp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=427&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525502/original/file-20230510-27-2zidvp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=427&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525502/original/file-20230510-27-2zidvp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=536&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525502/original/file-20230510-27-2zidvp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=536&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525502/original/file-20230510-27-2zidvp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=536&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">A South Korean child with his mother during celebrations for the Buddha’s birthday, when children are invited to become monks for three weeks.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/south-korean-child-monk-seen-with-his-mother-during-an-news-photo/1253452054?adppopup=true">Kim Jae-Hwan/SOPA Images/LightRocket via Getty Images</a></span>
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<h2>The Buddha’s gift</h2>
<p>Buddhists commonly believe there are many possible realms <a href="https://www.simonandschuster.com/books/The-Buddha/John-Strong/Beginners-Guides/9781851686261">where a person might go after death</a> – some heavenly, some hellish. Children can prevent a mother who landed in hell from staying there long by doing good deeds and transferring good karma to her. Even a mother who was reborn in a heavenly realm can be sustained there by her children’s gifts of good karma. </p>
<p>The downside of the Buddhist heavens, however, is attachment to fine food, drink, clothing and other sensual delights. In many legends, the gods have a hard time seeing the cardinal teaching of Buddhism: the evanescent nature of all phenomena. Whatever you want more of will not last.</p>
<p>According to Buddhist tradition, the Buddha’s mother, Maya, was lucky in that she had good karma and became a goddess after death. But after he had achieved enlightenment, <a href="https://www.simonandschuster.com/books/The-Buddha/John-Strong/Beginners-Guides/9781851686261">the dutiful Buddha ascended to the heaven where Maya resided</a> and taught her that even heavenly enjoyments pale in comparison to liberation. Legends say he spent three months teaching her the most advanced doctrines in the Buddhist canon – far more complicated than what legends say he taught his father.</p>
<h2>Focus vs. family</h2>
<p>Buddhist Asia, from the western end of the Silk Road in Turkey to the eastern end in China, is full of fertility traditions and <a href="https://philamuseum.org/collection/object/56712">fertility figures</a>. In many parts of Asia where Buddhism is practiced, however – especially in elite monastic circles – texts about the freedoms and virtues of celibacy hold pride of place. </p>
<p>Much of Buddhist teaching is rooted in the idea that all things are impermanent. Therefore, all desires – including to have sex or have a family – are seen as forms of bondage: These cravings tie people to worldly goals rather than to the path of wisdom <a href="https://tricycle.org/magazine/nirvana/">toward nirvana</a>. </p>
<p>In this view, one should curb sexual desires just as much as gluttony. Sex in particular has cascading effects that make study and meditation difficult: children, family time and work to support them. Indulging in lust, <a href="https://www.dhammatalks.org/vinaya/bmc/Section0006.html">the Buddha warns men in one story</a>, is as foolish as putting one’s penis in the mouth of a venomous snake.</p>
<p>The Buddha’s eightfold path requires focus – and focus is a precious commodity, as every parent knows. The Buddha himself left his wife and baby son <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/buddhism/history/history.shtml">to seek wisdom through a disciplined life</a>. After achieving enlightenment, he returned to his hometown – and ascended to heaven – to teach members of his family what he had learned.</p>
<h2>Meditative mothering</h2>
<p>Attitudes toward families and monasticism vary by culture, however. One won’t hear fertility put down <a href="https://books.openedition.org/editionsehess/24678?lang=en">in Nepal</a> and Japan. In those countries, those who wear monastic robes <a href="https://www.hf.uio.no/ikos/english/studies/voices-middle-east-asia/voices-from-east-asia/married-monks-japan%E2%80%99s-non-monastic-buddhist-priest.html">marry, procreate and serve in temple settings</a>, running Buddhist temples as inherited family businesses that provide for the needs of lay Buddhists.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524936/original/file-20230508-95951-81tw1j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Four women smile and bow toward a person in orange robes with a shaved head." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524936/original/file-20230508-95951-81tw1j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524936/original/file-20230508-95951-81tw1j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524936/original/file-20230508-95951-81tw1j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524936/original/file-20230508-95951-81tw1j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524936/original/file-20230508-95951-81tw1j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524936/original/file-20230508-95951-81tw1j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524936/original/file-20230508-95951-81tw1j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Women receive alms from family and friends in Bangkok after their families shaved their heads in a ceremony upon entering monastic life.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/thai-newly-ordained-female-buddhist-monks-receive-their-news-photo/665240960?adppopup=true">Roberto Schmidt/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In addition, modern interpretations of Buddhism tend to be more family-friendly. Rather than see parenthood as an obstacle, some contemporary Buddhists <a href="https://sunypress.edu/Books/B/Buddhism-After-Patriarchy2">see parents’ work as spiritual labor</a>. Caring for children, for example, can be a form of meditation, requiring an observant but nonjudgmental focus akin to practicing mindfulness. Mothers and other people who provide child care can experience seeing things as they really are, without attachment and grasping.</p>
<p>Scholars such as <a href="https://faculty-directory.dartmouth.edu/reiko-ohnuma">Reiko Ohnuma</a>, <a href="https://www.vanessarsasson.com/">Vanessa Sasson</a> and <a href="https://www.eckerd.edu/religious-studies/faculty/langenberg/">Amy Langenberg</a> have shown how the relationship between celibacy and family life is more complicated than “either/or,” and <a href="https://academic.oup.com/book/2846">how parenting and Buddhist values intersect</a>.</p>
<p>After all, Buddhists believe that the historical Buddha had many past lives and was not celibate in all of them. As a family man, he practiced many Buddhist virtues, such as kindness, forbearance and patience. And even when celibate, his spiritual teachings are like breast milk, <a href="https://ocbs.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/1972-Feminine-Elements-in-Sinhalese-Buddhism-Wiener-Zeitschrift-fuer-die-Kunde-Suedasiens-Sonderabdruck-aus-Band-XVI-pp.-67-93.pdf">according to Theravada Buddhist tradition</a>: “the milk of immortal doctrine.” This stance of unconditional concern made him a spiritual mother in the eyes of many Buddhists – a virtue they seek to emulate today.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/205125/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Liz Wilson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
The lines between family life and Buddhist monasticism are not so ‘either/or’ as they might seem.
Liz Wilson, Professor of Comparative Religion, Miami University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/204869
2023-05-10T20:29:33Z
2023-05-10T20:29:33Z
From Kali to Mary to Neopagan goddesses, religions revere motherhood in sometimes unexpected ways
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524986/original/file-20230508-266123-ubmkq8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1024%2C683&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">People admire a massive statue of the Hindu goddess Kali.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/people-admire-a-massive-statue-of-the-hindu-goddess-kali-in-news-photo/167435402?adppopup=true">Jerry Redfern/LightRocket via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As we approach Mother’s Day, many groups will hold special events or services to celebrate the holiday. In the United States, Mother’s Day was originally founded in 1908 at <a href="https://www.loc.gov/item/2015631666/">Andrews Methodist Episcopal Church in West Virginia</a> and <a href="https://www.loc.gov/item/today-in-history/may-09/">became a nationally recognized holiday</a> in 1914. The mid-May date spread around the world, though many countries still maintain their own <a href="https://www.history.com/topics/holidays/mothers-day">dates and traditions</a>.</p>
<p>Religions around the world use these days to honor the importance of many kinds of nurturing, from traditional celebrations to events that honor modern parenting, infertility struggles <a href="https://www.resourceumc.org/en/content/honor-moms-on-mothers-day-without-hurting-others">or the pain of losing a child</a></p>
<p>Motherhood and nurturing are not celebrated only on particular days, however. Many religions include goddess-centered traditions that embrace many forms of the divine feminine as central to their belief systems. </p>
<p>As a <a href="https://religiousstudies.wvu.edu/faculty-and-staff/faculty/alyssa-beall">religious studies professor</a> who travels with students around the world to explore different cultures and practices, I have often noticed the interest students have in the variety of goddess traditions we encounter. </p>
<h2>Asian traditions</h2>
<p><a href="https://pluralism.org/devotion-to-guanyin">Guan Yin</a>, who goes by many variations of her name, is revered as the goddess of compassion and mercy in several different Eastern traditions. Beginning – interestingly enough – as a male bodhisattva called <a href="https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-asia/beginners-guide-asian-culture/buddhist-art-culture/a/bodhisattva-avalokiteshvara">Avalokiteshvara</a>, the goddess figure was adapted in many different cultures around the world. Called Kannon in Japan and <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44632366">Quan Am in Vietnam</a>, she is frequently a <a href="https://www.japan-guide.com/e/e3001.html">focal point of temple worship</a> and is also considered the guardian of sailors and a goddess of fertility.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524987/original/file-20230508-170642-hemmmm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="People walk through a rice field that has been designed to look like a picture of a goddess with many arms." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524987/original/file-20230508-170642-hemmmm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524987/original/file-20230508-170642-hemmmm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524987/original/file-20230508-170642-hemmmm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524987/original/file-20230508-170642-hemmmm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524987/original/file-20230508-170642-hemmmm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524987/original/file-20230508-170642-hemmmm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524987/original/file-20230508-170642-hemmmm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An aerial view of a 3D rice field painting of Guan Yin at an agriculture industrial park in 2021 in Shenyang, China.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/aerial-view-of-a-3d-rice-field-painting-of-thousand-hand-news-photo/1329044233?adppopup=true">Zhang Wenkui/VCG via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>One of the most well-known goddesses in Hinduism, meanwhile, is perhaps the least understood from an outside perspective. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kali">Kali is often seen as a terrifying figure</a>, depicted using multiple weapons and dressed in clothing of severed heads and arms. Yet Kali is also an important mother figure <a href="https://kashgar.com.au/blogs/gods-goddesses/kali-a-most-misunderstood-goddess">who channels her ferocity into the care and defense of all creation</a>. As a manifestation of the primal force of <a href="https://pluralism.org/many-ma%E2%80%99s-goddess-in-america">Shakti</a>, Kali is essentially all aspects of motherhood wrapped up into one, often simultaneously caring, loving and fierce.</p>
<h2>The triple goddess</h2>
<p>In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Neo-Paganism">Neopaganism</a>, an umbrella term for a diverse group of <a href="https://religionmediacentre.org.uk/factsheets/factsheet-new-religious-movements/">new religious movements</a> most popular in <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/paganism-witchcraft-are-making-comeback-rcna54444">the United States, Australia and Europe</a>, goddess figures also often play a primary role. Neopaganism’s various branches <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-wicca-an-expert-on-modern-witchcraft-explains-165939">include Wicca</a> and <a href="https://www.paganfed.org/hellenism/">Hellenic reconstructionism</a>, a religion that focuses on the gods and goddesses of Ancient Greece. </p>
<p>Of primary importance for many Neopagans is the triple goddess, a figure who encompasses the <a href="https://www.learnreligions.com/maiden-mother-and-crone-2562881">three aspects of maiden, mother and crone</a>. Sometimes these <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/15665399.2008.10819974">goddess figures</a> are based on specific ancient deities, such as Persephone, Demeter and Hekate, and sometimes they are worshipped more generally as representations of <a href="https://www.eviemagazine.com/post/the-maiden-mother-and-crone-the-three-stages-of-womanhood">various phases of life</a>.</p>
<p>More recently, many of these traditions are intentionally expanding to <a href="https://digitalcommons.iwu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1056&context=socanth_honproj">reject ideas of gender essentialism</a> and embrace a range of identities. For some Neopagans, exploring what femininity and masculinity signify in today’s society is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-8171.2012.00367.x">an important extension of religious belief</a> and a way to include people who have felt rejected from other religious communities. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524989/original/file-20230508-242259-va4d45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A woman wearing dark clothing smudges a substance on the forehead of another woman with her eyes closed." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524989/original/file-20230508-242259-va4d45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524989/original/file-20230508-242259-va4d45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524989/original/file-20230508-242259-va4d45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524989/original/file-20230508-242259-va4d45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524989/original/file-20230508-242259-va4d45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524989/original/file-20230508-242259-va4d45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524989/original/file-20230508-242259-va4d45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A Wiccan high priestess blesses another priestess during a seasonal sabbat in honor of Brigid, a Celtic goddess, in 2020 in Rio de Janeiro.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/jussara-gabriel-a-wiccan-high-priestess-blesses-the-first-news-photo/1228124551?adppopup=true">Andre Coelho/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Beyond the goddess</h2>
<p>Many other religions revere mother figures, even if they are not worshipped or considered goddesses. <a href="https://al-furqan.com/the-mother-of-the-faithful-khadijah-bint-khuwaylid/">Khadija</a>, the wife of the Prophet Muhammad and the first convert to Islam, is given the title “the Mother of Believers,” signifying her importance for the development of the religion. Devotion to <a href="https://theconversation.com/5-things-to-know-about-mary-the-mother-of-jesus-172483">Mary, mother of Jesus</a>, has been <a href="https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300157529/the-madonna-of-115th-street/">common throughout the history of Christianity</a> and remains popular today. In Judaism, the idea of “<a href="https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/the-divine-feminine-in-kabbalah-an-example-of-jewish-renewal/">Shekinah</a>” has been influential in some <a href="https://www.tabletmag.com/sections/history/articles/feminism-changes-study-jewish-thought">feminist thought</a>. Rather than representing a single woman or female figure, Shekinah is seen as the feminine aspect of the divine, <a href="https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/2438527/jewish/The-Shechina.htm">a manifestation of God’s wisdom</a> on Earth.</p>
<p>Nurturing and compassion are key concepts in a variety of religions, whether they are represented as specific goddess figures, archetypes of the feminine or new religious developments that embrace shifting ideas about gender.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/204869/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alyssa Beall does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Mother figures from faith traditions around the world reflect many different ways of thinking about the divine.
Alyssa Beall, Teaching Assistant Professor of Religious Studies, Humanities, and Philosophy, West Virginia University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/202888
2023-03-30T12:27:05Z
2023-03-30T12:27:05Z
Dalai Lama identifies the reincarnation of Mongolia’s spiritual leader – a preview of tensions around finding his own replacement
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518247/original/file-20230329-18-8z6w2t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=160%2C188%2C858%2C492&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Tibetan spiritual leader Dalai Lama leads a prayer in the Indian state of Bihar on Jan. 1, 2022. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/tibetan-spiritual-leader-dalai-lama-leads-a-long-life-news-photo/1245919797?adppopup=true">Sandeep Kumar/Anadolu Agency via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>More than 5,600 people <a href="https://www.dalailama.com/news/2023/preliminary-procedures-for-the-chakrasamvara-empowerment">had gathered for a March 2023 ceremony</a> in Dharamsala, India, when the Dalai Lama indicated toward a young child beside him.</p>
<p>According to the Dalai Lama’s website, the spiritual leader of Tibetan Buddhism identified the boy as the latest reincarnation of the Khalkha Jetsun Dhampa Rinpoché, the faith’s leader in Mongolia. The previous <a href="http://tibetanbuddhistencyclopedia.com/en/index.php/Jebtsundamba_Khutuktu">Khalkha Jetsun Dhampa</a>, the ninth to hold the title, died in 2012.</p>
<p>Due to the tense relations between the Dalai Lama and the Chinese government, however, recognizing someone as the reincarnation of a Buddhist figure is not only religiously significant, but politically fraught. After annexing Tibet in the 1950s, China has sought control over the spiritual lineages of Buddhist leaders, particularly the Dalai Lama himself. In 2011, the Chinese foreign ministry declared that only the <a href="https://boingboing.net/2014/10/24/the-dalai-lama-will-not-return.html">government in Beijing can appoint the next dalai lama</a> and that no recognition should be given to any other <a href="https://www.dalailama.com/the-dalai-lama/biography-and-daily-life/reincarnation">candidate</a>.</p>
<p>The current and 14th dalai lama, <a href="https://www.dalailama.com/the-dalai-lama/biography-and-daily-life/brief-biography">Tenzin Gyatso</a>, will be 88 in July 2023, and the Khalkha Jetsun Dhampa in Mongolia is traditionally one of the Buddhist leaders <a href="https://nextshark.com/dalai-lama-names-us-born-mongolian-boy-as-reincarnation-of-buddhist-leader">who recognizes the dalai lama’s successor</a>.</p>
<h2>The dalai lamas in Tibetan Buddhism</h2>
<p>All dalai lamas are thought to be <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zmAnq9yiE6oC&dq=Secret+Lives+of+the+Dalai+Lama-+Alexander+Norman&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjJs--Vm5viAhWJAHwKHYa1B0kQ6AEIKjAA">manifestations of the bodhisattva</a> of compassion, Avalokitesvara. Bodhisattvas are beings who <a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Bodhicary%C4%81vat%C4%81ra/m-ifbE8kyGIC?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=bodhisattva">work solely for the benefit of others</a>. </p>
<p>For Buddhists, the ultimate goal is enlightenment, or “nirvana” – a liberation from the cycle of birth and death. East Asian and Tibetan Buddhists, as part of the Mahayana sect, believe bodhisattvas have reached this highest realization.</p>
<p>Furthermore, Mahayana Buddhists believe bodhisattvas choose to be reborn, to experience the pain and suffering of the world, in order to help other beings attain enlightenment.</p>
<p>Tibetan Buddhism has developed this idea of the bodhisattva further into identified lineages of rebirths called “tulkus.” Any person who is believed to be a reborn teacher, master or leader is <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LnOmGAAACAAJ&dq=geoffrey+samuels+introducing+tibetan+buddhism&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjp_qDciJviAhUQR6wKHfiNBRgQ6AEIKjAA">considered a tulku</a>. Tibetan Buddhism has hundreds if not thousands of such lineages, but the most respected and well-known is the dalai lama. The 14 generations of dalai lamas, spanning six centuries, are linked through their acts of compassion and their wish to benefit all living beings. </p>
<h2>Locating the 14th dalai lama</h2>
<p>The current Dalai Lama was enthroned when he was about 4 years old and was renamed Tenzin Gyatso.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408008/original/file-20210623-13-12l04ch.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="The future Dalai Lama of Tibetan Buddhism, Lhamo Dhondrub, who was later renamed Tenzin Gyatso." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408008/original/file-20210623-13-12l04ch.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408008/original/file-20210623-13-12l04ch.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=841&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408008/original/file-20210623-13-12l04ch.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=841&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408008/original/file-20210623-13-12l04ch.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=841&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408008/original/file-20210623-13-12l04ch.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1057&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408008/original/file-20210623-13-12l04ch.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1057&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408008/original/file-20210623-13-12l04ch.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1057&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An undated photo of the future Dalai Lama of Tibetan Buddhism, born Lhamo Dhondrub on July 6, 1935, in the small village of Takster in northeastern Tibet.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/DALAILAMA/894bafdfdde6da11af9f0014c2589dfb/photo?Query=Tenzin%20AND%20Gyatso&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=67&currentItemNo=23">AP Photo</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The search for him began soon after the 13th Dalai Lama died. Disciples <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h3yHMz8v1OsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=my+land+and+my+people+the+original+autobiography&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjOxfSNjZviAhUNDKwKHdXHAakQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=my%20land%20and%20my%20people%20the%20original%20autobiography&f=false">closest to the Dalai Lama set about to identify signs</a> indicating the location of his rebirth. </p>
<p>There are usually predictions about where and when a dalai lama will be reborn, but further tests and signs are required to ensure the <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cy980CH84mEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=john+powers+introduction+to+tibetan+buddhism&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwidvqHnkpviAhXry1QKHX92B3IQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=john%20powers%20introduction%20to%20tibetan%20buddhism&f=false">proper child is found</a>. </p>
<p>In the case of the 13th Dalai Lama, after his death his <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h3yHMz8v1OsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=my+land+and+my+people+the+original+autobiography&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjOxfSNjZviAhUNDKwKHdXHAakQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=my%20land%20and%20my%20people%20the%20original%20autobiography&f=false">body lay facing south</a>. However, after a few days his head had tilted to the east and a fungus, viewed as unusual, appeared on the northeastern side of the shrine, where his body was kept. This was interpreted to mean that the next dalai lama could have been born somewhere in the northeastern part of Tibet. </p>
<p>Disciples also checked Lhamoi Latso, a lake that is traditionally used to see visions of the location of the dalai lama’s rebirth.</p>
<p>The district of Dokham, which is in the northeast of Tibet, matched all of these signs. A 2-year-old boy named Lhamo Dhondup was just the right age for a reincarnation of the 13th dalai lama, based on the time of his death. </p>
<p>When the search party consisting of the 13th dalai lama’s closest monastic attendants arrived at his house, they believed they recognized signs that confirmed that they had reached the right place.</p>
<h2>Dalai lama memoirs</h2>
<p>The 14th Dalai Lama recounts in <a href="https://books.google.co.th/books?id=ZYgTHQAACAAJ&dq=Dalai+Lama+memoir&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwijsMGm0I3jAhXFsY8KHUSoD3IQ6AEIKjAA">his memoirs about his early life</a> that he remembered recognizing one of the monks in the search party, even though he was dressed as a servant. To prevent any manipulation of the process, members of the search party had not shown villagers who they were. </p>
<p>The Dalai Lama remembered as a little boy asking for the rosary beads that monk had worn around his neck. These beads were previously owned by the 13th Dalai Lama. After this meeting, the search party came back again to <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h3yHMz8v1OsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=my+land+and+my+people+the+original+autobiography&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjOxfSNjZviAhUNDKwKHdXHAakQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=my%20land%20and%20my%20people%20the%20original%20autobiography&f=false">test the young boy</a> with further objects of the previous Dalai Lama. He was said to have <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h3yHMz8v1OsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=my+land+and+my+people+the+original+autobiography&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjOxfSNjZviAhUNDKwKHdXHAakQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=my%20land%20and%20my%20people%20the%20original%20autobiography&f=false">correctly chosen all items</a>, including a drum used for rituals and a walking stick. </p>
<h2>China and dalai lama</h2>
<p>Today the selection process for the next dalai lama remains uncertain. In 1950 <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3024669?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents">China’s communist government invaded Tibet</a>, which it insists <a href="https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2021/04/tibet-china-elections-cta-dalai-lama.html">has always belonged to China</a>. The Dalai Lama fled in 1959 and set up a government in exile. The <a href="https://freetibet.org/about/dalai-lama">Dalai Lama is revered by Tibetan people</a>, who have maintained their devotion over the past 70 years of Chinese rule. </p>
<p>In 1995 the <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-32771242">Chinese government</a> detained the Dalai Lama’s choice for the successor of the 10th Panchen Lama, named Gendun Choeki Nyima, when he was 6 years old. Since then <a href="https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/05/15/25-years-after-disappearing-tibetan-panchen-lama-china-no-nearer-its-goal#">China has refused to give details of his whereabouts</a>. Panchen lama is the second most important tulku lineage in Tibetan Buddhism.</p>
<p>The Tibetan people revolted when the newly selected 11th Panchen Lama was detained. The Chinese government responded by <a href="https://www.scmp.com/news/china/policies-politics/article/2074674/china-appointed-panchen-lama-praises-nations-religious">appointing its own Panchen Lama</a>, the son of a Chinese security officer. The panchen lamas and dalai lamas have <a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Spacious_Minds/ro6PDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=spacious+minds&printsec=frontcoverhttps://www.google.com/books/edition/Spacious_Minds/ro6PDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=spacious+minds&printsec=frontcover">historically played major roles</a> in recognizing each other’s next incarnations. </p>
<p>China also wants to appoint its own dalai lama. But it is important to Tibetan Buddhists that they are in charge of the selection process.</p>
<h2>Future options</h2>
<p>Because of the threat from China, the 14th Dalai Lama has made a number of statements that would make it difficult for a Chinese-appointed 15th dalai lama to be seen as legitimate. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408011/original/file-20210623-19-1qd7bpw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Students interact with the Dalai Lama during a visit to Chandigarh University at Mohali, in northern India." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408011/original/file-20210623-19-1qd7bpw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408011/original/file-20210623-19-1qd7bpw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408011/original/file-20210623-19-1qd7bpw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408011/original/file-20210623-19-1qd7bpw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408011/original/file-20210623-19-1qd7bpw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=518&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408011/original/file-20210623-19-1qd7bpw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=518&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408011/original/file-20210623-19-1qd7bpw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=518&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Dalai Lama with students in India.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/the-dalai-lama-interacts-with-people-at-chandigarh-news-photo/1176011239?adppopup=true">Keshav Singh/Hindustan Times via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For example, he has stated that the institution of the dalai lama might not be needed anymore. However, he has also said it is up to the people if they want to <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OLs7BjSGGTsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=my+spiritual+journey+the+dalai+lama&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjw-b77lpviAhV4JzQIHcAnBYoQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=my%20spiritual%20journey%20the%20dalai%20lama&f=false">preserve</a> this aspect of Tibetan Buddhism and continue the dalai lama lineage. The Dalai Lama <a href="https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2021/04/tibet-china-elections-cta-dalai-lama.html">has indicated</a> that he will decide, on turning 90 in four years’ time, whether he will be reborn.</p>
<p>Another option the Dalai Lama has proposed is announcing his next reincarnation before he dies. In this scenario, the Dalai Lama would <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OLs7BjSGGTsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=my+spiritual+journey+the+dalai+lama&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjw-b77lpviAhV4JzQIHcAnBYoQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=my%20spiritual%20journey%20the%20dalai%20lama&f=false">transfer his spiritual realization</a> to the successor. A third alternative Tenzin Gyatso has <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OLs7BjSGGTsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=my+spiritual+journey+the+dalai+lama&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjw-b77lpviAhV4JzQIHcAnBYoQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=my%20spiritual%20journey%20the%20dalai%20lama&f=false">articulated</a> is that if he dies outside of Tibet, and the Panchen Lama remains missing, his reincarnation would be located abroad, most likely in India. Experts believe the Chinese government’s search, however, would take place in Tibet, led by the <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2021/02/14/asia/dalai-lama-china-death-reincarnation-dst-intl-hnk/index.html">Chinese-appointed panchen lama</a>.</p>
<p>Finally, he has mentioned the possibility of being reborn as a woman – but he added in interviews in 2015 and 2019 that he would have to be a <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2015/09/23/the-dalai-lama-thinks-a-female-dalai-lama-would-have-to-be-very-very-attractive/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.f4af665f572a">very beautiful woman</a>. After this comment received widespread criticism in 2019, his office <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2019/07/02/world/dalai-lama-female-successor-scli/index.html">released a statement of apology</a> and regret for the hurt he had caused.</p>
<p>The Dalai Lama is confident that <a href="https://thediplomat.com/2019/03/beijing-dalai-lamas-reincarnation-must-comply-with-chinese-laws/?allpages=yes&print=yes">no one would trust</a> the Chinese government’s choice. The Tibetan people, as he has said, <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2021/02/14/asia/dalai-lama-china-death-reincarnation-dst-intl-hnk/index.html">would never accept</a> a Chinese-appointed dalai lama.</p>
<p>The U.S. government has expressed support for the Dalai Lama. In December 2020, the U.S. Senate passed the <a href="https://www.foreign.senate.gov/press/chair/release/risch-rubio-cardin-feinstein-welcome-passage-of-their-bipartisan-bill-in-support-of-tibet">Tibetan Policy and Support Act</a>, which recognizes the autonomy of the Tibetan people. The Biden administration reiterated in March 2021 that the Chinese government <a href="https://www.hindustantimes.com/world-news/chinese-govt-should-have-no-role-in-succession-process-of-dalai-lama-us-101615343510279.html">should have no role</a> in the Dalai Lama’s succession. </p>
<p>No matter the outcome, I believe the process of finding the 15th Dalai Lama will certainly be different. It will likely take place outside of Tibet and under the watch of international media and a global Tibetan diaspora – with much at stake.</p>
<p><em>This is an updated version of <a href="https://theconversation.com/drafts/162796/edit">an article</a> originally published on July 3, 2019.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/202888/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brooke Schedneck does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Beijing is eager for more control over the selection of Tibetan Buddhist leaders like the Dalai Lama.
Brooke Schedneck, Assistant Professor of Religious Studies, Rhodes College
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/201850
2023-03-23T12:39:26Z
2023-03-23T12:39:26Z
This course asks, ‘What is mindfulness?’ – but don’t expect a clear-cut answer
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516706/original/file-20230321-26-ds3etu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=6%2C15%2C2110%2C1396&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Practicing mindfulness doesn't have to mean being removed from the world.
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/shot-of-an-attractive-young-woman-sitting-alone-on-royalty-free-image/1317735408?phrase=mindfulness&adppopup=true">PeopleImages/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Text saying: Uncommon Courses, from The Conversation" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/499014/original/file-20221205-17-kcwec8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/499014/original/file-20221205-17-kcwec8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499014/original/file-20221205-17-kcwec8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499014/original/file-20221205-17-kcwec8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499014/original/file-20221205-17-kcwec8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499014/original/file-20221205-17-kcwec8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499014/original/file-20221205-17-kcwec8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption"></span>
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<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/topics/uncommon-courses-130908">Uncommon Courses</a> is an occasional series from The Conversation U.S. highlighting unconventional approaches to teaching.</em> </p>
<h2>Title of course:</h2>
<p>“What is Mindfulness?”</p>
<h2>What prompted the idea for the course?</h2>
<p>As <a href="https://www.memphis.edu/philosophy/people/bios/kevin-taylor.php">a professor of religion and ethics</a>, particularly Asian traditions, I had already been interested in teaching a course about mindfulness. Its popularity seems to be surging: I see “<a href="https://www.mindful.org/magazine/">Mindful</a>” on magazine racks, and almost everyone I’ve met at my university has used the word at some point.</p>
<p>But oftentimes people say to be “mindful” when they mean “pay attention” or “don’t forget”: being “mindful” of a slippery road, say, or telling students to be “mindful of the deadline.” I started wondering what other people meant each time they used the word. This made me realize my course shouldn’t be a lecture about mindfulness, but an opportunity to explore what it is in the first place.</p>
<h2>What does the course explore?</h2>
<p>The course explores the origins of mindfulness in yoga and Buddhism. <a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/74750/the-heart-of-the-buddhas-teaching-by-thich-nhat-hanh/">Mindful meditation</a> – being attentive to one’s body, feelings and thoughts – is part of one of the Buddha’s central teachings, <a href="https://tricycle.org/magazine/noble-eightfold-path/">the Noble Eightfold Path</a>, and considered key to enlightenment.</p>
<p>But we explore the many meanings of “mindfulness” that have emerged in recent decades, too. American professor <a href="https://jonkabat-zinn.com/">Jon Kabat-Zinn</a> is credited with popularizing the kind of mindfulness that has caught on with non-Buddhists today, starting with his “<a href="https://mbsrtraining.com/">mindfulness-based stress reduction” program</a> in the 1970s. </p>
<p>Some people are upset that mindfulness has <a href="https://theconversation.com/mindfulness-meditation-can-make-some-americans-more-selfish-and-less-generous-160687">become too mainstream</a> and fear that it has lost its intended meaning. Buddhism scholar <a href="https://cob.sfsu.edu/directory/ronald-purser">Ronald Purser</a>’s book “<a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/600158/mcmindfulness-by-ronald-purser/">McMindfulness</a>,” for example, argues that capitalist societies have embraced mindfulness as a way to put the burden of mental health back on the individual rather than address root problems.</p>
<p>Students in my class read a variety of these perspectives and discuss themes such as mindfulness and mental health, mindful eating and breathing, environmental mindfulness and even meditation apps. In the end, I want each student to decide for themselves what mindfulness is.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516441/original/file-20230320-22-oz34km.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A woman in exercise clothes does a yoga pose inside a dark cathedral with stained glass windows." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516441/original/file-20230320-22-oz34km.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516441/original/file-20230320-22-oz34km.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516441/original/file-20230320-22-oz34km.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516441/original/file-20230320-22-oz34km.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516441/original/file-20230320-22-oz34km.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516441/original/file-20230320-22-oz34km.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516441/original/file-20230320-22-oz34km.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Mia Michelson-Bartlett, yoga teacher and manager of visitors’ services, practices yoga and mindfulness meditation inside the Cathedral of St. John the Divine in New York City.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/mia-michelson-bartlett-yoga-teacher-and-cathedral-manager-news-photo/1231935869?phrase=mindfulness%20&adppopup=true">Angela Weiss/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why is this course relevant now?</h2>
<p>I first proposed this course right before the arrival of COVID-19, so when it launched for the first time, we met remotely over Zoom. I was tempted to drop the class after we went remote, but I quickly realized that it might help students who were wrestling with mental health issues at the beginning of the pandemic.</p>
<p>Each student kept a journal of our topics every week to practice mindfulness and to explore some of the therapeutic techniques. First, I asked them to find examples of the word in their everyday experiences – used on a poster at the student rec center, for example. </p>
<p>Later, I asked them to practice <a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/74750/the-heart-of-the-buddhas-teaching-by-thich-nhat-hanh/">breathing and visualization techniques</a> from <a href="https://theconversation.com/thich-nhat-hanh-who-worked-for-decades-to-teach-mindfulness-approached-death-in-that-same-spirit-175495">the influential Vietnamese monk Thich Nhat Hanh</a>, such as asking yourself every hour “What am I doing?” and reflecting on your mind, emotions and posture.</p>
<h2>What’s a critical lesson from the course?</h2>
<p>Buddhism changes dramatically depending on “whose” Buddhism you are talking about. The dalai lama’s form of Tibetan Buddhism, for example, is not the same as the Zen Buddhism of <a href="https://theconversation.com/thich-nhat-hanh-who-worked-for-decades-to-teach-mindfulness-approached-death-in-that-same-spirit-175495">Thich Nhat Hanh</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516439/original/file-20230320-20-sbmzh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A row of monks stand next to a small crowd of schoolchildren in uniform as one monk takes a child's hand." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516439/original/file-20230320-20-sbmzh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516439/original/file-20230320-20-sbmzh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516439/original/file-20230320-20-sbmzh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516439/original/file-20230320-20-sbmzh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516439/original/file-20230320-20-sbmzh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516439/original/file-20230320-20-sbmzh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516439/original/file-20230320-20-sbmzh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Zen master Thich Nhat Hanh reaches for a student’s hand during a meditation walk on a ‘day of mindfulness’ in Hong Kong in 2007.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/pupil-cheng-ka-ki-looks-surprised-as-zen-master-thich-nhat-news-photo/1125039441?phrase=thich%20nhat%20hanh&adppopup=true">Steve Cray/South China Morning Post via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It’s the same with mindfulness. Thirteenth-century <a href="https://www.asianstudies.org/publications/eaa/archives/dogen-his-life-religion-and-poetry/">Zen master Dōgen</a> taught pupils to seek mindfulness in seated meditation. Five hundred years later, on the other hand, Zen master Hakuin taught <a href="https://www.proquest.com/docview/237191277">mindfulness in the midst of activity</a> – practicing it not just on the meditation pillow, but amid the hustle and bustle of the streets.</p>
<p>All forms of Buddhism, though, focus on transforming suffering into <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-the-world-can-learn-from-the-buddhist-concept-loving-kindness-171354">lovingkindness</a>. So teaching this course has persuaded me that if the way you teach mindfulness helps someone, it doesn’t matter if it’s “real” Buddhist mindfulness or not. If pop culture’s version of the concept relieves someone’s suffering, then I don’t want to be a gatekeeper and say, “This is not real mindfulness.”</p>
<h2>What will the course prepare students to do?</h2>
<p>All of the students in this course are first-semester freshmen. The class began as a way to get them to think critically about what mindfulness is but also offers tools to deal with the stress of college life.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.colorado.edu/today/2018/11/13/healthy-buffs-making-gains-your-rest-days">Muscles grow</a> after they heal and rest. The same is true when it comes to learning. Our minds need to take time to breathe, <a href="https://gcci.uconn.edu/2019/03/22/a-little-pause-goes-a-long-way-using-the-pause-procedure-in-teaching/">reflect on new information</a> and absorb it.</p>
<p>I also hope students will understand that taking care of oneself can be an act of care for others. Just as on an airplane we are told to put on our own oxygen mask before helping the person next to us, we all need to take care of our own mental health in order to help those around us.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/201850/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kevin C. Taylor does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Mindfulness is everywhere in pop culture today, but that doesn’t mean people agree on what it means.
Kevin C. Taylor, Director of Religious Studies and Instructor of Philosophy, University of Memphis
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/197504
2023-03-08T13:40:23Z
2023-03-08T13:40:23Z
Robots are performing Hindu rituals – some devotees fear they’ll replace worshippers
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/513699/original/file-20230306-18-wqvorn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=5%2C0%2C831%2C422&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A robotic arm (below on right) is used to worship by maneuvering a candle in front of the Hindu god Ganesha.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r1pwR5yABnY&t=4s">Monarch Innovation</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It isn’t just artists and teachers who are losing sleep over advances in automation and artificial intelligence. Robots are being brought into Hinduism’s holiest rituals – and not all worshippers are happy about it.</p>
<p>In 2017, a <a href="https://patilautomation.com/">technology firm in India</a> introduced a robotic arm to perform “aarti,” a ritual in which a devotee offers an oil lamp to the deity to symbolize the removal of darkness. This particular robot was unveiled at the Ganpati festival, a yearly gathering of millions of people in which an icon of Ganesha, the elephant-headed god, is taken out in a procession and immersed in the Mula-Mutha river in Pune in central India.</p>
<p>Ever since, that robotic aarti arm has inspired several prototypes, a <a href="https://www.monarch-innovation.com/ganesh-aarti-with-robotic-arm-technology/">few of which</a> continue to regularly perform the ritual <a href="https://www.deccanchronicle.com/technology/in-other-news/140918/techno-artistic-ganesha-watch-lord-ganesha-levitate-robot-conduct-aa.html">across India today</a>, along with a variety of other religious robots <a href="https://brill.com/view/journals/rrcs/7/1/article-p120_120.xml?language=en">throughout East Asia</a> and <a href="https://www.dukeupress.edu/the-cow-in-the-elevator">South Asia</a>. Robotic rituals even now include <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/asia/india/kerala-temple-elephant-robot-peta-b2291054.html">an animatronic temple elephant</a> in Kerala on India’s southern coast.</p>
<p>Yet this kind of religious robotic usage has led to <a href="https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/sunday-times/all-that-matters/hindu-epics-are-full-of-ai-robots-legend-has-it-that-they-guarded-buddhas-relics/articleshow/68648962.cms">increasing debates</a> <a href="https://twitter.com/meenakandasamy/status/1577242445913370624">about the use of AI</a> and robotic technology in devotion and worship. Some devotees and priests feel that this represents a new horizon in human innovation that will lead to the betterment of society, while others worry that <a href="https://doi.org/10.4000/assr.27792">using robots to replace practitioners</a> is a bad omen for the future. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/jUOo9sXdU2g?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Ganesha aarti being done by a robotic arm.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As an <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=d_8EGoUAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">anthropologist who specializes in religion,</a> however, I focus less on the theology of robotics and more on what people actually say and do when it comes to their spiritual practices. My current work on <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sxfYcSC-MRY">religious robots</a> primarily centers on the notion of “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1086/717110">divine object-persons</a>,” where otherwise inanimate things are viewed as having a living, conscious essence. </p>
<p>My work also looks at the uneasiness Hindus and Buddhists express about ritual-performing automatons replacing people and whether those automatons actually might make <a href="https://www.globalbuddhism.org/article/view/1285">better devotees</a>. </p>
<h2>Ritual automation is not new</h2>
<p>Ritual automation, or at least the idea of robotic spiritual practice, isn’t new in South Asian religions. </p>
<p>Historically, this has included anything from special <a href="https://www.hindu-blog.com/2012/09/symbolism-in-water-pot-above-shivling.html">pots that drip water continuously</a> for bathing rituals that Hindus routinely perform for their deity icons, called abhisheka, to <a href="https://rubinmuseum.org/collection/artwork/wind-powered-prayer-wheel-20.406">wind-powered Buddhist prayer wheels</a> – the kinds often seen in yoga studios and supply stores. </p>
<p>While the contemporary version of automated ritual might look like downloading a <a href="https://appadvice.com/apps/hindu-prayer-apps">phone app that chants mantras</a> without the need for any prayer object at all, such as a mala or rosary, these new versions of ritual-performing robots have prompted complicated conversations.</p>
<p>Thaneswar Sarmah, a Sanskrit scholar and literary critic, <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/69030981">argues that the first Hindu robot</a> appeared in the stories of King Manu, the first king of the human race in Hindu belief. Manu’s mother, Saranyu – herself the daughter of a great architect – built an animate statue to perfectly perform all of her household chores and ritual obligations. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/513705/original/file-20230306-22-u4zgsi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A male figure wearing a crown and holding a red bag in one hand." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/513705/original/file-20230306-22-u4zgsi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/513705/original/file-20230306-22-u4zgsi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=745&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513705/original/file-20230306-22-u4zgsi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=745&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513705/original/file-20230306-22-u4zgsi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=745&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513705/original/file-20230306-22-u4zgsi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=936&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513705/original/file-20230306-22-u4zgsi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=936&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513705/original/file-20230306-22-u4zgsi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=936&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Visvakarman, considered to be the architect of the universe in Hindu belief.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/A_1880-0-2021">British Museum</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Folklorist <a href="https://web.stanford.edu/dept/HPS/Mayor.html">Adrienne Mayor</a> <a href="https://press.princeton.edu/books/hardcover/9780691183510/gods-and-robots">remarks similarly</a> that religious stories about mechanized icons from Hindu epics, such as the mechanical war chariots of the Hindu engineer god Visvakarman, are often viewed as the progenitors of religious robots today.</p>
<p>Furthermore, these stories are sometimes interpreted by modern-day nationalists as evidence that ancient India has previously invented <a href="https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/sunday-times/all-that-matters/hindu-epics-are-full-of-ai-robots-legend-has-it-that-they-guarded-buddhas-relics/articleshow/68648962.cms">everything from spacecraft to missiles</a>.</p>
<h2>Modern traditions or traditionally modern?</h2>
<p>However, the recent use of AI and robotics in religious practice is leading to concerns among Hindus and Buddhists about the kind of future to which automation could lead. In some instances, the debate among Hindus is about whether automated religion promises the arrival of humanity into a <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Digital-Hinduism/Zeiler/p/book/9781032086484">bright, new, technological future</a> or if it is simply <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0037768616652332">evidence of the coming apocalypse</a>. </p>
<p>In other cases, there are concerns that the proliferation of robots might lead to greater numbers of people leaving religious practice as temples begin to rely more on automation than on practitioners to care for their deities. Some of these concerns stem from the fact that many religions, <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2018/06/13/young-adults-around-the-world-are-less-religious-by-several-measures/">both in South Asia</a> and <a href="https://academic.oup.com/book/33489?login=false">globally</a>, have seen significant decreases in the number of young people willing to dedicate their lives to spiritual education and practice over the past few decades. Furthermore, with many families living in a diaspora scattered across the world, priests or “pandits” are often serving smaller and smaller communities.</p>
<p>But if the answer to the problem of <a href="https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/why-not-rituals-with-robotic-precision-/articleshow/60214893.cms">fewer ritual specialists is more robots</a>, people still question whether ritual automation will benefit them. They also question the concurrent use of robotic deities to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s12369-019-00553-8">embody and personify the divine</a>, since these icons are programmed by people and therefore reflect the religious views of their engineers.</p>
<h2>Doing right by religion</h2>
<p>Scholars often note that these concerns all tend to reflect one pervasive theme – an underlying anxiety that, somehow, the robots are better at worshipping gods than humans are. They can also raise inner conflicts about the meaning of <a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.ca/books/122339/the-religion-of-technology-by-david-f-noble/9780307828538">life and one’s place in the universe</a>. </p>
<p>For Hindus and Buddhists, the rise of ritual automation is especially concerning because their traditions emphasize what religion scholars <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-3881.2011.00188.x">refer to as orthopraxy</a>, where greater importance is placed on correct ethical and liturgical behavior than on specific beliefs in religious doctrines. In other words, perfecting what you do in terms of your religious practice is viewed as more necessary to spiritual advancement than whatever it is you personally believe.</p>
<p>This also means that automated rituals appear on a spectrum that progresses from human ritual fallibility to robotic ritual perfection. In short, the robot can do your religion better than you can because robots, unlike people, are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0037768616683326">spiritually incorruptible</a>. </p>
<p>This not only makes robots attractive replacements for dwindling priesthoods but also explains their increasing use in everyday contexts: People use them because no one worries about the robot getting it wrong, and they are often better than nothing when the options for ritual performance are limited.</p>
<h2>Saved by a robot</h2>
<p>In the end, turning to a robot for religious restoration in modern Hinduism or Buddhism might seem futuristic, but it belongs very much to the present moment. It tells us that Hinduism, Buddhism and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11841-019-00753-9">other religions in South Asia</a> are increasingly being <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4623070">imagined as post- or transhuman</a>: deploying technological ingenuity to transcend human weaknesses because robots don’t get tired, forget what they’re supposed to say, fall asleep or leave. </p>
<p>More specifically, this means that robotic automation is being used to perfect ritual practices in East Asia and South Asia – especially in India and Japan – beyond what would be possible for a human devotee, by linking impossibly consistent and flawless ritual accomplishment with an idea of better religion. </p>
<p>Modern robotics might then feel like a particular kind of cultural paradox, where the best kind of religion is the one that eventually involves no humans at all. But in this circularity of humans creating robots, robots becoming gods, and gods becoming human, we’ve only managed to, once again, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780197549803.013.3">re-imagine ourselves</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/197504/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Holly Walters does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
The use of AI and robotic technology in worship is raising profound questions about its long-term consequences. Will it lead to the betterment of society or replace practitioners?
Holly Walters, Visiting Lecturer in Anthropology, Wellesley College
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/199064
2023-02-21T16:39:41Z
2023-02-21T16:39:41Z
‘Compassionate listening’ is a Buddhist tenet: What it is and why it matters
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510571/original/file-20230216-16-fpe4im.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C9%2C6099%2C4035&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Compassionate listening is the practice of shifting our focus from talking to listening. In so doing, we overcome egocentricity.
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Although <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.767908">the importance of communication in fostering better relationships</a> and solving problems is well-recognized, much focus has been placed on “<a href="https://www.healthline.com/health/mental-health/talk-therapy">talking it out</a>” — <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9248.2012.00944.x">while the role of listening tends to be overlooked</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/ca/blog/suffer-the-children/201901/6-tips-compassionate-listening">“Compassionate listening”</a> is critical to interpersonal and political communication, because without it, more talking can exacerbate the existing divides and misunderstandings. </p>
<p>Compassionate listening is a practice of shifting our focus from talking to listening. In so doing, we can overcome egocentricity. It helps us change habitual self-referencing to engage with the world from the perspective of others. </p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="A bald man in an orange robe has his hands clasped in front of him." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510436/original/file-20230215-15-6g2h2u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510436/original/file-20230215-15-6g2h2u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510436/original/file-20230215-15-6g2h2u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510436/original/file-20230215-15-6g2h2u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510436/original/file-20230215-15-6g2h2u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510436/original/file-20230215-15-6g2h2u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510436/original/file-20230215-15-6g2h2u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Thích Nhất Hạnh is seen at a chanting ceremony in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam in March 2007.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Compassionate listening can be informed by Buddhist philosophy and practice. In particular, it can take the form of “deep listening,” proposed by <a href="https://plumvillage.org/thich-nhat-hanh/">Thích Nhất Hạnh</a>. He’s the late Zen Buddhist monk who initiated <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.755">engaged Buddhism</a> and illuminated for decades how to practice mindfulness in daily life.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/thich-nhat-hanh-who-worked-for-decades-to-teach-mindfulness-approached-death-in-that-same-spirit-175495">Thich Nhat Hanh, who worked for decades to teach mindfulness, approached death in that same spirit</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Deep listening</h2>
<p>Nhất Hạnh emphasized the importance of deep listening, or what he called “compassionate listening.” He was referring to deep listening and compassionate listening interchangeably, because compassion is needed to listen to others deeply. </p>
<p>For Nhất Hạnh, deep listening means understanding the other person, and <a href="https://plumvillage.org/mindfulness/the-14-mindfulness-trainings/">listening without judging or reacting</a>. </p>
<p>In his book <a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.ca/books/74750/the-heart-of-the-buddhas-teaching-by-thich-nhat-hanh/9780767903691"><em>The Heart of the Buddha’s Teaching</em></a>, he wrote:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I am listening to him not only because I want to know what is inside him or to give him advice. I am listening to him just because I want to relieve his suffering. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>He also explained that compassionate dialogue is composed of loving speech and deep listening, making mention of what’s known as “right speech” in Buddhism, which advocates abstaining from false, slanderous and harsh speech along with idle chatter:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Deep listening is at the foundation of right speech. If we cannot listen mindfully, we cannot practise right speech. No matter what we say, it will not be mindful, because we’ll be speaking only our own ideas and not in response to the other person.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>When we listen deeply to better understand others, including their suffering and difficulties, we feel with them and compassionate speech comes more easily. </p>
<p>Compassionate listening also requires refraining from being judgmental while we listen. That doesn’t mean giving up engaging with what others say. Instead, it involves switching the focus from self to others.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1614619914207215616"}"></div></p>
<h2>Trying to understand when it’s difficult</h2>
<p>Compassionate listening also involves a tension between the attempt to understand others and the acknowledgment of the limited ability to do so.</p>
<p>It requires a willingness and effort to understand others. As Nhất Hạnh put it, compassionate listening happens when we listen with the sole purpose to understand others. Underlying genuine deep listening is the genuine concern for others’ well-being: If we don’t care about others’ suffering, why would we listen to what they have to say? </p>
<p>In Buddhist philosophy, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-020-01544-x">every being is interdependent and interconnected</a>. In this light, caring for others is also caring for ourselves since our own well-being is interrelated to the well-being of others.</p>
<p>When we show compassion for others and help relieve others’ suffering, we actually help relieve our own suffering as well because in changing our focus from self to others, we start to see and learn to transcend our previously under-recognized <a href="https://tricycle.org/beginners/buddhism/three-poisons/">greed, hatred and ignorance — in Buddhism, the three root causes of <em>dukkha</em> (suffering)</a> that arise from self-centeredness. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A white woman with pink hair and a Black man listen to someone off-camera. The man has a laptop on his lap." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510185/original/file-20230214-27-ke2aj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510185/original/file-20230214-27-ke2aj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510185/original/file-20230214-27-ke2aj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510185/original/file-20230214-27-ke2aj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510185/original/file-20230214-27-ke2aj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510185/original/file-20230214-27-ke2aj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510185/original/file-20230214-27-ke2aj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Showing compassion for others and listening to them can actually help relieve our own suffering.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Unsplash)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Ultimately, caring for others and listening to them deeply is to practice compassion not only for others but also for ourselves. </p>
<p>But compassionate listening also requires the humility to acknowledge that we may not be able to fully understand others. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/modesty-humility/">Humility is crucial for communication</a>, especially against backgrounds of broad diversity and growing inequalities in liberal democracy. </p>
<p>The humility to accept our limited ability to understand others, especially those who are very differently situated from us — along with the aspiration to better understand them despite our limited ability to do so — fosters and energizes ongoing communication across differences. </p>
<h2>Equanimity</h2>
<p>The Buddhist concept of equanimity can also be helpful.</p>
<p>In Buddhism, <em>karuṇā</em> (compassion) is not an overwhelming or reactive emotion, but is one among <a href="https://tricycle.org/magazine/four-immeasurables/">the “four immeasurable minds”</a> – with the other three being loving/kindness, joy and equanimity. In the Buddhist tradition, equanimity is generally associated with non-attachment, or letting go of ourselves. </p>
<p>As Nhất Hạnh wrote:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>The fourth element of true love is <em>upeksha</em>, which means equanimity, non-attachment, non-discrimination, even-mindedness, or letting go. <em>Upa</em> means ‘over,’ and <em>iksh</em> means ‘to look.’ You climb the mountain to be able to look over the whole situation, not bound by one side or the other.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>He explained that equanimity doesn’t mean indifference, but is about detaching from our prejudices. He emphasized that clinging to false perceptions about ourselves and others can hinder us from arriving at a deeper understanding of reality and can lead to misunderstanding, conflict and even violence. </p>
<p>While compassionate listening seems passive, focusing on receiving what others say instead of interjecting to change the conversation is actually an active way to engage in the discussion. That’s because it involves actively looking into our own biases and prejudices, which can open up further possibilities to improve the conversation. </p>
<p>Compassionate listening means not only opening our ears to what others have to say, but also reflecting on and challenging problematic self-narratives that we carry with us. In fact, <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44982086">equanimity can reasonably be seen as an essential condition for genuine open-mindedness</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two women sit at a desk beside a window. One speaks while the other listens." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510324/original/file-20230215-4170-b2dsap.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5760%2C3759&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510324/original/file-20230215-4170-b2dsap.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510324/original/file-20230215-4170-b2dsap.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510324/original/file-20230215-4170-b2dsap.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510324/original/file-20230215-4170-b2dsap.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510324/original/file-20230215-4170-b2dsap.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510324/original/file-20230215-4170-b2dsap.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Compassionate listening requires us to both open our ears to others and reflect on our own patterns.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Unsplash)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Listening for better communication</h2>
<p>Compassionate listening has broad implications for interpersonal and political communication. </p>
<p>With the practices of deep listening, humility and equanimity, compassionate listening alerts us to the tendency to project ourselves into conversations instead of hearing the other person.</p>
<p>When we focus too much on what to say to persuade others while neglecting to listen deeply, talking can lead to more severe interpersonal tensions or exacerbate political polarization. </p>
<p>Compassionate and effective communication is listening-centred. Listening with compassion does not guarantee solving all problems at hand, but it does help us better understand problems from other perspectives — and to better support one another to address problems collectively.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/199064/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Yang-Yang Cheng does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Compassionate listening is an overlooked practice, but urgently needed in both interpersonal and political communications.
Yang-Yang Cheng, PhD Candidate in Political Science, University of Toronto
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/196776
2023-01-04T13:27:49Z
2023-01-04T13:27:49Z
On New Year’s Day, Buddhist god Hotei brings gifts and good fortune in Japan
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/502197/original/file-20221220-12-2u6wsv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Hotei hands out gifts to children.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kuniyoshi_Utagawa,_The_seven_goods_of_good_fortune.jpg">Detail of print by Kuniyoshi Utagawa, 1798-1861, via Wikimedia Commons</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The new year brings a fresh start, symbolized in some cultures by the cherubic baby New Year who replaces the old year that has come to a close. In Japan, the roly-poly god Hotei, <a href="https://theconversation.com/japans-laughing-buddha-hotei-is-merging-into-santa-claus-both-are-roly-poly-sacred-figures-with-a-bag-of-gifts-195090">who is often identified with Santa Claus</a>, ushers in the new year along with six other gods of good fortune; together, they form the Seven Lucky Gods, or shichi fukujin in Japanese. </p>
<p>As a scholar of East Asian religions who <a href="https://www.sup.org/books/title/?id=26844">studies deities’ transformations over time</a>, I often explain to my students that cross-cultural encounters produce new understandings and images of gods. </p>
<p>New Year celebrations in Japan bring together many different cultural traditions. Unlike most East Asian countries, which celebrate the Lunar New Year, Japan follows the solar calendar in celebrating the new year on Jan. 1. Japanese New Year traditions combine Shinto and Buddhist elements. For example, Buddhist temples ring their bells to welcome the new year, and people hang Shinto straw ropes – shimenawa in Japanese – around their homes to keep good fortune in and bad luck out.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/502194/original/file-20221220-25-8budmr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A colorful images of Japanese Gods at play" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/502194/original/file-20221220-25-8budmr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/502194/original/file-20221220-25-8budmr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=298&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502194/original/file-20221220-25-8budmr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=298&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502194/original/file-20221220-25-8budmr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=298&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502194/original/file-20221220-25-8budmr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502194/original/file-20221220-25-8budmr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502194/original/file-20221220-25-8budmr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Seven Lucky Gods at play. Clockwise from top left, the gods are Bishamonten, Jurōjin, Fukurokuju, Ebisu, Daikokuten, Benzaiten and Hotei.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kuniyoshi_Utagawa,_The_seven_goods_of_good_fortune.jpg">Print made by Kuniyoshi Utagawa, 1798-1861, via Wikimedia Commons</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Seven Lucky Gods also reflect the diverse cultural traditions of Japanese New Year. Along with Hotei, this set includes other Buddhist gods such as Daikokuten, Bishamonten and Benzaiten, along with Chinese gods of longevity and prosperity and the Shinto god Ebisu. </p>
<p>Of these seven gods, Hotei plays the most prominent role in Japanese culture because he is not just a lucky god, but also a buddha.</p>
<h2>Origins of Hotei</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/502199/original/file-20221220-26-x8wd3i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Ink painting of a man carrying a large bag on his back." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/502199/original/file-20221220-26-x8wd3i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/502199/original/file-20221220-26-x8wd3i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=997&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502199/original/file-20221220-26-x8wd3i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=997&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502199/original/file-20221220-26-x8wd3i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=997&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502199/original/file-20221220-26-x8wd3i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1253&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502199/original/file-20221220-26-x8wd3i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1253&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502199/original/file-20221220-26-x8wd3i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1253&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hotei carrying his bag of treasures.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kano_Koi_Hotei,_Edo_Period.jpg">Painting by Kanō Kōi, d. 1636, via Wikimedia Commons</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The name Hotei is the Japanese pronunciation of the Chinese “budai,” which means “cloth bag.” In Japan, Hotei is also known as Hotei oshō, or “monk Hotei,” which refers to his origin as a <a href="https://www.aisf.or.jp/%7Ejaanus/deta/h/hotei.htm">10th-century Chinese monk</a>. </p>
<p>Hotei belongs to the Zen school of Buddhism, which celebrates simplicity and rejects the desire for fame and fortune. Zen texts portray Hotei as a wandering monk who is content to live a humble, simple life. He carries a large sack full of odds and ends and shares his “treasures” with children.</p>
<p>Some texts even identify Hotei as a buddha. Buddhism teaches that there were multiple buddhas in the past, and there will be more buddhas to come in the future. The most recent buddha – the buddha most Westerners think of when they hear the word – was called Siddhārtha Gautama or Shakyamuni, who lived about 2,500 years ago. The next buddha will be Maitreya, or Miroku in Japanese. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/502213/original/file-20221220-26-5yvpn8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Man holds a large open bag in his mouth and hands, and children fall out of the bag." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/502213/original/file-20221220-26-5yvpn8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/502213/original/file-20221220-26-5yvpn8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502213/original/file-20221220-26-5yvpn8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502213/original/file-20221220-26-5yvpn8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502213/original/file-20221220-26-5yvpn8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=548&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502213/original/file-20221220-26-5yvpn8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=548&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502213/original/file-20221220-26-5yvpn8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=548&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hotei opening his bag, which is full of children and jewels.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/54328">Print by Kita Busei, 1776-1856, via Metropolitan Museum of Art</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The Seven Lucky Gods</h2>
<p>Hotei’s well-fed appearance and bag of treasures represented abundance in China and Japan. It was this association with good fortune that led Hotei to be included in the set of <a href="https://www.onmarkproductions.com/html/seven.shtml">Seven Lucky Gods</a>, which developed in Japan by the 17th century.</p>
<p>Each god is associated with a magical object and a specific virtue. Hotei’s object is his bag that magically remains full, and his virtue is generosity. As one of these lucky gods, Hotei is known for being fond of food and drink, and even serves as the patron deity of bars and restaurants.</p>
<p>Other members of the Seven Lucky Gods share Hotei’s multicultural background. Three of the gods started out as Indian deities in both the Hindu and Buddhist pantheons: Daikokuten is Mahākāla, a form of the Hindu god Shiva; Benzaiten is Sarasvatī, the goddess of knowledge and music; and Bishamonten is Vaiśravaṇa, the guardian god of the north. Like Hotei, Daikokuten underwent significant transformations in Japan, from a wrathful protector to a jolly god of wealth. </p>
<p>The Chinese god of prosperity, known as Fukurokuju in Japanese, and the Chinese god of longevity, Jurōjin in Japanese, both come from Daoist backgrounds. The Shinto god Ebisu is the only one of the Seven Lucky Gods that originated in Japan. Ebisu is sometimes identified as the offspring of the primordial gods Izanagi and Izanami, who gave birth to the Japanese islands. As the god of the sea, Ebisu is particularly worshipped by fishermen. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A Japanese illustration showing several figures on a boat." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/497750/original/file-20221128-24-8khapz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/497750/original/file-20221128-24-8khapz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497750/original/file-20221128-24-8khapz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497750/original/file-20221128-24-8khapz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497750/original/file-20221128-24-8khapz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=567&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497750/original/file-20221128-24-8khapz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=567&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497750/original/file-20221128-24-8khapz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=567&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In Japanese mythology, the Seven Lucky Gods are believed to steer their treasure ship from the heavens to Earth on New Year’s Day.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Seven_lucky_gods._Woodblock_print_by_Kitao_Shigemasa_(CBL_J_2415).jpg">Print made by Kitao Shigemasa, Tokyo, 1772/1780 via Wikimedia Commons</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the first few days of the new year, the Seven Lucky Gods <a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Seven_Lucky_Gods_of_Japan/9THRAgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0">steer their treasure ship, Takarabune, from the heavens to Earth</a>. On the first night of the new year, children place under their pillows a picture of the seven gods on their ship. This is supposed to bring a good dream, a sign of good luck for the year ahead.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/502189/original/file-20221220-13-o8li8q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A piece of paper with images of seven gods next to their names" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/502189/original/file-20221220-13-o8li8q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/502189/original/file-20221220-13-o8li8q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502189/original/file-20221220-13-o8li8q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502189/original/file-20221220-13-o8li8q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502189/original/file-20221220-13-o8li8q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502189/original/file-20221220-13-o8li8q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502189/original/file-20221220-13-o8li8q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pilgrims collect stamps for each of the Seven Lucky Gods to bring luck in the new year.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/compose-r/2840192036/in/photolist-5jYJ9d-xZQ455-8FMRD5-4uBEjn-5teYH6-yEgveL-5jTVtx-5jYdvU-5jXEch-5jTuQ4-5jXS2j-5jXNR5-5jXPAq-8FJEJB-5jXPeL-5jYLFC-98Hoi7-5jXRzQ-ArjcXV-96L12g-5jXPUC-P4SZdD-5jTLpD-5jUtZM-5jTGV4-5jXQiC-5jUsiD-5jUvnM-5jTv6K-5jTSVi-5jTwii-yWRfde-5jYJRQ-A9N2bW-ExjfV9-5jTvAe-5jXLxy-5jY8SS-5jTvox-5jTsra-5jXFTG-5jXQTC-5jXU3w-5jTtbv-5jTEB2-5jToVD-Askbtv-5jUunv-wJqjFJ-5jXJ8s">Ryosuke Yagi, 2008, via Flickr.com</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Another New Year’s custom is making a pilgrimage to temples associated with each of the Seven Lucky Gods. Pilgrims start out with a card that includes the names and images of the Seven Lucky Gods, and they collect a stamp for each god at the god’s temple. Completing the pilgrimage brings good luck for the following year.</p>
<p>Hotei’s bag of treasures and rotund physique mean that people in both Japan and the West have identified him as a <a href="https://blog.gaijinpot.com/japanese-santa-claus/">Japanese Santa Claus</a>. <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YdFM1q7vaTM">Some temples even dress up Hotei statues in a Santa hat and beard</a>. However, in Japanese tradition, Hotei’s visit still falls a week later for the new year. His bag of treasures offers the gift of renewal and good fortune for the year to come.</p>
<p><em>This is an updated version of a piece <a href="https://theconversation.com/japans-laughing-buddha-hotei-is-merging-into-santa-claus-both-are-roly-poly-sacred-figures-with-a-bag-of-gifts-195090">first published</a> on Dec. 12, 2022.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/196776/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Megan Bryson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
The Seven Lucky Gods usher in good fortune in the new year in Japan. Among them, Hotei plays the most prominent role, for he is considered not just a lucky god, but also a buddha.
Megan Bryson, Associate Professor of Religious Studies, University of Tennessee
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/191567
2022-12-08T13:32:06Z
2022-12-08T13:32:06Z
Traditional Buddhist teachings exclude LGBTQ people from monastic life, but change is coming slowly
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495974/original/file-20221117-11-gxxsah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=4%2C0%2C2955%2C1500&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Novice Buddhist monks during a mass ordination at Dhamagaya Temple in central Thailand in 2010.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/ThailandBuddhism/64207cadb1594c6484a5bc99bcdb3cf5/photo?Query=ordination%20buddhist%20monks&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=68&currentItemNo=48">AP Photo/Apichart Weerawong</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The symbolic image of the silently meditating nun or chanting monk often embodies the Buddhist religion. Such representation may make it appear that Buddhist teachings and practices are grounded in heterosexual norms. However, there is also plenty of discussion on the various expressions of human sexuality and sexual orientations in pre-modern Buddhist literature. </p>
<p>In contemporary debates about gender, nonbinary definitions in particular, have <a href="https://www.latimes.com/world-nation/story/2022-11-10/himalayan-kingdom-bhutan-lgbtq-revolution">reached many countries where this ancient religion is practiced</a>.</p>
<p>Gender and sexuality in Buddhism are central to my scholarship. And <a href="https://denison.academia.edu/JueLiang">my research</a> demonstrates that queer life in the context of traditional Buddhist monastic ordination appears to be slowly changing. </p>
<h2>Spiritual ethics</h2>
<p>Monasticism, whereby individuals dissolve all secular ties and devote themselves to full-time study and religious practice, represents the highest ideal of a Buddhist community. By virtue of their dedication, nuns and monks become respected role models for the lay community and provide guidance in Buddhist practice. In return, the lay community offers material support to the monastic community. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="A statue of Buddha against a backdrop of pillars and reddish stones." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/494934/original/file-20221112-12-8a4a46.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/494934/original/file-20221112-12-8a4a46.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=889&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494934/original/file-20221112-12-8a4a46.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=889&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494934/original/file-20221112-12-8a4a46.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=889&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494934/original/file-20221112-12-8a4a46.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1118&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494934/original/file-20221112-12-8a4a46.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1118&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494934/original/file-20221112-12-8a4a46.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1118&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Buddha in a seated posture.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/MqDEA-4FWL4">Jessica Rigollot for Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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<p>The Buddhist ideal of enlightenment resists description in either language or logic, including its views on gender identities. The famous declaration in the first-century text “Vimalakīrti-nirdeśa Sutra,” “In enlightenment there is no male or female,” illustrates this point well. </p>
<p>Yet Buddhist teachings often arrange followers by male and female genders. The four pillars of the Buddhist community, or <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24348-7_614">sangha</a> – nuns or ordained female monastics, monks or ordained male monastics, laywomen and laymen – are arranged by gender. This gender structure also functions in monastic living arrangements: monks and nuns live, study and practice in separate quarters. </p>
<p>This framework holds true for public teachings as well. The seating arrangement puts monastics in front, with monks on one side and nuns on the other, and laypeople behind, also divided by gender. Those who do not fall into the gender category of man or woman cannot be neatly placed in this ideal Buddhist community. </p>
<h2>Sexual differences</h2>
<p>One example of those who do not fit into the binary gender arrangement is a group of queer people called “paṇḍaka.” This Sanskrit term can be translated literally as someone “without testicles.” Another interpretation might be those who <a href="https://sunypress.edu/Books/B/Buddhism-Sexuality-and-Gender2">fail to conform</a> to culturally expected masculine roles. A paṇḍaka could be someone who is impotent, either congenitally or periodically, or someone whose sexual desires are considered nontraditional. The term might also be translated as “queer.” </p>
<p>The attitude toward paṇḍakas, or queer people, in pre-modern Indian religions, including Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism, was largely disparaging. They were feared for their seductive powers and were denied <a href="https://sunypress.edu/Books/B/Buddhism-Sexuality-and-Gender2">monastic ordination</a>. Such accounts can be found in early Buddhist literature dating back over 2,000 years. </p>
<p>In fact, until now, to be accepted into the Buddhist monastic community, one had to meet a <a href="https://blogs.dickinson.edu/buddhistethics/files/2021/12/Artinger_21_FD.pdf">list of requirements</a>, including unambiguous genitalia. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/494938/original/file-20221112-12-u7fatx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Buddhist monks with shaved heads and wearing traditional orange robes sit on the floor of a temple." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/494938/original/file-20221112-12-u7fatx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/494938/original/file-20221112-12-u7fatx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=750&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494938/original/file-20221112-12-u7fatx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=750&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494938/original/file-20221112-12-u7fatx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=750&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494938/original/file-20221112-12-u7fatx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=943&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494938/original/file-20221112-12-u7fatx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=943&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494938/original/file-20221112-12-u7fatx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=943&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Buddhist monks in a lifelong practice of meditation and prayer.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/HqGVOC-nydA">Evan Krause for Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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<h2>Queer exceptions</h2>
<p><a href="http://www.leylandpublications.com/gsnewandrecent.html">One concern</a> regarding the inclusion of LGBTQ persons in the Buddhist community is that their nonbinary gender does not fit neatly into the fourfold structure of the sangha. Another might be anxieties about preserving the perceived purity and reputation of the celibate monastic order. Therefore, Buddhist orders emphasize creating and maintaining the monastic order as an ethically exemplary community capable of spiritual pursuits.</p>
<p>In Buddhism, the belief is that the fruits of one’s past moral actions are manifested in the body. The Buddha’s perfect body is said to be the result of his virtues. Traditional Buddhist texts teach that sexual expression and queerness bear <a href="https://tricycle.org/article/buddhisms-lgbt-history/">ethical implications</a>. To be sexually queer implies past negative karma, which is interpreted in some cases as ground for exclusion from a monastic life – but not from Buddhist practice in general. </p>
<p>References to LGBTQ Buddhists in pre-modern Buddhist literature are few and far between. These mainly take the form of <a href="https://blogs.dickinson.edu/buddhistethics/files/2021/12/Artinger_21_FD.pdf">injunctions against their ordination</a> in the literature on Vinaya, the term for the discipline of Buddhist practitioners.</p>
<h2>Shifting sexual norms</h2>
<p>Despite being underrepresented in Buddhist monastic practices, LGBTQ Buddhists in the past few decades have worked to be included in these communities. </p>
<p>Some <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/0966369X.2021.1997937">kathoey performers</a> – kathoey being a term describing transgender women or gender-nonconforming gay men in Thailand – have received ordination in their sex assigned at birth. However, their ordination practice is not without controversy. </p>
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<p>The <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/howaboutthat/5233282/Thailands-gay-monks-given-good-manners-guide.html">Thai Sangha Council</a>, the governing body of the Buddhist order of Thailand, tried to ban such practices in 2009.</p>
<p>Thai Buddhism is part of the Theravada tradition, practiced in Sri Lanka and a large part of Southeast Asia. Outside of Theravada and in Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna traditions, the prerequisite of having a <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/adult-health/in-depth/transgender-facts/art-20266812">cisgender</a> identity for monastic ordination is changing. </p>
<p>A monk who was denied full ordination because of his queer identity in the Theravada tradition was accepted in the Tibetan Buddhist community in India. <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/18/books/review/Roach.t.html">Michael Dillon</a>, born as a girl, Laura, in West London in 1915, was rejected from attaining full ordination in the Theravada tradition after being “outed” as transgender. However, <a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Imji_Getsul/WTkYnQAACAAJ?hl=en">Dillon</a> was reordained as a novice monk in the Tibetan tradition and promised a full ordination, although he died before that could happen. Dillon authored a <a href="https://www.fordhampress.com/9780823280391/out-of-the-ordinary/">short book</a> on his struggle to change genders and be accepted within the Buddhist community; in it, he argued that Buddhist teachings should accommodate a more expansive definition of gender. </p>
<p>Other cases of transgender and queer monastics in the Tibetan Buddhist world include <a href="https://tricycle.org/magazine/tenzin-mariko/">Tenzin Mariko</a>, the first openly transgender Tibetan Buddhist. A former monk and a 2015 Miss Tibet contestant, Mariko is now an LGBTQ rights activist. She frequently cites her monastic training and the Buddhist teachings on kindness as her inspiration. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1163/18785417-bja10010">Tashi Choedup</a>, a transgender Buddhist monastic, also talks about experience of his <a href="https://khamgardrukcollege.org/the-9th-khamtrul-rinpoche-gyalwo-do-khampa-shedrub-nyima/">teacher</a> not inquiring about their gender identity, as prescribed by the Vinaya, during his ordination. Choedup attended an inclusive Buddhist <a href="https://www.rootinstitute.ngo/">monastic institution</a> that did not enforce rigid <a href="https://www.buddhistdoor.net/news/buddhist-transgender-monastic-works-for-awareness-and-inclusivity-in-india/">gender divisions</a>. Choedup now works to build awareness and inclusivity for the transgender Buddhist community.</p>
<p>The dogmatic interpretation of membership in the monastic community that limited the kathoey monastics and Dillon’s quest for ordination appears to be changing. The experiences of Mariko and Choedup represent progress and hold the promise of a wider institutional change.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/191567/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jue Liang does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Traditional ordination into a Buddhist monastic life requires meeting guidelines based on male and female genders.
Jue Liang, Assistant Professor, Denison University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.