tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/conversation-club-women-talk-sex-30413/articlesConversation Club: Women Talk Sex – The Conversation2016-05-02T05:17:27Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/564912016-05-02T05:17:27Z2016-05-02T05:17:27ZHealth Check: does the ‘G-spot’ exist?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/118513/original/image-20160413-18129-2q8dlh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">We've all heard about the elusive G-spot, but is it real?</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Eleanor Beth Haswell</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>It is perhaps one of the most controversial debates in sexual function: is there or isn’t there a G-spot? And if there is, how do we find it? </p>
<p>The G-spot is a purported highly erogenous area of the vagina that, when stimulated, may lead to strong sexual arousal and orgasm. Although the concept of vaginal orgasms has been around since the 17th century, the term G-spot wasn’t coined until the 1980s. The G-spot is named after Ernst Grafenberg, a German gynecologist, whose 1940s research documented this sensitive region within the vagina in some women. </p>
<p>The controversy surrounding the G-spot comes about because there is no consensus over just what the G-spot is, and while some women can orgasm through stimulation of the G-spot, others find it incredibly uncomfortable. </p>
<h2>Where is the G-spot?</h2>
<p>The G-spot lies on the anterior wall of the vagina, about 5-8cm above the opening to the vagina. It is easiest to locate if a woman lies on her back and has someone else insert one or two fingers into the vagina with the palm up. Using a “come here” motion, the tissue surrounding the urethra, called the urethral sponge, will begin to swell. </p>
<p>This swelling area is the G-spot. At first, this touch may make the woman feel as though she needs to urinate, but after a few seconds may turn into a pleasurable sensation. For some women, however, this stimulation remains uncomfortable, no matter how long the stimulation continues. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/118517/original/image-20160413-23623-t84zpo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/118517/original/image-20160413-23623-t84zpo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/118517/original/image-20160413-23623-t84zpo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=547&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118517/original/image-20160413-23623-t84zpo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=547&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118517/original/image-20160413-23623-t84zpo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=547&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118517/original/image-20160413-23623-t84zpo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=687&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118517/original/image-20160413-23623-t84zpo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=687&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118517/original/image-20160413-23623-t84zpo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=687&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://alluremedicalspa.com/services/womens-health-services/g-spot-enhancement/how-to-find-your-g-spot/">Allure Medic</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The G-spot orgasm and female ejaculation</h2>
<p><a href="http://download.springer.com/static/pdf/77/art%253A10.1007%252Fs11930-015-0041-2.pdf?originUrl=http%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Farticle%2F10.1007%2Fs11930-015-0041-2&token2=exp=1460521864%7Eacl=%2Fstatic%2Fpdf%2F77%2Fart%25253A10.1007%25252Fs11930-015-0041-2.pdf%3ForiginUrl%3Dhttp%253A%252F%252Flink.springer.com%252Farticle%252F10.1007%252Fs11930-015-0041-2*%7Ehmac=96c082b9a75af7fa5b0745d13baa80168eea39a1b0c7a77a182c7c311f27b3e7">Physiological responses</a> from a G-spot orgasm differ to those responses seen in clitoral orgasms. During clitoral orgasms, the end of the vagina (near the opening) balloons out; however, in G-spot orgasms, the cervix pushes down into the vagina. </p>
<p>Up to <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236601214_Female_Ejaculation_Orgasm_vs_Coital_Incontinence_A_Systematic_Review">50% of women</a> expel various kinds of fluid from their urethra during sexual arousal or sexual intercourse. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236601214_Female_Ejaculation_Orgasm_vs_Coital_Incontinence_A_Systematic_Review">Studies have shown</a> there are generally three types of fluid that are produced: urine, a dilute form of urine (known as “squirting”), and female ejaculate. </p>
<p>While some women may expel these fluids during arousal or sex, they are most commonly expelled during orgasm, and particularly through G-spot orgasm. So what is the difference between these fluids? </p>
<p>The release of urine during penetrative sex is usually as a result of stress urinary incontinence. Some women experience no other symptoms of stress urinary incontinence, such as leakage when sneezing, coughing or laughing, but will leak during sex. </p>
<p>“Squirting” is the leakage of a urine-like substance during orgasm. It is thought to occur because of strong muscle contractions surrounding the bladder during female orgasm. </p>
<p>Female ejaculate, most commonly reported with G-spot orgasm, is a much different substance: women describe the fluid as looking like <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/3812358?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents">watered-down fat-free milk</a> and report producing about a teaspoon in volume during orgasm. The contents of female ejaculate have been chemically analysed and found that it closely resembles secretions from the male prostate. This has led to many suspecting that glands known as the female prostate (formerly Skene’s glands) produce this ejaculate. </p>
<h2>What could the G-spot be?</h2>
<p>The G-spot is not a single, distinct entity. Much debate exists in the research field as to just what the G-spot is, and how it can produce orgasm. </p>
<p>The G-spot is located in the clitourethrovaginal complex – the area where the clitoris, urethra and vagina all meet up. There are several structures in this complex that could produce pleasurable sensations when stimulated – the G-spot might reflect the stimulation of just one structure, or multiple structures at once. Two structures in particular have been hotly debated and stand out as likely candidates for producing G-spot orgasms: the female prostate and the clitoris. </p>
<p>The female prostate lies within the urethral sponge, a cushion of tissue surrounding the urethra. The urethral sponge and female prostate are highly innervated, which may explain their sensitivity when stimulated. </p>
<p>The clitoris is more than meets the eye: we now know this organ extends far beyond what is visible externally. Apart from where the urethra and vagina touch, the clitoris somewhat encircles the urethra. Mechanical stimulation of the G-spot may in fact be stimulating the internal portion of the clitoris. </p>
<h2>So, is the G-spot fact or fiction?</h2>
<p>The G-spot certainly exists in some women. However, not all women will find the stimulation of the G-spot pleasurable. </p>
<p>Just because a woman is not aroused when the G-area is stimulated, this does not mean she is in any way sexually dysfunctional. Sexuality and arousal have clear physiological and psychological links. But, as human beings, we are all made slightly anatomically and physiologically different. </p>
<p>In the same way that what I consider “blue” may not be the exact same “blue” you perceive, an orgasm in one woman is not the same as an orgasm in any other woman. It is a unique experience. And although you and I both see blue through our eyes, the complexities of human sexuality and the female reproductive organs mean women may achieve orgasm in multiple ways. </p>
<p>Some women are unable to orgasm in the presence of a partner, but have no difficulty with orgasm with masturbation. Some women can orgasm only with clitoral stimulation, while others can orgasm through vaginal stimulation alone. There are reports of women who experience orgasm through the <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jsm.12217/abstract">stimulation of the foot</a>, and Grafenberg detailed in his report women who experienced arousal through <a href="http://www.landman-psychology.com/284/sexuality/grafenberg-gspot.htm">ear penile penetration</a> (but these reports are yet to be replicated!). </p>
<p>You are not abnormal or strange or dysfunctional if you cannot find your G-spot. Similarly, you are not abnormal or strange or dysfunctional if you expel fluid during arousal or sex. Sexual arousal, desire and pleasure are individual: if you are unable to find your G-area, work on finding something that <em>does</em> fulfil your sexual needs. </p>
<p>Harry Potter star, feminist and all-round superstar <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-3465711/OMGYES-sexual-pleasure-website-loved-Emma-Watson-teaches-women-orgasm.html">Emma Watson</a> supports a great website for women wanting to explore their sexuality further. It’s called <a href="https://www.omgyes.com/">OMGYes</a> and is a great place to explore the ways in which different women experience sexual pleasure.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Correction: Ernst Grafenberg’s name has been corrected</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/56491/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jane Chalmers does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>It is perhaps one of the most controversial debates in sexual function: is there, or isn’t there a G-spot? And if there is, how do we find it?Jane Chalmers, Lecturer in Physiotherapy, Western Sydney UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/563452016-04-11T04:28:32Z2016-04-11T04:28:32ZHealth Check: does sex count as exercise?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117805/original/image-20160407-10027-4z5u2f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The physiological response to sex is similar to that of exercise.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Sex isn’t only a pleasurable experience with some <a href="http://www.mirror.co.uk/lifestyle/health/sex-better-exercise-going-jog-3090856">reports claiming</a> the act also has health benefits that can be compared to those of exercise.</p>
<p>In fact, the physiological response to sex is similar to that of exercise. Landmark studies in the 1960s showed people having sex had an <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books/about/Human_Sexual_Response.html?id=NexqAAAAMAAJ">increase in their respiratory rate</a>, heart rate and blood pressure.</p>
<p>These are all signs the body is working at an elevated rate, similar to that experienced during exercise. </p>
<p>More recently, these findings have been <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18082530">replicated by a number</a> of researchers using less obtrusive, miniaturised and wireless equipment, enabling more realistic results.</p>
<p>Again, they found a significant increase in markers of physiological stress, such as heart rate and blood pressure. Comparing this to what happens during exercise, they showed sexual activity elicits a moderate level of physical stress – up to 75% of maximal exercise. </p>
<p>But they also noticed these physiological stress levels were intermittent. Much of the average time of sexual activity recorded (33 minutes) was spent at lower stress levels. </p>
<p>A more recent study of young Canadian heterosexual couples <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0079342">showed a bout of sexual activity</a> was akin to moderate physical activity (such as brisk walking) when energy expenditure was measured. </p>
<h2>Sex is kind of like exercise</h2>
<p>So sex is exercise? Well yes and no. It depends on your definition of exercise. If you compare the two purely by the physiological change that occurs then yes, because sex elicits a change in human physiology akin to exercise. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117928/original/image-20160408-23938-3lu5kc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117928/original/image-20160408-23938-3lu5kc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=743&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117928/original/image-20160408-23938-3lu5kc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=743&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117928/original/image-20160408-23938-3lu5kc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=743&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117928/original/image-20160408-23938-3lu5kc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=933&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117928/original/image-20160408-23938-3lu5kc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=933&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117928/original/image-20160408-23938-3lu5kc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=933&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sex elicits a similar physiological response to exercise.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But if you believe exercise should change human physiology for the better, in the long term, then perhaps no. This is because, for most of us, sex isn’t sustained long enough nor occurs frequently enough for a true physiological change to happen in the long term. </p>
<p>Also, we haven’t really explored the other benefits of exercise and contrasted them with sex. For instance, muscular health is recognised as a major component of a person’s health. </p>
<p>We know lots about gaining muscular health through resistance training and other exercises. But does sex give enough of a workout to change muscular health? Well … I sense a research project in the pipeline. </p>
<p>The studies mentioned above also reported a distinct difference between responses in males and female participants. The reasons for this difference – whether men are more physically active during sex compared to women or whether different sexual positions place a greater demand on the human body – have yet to be explored.</p>
<p>What about masturbation? Increases in heart rate and systolic blood pressure <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306453099000499">have been reported</a> during masturbation. But both the level and duration of these increases weren’t as high or long as with intercourse.</p>
<p>Judging by measurements of heart rate, masturbation really only equates to light exercise, such as slow walking. </p>
<h2>How exercise affects sex and vice versa</h2>
<p>In many cases, exercise can also be helpful to sex. Research into pelvic floor exercises in women with pelvic pain, for instance, has shown they <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25401779">improve sexual function</a>. Women reported increased control, confidence, hightened sensation and less pain.</p>
<p>While in men, exercises that <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ca.22655/abstract">train the perineal muscles</a> in front of the anus help with premature ejaculation. </p>
<p>And what about how sex affects exercise? Should professional sportspeople, for instance, refrain from sex before a competition?</p>
<p>Not if they wait <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11125766">long enough after sex</a>. Sex has been shown to have no negative effect on sports performance but can have a negative effect on recovery if you compete within two hours of having it. This means athletes could take longer to recover from one bout of exercise to another.</p>
<p>So in answer to the question of whether sex is really exercise. Kind of. But you can test it out for yourself and see how you feel.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/56345/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kevin Netto does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Sex can often be a pleasurable experience. But it also has benefits some reports have compared to those of exercise. So can sex really count as a workout?Kevin Netto, Associate Professor, Physiotherapy and Exercise Science, Curtin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/531572016-03-09T19:00:52Z2016-03-09T19:00:52ZWhy the clitoris doesn’t get the attention it deserves – and why this matters<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/111429/original/image-20160215-22566-h00ln9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Don't know much about the clitoris? It's probably not your fault.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/saltybean/3331753107/">Jen/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Did you know the clitoris is a large and complex organ? If not, it’s probably not your fault: in anatomical textbooks, few words and diagrams are devoted to understanding the clitoris. Most label the very small portion of the organ visible on diagrams of the vulva, when in fact it’s almost entirely under the skin.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.academia.edu/959771/Clitoral_conventions_and_transgressions_Graphic_representations_in_anatomy_texts_c1900-1991">Studies</a> of historical anatomical textbooks have shown that depictions of the clitoris were significantly limited and often omitted completely from the mid-19th into the 20th century. </p>
<p>During these times there were ideologies and subsequent theories relating to women’s bodies that likely encouraged and sustained censorship of the clitoris. For instance, there was <a href="http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4613-3000-4_25">Freud’s now defunct theory</a> that clitoral stimulation was a sign of sexual immaturity and neurosis. Women were also taught not to enjoy sex; women had sex for reproductive purposes, while men had sex for pleasure. </p>
<p>These fallacies led to the neglect of the clitoris in research, literature and the public domain. </p>
<p>Although <a href="http://projects.huffingtonpost.com/cliteracy">more recent research</a> and feminist lobbying have improved the quality of information on the clitoris in current textbooks, most texts are still brief. These include minimal information, or information only on the external portion of the clitoris (the glans). This brevity has impacts on health care for women with clitoral and related pain. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/111420/original/image-20160215-29180-7rgn9h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/111420/original/image-20160215-29180-7rgn9h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=463&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111420/original/image-20160215-29180-7rgn9h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=463&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111420/original/image-20160215-29180-7rgn9h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=463&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111420/original/image-20160215-29180-7rgn9h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=582&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111420/original/image-20160215-29180-7rgn9h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=582&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111420/original/image-20160215-29180-7rgn9h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=582&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This figure, published in 2014, depicts the clitoris as only the external clitoral glans and prepuce (hood).</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What is the clitoris?</h2>
<p><a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16145367">The clitoris</a> lies at the junction of the labia minora (the inner lips of the vulva), just above the urethra. It is made up of four main parts: the glans, body, two crura and two bulbs. The glans is the only external part of the clitoris and is covered by a hood of skin.</p>
<p>The body, corpora, crura and bulbs of the clitoris are all made up of erectile tissue and converge below the glans. The body of the clitoris is generally 1-2cm wide and 2-4cm long. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/110088/original/image-20160203-28534-15zkckj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/110088/original/image-20160203-28534-15zkckj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/110088/original/image-20160203-28534-15zkckj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=378&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/110088/original/image-20160203-28534-15zkckj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=378&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/110088/original/image-20160203-28534-15zkckj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=378&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/110088/original/image-20160203-28534-15zkckj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=476&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/110088/original/image-20160203-28534-15zkckj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=476&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/110088/original/image-20160203-28534-15zkckj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=476&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Left: the clitoris from an anterior view. All four parts of the clitoris are visible in this view: the glans (external portion), the body, the bulbs and the crura. Right: the clitoris from a side view. Only one crus (plural: crura) and bulb are shown from this view. Note, the clitoris is a tri-planar organ, with each component lying in a different plane to one another.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The crura extend laterally from the body of the clitoris and are on average around 5-9cm long. The bulbs of the clitoris are generally 3-7cm long and lie between the body, crura and the urethra. </p>
<p>The clitoris is highly innervated, with twice as many nerve endings as the penis, and receives a rich blood supply. This rich blood supply allows the erectile components to swell up, with the body and glans of the clitoris becoming up to <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12461263">three times larger</a> during arousal – and you thought a penile erection was impressive! </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/111431/original/image-20160215-22600-94ucg9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/111431/original/image-20160215-22600-94ucg9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/111431/original/image-20160215-22600-94ucg9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=544&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111431/original/image-20160215-22600-94ucg9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=544&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111431/original/image-20160215-22600-94ucg9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=544&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111431/original/image-20160215-22600-94ucg9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=684&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111431/original/image-20160215-22600-94ucg9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=684&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111431/original/image-20160215-22600-94ucg9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=684&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The clitoris (left) and penis (right) emerge from the same cells in a zygote.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.huffingtonpost.com.au/entry/g-spot-vaginal-orgasm-myth_n_5947930.html?section=australia">Screenshot/Huffington Post</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Foetus genital and reproductive organs are differentiated at six weeks’ gestation. While the clitoris and penis arise from the same group of cells in a zygote, we now know they clearly have different forms and functions. </p>
<p>The penis has an obvious and well-researched role in the reproductive and urinary systems, while the function of the clitoris is usually stated as being purely for pleasure. </p>
<p>However, few studies have actually investigated the function of the clitoris. The close proximity of the clitoris to the urethra and vagina has led to suggestions that it plays a much larger role than sexual pleasure, such as assisting in maintaining <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1464-410x.1999.0830s1034.x/abstract">immune health</a>.</p>
<h2>What we don’t know can hurt us</h2>
<p>Censoring the clitoris in textbooks means doctors and other health-care professionals won’t be equipped to treat patients with clitoral concerns. Women are at risk of <a href="http://eu-acme.org/europeanurology/upload_articles/salonia.pdf">sexual dysfunction</a> (such as lack of desire or arousal, decreased lubrication, inability to orgasm) from operations on their urinary and reproductive organs. This shows doctors need more in-depth knowledge, and we need further research into understanding the anatomy of the clitoris. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/111430/original/image-20160215-22547-c3s1bl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/111430/original/image-20160215-22547-c3s1bl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/111430/original/image-20160215-22547-c3s1bl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=519&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111430/original/image-20160215-22547-c3s1bl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=519&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111430/original/image-20160215-22547-c3s1bl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=519&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111430/original/image-20160215-22547-c3s1bl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=652&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111430/original/image-20160215-22547-c3s1bl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=652&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111430/original/image-20160215-22547-c3s1bl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=652&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Don’t you forget about me.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/towemy/2200947003/">Towe My/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Because of its delicate yet complex make-up, the clitoris is prone to infections, inflammation and diseases. Some common examples are itching and soreness due to thrush infections, swelling due to bruising or inflammation, and pain of unknown origin (called clitorodynia). </p>
<p>Although it is not often spoken about, clitoral and vulvar pain are <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12744420">very common</a> in women. </p>
<p>Educating patients about their condition can <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22133255">improve pain outcomes</a>. Yet this may be difficult for doctors treating conditions such as clitorodynia, given they may not be receiving adequate information about the clitoris themselves. </p>
<p>On average, <a href="https://www.eveappeal.org.uk/news-info/blog/the-vagina-dialogues/">one-third</a> of university-aged women are unable to find the clitoris on a diagram. We frequently use synonyms of females’ reproductive organs as derogatory terms (“pussy” to mean weak, “cunt” to mean an unpleasant person) and many women are often not comfortable using anatomically correct terms. </p>
<p>More than <a href="https://www.eveappeal.org.uk/news-info/blog/the-vagina-dialogues/">65% of women</a> say they feel uneasy using the terms vagina and vulva. Instead they use code names such as “lady parts”, even when discussing gynaecological issues with their doctors. </p>
<p>Given there is <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21477616">evidence</a> to suggest our sense of body ownership can influence pain, perhaps this lack of body ownership over the clitoris helps to explain why conditions such as clitorodynia are common.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/53157/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Did you know the clitoris is a large and complex organ? If not, it’s probably not your fault: in anatomical textbooks, few words and diagrams are devoted to understanding the clitoris.Jane Chalmers, Lecturer in Physiotherapy, Western Sydney UniversityCat Jones, Artist in Residence, Body In Mind, Sansom Institute, University of South AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/485962015-10-26T01:41:28Z2015-10-26T01:41:28ZExplainer: what is genderqueer?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/97332/original/image-20151006-29248-1hy8yvw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The gender binary does not adequately describe the experience of people who identify as genderqueer.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Black Hill Design/www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Germaine Greer – feminist, academic and no stranger to controversy – has angered transgender activists and found herself the subject of an <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/oct/25/germaine-greer-prejudice-trans-people">online petition</a> following comments she made during a <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7B8Q6D4a6TM">BBC interview</a> last week that “post-operative transgender men are not women”.</p>
<p>The petition’s aim is to prevent Greer from presenting a lecture at Cardiff University next month. Students at the university, most vocally women’s officer Rachael Melhuish, have accused Greer of demonstrating “misogynistic views towards trans women, including continually misgendering trans women and denying the existence of transphobia altogether”.</p>
<p>Greer has defended her <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-10-25/germaine-greer-defends-views-on-transgender-issues/6883132">opinion</a>, claiming she’s “not about to walk on eggshells” with her views, but her comments do open up space for a meaningful discussion on gender, sex and the complex relationship between the two.</p>
<h2>There are boys and there are girls, right?</h2>
<p>We are taught that there are boys and there are girls. Later, if we’re lucky, we are taught that sometimes “boys” become girls and “girls” become boys.</p>
<p>But is it always one or the other? Genderqueer people, among others, say “no”.</p>
<p>People who describe themselves as genderqueer often feel that the gender binary (boy OR girl, woman OR man) is too limiting to describe their experience of gender.</p>
<p>From infancy, we are told that everyone should fit into a box associated with either “man” or “woman”. One of the first things we do when meeting someone new, or simply passing someone on the street, is to make a choice as to which box they fit into.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/97334/original/image-20151006-29251-1912jzt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/97334/original/image-20151006-29251-1912jzt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/97334/original/image-20151006-29251-1912jzt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/97334/original/image-20151006-29251-1912jzt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/97334/original/image-20151006-29251-1912jzt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/97334/original/image-20151006-29251-1912jzt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=630&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/97334/original/image-20151006-29251-1912jzt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=630&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/97334/original/image-20151006-29251-1912jzt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=630&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The construction of the gender binary begins at birth.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Mad Dog/www.shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Yet the social division of gender can be alienating for those who do not identify with this binary, according to <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15313200903124028">Susan Saltzburg and Tamara S. Davis</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>In reducing the human experience to a simplistic interpretation of gender identity, we reify the notion of discrete and mutually exclusive categories of gender, marginalising those who cross over the borders of gender specification.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Some feminists have argued for a <a href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminism-gender/#SexDis">distinction between sex and gender</a>, where sex is the biological framework of male and female, gender is the social construction and experience of masculinity and femininity.</p>
<p>Other feminists, including <a href="https://www.routledge.com/products/9780415610155">Judith Butler</a>, have gone further, challenging our belief in the “natural” biological binary of sex and pointing out that not all babies are born <a href="https://oii.org.au/">female or male</a>.</p>
<p>These scholars have shown that our social ideas about gender also shape the way we understand the body itself. The understanding that gender is neither intrinsic nor a binary is where the idea of genderqueer begins.</p>
<h2>Beyond the gender binary</h2>
<p>For many people, the concept of genderqueer remains something of an enigma. This is, in part, because “genderqueer” means different things to different people.</p>
<p>Some genderqueer people think of themselves as living between the binary genders; some as living outside the binary genders; and others reject the idea of binary gender altogether, seeing it as something to be challenged, stretched or played with.</p>
<p>Genderqueer can enable individuals to flexibly explore their gender over time, experimenting and changing as they go, but it can also describe a steady sense of sitting somewhere in between the traditional binary boxes.</p>
<p>Other terms – <a href="http://www.huffingtonpost.com.au/2015/06/17/ruby-rose-gender-fluid-video-interview_n_7603186.html?ir=Australia">genderfluid</a>, <a href="http://www.mtv.com/news/2153402/tyler-ford-agender-queer-diary/">agender</a>, <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/aug/07/my-life-without-gender-strangers-are-desperate-to-know-what-genitalia-i-have">genderless</a> – describe similar perspectives, while “<a href="https://theconversation.com/trans-transgender-cisgender-we-are-what-we-name-ourselves-29788">cisgender</a>” describes the experience of identifying with the gender you were assigned at birth (being assigned female at birth and identifying as a woman, for example).</p>
<p>There is no one way of being – or looking – genderqueer.</p>
<p>While some genderqueer people blur the boundaries between masculinity and femininity in their appearance, it is important to note that not all genderqueer people look androgynous.</p>
<p>Since you won’t be able to pick a genderqueer person simply by looking at them, the only way to ever really know how someone feels about their gender is to listen carefully and follow their lead.</p>
<h2>What about transgender?</h2>
<p>There has been a lot of <a href="https://theconversation.com/changing-the-way-we-look-at-trans-women-on-tv-28761">recent discussion</a> about the term “transgender”, particularly around former Olympian <a href="http://theconversation.com/how-conservatives-and-liberals-watch-i-am-cait-44877">Caitlyn Jenner</a> and <a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt2372162/?ref_=nv_sr_1">Orange is the New Black</a> (2013-present) star <a href="http://theconversation.com/orange-is-the-new-black-is-fast-becoming-a-feminist-classic-40353">Laverne Cox</a>.</p>
<p>So let’s sketch out the relationship between “genderqueer” and “transgender”.</p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/whats-in-a-word-the-challenges-of-transgender-38633">Transgender</a> traditionally refers to people who are strongly attached to whichever binary gender (boy OR girl, woman OR man) is “opposite” to their biological sex. Someone assigned “male” at birth but who identifies as a woman is often described as a “transgender woman”, while someone assigned “female” at birth but identities as a man is often described as a “transgender man”.</p>
<p>(One of the critiques of Germaine Greer’s recent comments has been that Greer confuses this language when she insists on calling transgender women “post-operative transgender men”, thus mis-gendering an already marginalised group of people.)</p>
<p>Most of the transgender characters we see on television are portrayed as having an attachment to the gender binary, but not all transgender people feel this way. While some trans people have a sense of being in the “wrong body”, others have a much more fluid sense of gender. Some people may identify as genderqueer as well as trans or transgender.</p>
<p>Some transgender and genderqueer people may want to access hormones and/ or surgeries in order to re-shape their bodies. Others may not desire any particular physical changes at all.</p>
<p>Genderqueer is a lesser-known concept than transgender and, as a result, genderqueer people who do want to make a shift in the way they are medically, legally or socially recognised may face extra barriers to having their identity legitimated.</p>
<p>There is much scholarship devoted to transgender experiences, including the Transgender Studies Reader (<a href="http://www.goodreads.com/book/show/329793.The_Transgender_Studies_Reader">2006</a>, <a href="http://www.goodreads.com/book/show/15858519-the-transgender-studies-reader-2">2013</a>). There is much less academic attention to genderqueer identities and experiences. One book that attempts to address this gap is <a href="http://www.goodreads.com/book/show/357381.GenderQueer">GenderQueer: Voices From Beyond the Sexual Binary</a> (2002), edited by Joan Nestle, Clare Howell and Riki Anne Wilchins.</p>
<h2>Institutional and linguistic barriers</h2>
<p>Much is said about the changes people make to their own bodies, but far less about the many small changes we could make as a society that would make a difference in the lives of genderqueer people.</p>
<p>Aspects of daily life which many people take for granted, like walking into the “right” public restroom or ticking “M” or “F” on a form, become complex (if not impossible) when you don’t fit the either/ or model.</p>
<p>Many schools, workplaces and other organisations are beginning to offer <a href="http://www.slate.com/blogs/outward/2013/12/26/gender_neutral_bathrooms_all_bathrooms_should_be_open_to_all_users.html">gender neutral bathrooms</a>. On some official documents, “other” gender boxes and gender neutral title options like “Mx” (alongside Ms and Mr) are starting to be provided.</p>
<p>These changes are crucial to removing some of the institutional barriers genderqueer and other non-binary people face. There are also some things individuals can do to ensure they are supporting genderqueer people.</p>
<p>Changing one’s name can be an important step in signalling gender identity to the world. If your name is “Jessica”, people tend to assume you’re a woman; if it is “Ben” they’ll assume you’re a man. While not all genderqueer people feel the need to change their names, some prefer a gender-neutral name.</p>
<p>Respecting those name changes is a crucial part of respecting an individual’s expression of gender. Similarly, while some genderqueer people might be comfortable with gendered pronouns like “him/ his” or “her/ hers”, others will prefer the gender neutral “they/ theirs” or “zie/ zir”.</p>
<p>While this language shift has horrified some <a href="http://www.salon.com/2015/04/01/we_need_to_upgrade_our_pronouns/">grammar geeks</a>, the use of the traditionally plural “they” to refer to a singular subject has recently been recognised by the <a href="http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/words/he-or-she-versus-they">Oxford Dictionaries</a>.</p>
<p>Using “they” to describe an individual might be tricky the first few times you do it. But it is ultimately a small adjustment to make in order to demonstrate your respect for a person’s sense of self.</p>
<p>It can be confronting to understand and remember the complexity of these new terms. This does not mean it is not a worthwhile endeavour.</p>
<p>After all, the challenge of adjusting to a new word pales in comparison to the considerable social <a href="http://www.huffingtonpost.com/jack-harrison/national-transgender-discrimination-survey_b_1516566.html?ir=Australia">difficulties</a> unfortunately still associated with coming out as trans or genderqueer.</p>
<h2>Time to abandon the boxes</h2>
<p>We can take these lessons one step further. A strict gender binary is not only embedded in our language and our paperwork – it often shapes the way we see the world.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/97365/original/image-20151006-29229-nspjr2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/97365/original/image-20151006-29229-nspjr2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/97365/original/image-20151006-29229-nspjr2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/97365/original/image-20151006-29229-nspjr2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/97365/original/image-20151006-29229-nspjr2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/97365/original/image-20151006-29229-nspjr2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/97365/original/image-20151006-29229-nspjr2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/97365/original/image-20151006-29229-nspjr2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Congratulations, it’s a baby.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">tisskananat/www.shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Since we now know not everyone fits into the boxes of “man” or “woman”, perhaps it is time to start challenging the instinct to automatically label. Next time you are walking down the street, try to let the people you pass exist in your mind without a gender.</p>
<p>For many of us this is incredibly hard to do. But, with some practice, we might all make a little more space for the next person we meet who is not either/ or.</p>
<p>While Greer’s desire to “not walk on eggshells” may fulfil her right to free speech, denying an individual’s articulated gender identity can contribute to prejudice, fear and violence towards people who sit outside of the gender binary.</p>
<p>This violence can exist in myriad ways and effect a variety of individuals such as transgender, agender and genderqueer people. Rather than trying to decide who is “really” a woman, aren’t we better off spending our time talking about, and respecting, the complexity of people’s gender experiences?</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/48596/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Germaine Greer’s comments that “post-operative transgender men are not women” have provoked outcry from transgender activists. So let’s have a meaningful discussion about gender, sex and the complex relationship between the two.Jessica Kean, Lecturer in Gender and Cultural Studies, University of SydneyRillark Bolton, PhD student, Gender and Cultural Studies, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/408632015-04-28T11:26:40Z2015-04-28T11:26:40ZWhen society isn’t judging, women’s sex drive rivals men’s<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/79576/original/image-20150428-3080-fmpum3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">They both look keen.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-188012843/stock-photo-kissing-couple-portrait.html?src=rnxLiMELCtdkBajLzMW6GA-1-2">Sex by Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Men just want sex more than women. I’m sure you’ve heard that one. Stephen Fry even <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/media/2010/oct/31/stephen-fry-sex-women-relationships-attitude">went as far as suggesting</a> in 2010 that straight women only went to bed with men because sex was “the price they are willing to pay for a relationship”. </p>
<p>Or perhaps you’ve even heard some of the evidence. In 1978 two psychologists, Russell Clark and Elaine Hatfield, did what became a <a href="http://www.elainehatfield.com/79.pdf">famous experiment on the topic</a> – not least because it demonstrated how much fun you can have as a social psychologist. Using volunteers, Clark and Hatfield had students at Florida State University approach people on campus and deliver a pick-up line. </p>
<p>The volunteers always began the same “I’ve noticed you around campus. I find you to be very attractive”, they said. They varied what they said next according to one of three randomly chosen options. Either “would you go out tonight?”, or “will you come over to my apartment?”, or “would you go to bed with me?” (if these phrases sound familiar, it may be because they form the chorus of Touch and Go’s 1990s Jazz-pop hit <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=izBbP2kro-c">“Would You Go To Bed With Me”</a> – probably the only pop song whose lyrics are lifted entirely from the methods section of a research paper).</p>
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<p>In Clark and Hatfield’s research, both men and women were approached (always by volunteers of the opposite sex). The crucial measure was whether they said yes or no. And you can probably guess the results: although men and women were equally likely to accept the offer of a date (about half said yes and half said no), the two sexes differed dramatically in how they responded to the offer of casual sex. None of the women approached took up the offer of sex with a complete stranger. Three-quarters of the men did (yes, more than were willing to just go on a date with a complete stranger).</p>
<h2>A matter of interpretation</h2>
<p>But since this experiment, controversy has raged about how it should be interpreted. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mate_choice">One school of thought</a> is that men and women make different choices because of different sex drives, sex drives which are different for deeply seated biological reasons to do with the logic of evolution. Because, this logic goes, there is a hard limit on how many children a women can have she should be focused on quality in her sexual partners – she wants them to invest in parenting, or at the very least make a high-grade genetic contribution. If she has a child with the wrong partner, she uses up one of a very limited number of opportunities to reproduce. So she should be choosy.</p>
<p>A man on the other hand, shouldn’t be so concerned about quality. There’s no real limit on the number of children he can have, if he has them with different women, so he should grab every sexual opportunity he can, regardless of the partner. The costs are low, there are only benefits.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/79577/original/image-20150428-3048-1fv4ncr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/79577/original/image-20150428-3048-1fv4ncr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/79577/original/image-20150428-3048-1fv4ncr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/79577/original/image-20150428-3048-1fv4ncr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/79577/original/image-20150428-3048-1fv4ncr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/79577/original/image-20150428-3048-1fv4ncr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/79577/original/image-20150428-3048-1fv4ncr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Women want children, men want to spread their spring onions – apparently.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-200095622/stock-photo--egg-chives-and-black-plate-look-like-sperm-competition-spermatozoons-floating-to-ovule.html?src=rEWl7_Lhr3jWOza6TU0Ufg-1-31">Sperm by Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This evolutionary logic, relentlessly focused as it is on reproduction and survival, does provide a consistent explanation for the differences Clark and Hatfield observed, but it isn’t the only explanation.</p>
<p>The problem is that the participants in this experiment aren’t abstract representatives of all human men and women. They are particular men and women from a particular place and time, who exist in a particular social context – university students in American society at the end of the 20th century. And our society treats men and women very differently. So how about this alternate take: maybe men and women’s sex drives are pretty similar, but the experiment just measures behaviour which is as shaped by society as much as biology. </p>
<h2>Taking out the social factor</h2>
<p>This month, <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10508-015-0520-6">new research published</a> in the journal Archives of Sexual Behavior, gives a vital handle on the question of whether women really don’t want sex as much as men do.</p>
<p>Two German researchers, Andreas Baranowski and Heiko Hecht, replicated the original Clark and Hatfield study, but with some vital changes. First they showed that the original result still held, even among German university students in the 21st century – and they showed that it still held if you asked people in a nightclub rather than on campus. But the pair reasoned that one factor in how women respond to invitations to sex may be fear – fear of reputational damage in a culture which judges women’s sexual activity differently from men’s, and fear of physical harm from an encounter with a male stranger. They cite <a href="http://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pub/nisvspubs.html">one study which found that 45% of US women</a> have experienced sexual violence of some kind.</p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/79578/original/image-20150428-3050-1tl45s4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/79578/original/image-20150428-3050-1tl45s4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/79578/original/image-20150428-3050-1tl45s4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/79578/original/image-20150428-3050-1tl45s4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/79578/original/image-20150428-3050-1tl45s4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/79578/original/image-20150428-3050-1tl45s4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/79578/original/image-20150428-3050-1tl45s4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The dating algorithm.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-145114198/stock-photo-businessman-and-businesswoman-standing-in-front-of-elevator-in-office.html?src=bFJZrqxBQc3lGmAqwr38hA-1-18">Lift by Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>So, in order to find out if women in these experiments were held back by fear, they designed an elaborate cover scenario designed to make the participants believe they could accept offers of sex without fear of anyone finding out, or of physical danger. Participants were invited into a lab under the ruse that they would be helping a dating company evaluate their compatibility rating algorithm. They were presented with ten pictures of members of the opposite sex and led to believe that all ten had already agreed to meet up with them (either for a date, or for sex). With these, and a few other convincing details, the experimenters hoped that participants would reveal their true attitudes to dating, or hooking up for sex with, total strangers, unimpeded by fear of what might happen to them if they said yes.</p>
<p>The results were dramatic. Now there was no difference between the dating and the casual sex scenarios, large proportions of both men and women leap at the chance to meet up with a stranger with the potential for sex – 100% of the men and 97% of the women in the study chose to meet up for a date or sex with at least one partner. The women who thought they had the chance to meet up with men for sex, chose an average of slightly less than three men who they would like to have an encounter with. The men chose an average of slightly more than three women who they would like to have an encounter with.</p>
<h2>Men are from Earth – and so are women</h2>
<p>The study strongly suggests that the image of women as sexually choosy and conservative needs some dramatic qualification. In the right experimental circumstances, women’s drive for casual sex looks similar to men’s. Previous experiments had leapt to a conclusion about biology, when they’d actually done experiments on behaviour which is part-determined by society. It’s an important general lesson for anyone who wants to draw conclusions about gender differences, in whatever area of behaviour.</p>
<p>There was still a gender difference in this new experiment – men chose more partners out of ten to meet up with, but still we can’t say that the effect of our culture was washed out. All the people in the experiment were brought up to expect different attitudes to their sexual behaviour based on their gender and to expect different risks of saying yes to sexual encounters (or of saying yes and then changing their minds). </p>
<p>Even with something as biological as sex, when studying human nature it isn’t easy to separate out the effect of society on how we think, feel and act. This new study gives an important update to an old research story which too many have interpreted as saying something about unalterable differences between men and women. The real moral may be about the importance of completely alterable differences in the way society treats men and women.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/40863/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
Even with something as biological as sex, when studying human nature it isn’t easy to separate out the effect of society on how we think.Tom Stafford, Lecturer in Psychology and Cognitive Science, University of SheffieldLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/394372015-04-01T04:15:23Z2015-04-01T04:15:23ZEveryday rape: let’s turn the spotlight on known perpetrators<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76729/original/image-20150401-1263-1mne4dr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The majority of sexual assaults are perpetrated by a man known to the victim.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-231593314/stock-photo-man-descends-in-an-elevator-in-the-mall-photo-from-the-back.html?src=TIJXGfdxW8etbiI247zU-Q-1-76">Legend_tp/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australia is at a critical juncture in terms of increasing awareness and understanding of men’s violence against women. But one important type of sexual violence is often overlooked: acquaintance rape. It’s the most common form of sexual violence and is primarily gender-based.</p>
<h2>What is acquaintance rape?</h2>
<p>Acquaintance rape (or “sexual assault”) refers to coercive sexual intercourse perpetrated by someone known to the victim, such as a neighbour, co-worker, employer, friend, friend-of-friend, partner or ex-partner. </p>
<p>The coercion might involve physical force, but more common are situations where a person does not freely agree to sex and has not given active or verbal consent. This includes:</p>
<ul>
<li>where a person is asleep, unconscious or incapacitated by drugs and alcohol;</li>
<li>where a person is mistaken as to the identity of the perpetrator or the nature of the act; or</li>
<li>where a person is pressured into sex due to threats, emotional abuse or manipulation. </li>
</ul>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76711/original/image-20150401-1263-b0t4gu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76711/original/image-20150401-1263-b0t4gu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76711/original/image-20150401-1263-b0t4gu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=930&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76711/original/image-20150401-1263-b0t4gu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=930&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76711/original/image-20150401-1263-b0t4gu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=930&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76711/original/image-20150401-1263-b0t4gu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1169&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76711/original/image-20150401-1263-b0t4gu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1169&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76711/original/image-20150401-1263-b0t4gu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1169&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.savedmonton.com/our-campaigns.html">Canadian Sexual Assault Voices of Edmonton (SAVE) anti-rape campaign poster.</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In Australia, one in five women have <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/4906.0Chapter5002012">experienced sexual violence</a> since the age of 15, compared to one in 22 men. The majority of sexual assaults are perpetrated by <a href="http://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/press/rsavcaf9513pr.cfm">a man known to the victim</a> and women aged 16 to 24 are at greatest risk. But <a href="https://www.wbur.org/2014/12/11/justice-college-rape">80-90%</a> of victims will never report the crime to the police. </p>
<p><a href="http://jiv.sagepub.com/content/29/13/2439.abstract">Studies</a> show that women who are raped by an acquaintance often blame themselves, have low self-esteem, high levels of psychological stress, and are at risk of increased drug and alcohol use and sexual risk taking. </p>
<h2>The perpetrators</h2>
<p>The majority of <a href="http://www.aifs.gov.au/institute/pubs/resreport18/rr18.pdf">perpetrators</a> of acquaintance rape never come to the attention of the criminal justice system. So although perpetrators are known to the victim, we actually know little about them as a group of offenders.</p>
<p>Community attitude surveys provide some insight into the deeply embedded nature of the problem. The <a href="https://www.vichealth.vic.gov.au/media-and-resources/publications/2013-national-community-attitudes-towards-violence-against-women-survey">2013 National Community Attitudes Towards Violence Against Women</a> survey reported that a significant minority of the Australian community have poor understandings of rape. </p>
<p>One in three Australians agreed with the statement that “women say they were raped when they led the man on and later had regrets”, and 17% agreed that “women say no when they actually mean yes”. </p>
<p>It’s important to remember that violence, regardless of context, is not caused by culture or <a href="https://theconversation.com/rape-culture-why-our-community-attitudes-to-sexual-violence-matter-31750">attitudes</a> alone. Acquaintance rape is no different, and is a result of a combination of individual, cultural and societal-level factors. </p>
<p><a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/ccp/59/5/670/">Studies</a> indicate that perpetrators of sexual violence typically hold hostile attitudes about women and sex. Wider societal attitudes that minimise sexual violence can discourage victims from reporting, and in effect, allow perpetrators to escape accountability. </p>
<h2>Rape law</h2>
<p>In Australia, and internationally, reforms to rape law have attempted to address the “justice gap” for victim-survivors. Such reforms include:</p>
<ul>
<li>changes to the definition of rape and the meaning of consent</li>
<li>abolition of witness corroboration requirements</li>
<li>restrictions on the admission of sexual history evidence</li>
<li>protective measures for vulnerable witnesses</li>
<li>specialist courts.</li>
</ul>
<p>The legal meaning of consent continues to be a highly vexed issue for reform. In Victoria, the prosecution must prove beyond reasonable doubt that the complainant was not consenting and that the accused intended to sexually penetrate the complainant without their consent. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76716/original/image-20150401-1256-1ywzopo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76716/original/image-20150401-1256-1ywzopo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76716/original/image-20150401-1256-1ywzopo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=777&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76716/original/image-20150401-1256-1ywzopo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=777&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76716/original/image-20150401-1256-1ywzopo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=777&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76716/original/image-20150401-1256-1ywzopo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=976&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76716/original/image-20150401-1256-1ywzopo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=976&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76716/original/image-20150401-1256-1ywzopo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=976&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.savedmonton.com/our-campaigns.html">Canadian Sexual Assault Voices of Edmonton (SAVE) anti-rape campaign poster.</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Currently in Victoria, an accused can be acquitted if they had an <em>honest</em> belief that the victim was consenting, regardless of how unreasonable that belief was. </p>
<p>As of July 1, 2015, <a href="http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/vic/bill/caoaomb2014479/">a new definition of rape</a> will be introduced which brings Victoria into line with the United Kingdom, New Zealand and other Australian jurisdictions. </p>
<p>This means that a person can be convicted of rape if they sexually penetrate another person without their consent, and they do not <em>reasonably</em> believe that the other person is consenting.</p>
<p>Decades of rape law reform, however, have largely been ineffective in increasing reporting, prosecution and conviction rates, and tackling the problem at its heart. </p>
<p>In addition to criminal justice approaches, <a href="http://www.aifs.gov.au/acssa/pubs/issue/i12/">other measures</a> are also required, such as civil law remedies, restorative justice approaches, and civil society platforms. Online anti-rape websites such as <a href="http://projectunbreakable.tumblr.com/">Project Unbreakable</a> allow victim-survivors to document their experiences and connect with other victims and supporters.</p>
<h2>Beyond the law</h2>
<p>Acquaintance rape is a deeply entrenched social problem that has enormous long-term impacts. Providing support on the ground, such as sexual assault counselling and effective legal responses, is important – but only addresses part of the problem. </p>
<p>We need strategies to prevent acquaintance rape <em>before</em> it occurs. <a href="http://www.ourwatch.org.au/What-We-Do-(1)">A National policy framework for primary prevention</a> is required to address the range of individual, cultural and societal factors that underlie this form of violence. </p>
<p>Problematic and outdated attitudes that minimise acquaintance rape can be addressed through programs in schools and communities such as <a href="http://www.education.vic.gov.au/school/teachers/health/pages/respectrel.aspx">Respectful Relationships</a>, the <a href="http://www.afl.com.au/respectandresponsibility/respect">AFL Respect and Responsibility policy</a> and the <a href="http://www.sexandethics.net/">Sex & Ethics program</a>. </p>
<p>Bystander intervention programs, such as the <a href="http://www.whoareyou.co.nz/">Who Are You</a> campaign in New Zealand, also hold promise. These programs operate in schools, universities, workplaces and in the community. Their aim is to motivate people to challenge problematic attitudes, interrupt situations where a sexual assault is likely, and provide support to victim-survivors. </p>
<p>Other social marketing campaigns that shift responsibility to men are also imperative, such as the <a href="http://www.theviolencestopshere.ca/dbtg.php">Don’t Be that Guy campaign</a> in Canada. </p>
<p>Bipartisan commitment from political leaders is crucial to ensure funding, support and momentum under this framework. </p>
<p>A <a href="http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/media/news/08_09_2004/en/">decade of research</a> has shown that the causes of sexual violence, like other forms of men’s violence against women, are fundamentally linked to continued gender inequality. Above all then, we need to critically question our own beliefs and values about gender, violence and sex, if we are to create a society free of rape.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>If you or someone you know is impacted by sexual assault, call 1800RESPECT on 1800 737 732 or visit</em> <em><a href="https://theconversation.com/www.1800RESPECT.org.au">www.1800RESPECT.org.au</a>. In an emergency, call 000.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/39437/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nicola Henry receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anastasia Powell receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p>Australia is at a critical juncture of increasing awareness and understanding of men’s violence against women. But one important type of sexual violence is often overlooked: acquaintance rape.Nicola Henry, Senior Lecturer in Legal Studies, La Trobe UniversityAnastasia Powell, Senior Research and ARC DECRA Fellow, Justice and Legal Studies, RMIT UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/357252015-01-22T19:01:37Z2015-01-22T19:01:37ZSex, desire and pleasure in later life: Australian women’s experiences<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/69710/original/image-20150122-29866-1le7mo4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Baby Boomer women are challenging ideas around what it means to grow old.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/cesarvargas/3242481542">Cesar Vargas/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Older people, and particularly older women, are often thought of as being asexual or sexually undesirable. Although the particular age this is believed to happen varies somewhat in the popular imagination, the idea that older people have sex is routinely dismissed, or makes many of us uncomfortable. Indeed, older people having sex are often the <a href="http://www.pinterest.com/pin/483925922434271157">butt of jokes</a>.</p>
<p>Yet, there is a raft of evidence suggesting that older people are sexually active. Rises in <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-ripe-old-age-the-joy-of-sex-later-in-life-just-dont-forget-the-condoms-1969">sexually transmitted infection rates</a> among older Australians and the increased use of <a href="https://theconversation.com/online-dating-could-have-been-made-for-older-adults-they-love-it-23344">dating sites</a> among the over-60s shows older Australians are actively seeking out and engaging in sexual relationships. What’s more, many older people report their sexual lives are highly <a href="https://theconversation.com/getting-on-and-getting-it-on-good-sex-isnt-just-for-the-young-27380">satisfying and rewarding</a>. </p>
<p>Accompanying this has been the diametrically opposed stereotype of the “<a href="http://sex.sagepub.com/content/12/4/503.short">sexy senior</a>”, who remains “youthfully sexual” into older age. This is signified through things like performance-enhancing medication which aims to restore “<a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-9566.2009.01211.x/full">youthful sexual functioning</a>”. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14681994.2014.936722#.VLST5sscS70">Our research</a> set out to explore how Baby Boomer women were experiencing sex and sexual desire in later life. These women led the sexual revolution of the 1960s and 70s, and have been challenging ideas around what it means to <a href="https://theconversation.com/defining-old-age-baby-boomers-to-rewrite-the-books-7350">grow old</a>. How are they approaching sex in later life? </p>
<h2>Sex, desire and diversity</h2>
<p>Perhaps the most striking finding of our research with Baby Boomer women was how diverse they were. Some women we spoke with fit the “asexual” older person stereotype, in that they no longer had any desire for sexual intimacy. Yet, some of these women still considered sexuality to be a part of their lives, suggesting that ageing was only rarely associated with a complete “loss” of sexual desire and sense of one’s self as sexual. </p>
<p>Others engaged in a range of different sexual activity, including masturbation, oral sex, and penetrative intercourse. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/69712/original/image-20150122-29877-m2fzh4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/69712/original/image-20150122-29877-m2fzh4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/69712/original/image-20150122-29877-m2fzh4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/69712/original/image-20150122-29877-m2fzh4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/69712/original/image-20150122-29877-m2fzh4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/69712/original/image-20150122-29877-m2fzh4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/69712/original/image-20150122-29877-m2fzh4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sexual desire doesn’t follow a downward linear progression as we age.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/tomconger/3733456271">Tom Conger/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Many of these women still desired sex and found it a highly pleasurable experience. However, some had lost desire for sex but continued to have sex to please their partner.</p>
<p>Our participants’ experiences of and desire for sex were fluid and dynamic across their life. There is not necessarily a linear progression from desiring sex as a younger person, to not desiring sex in later life. Instead, desire for sex ebbs and flows according to various life events and contextual factors: pregnancy and having young children, illness, and stress were all commonly mentioned as things that negatively influenced women’s sexual desire. </p>
<p>For some women, menopause was associated with a decrease in sexual desire, while others experienced a renewed interest in sex and enjoyed the freedom of no longer having to worry about getting pregnant. Meeting a new partner in later life could also spark renewed desire for sex.</p>
<h2>What influences sexual practice in later life?</h2>
<p>The influences on our participants’ sexual practises were wide ranging. Many women, or their partners, saw “sex” as being limited to penetrative intercourse. For these women, if they encountered difficulties such as a partner’s erectile dysfunction, vaginal dryness or pain, their partnered sex lives would often come to a halt. </p>
<p>Other women, and their partners, held much broader understandings of what counts as sex, and had a broad sexual repertoire. </p>
<p>There are also, of course, certain realities associated with growing older that can impact on women’s sexual lives. In addition to menopause, women were also faced with the challenges of poor health and illness (both their own and their partners), libido-depleting medications, or restricted physical mobility as a result of illnesses such as arthritis. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/69713/original/image-20150122-29857-1f7barp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/69713/original/image-20150122-29857-1f7barp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/69713/original/image-20150122-29857-1f7barp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/69713/original/image-20150122-29857-1f7barp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/69713/original/image-20150122-29857-1f7barp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/69713/original/image-20150122-29857-1f7barp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/69713/original/image-20150122-29857-1f7barp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Little information is available about overcoming physical barriers to sex in older age.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/tylerlaw/2909241109">Tyler Law/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A lack of an available partner was also a barrier to having sex for many women. Although some women did masturbate – one woman said she’s “been happily wanking since I was 16” – others saw masturbation as an unfulfilling sexual act, particularly in comparison to sex with a partner. </p>
<h2>Let’s talk about sex (in older age)</h2>
<p>Despite the fact that many older women are having sex, women in our study bemoaned the lack of available discussion and advice on being sexually active in older age. How do they adjust their sexual practises to cope with the physical realities of older bodies? What other options are available to them? </p>
<p>As one of our participants commented:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>You can find books on arthritis, diabetes… but where is it about how to discover what’s still good about your body and how to pleasure yourself and your partner? Issues that arise for older people. It doesn’t exist. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>The popular, but inaccurate, perception of older women as asexual undoubtedly contributes to this silence around sex in later life. It could also prevent them from being able to participate in desired and pleasurable sex. </p>
<p>This reticence to talk about sex in older age is also concerning as it may act as a barrier to recognising <a href="https://theconversation.com/denying-older-peoples-sexuality-is-an-affront-to-their-dignity-9028">sexual coercion or violence</a> as well as limiting the potential for pleasurable sex.</p>
<h2>Supporting sexual pleasure in later life</h2>
<p>Sex and sexual pleasure remains important to many older women. For others, this is not the case and this diversity needs to be recognised and respected. </p>
<p>For those who want to continue to engage in sex, we need to develop a range of resources and support to accommodate for this. More open discussion is required to break down the taboo associated with sex in later life, and to enable women and their partners to adjust their sexual practises to accommodate for ageing bodies. </p>
<p>This might include, for example, introducing sexual aides and sex toys into their sexual practice or broadening their sexual repertoire beyond penetration. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/69714/original/image-20150122-29832-bvfgb5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/69714/original/image-20150122-29832-bvfgb5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/69714/original/image-20150122-29832-bvfgb5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/69714/original/image-20150122-29832-bvfgb5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/69714/original/image-20150122-29832-bvfgb5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/69714/original/image-20150122-29832-bvfgb5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/69714/original/image-20150122-29832-bvfgb5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">For some women, menopause sparks a renewed interest in sex.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/jairus/13523147763">Jairus Khan/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="http://www.abc.net.au/triplej/hack/stories/s4117464.htm">Virtual sex</a> and other technological advancements may also open up a world of sexual opportunity.</p>
<p>With an ageing population and increasing numbers of residents in aged-care facilities, the sexual needs of older people must also be acknowledged and respected within these spaces. </p>
<p>Older bodies are neither “asexual” nor “youthfully sexual”, but are sources of pleasure in unique and diverse ways. Given the inevitability of ageing, we need to work towards a conceptual uncoupling of age and sex so that we are all able to enjoy and express our sexual selves in later life.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/35725/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bianca Fileborn's role is funded through the ARC on a project related to sexualities in later life.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gail Hawkes receives funding from an ARC discovery grant. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marian Pitts receives funding from NHMRC and ARC.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rachel Thorpe receives funding from the ARC and from LaTrobe University.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Victor Minichiello receives funding from the ARC on studies related to sexualities in later life.</span></em></p>Older people, and particularly older women, are often thought of as being asexual or sexually undesirable. Although the particular age this is believed to happen varies somewhat in the popular imagination…Bianca Fileborn, Research Fellow at the Australian Research Centre for Sex, Health & Society, La Trobe UniversityGail Hawkes, Adjunct Associate Professor, Australian Research Centre for Sex, Health & Society, La Trobe UniversityMarian Pitts, Emeritus Professor, Australian Research Centre in Sex, Health and Society, La Trobe UniversityRachel Thorpe, Research Fellow, PhD candidate, La Trobe UniversityVictor Minichiello, Emeritus Professor, University of New EnglandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/346512014-11-28T03:22:03Z2014-11-28T03:22:03ZFemale sexual dysfunction or not knowing how to ask for what feels good?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/65667/original/image-20141127-18564-lk48wz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Our culture tells women there's something wrong with them if they don't orgasm.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/gustavominas/5319063088">Gustavo Gomes/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The recently published <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ca.22471/abstract">Italian study</a> suggesting women can only have clitoral, rather than vaginal, orgasms raises important questions about the medicalisation of female sexuality and sexual dysfunction. </p>
<p>Many women would be happy to have an orgasm any old way, as University of Western Sydney researcher <a href="https://theconversation.com/health-check-clash-of-the-orgasms-clitoral-vs-vaginal-32732?utm_medium=email&utm_campaign">Jane Ussher points out</a>, especially those who experience sexual difficulties.</p>
<p>It’s difficult to write about the topic of female sexuality without using negative language such as “female sexual dysfunction” or “failure” to orgasm. </p>
<p>Much of what has been written about the female orgasm is based on phallocentric assumptions, such as that women “should” have orgasms through penetrative sexual intercourse with men. And if they don’t achieve orgasm, there is something wrong with them.</p>
<p>Many women have absorbed these culturally acceptable views and the ongoing medicalisation of female sexuality continually reinforces them.</p>
<h2>Defining ‘female sexual dysfunction’</h2>
<p>According to the latest psychiatrists’ Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, the <a href="http://dsm.psychiatryonline.org/doi/book/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596">DSM-V</a>, a woman suffers from “female orgasmic disorder” if she experiences a “marked delay in, marked infrequency of, or absence of orgasm or reduced intensity of orgasmic sensations” in 75-100% of situations of sexual intercourse. This must occur for at least six months and be accompanied by clinically significant distress. </p>
<p>Many women of my mother’s generation experienced such an absence of orgasms but without experiencing clinically significant distress because they had no real expectation of receiving sexual satisfaction from their partners. Their main concern was not to “fall” pregnant.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/65740/original/image-20141127-18173-1bqgfwe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/65740/original/image-20141127-18173-1bqgfwe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=435&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/65740/original/image-20141127-18173-1bqgfwe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=435&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/65740/original/image-20141127-18173-1bqgfwe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=435&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/65740/original/image-20141127-18173-1bqgfwe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=547&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/65740/original/image-20141127-18173-1bqgfwe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=547&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/65740/original/image-20141127-18173-1bqgfwe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=547&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Past generations had different sexual priorities.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-223625044/stock-photo-light-tone-bedroom-with-two-single-beds-in-cheerful-striped-bedding-with-yellow-pillows.html?src=Nfmj4i-U8hCiSxvCi1afnA-1-1">Iriana Shiyan/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The other most common female “dysfunction” is “female sexual interest/arousal dysfunction disorder”. Unlike “female orgasmic disorder”, this does at least have a male equivalent: “male hypo-active sexual desire disorder”. </p>
<p>Arousal difficulties are surprisingly common. A <a href="http://www.bmj.com/content/327/7412/426">large-scale UK study</a> found that 54% of women (compared with 35% of men) reported some form of sexual problem lasting for more than a month. The main problems these women experienced were a lack of interest in sex, an inability to orgasm, painful intercourse or trouble lubricating. </p>
<p>We know that sexual difficulties have a <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14681811.2013.771774#.VGw2tYf-PaR">negative impact</a> on women’s quality of life, their overall well-being and relationship satisfaction. </p>
<p>We also know that <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19361312">only one in three US women</a> who report a distressing sexual problem have ever spoken to their doctors about their difficulties. This is mainly because of their embarrassment about discussing sexual topics with a physician. As a result, many clinicians lack experience in the diagnosis and treatment of female sexual difficulties.</p>
<h2>The complexity of female sexuality</h2>
<p>There is a <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11195-009-9119-y#page-1">myth propagated in the media</a> of sexual spontaneity: satisfying sex happens spontaneously without the need for communication or negotiation and is mutually satisfying for both partners. </p>
<p>The reality is, of course, much more complicated. University of Pennsylvania researcher Maureen McHugh <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11199-006-9006-2#page-1">describes</a> what women really want as:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>better, more affectionate relationships, fulfilling consensual sexual relations, more time and energy for the expression of sexual desire, acceptance and acknowledgement of female sexual desire, and more sex education. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>It is disconcerting to consider that <a href="https://theconversation.com/australians-are-having-sex-less-often-than-a-decade-ago-33935">more than one in five women</a> have experienced sexual coercion at some point in their lives. Hardly surprisingly, then, that some of these women experience some form of “sexual dysfunction” or difficulty later in life. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/65666/original/image-20141127-15350-13x9srx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/65666/original/image-20141127-15350-13x9srx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/65666/original/image-20141127-15350-13x9srx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/65666/original/image-20141127-15350-13x9srx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/65666/original/image-20141127-15350-13x9srx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/65666/original/image-20141127-15350-13x9srx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/65666/original/image-20141127-15350-13x9srx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sexual problems often have relational, cultural and power dimensions.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/spencer_davis/6021509588">Spencer Davis/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The medical model tends to pathologise the complex sexual difficulties women experience, which often have relational, cultural and power dimensions. According to the DSM-V:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>women differ in how important orgasm is to their sexual satisfaction. There may be marked sociocultural and generational differences in women’s “orgasmic ability”. (my emphasis)</p>
</blockquote>
<p>This leads to the question: does women’s ability to orgasm vary greatly, or does women’s ability to ask for their sexual needs to be satisfied vary from culture to culture and from generation to generation?</p>
<h2>Empowerment of women</h2>
<p>A <a href="http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/498001_2">multinational study</a> demonstrated that the reported prevalence of sexual problems does vary by region. For women, a lack of interest in sex and inability to reach orgasm were the most common sexual problems across the world regions, ranging from 26% to 43% and 18% to 41%, respectively. </p>
<p>Participants described issues such as age, physical health, mental health and relationship satisfaction as influencing sexual functioning, as well as cultural differences. </p>
<p>We like to think women are empowered in Australia and yet we are under-represented in boardrooms and in parliament. Women in positions of power still suffer from sexism and misogyny, as then prime minister Julia Gillard so powerfully <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SOPsxpMzYw4">described</a> in her misogyny speech. This resonated with women around the globe who, unfortunately, could relate to her experiences. </p>
<p>Is it any wonder, then, that women find it hard to negotiate their own sexual satisfaction?</p>
<p>Stanford University clinician and researcher Leah Millheiser has done much to promote female sexual health, particularly for women with cancer. Her Youtube video, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nlP5rY2pfG0">What our mothers never taught us: changes in female sexual function throughout the lifespan</a>, outlines a wide range of treatments available to women to improve their sexual functioning. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/nlP5rY2pfG0?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
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<p>These treatments vary from drug therapy to sex therapy, with a great range in between including the use of vibrators, vaginal lubrication, pelvic floor exercises and so on. Despite using medical language, it is empowering for women to have easy access to the knowledge that they are not alone in experiencing sexual difficulties and that treatments are available.</p>
<h2>The future is brighter</h2>
<p>It’s still easy to gain the impression from popular culture that women should prioritise the sexual satisfaction of their male partner, over and above their own. I sincerely hope this generation of young women know more about how their bodies work and are willing to prioritise their own desire for sexual satisfaction along with their partner’s desires.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/34651/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sally Hunter is affiliated with the Psychotherapy and Counselling Federation of Australia.</span></em></p>The recently published Italian study suggesting women can only have clitoral, rather than vaginal, orgasms raises important questions about the medicalisation of female sexuality and sexual dysfunction…Sally Hunter, Lecturer, School of Rural Medicine, University of New EnglandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/310592014-09-07T20:38:56Z2014-09-07T20:38:56ZWe need to talk about the sexual abuse of scientists<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/58319/original/2rn9xkpj-1409896603.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Scientists can be victims of sexual abuse from their peers just as in any institution.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Minerva Studio</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The life sciences have come under fire recently with a study <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0102172">published in PLOS ONE</a> that investigated the level of sexual harassment and sexual assault of trainees in academic fieldwork environments.</p>
<p>The study found 71% of women and 41% of men respondents experienced sexual harassment, while 26% of women and 6% of men reported experiencing sexual assault. The research team also found that within the hierarchy of academic field sites surveyed, the majority of incidents were perpetrated by peers and supervisors.</p>
<p>As a rape survivor, I speak from a place of support for victims of sexual assault and harassment. </p>
<p>In an age where more young people, women in particular, are the target of social media campaigns after their rape and sexual assault (see the incidents at <a href="http://www.thewire.com/national/2013/01/inside-anonymous-hacking-file-steubenville-rape-crew/60502/">Steubenville</a> and <a href="http://edition.cnn.com/2014/07/18/living/jada-iamjada-teen-social-media/">Houston</a> in the US alone), this support work becomes critical.</p>
<h2>The shocking figures on sexual assault</h2>
<p>A number of other highly publicised cases of sexual violence and murder of women led to a study to determine the true extent of such abuse.</p>
<p>The results, published in the medical journal <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140673613622436">The Lancet</a> in February this year, estimated 12% of women had experienced non-partner sexual violence in Western Europe (Switzerland, Spain, Isle of Man, Sweden, UK, Denmark, Finland, Germany), as well as 13% of women in the US and Canada and 16% of women in Australia and New Zealand.</p>
<p>A common theme in many cases of sexual assault is that the abusers are known to the people, and are usually in positions of power or trust. Yet a culture of silence allows the abuse to continue with the abusers unchallenged.</p>
<p>In the <a href="http://www.salon.com/2014/04/28/the_monster_myth_what_i_learned_from_seeing_my_wifes_killer_in_court/">words of Thomas Meagher</a>, the husband of the late Jill Meagher who was raped and murdered by a stranger in Melbourne:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>The more I felt the incredible support from the community, the more difficult it was to ignore the silent majority whose tormentors are not monsters lurking on busy streets, but their friends, acquaintances, husbands, lovers, brothers and fathers.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>That’s why the prevalence of harassment from within the research community reported by the PLOS ONE study is particularly alarming.</p>
<p>Scientists rely heavily on their supervisors for recommendations and career advancement. Our peers also become an important part of our professional network for grant reviewing and research collaborations.</p>
<p>I have been fortunate to have excellent mentors, both men and women scientists, who have been supportive of my personal and professional development and my passion to speak publicly as a rape survivor.</p>
<h2>The need for policies to deal with sexual assault</h2>
<p>Other scientists have been the victim of some form of sexual assault or harassment by their peers or supervisors. The support of institutionalised policies that specifically deal with such abuse would provide access to the appropriate reporting strategies and a wealth of resources to help them heal.</p>
<p>Although not explicitly stated as one of the tenets of the <a href="http://www.ecu.ac.uk/equality-charter-marks/athena-swan/">Athena SWAN Charter</a> in the UK, the idea of a policy condemning and creating ramifications for sexual assault and harassment fits in with their stated goals of advancing women’s careers and employment in higher education and research in science, technology, engineering, maths and medicine (STEMM).</p>
<p>As I recommended recently in the scientific journal <a href="http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v512/n7513/full/512136d.html">Nature</a>, a sexual assault and sexual harassment policy for research institutes would be immensely useful.</p>
<p>In this way, a statement could be made in line with existing policy frameworks for academic, industry and government laboratories. But to honestly reflect the reality that men and members of the transgender community are also both researchers and rape survivors, the policy needs to be inclusive across the board.</p>
<p>As an early-career researcher myself, I was particularly disappointed at the prevalence of sexual assault and harassment by supervisors reported in the PLOS ONE study. I was also saddened by the subsequent lack of satisfaction with outcomes among those who reported the harassment.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/58216/original/5hjtzsw2-1409803940.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/58216/original/5hjtzsw2-1409803940.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/58216/original/5hjtzsw2-1409803940.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=352&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/58216/original/5hjtzsw2-1409803940.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=352&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/58216/original/5hjtzsw2-1409803940.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=352&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/58216/original/5hjtzsw2-1409803940.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=442&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/58216/original/5hjtzsw2-1409803940.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=442&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/58216/original/5hjtzsw2-1409803940.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=442&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Visual representations of respondents to the survey, their experiences, and who were aware of, made use of, and were satisfied by mechanisms to report unwanted physical contact. Each circle represents one survey respondent.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Clancy et al. 2014 PLOS ONE 9: e102172</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Many early career researchers are on short-term contracts (of three, six or 12 months) that need to be reviewed by their supervisors. A move to more long-term funding schemes for such researchers could help relieve the pressure of asking a harassing supervisor or peer for recommendations, or having to explain why a reference is not made available on new job applications.</p>
<p>Reducing our dependence on the gospel of the student-supervisor relationship would be good for researchers who have experienced this type of sexual assault or harassment from their supervisor or peers.</p>
<h2>Learn from others overseas</h2>
<p>For those who are interested in creating a policy on abuse but are unsure of where to start, there are many resources available online.</p>
<p>In the US, the White House has put together a task force against sexual assault in higher education institutions. It has published a <a href="https://www.notalone.gov/schools/">Guide to Drafting a Sexual Assault Policy</a> that is widely applicable, complete with a handy <a href="https://www.notalone.gov/assets/checklist-for-campus-sexual-misconduct-policies.pdf">checklist</a>.</p>
<p>Our colleagues in the humanities have already developed several such policies as part of a larger professional ethics statement, including the American Philosophical Association’s <a href="http://www.apaonline.org/?harassment">Statement on Sexual Harassment</a> and the Modern Language Association’s <a href="http://www.mla.org/repview_profethics">Statement of Professional Ethics</a>.</p>
<p>Proactive strategies targeting sexual assault and sexual harassment can prevent interference with the core work of researchers — to discover new knowledge and translate this for the benefit of the community.</p>
<p>Each research organisation can draft a sensible, comprehensive equity policy that condemns sexual assault, sexual harassment and discrimination based on race, gender or sexual orientation.</p>
<p>This provides clear repercussions for students and faculty who transgress the policy. It also provides a mechanism for the consistent application of those repercussions (such as an impartial ombudsperson or trained adjudication committee).</p>
<p>With guidelines in place, we could make great strides towards ensuring all scientists – whether in the lab or the field – feel safe and valued.</p>
<hr>
<p><em><a href="https://www.1800respect.org.au/">1800 RESPECT</a> (1800 737 732) is the National Sexual Assault, Family & Domestic Violence Counselling Line for any Australian who has experienced, or is at risk of, family and domestic violence and/or sexual assault, and <a href="https://www.lifeline.org.au/">Lifeline</a> (131 114) provides national crisis support. Both operate 24 hours a day, 7 days a week.</em> <br></p>
<p><em>Maggie Hardy will be on hand for an Author Q&A session between 11am and noon today (September 8). Post any questions to her in the comments below.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/31059/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Maggie Hardy does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The life sciences have come under fire recently with a study published in PLOS ONE that investigated the level of sexual harassment and sexual assault of trainees in academic fieldwork environments. The…Maggie Hardy, Research Fellow, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.