tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/culling-31684/articlesCulling – The Conversation2023-10-19T11:57:12Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2156672023-10-19T11:57:12Z2023-10-19T11:57:12ZBird flu in South Africa: expert explains what’s behind the chicken crisis and what must be done about it<p><em>An outbreak of <a href="https://www.woah.org/en/disease/avian-influenza/">avian flu</a> – a highly contagious viral infection that affects wild birds as well as poultry – <a href="https://www.nicd.ac.za/avian-influenza-outbreak/">has hit poultry farms in South Africa</a>. Two different strains are causing outbreaks in the country – A(H5N1) and influenza A(H7N6). A specialist in poultry health, Shahn Bisschop, answers some questions put to him by The Conversation Africa.</em></p>
<h2>What strain has broken out in South Africa?</h2>
<p>The outbreak caused by a highly pathogenic (HPAI) strain of H7N6 avian influenza is causing the most concern at present. The strain was <a href="https://www.news24.com/fin24/companies/bird-flu-super-infectious-sa-strain-emerges-in-mpumalanga-20230627">first confirmed in chickens</a> near Delmas north of Johannesburg at the beginning of June 2023.</p>
<p>This virus is a novel mutation of a strain which originated from wild birds at or near the location of the original outbreak. </p>
<p>The strain is well-adapted to chickens – it infects them easily and replicates effectively in them, in preference to other avian species – and spreads very easily between birds and farms. An <a href="https://sapa.jshiny.com/jdata/sapa/outbreaklanding/">estimated</a> 10 million have become infected while 6 million died from the H7N6. A further 1.7 million died from H5N1 earlier in the year.</p>
<p>The conventional control measures (collectively known as biosecurity) have been less effective than usual in limiting the spread of the disease. The main measures taken on poultry farms include strictly limiting human and vehicle movement. People entering farms will typically take further measures to limit disease transmission such as showering, changing clothes and disinfecting footwear when moving between different parts of the farm. </p>
<p>Because wild birds are associated with the spread of avian flu, measures are taken to ensure they are completely excluded from all chicken sheds. </p>
<h2>What’s new this time?</h2>
<p>For at least the past nine years, HPAI H5 viruses of the 2.3.4.4 clade <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41421-023-00571-x">have been spread across the globe</a> principally by wild bird migrations and infect a range of avian and mammalian species. The first recorded cases caused by viruses belonging to this clade were reported in South Africa in 2017. A second outbreak occurred in 2020. It was anticipated that the next outbreak would probably also be caused by these viruses and indeed the first reported cases of HPAI in 2023 in the coastal regions were associated with H5 strains.</p>
<p>Local experts are working on the theory that the present outbreak of H7N6 HPAI <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/flu/avianflu/avian-in-birds.htm">was created</a> when a low pathogenicity AI (LPAI) virus circulating without causing disease in wild birds underwent a mutation to become an HPAI strain adapted to causing serious disease in chickens. This mutation occurred locally. </p>
<p>Mutation from LPAI to HPAI has been described in poultry in various parts of the world but was considered less likely than the return of the H5 clade 2.3.4.4 viruses previously encountered.</p>
<h2>What’s in place and what’s missing</h2>
<p>Avian influenza is a “controlled disease”. That means it’s placed under strict government control with the aim of eradication as quickly as possible when outbreaks are detected. All outbreaks on farms are immediately reported to the state veterinary service, which takes responsibility for the disease. </p>
<p>The protocol for HPAI control is that all affected farms are placed under strict quarantine and all surviving birds are destroyed and disposed of as quickly as possible in order to limit the further spread of the disease.</p>
<p>But there are weaknesses in the system. </p>
<p>The biggest is that the state veterinary services don’t have sufficient resources to manage the outbreaks effectively.</p>
<p>Secondly, because the state doesn’t compensate farmers for their losses, they have difficulty getting farmers to comply with orders to cull. This has meant that outbreaks have spread out of control. Infected birds have been moved off infected farms for sale – taking the disease with them.</p>
<p>Farmers in the EU and US are compensated when culling happens. This used to be the case in South Africa but no longer happens.</p>
<p>As a result, South Africa has struggled to contain HPAI outbreaks. In<a href="https://www.nicd.ac.za/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/NICD-Avian-influenza-FAQ_final1-1.pdf"> 2017</a> and <a href="https://rr-africa.woah.org/en/immediate-notifications-in-africa/">2020/21</a> the outbreaks gradually slowed and eventually stopped. </p>
<p>HPAI outbreaks tend to be seasonal. In Europe, they occur principally in winter months. In South Africa, there is a similar but less clear trend to more cases in the winter and fewer in summer. This may be related to reduced viral survival in hotter summer weather.</p>
<h2>Are there new approaches to consider?</h2>
<p>New and innovative thinking is needed to deal with the reality on the ground in South Africa.</p>
<p>One possible solution is the introduction of appropriate vaccines. This would reduce the losses associated with outbreaks and would slow the spread of the disease between farms. Like all vaccines, they can’t prevent birds from becoming infected but they can manage the level of infection and spread. But they can’t eradicate the disease. </p>
<p>But there are limited options in terms of available vaccines. And South Africa would need to ensure that the vaccines registered for use in the country were effective against the local strain. If vaccines are poorly matched to outbreak strains, they won’t be effective.</p>
<p>All of this will take time, even with the best effort of government and industry. </p>
<h2>Does the strain pose a risk to people? What should consumers should be aware of?</h2>
<p>The South African Poultry Association <a href="http://www.poultrydiseases.co.za/750-2/">has made it clear</a> that poultry products are safe for consumption. It has been <a href="https://www.up.ac.za/research-matters/news/post_2991581-up-researchers-weigh-in-on-bird-flu-outbreak">collaborating with the University of Pretoria</a> to make sure poultry products are indeed safe. Together with leading scientists they have sequenced the current field strain of H7 avian influenza virus. In <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10302261/">a recent paper </a> scientists reported that none of the amino acid markers were present that afford the virus the ability to bind to mammalian cells.</p>
<p>This shows that infection of humans with the current virus is highly unlikely.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215667/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Shahn Bisschop does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>New and innovative thinking is needed to deal with the reality on the ground in South Africa.Shahn Bisschop, Senior lecturer, specialist poultry veterinarian, University of PretoriaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2098632023-07-19T20:00:25Z2023-07-19T20:00:25ZThe Northern Territory does not have a crocodile problem – and ‘salties’ do not need culling<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538192/original/file-20230719-27-ek02my.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4260%2C2831&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Last week, a 67-year-old man was bitten on the arm by a saltwater crocodile at a waterhole in the Northern Territory’s Top End. Predictably, the incident has prompted debate over whether a crocodile cull is needed. </p>
<p>The incident occurred in Litchfield National Park at Wangi Falls, a popular tourist spot. The man was hospitalised with non-life threatening injuries. Authorities later removed and killed the 2.4 metre crocodile responsible for the attack.</p>
<p>Fatal crocodile attacks in the NT <a href="https://www.ntnews.com.au/news/northern-territory/record-year-for-fatal-crocodile-attacks-in-northern-territory/news-story/e71d7ee8dd4b30641447d9b114cb1039">peaked in 2014</a> when four people died. The last fatal incident in the territory occurred in 2018 when an Indigenous ranger <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2018/oct/12/indigenous-ranger-attacked-and-taken-by-crocodile-in-northern-territory">was killed</a> while fishing with her family.</p>
<p>Despite the low number of fatal attacks in recent years, NT Chief Minister Natasha Fyles said last week the territory’s crocodile population had risen dramatically in recent decades and “it’s time for us to consider” if culling should be reintroduced.</p>
<p>This is an over-reaction to a fairly isolated incident. Data suggest the saltwater crocodile population in the NT does not need to be culled and their management does not need changing. </p>
<h2>Getting to grips with ‘salties’</h2>
<p>Saltwater crocodiles, fondly known in Australia as “salties”, are the <a href="http://www.iucncsg.org/365_docs/attachments/protarea/18%20--8088e67a.pdf">largest</a> in the crocodilian order of reptiles and can grow to six metres.</p>
<p>Hundreds of saltwater crocodile attacks on humans are reported globally each year. This, as well as demand for <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-07-12/should-crocodile-culling-be-reintroduced-in-the-nt/102588160">crocodile skins</a>, has resulted in the species being eradicated from much of its former range. </p>
<p>The saltwater crocodile was once found <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/372405960_Sideleau_and_Nguyen_2021">widely</a> across the Indo-Pacific region. Now, there are no saltwater crocodiles in <a href="http://www.iucncsg.org/365_docs/attachments/protarea/18%20--8088e67a.pdf">several countries</a> including Cambodia, China, Seychelles, Thailand and Vietnam.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537799/original/file-20230717-184356-pfat4r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537799/original/file-20230717-184356-pfat4r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=359&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537799/original/file-20230717-184356-pfat4r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=359&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537799/original/file-20230717-184356-pfat4r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=359&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537799/original/file-20230717-184356-pfat4r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537799/original/file-20230717-184356-pfat4r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537799/original/file-20230717-184356-pfat4r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Current and historical distribution of the saltwater crocodile. Green = present, yellow = possibly present, orange = extinct.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">CrocAttack: The Worldwide Crocodilian Attack Database</span></span>
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<p>Elsewhere, saltwater crocodile populations declined dramatically last century. In the Northern Territory, crocodile numbers dropped to <a href="https://nt.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/443581/crocodile-management-program.pdf">about 5,000</a> before a culling ban was introduced in 1971. The species’ numbers have since rebounded to <a href="https://nt.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/202579/crocodile-populations.pdf">more than 100,000</a>.</p>
<p>In some areas, recovering crocodile populations come into conflict with humans. This can occur when, for example, humans destroy the species’ habitat or their prey becomes scarce due human activity such as overfishing and poaching. This can force the species to relocate, bringing them closer to people.</p>
<p>Saltwater crocodiles have long been known to enter Wangi Falls during the wet season, when the location is closed to the public. In fact, a 3.4 metre crocodile <a href="https://7news.com.au/news/crocodile/massive-croc-caught-at-popular-swimming-spot-c-9622519">was captured</a> there in January this year. </p>
<p>It’s never 100% safe to swim at locations within the natural range of saltwater crocodiles. However, Wangi Falls is considered reasonably <a href="https://becrocwise.nt.gov.au/crocodiles-and-me/stay-safe-while-swimming">safe</a> for swimming during the dry season (May to October) because park officials survey and remove crocodiles before it opens to the public each year. </p>
<p>So what went wrong in this case? We don’t know for sure. The crocodile in question was relatively small: perhaps it wasn’t spotted during surveys. Or it could have just arrived after surveys were conducted.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/friday-essay-reckoning-with-an-animal-that-sees-us-as-prey-living-and-working-in-crocodile-country-160260">Friday essay: reckoning with an animal that sees us as prey — living and working in crocodile country</a>
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<img alt="a saltwater crocodile" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537798/original/file-20230717-219717-qhspp8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537798/original/file-20230717-219717-qhspp8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537798/original/file-20230717-219717-qhspp8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537798/original/file-20230717-219717-qhspp8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537798/original/file-20230717-219717-qhspp8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537798/original/file-20230717-219717-qhspp8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537798/original/file-20230717-219717-qhspp8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">A saltwater crocodile incident last week has reignited the debate about culling.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Brandon Sideleau</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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<h2>The current approach works</h2>
<p>Following last week’s crocodile attack, Fyles said culling may be needed, <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-07-11/natasha-fyles-saltwater-crocodile-culling/102585956">telling the media</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I think it’s time for us to consider: do we need to go back to culling considering the significant increase in the crocodile population, and the impact it’s happening, not just on our tourists and visitors, but also locals?</p>
</blockquote>
<p>These comments are surprising. Recent data for the Top End <a href="https://depws.nt.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/437639/SW-Crocodile-Monitoring-Report-2014.pdf">suggests</a> crocodile populations are stabilising. And the rarity of fatal attacks on humans indicates the territory’s <a href="https://becrocwise.nt.gov.au/crocodile-management/crocodile-management-program#:%7E:text=The%20NT%20Government%20uses%20a,techniques%20appropriate%20to%20the%20location">crocodile management plan</a> is effective.</p>
<p>The plan involves, among other measures, removing problem crocodiles, raising public awareness around safely co-existing with the animals, and monitoring their impact. </p>
<p>Since 2018, the NT has experienced one fatal saltwater crocodile attack while <a href="https://environment.des.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0022/227434/crocodile-attacks-queensland.pdf">Queensland</a> has experienced <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2023/may/03/human-remains-found-in-euthanised-crocodile-believed-to-be-missing-queensland-fisher">two</a>. That’s despite an average saltwater crocodile density in the territory <a href="https://environment.des.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0020/244613/qld-estuarine-croc-monitoring-program-2016-19-report.pdf">of 5.3 individuals per kilometre</a> – three times more than in Queensland. </p>
<p>This, coupled with data from outside Australia, suggests the frequency of crocodile attacks depends more on human behaviour and population density than how many crocodiles are in a given area.</p>
<p>In Indonesia, crocodiles <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2023/may/02/crocodile-catch-conservationists-warn-against-proposed-queensland-cull">killed at least 71 people</a> last year alone. Yet the crocodile population there is likely small and recovering, based on the limited number of surveys conducted.</p>
<p>In the Indonesian province of East Nusa Tenggara, for example, crocodiles killed <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/mf/MF20237">at least 60 people</a> between 2009 and 2018. Yet surveys suggest their average density is <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1755-1315/591/1/012044">only 0.4 per kilometre</a>. The situation is similar on <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320990083_Impacts_of_anthropogenic_pressures_on_the_contemporary_biogeography_of_threatened_crocodilians_in_Indonesia">the island of Sumatra</a>, as well as <a href="https://www.thestar.com.my/news/environment/2023/07/15/culling-sabah039s-crocodiles-will-not-reduce-croc-attacks?fbclid=IwAR0Jn_Dn-wOc9X5CXDsI7ucgZi_ost8WJ5WNCSaPeH2bNP9D1fBURfK9Y2Q">parts</a> of <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/358152489_Human-Crocodile_Conflicts_in_Sarawak_Malaysian_Borneo_An_analysis_of_crocodile_attacks_from_2000_until_2020">Malaysia</a>.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-how-did-crocodiles-survive-the-asteroid-that-killed-the-dinosaurs-172390">Curious Kids: how did crocodiles survive the asteroid that killed the dinosaurs?</a>
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<img alt="saltwater crocodile swimming underwater" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538197/original/file-20230719-23-su836y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538197/original/file-20230719-23-su836y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538197/original/file-20230719-23-su836y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538197/original/file-20230719-23-su836y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538197/original/file-20230719-23-su836y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538197/original/file-20230719-23-su836y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538197/original/file-20230719-23-su836y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">NT Chief Minister Natasha Fyles said crocodile culling may be needed.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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<h2>The downsides of culling crocs</h2>
<p>Culling saltwater crocodiles isn’t just bad for the species. It can also have negative consequences for humans.</p>
<p>The public could be <a href="https://theconversation.com/crocodile-culls-wont-solve-crocodile-attacks-11203">lulled into a false sense of security</a> and think a location is safe for swimming, even though crocodiles remain. </p>
<p>And seeing saltwater crocodiles in the wild is <a href="https://www.kindnessproject.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/Crocodile-Transition-Plan-final.pdf">important to the NT’s economy</a>. Culling them could damage the NT’s reputation as an ecotourism destination.</p>
<p>Lastly, culling dominant male crocodiles can be dangerous. Saltwater crocodiles are the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Cm-Gienger-2/publication/319502789_Patterns_of_human-crocodile_conflict_in_Queensland_A_review_of_historical_estuarine_crocodile_Crocodylus_porosus_management/links/5c4a0b87a6fdccd6b5c59d4a/Patterns-of-human-crocodile-conflict-in-Queensland-A-review-of-historical-estuarine-crocodile-Crocodylus-porosus-management.pdf">most territorial</a> of all crocodilians. When one is removed, other large crocodiles <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/file?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0126778&type=printable">begin to compete</a> for the newly available territory. This can present a threat to public safety. </p>
<p>The crocodile population in the NT does not need to be culled. Indeed, the territory’s current crocodile management plan is an example of large predator conservation done right.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-living-alongside-crocodiles-can-teach-us-about-coexisting-with-wildlife-139144">What living alongside crocodiles can teach us about coexisting with wildlife</a>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brandon Michael Sideleau is a member of the IUCN Crocodile Specialist Group</span></em></p>A non-fatal crocodile attack on a tourist last week made headlines. But talk of culling is an over-reaction to a fairly isolated incident.Brandon Michael Sideleau, PhD student studying human-saltwater crocodile conflict, Charles Darwin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2064772023-06-02T13:35:30Z2023-06-02T13:35:30Z‘Clubbing a bunny to death is very effective but it sure does look bad’: the inside stories of urban animal control<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529813/original/file-20230602-17-yhsk0y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=252%2C202%2C4347%2C3530&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Public acceptance of killing urban wild animals varies.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/close-shot-curious-cautious-cute-brown-1770620642">Elena Berd/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In July 2022, a walrus, <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-62556295">affectionately nicknamed Freya</a>, was culled near Norway’s capital city in the Oslo fjord – crowds of people approaching her meant there was a potential risk to human safety. The loss of this charismatic and seemingly peaceful animal sparked a global outcry. Last month, an online campaign funded the <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2023/04/30/europe/freya-walrus-statue-unveiled-intl/index.html">erection of a statue</a> in Oslo in Freya’s honour.</p>
<p>But while some wild animal culls go viral, a great many more urban wildlife deaths go unnoticed and unchallenged. Rat carcasses, for example, are disposed of discreetly and urban residents even <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/society/2019/aug/03/deer-hosts-for-ticks-experts-debate-rise-in-lyme-disease">push for increased culling of deer</a> that feed on their tulip beds or spread ticks. </p>
<p>To understand what determines the diverse reactions to animal culls, I <a href="https://brill.com/view/journals/soan/aop/article-10.1163-15685306-bja10129/article-10.1163-15685306-bja10129.xml?language=en">interviewed and observed</a> municipal cullers in Sweden. These cullers do the dirty work of disposing of wild animals that pose a threat to biosecurity, public safety and human infrastructure. </p>
<p>It seems that while the species of animal predictably mattered, factors such as the location, timing, methods used, people involved and the reasons for the cull also influenced whether cullers encountered public opposition. Any misjudgement made in the culling process could have repercussions in terms of social acceptance, further complicating future culls. This is especially relevant in today’s world as people frequently use their mobile phones to record and share what they see.</p>
<h2>What and where to cull?</h2>
<p>Humans value some species over others (a concept called <a href="https://thehumaneleague.org/article/speciesism">speciesism</a>) and will defend them despite their damages being comparable. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/rat">Rats</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/rabbit">rabbits</a> both chew wires and transmit diseases and parasites, but the cullers we interviewed mentioned that “people have a whole different outlook” on these two species.</p>
<p>They also stated that “the cuter the critters, the bigger the villains we are, and vice versa”. In one instance, cullers were rewarded with cake after removing <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/wild-boar-1843748">wild boar</a> from an area where they were recently introduced. The boars were deemed “big and ugly and in the way, scaring children”. By contrast, when called in to kill large carnivores like <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/gray-wolf">wolves</a> that had sustained injuries in traffic accidents, cullers had to mask their identities and often relied on police escorts.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A grey wolf in a snowy forest." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529755/original/file-20230602-23-eq3f93.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529755/original/file-20230602-23-eq3f93.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529755/original/file-20230602-23-eq3f93.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529755/original/file-20230602-23-eq3f93.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529755/original/file-20230602-23-eq3f93.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529755/original/file-20230602-23-eq3f93.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529755/original/file-20230602-23-eq3f93.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The grey wolf.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/grey-wolf-snowy-forest-1585152148">GTS Productions/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>People’s treatment of individual animals from the same species can vary. If large birds are perceived as causing disturbances to both people and recreational activities, they are often culled without much consideration. In 2018, for example, a male <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/swan">swan</a> living on a canal in the Swedish city of Malmö was <a href="https://www.thelocal.se/20190408/malmo-swan-shot-by-hunters-after-scaring-children">shot dead by professional hunters</a> after showing signs of aggression towards passers-by. But, as the swan was seen as a prominent feature of the city, the culler received death threats.</p>
<p>There are certain locations for which the killing of wild animals is deemed unacceptable by onlookers. The cullers we interviewed were expected to carry out their activities discreetly as they often faced criticism when culling animals in crowded areas. </p>
<p>Some cullers, for example, had experience killing rabbits and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/deer">deer</a> in kindergartens. One culler recalled having “to ask the kids to go inside” as it caused children distress to see animals being killed and regularly led to confrontation with teachers.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Young girl standing in front of a deer." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529759/original/file-20230602-29-w4rese.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529759/original/file-20230602-29-w4rese.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529759/original/file-20230602-29-w4rese.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529759/original/file-20230602-29-w4rese.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529759/original/file-20230602-29-w4rese.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529759/original/file-20230602-29-w4rese.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529759/original/file-20230602-29-w4rese.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The killing of wild animals is deemed unacceptable in certain locations.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/young-4-year-old-girl-temple-1624722184">Rachel Blaser/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>When, how and who?</h2>
<p>In line with operating discreetly, cullers noted having to become as crepuscular (active at dawn and dusk) as the animals they hunted. One culler noted receiving “a lot less yelling at me and fewer questions when you’re out at night and early mornings”. </p>
<p>Animal culling can also be unpalatable to the eye. Certain culls – particularly those involving brute force or the deaths of other animals – violate public standards.</p>
<p>One culler explained that “clubbing a bunny to death is very effective and it dies right away, but it sure does look bad”. By contrast, those who had carried out culls using a shot with a silencer from a vehicle had encountered much less criticism. </p>
<p>Having the wrong people carry out animal culls risks upsetting bystanders. During our interviews, cullers emphasised the importance of being locally recognised, with good people management skills to defuse conflicts. One said: “The last thing you want is some macho hunter to come in and finish the job, with no people skills.”</p>
<h2>What’s the reason?</h2>
<p>Some animals are simply unwelcome in cities. The mere presence of wild boars in urban areas of Sweden still triggers culls, regardless of what they are doing. </p>
<p>However, certain animals were deemed cullable only under specific circumstances. If an animal was perceived as being behaviourally or geographically out of line, such as a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/moose-mammal">moose</a> terrorising shoppers outside a shopping centre, then the public generally supported its removal. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529758/original/file-20230602-23-s5w88a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A small child is looking at two big big moose in the backyard." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529758/original/file-20230602-23-s5w88a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529758/original/file-20230602-23-s5w88a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529758/original/file-20230602-23-s5w88a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529758/original/file-20230602-23-s5w88a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529758/original/file-20230602-23-s5w88a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529758/original/file-20230602-23-s5w88a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529758/original/file-20230602-23-s5w88a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">People deemed certain animals such as moose (pictured) as cullable only under specific circumstances.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/small-child-looking-two-big-moose-2209423387">Birgit Ryningen/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But in another example, cullers recounted having to involve the police to remove a girl who was protecting a moose that had been hit by a car. </p>
<p>So the public can be contradictory in its defence of animals. But cullers also exhibited similar idiosyncrasies themselves. One culler, who was routinely called out to cull birds in his city “drew the line” at culling a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/nightingale-bird">nightingale</a> that kept a resident up at night. </p>
<p>In some parts of the world, animal rights organisations call for lethal removals of problematic wildlife to be <a href="https://www.paws.org/resources/how-to-become-a-wildlife-rehabilitator/">replaced by rescues or relocations</a>. But the future is somewhat unpredictable. As cities continue to encroach on animals’ habitats, human interaction with wild animals will become increasingly common. </p>
<p>What’s clear, though, is that the situation calls for the development of a wildlife etiquette within the general public. This involves understanding how to behave in a manner that prevents the emergence of problematic wild animals in the first place. These animals are often faultless and have been conditioned to lose their shyness.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/206477/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Erica von Essen receives funding from Formas, Dnr 2019-01168</span></em></p>Here’s what determines if a problematic wild animal is saveable or cullable.Erica von Essen, Associate Professor of Environmental Communication, Stockholm UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2016322023-03-27T18:54:30Z2023-03-27T18:54:30ZBird flu FAQ: What is avian influenza? How is it transmitted to humans? What are the symptoms? Are there effective treatments and vaccines? Will H5N1 become the next viral pandemic?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517749/original/file-20230327-346-q2ntym.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=9%2C320%2C3283%2C2241&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Avian influenza ('bird flu') is a highly transmissible and usually mild disease that affects wild birds such as geese, swans, seagulls, shorebirds, and also domestic birds such as chickens and turkeys.
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(CDC and NIAID)</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/bird-flu-faq--what-is-avian-influenza-how-is-it-transmitted-to-humans-what-are-the-symptoms-are-there-effective-treatments-and-vaccines-will-h5n1-become-the-next-viral-pandemic" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Avian influenza (“bird flu”) is a highly contagious viral infection that affects wild and domestic birds worldwide. It has recently gained notoriety for its devastating impact on the commercial poultry sector and as an <a href="https://www.gavi.org/vaccineswork/five-things-know-about-whether-h5n1-bird-flu-outbreak-could-turn-pandemic?gclid=EAIaIQobChMItpTYmv76_QIVxsiUCR14wADYEAAYASAAEgJi4PD_BwE">emerging human public health threat</a>. </p>
<h2>What are avian influenza viruses?</h2>
<p>Influenza viruses belong to the Orthomyxovirus family and are grouped into four species <a href="https://ncbiinsights.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2023/02/21/influenza-virus-ncbi-taxonomy/">designated by the letters A (Alpha), B (Beta), C (Gamma) and D (Delta</a>). Almost all influenza infections in humans are caused by influenza A and B viruses. </p>
<p>Influenza A viruses have been <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Firv.12412">named avian (bird), swine (pig), equine (horse), canine (dog), chiropteran (bat) and human</a>, based on their natural reservoir (the organism where they are most commonly found). </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517396/original/file-20230324-24-5vkuoi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="diagram of influenza heirarchy" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517396/original/file-20230324-24-5vkuoi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517396/original/file-20230324-24-5vkuoi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517396/original/file-20230324-24-5vkuoi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517396/original/file-20230324-24-5vkuoi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517396/original/file-20230324-24-5vkuoi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=535&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517396/original/file-20230324-24-5vkuoi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=535&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517396/original/file-20230324-24-5vkuoi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=535&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Influenza species and host-specific forms of Influenza A.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Sameer Elsayed)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Avian influenza and other Influenza A viruses are categorized into subtypes according to the composition of their hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N) surface proteins. <a href="https://doi.org/10.3201%2Feid2410.ET2410">There are 18 known H types (H1 to H18) and 11 known N types (N1 to N11)</a>. The combination of an H type and an N type defines a specific influenza virus subtype (for example, H5N1). </p>
<h2>What do we know about avian influenza?</h2>
<p>Avian influenza (“bird flu”) was <a href="https://doi.org/10.5822%2F978-1-61091-466-6_7">first described in the late 1800s</a>. It’s a highly transmissible and <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fpathogens10050630">usually mild disease of wild birds such as geese, swans, seagulls, shorebirds, and also domestic birds such as chickens and turkeys</a>. It is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F22221751.2022.2155072">usually caused by influenza A viruses with an H5 or H7 hemaglutinin type</a>, for example, H5N1 or H7N9. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="White chickens outdoors on grass" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517337/original/file-20230324-24-qz4ve3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517337/original/file-20230324-24-qz4ve3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=297&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517337/original/file-20230324-24-qz4ve3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=297&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517337/original/file-20230324-24-qz4ve3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=297&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517337/original/file-20230324-24-qz4ve3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=373&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517337/original/file-20230324-24-qz4ve3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=373&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517337/original/file-20230324-24-qz4ve3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=373&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In Canada and the U.S., outbreaks of H5N1 influenza in domestic and wild birds have been reported in most regions.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons/Woodly Wonderwords</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While many forms of these viruses are minimally virulent — meaning they cause mild disease — some are highly virulent, meaning that they cause more serious disease. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F22221751.2022.2155072">Millions of poultry deaths in Asia, Europe, the Americas and Australia</a> have been <a href="https://www.paho.org/en/documents/epidemiological-alert-outbreaks-avian-influenza-caused-influenza-ah5n1-region-americas">attributed to highly virulent forms of H5N1, H5N8, H7N7 and H7N9, with H5N1 accounting for the vast majority of cases</a>. </p>
<p>In Canada and the U.S., outbreaks of H5N1 influenza in domestic and wild birds <a href="https://www.paho.org/en/documents/epidemiological-alert-outbreaks-avian-influenza-caused-influenza-ah5n1-region-americas">have been reported in most regions</a>. </p>
<h2>How is avian influenza transmitted to humans?</h2>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="a roast chicken on a wooden board" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517570/original/file-20230327-24-35bjxm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517570/original/file-20230327-24-35bjxm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517570/original/file-20230327-24-35bjxm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517570/original/file-20230327-24-35bjxm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517570/original/file-20230327-24-35bjxm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517570/original/file-20230327-24-35bjxm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517570/original/file-20230327-24-35bjxm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Bird flu cannot be transmitted by eating cooked poultry products.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Unsplash/Tofan Teodor)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Avian influenza viruses are not easily transmitted from birds to humans or to other animals. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fbmb%2Fldz036">Humans are accidental hosts — meaning that the virus does not typically circulate among people</a>. Humans may acquire the virus after <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-024-0908-6_10">inhaling birds’ respiratory droplets or exposure of their mucus membranes to bird feces, saliva or contaminated surfaces</a>. </p>
<p>Bird flu cannot be transmitted by eating cooked poultry products. Always follow <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/meat-poultry-fish-seafood-safety/poultry-safety.html">food safety guidelines</a> for cooking and for handling raw poultry.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1011135">Recently discovered mutations in the neuraminidase (N) gene</a> of H5N1 viruses isolated from humans appear to promote bird-to-human transmission. Fortunately, <a href="https://doi.org/10.3201%2Feid2105.141756">human-to-human transmission is extremely rare</a>.</p>
<h2>When was avian influenza first reported in humans?</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F82_2012_254">first human cases of avian influenza were reported in 1997 by public health authorities in Hong Kong</a>. These infections were linked to poultry infected with a highly virulent H5N1 subtype. Of the 18 affected individuals, six <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F82_2012_254">(33 per cent) succumbed to their illness</a>. </p>
<p>Since then, avian influenza has been responsible for <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F22221751.2022.2155072">at least 2,600 infections and over 1,000 deaths</a> in humans worldwide. In the majority of human cases, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F22221751.2022.2155072">infection was acquired following exposure to live poultry</a> rather than wild birds.</p>
<p>Human infections due to avian influenza viruses have primarily been caused by subtypes H5N1, H5N6, H7N7 and H7N9. All but two of the documented human fatalities to date have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F22221751.2022.2155072">occurred in low-to-middle-income countries</a>, likely as a consequence of the total case burden and lack of access to antiviral drugs. </p>
<h2>What are the signs and symptoms of avian influenza in humans? How is it diagnosed?</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/influenza-(avian-and-other-zoonotic)?gclid=EAIaIQobChMIhdC4osP0_QIVsRR9Ch29oA3PEAAYAiAAEgJXU_D_BwE">Early symptoms of avian influenza in humans are similar to those caused by seasonal influenza viruses</a> such as H3N2 and H1N1. Typical symptoms include fevers, chills, muscle aches, cough, sore throat, shortness of breath, headache and fatigue. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-017-7363-8_3">Infections caused by highly virulent forms of H5N1 or H7N9 subtypes may follow a more severe course of illness</a> characterized by internal bleeding, multi-organ failure and a high mortality rate.</p>
<p>The combination of an influenza-like illness and a recent history of exposure to live poultry should raise suspicion for avian influenza. The diagnosis is confirmed by detection of viral RNA in nasopharyngeal specimens using tests for specific subtypes. </p>
<h2>What treatments are available for avian influenza?</h2>
<p>Antiviral drugs belonging to the <a href="https://doi.org/10.7883/yoken.JJID.2021.751">neuraminidase inhibitor (such as oseltamivir) and endonuclease inhibitor classes (for example, baloxivir) appear to be highly effective against most avian influenza subtypes, including H5N1 and H7N9</a>. However, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.antiviral.2020.104886">antiviral resistance</a> has been well documented and represents a threat to the potency of these agents in the face of constant viral evolution. </p>
<h2>Is there a human vaccine against avian influenza?</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Person in a blue T-shirt being given an injection in the upper arm" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517331/original/file-20230324-26-qz4ve3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517331/original/file-20230324-26-qz4ve3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517331/original/file-20230324-26-qz4ve3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517331/original/file-20230324-26-qz4ve3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517331/original/file-20230324-26-qz4ve3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517331/original/file-20230324-26-qz4ve3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517331/original/file-20230324-26-qz4ve3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Human vaccines against avian flu have been developed and approved, but current stockpiles are unlikely to meet demand if there is a surge in human infections.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia/U.S. Marine Corps/Jackeline Perez Rivera</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Licensed vaccines exist to protect humans against avian influenza, although they are not commercially available. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.news.sanofi.us/press-releases?item=137063">In 2007, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved an H5N1 vaccine</a> for adults ages 18 and older. These vaccines form part of the U.S. government’s <a href="https://aspr.hhs.gov/SNS/Pages/Sustaining-the-Stockpile.aspx">Strategic National Stockpile (SNS)</a> of medicines for deployment in the event of a public health emergency. <a href="https://www.fda.gov/vaccines-blood-biologics/safety-availability-biologics/influenza-h5n1-virus-monovalent-vaccine-adjuvanted-manufactured-id-biomedical-corporation-questions">In 2013, the FDA approved a second H5N1 vaccine</a> that is also part of the SNS. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/pandemic-influenza-vaccine-h5n1-astrazeneca-previously-pandemic-influenza-vaccine-h5n1-medimmune">Similar vaccines are licensed in other jurisdictions</a>. All of these vaccines were shown to be safe and effective at the time of approval.</p>
<p>In contrast, <a href="https://doi.org/10.12688%2Fgatesopenres.13171.1">H5N1 vaccines for use in animals are commercially available</a>. Vaccination of poultry has been widely adopted in <a href="https://doi.org/10.12688%2Fgatesopenres.13171.1">China and other low-to-middle income countries</a>. The <a href="https://thehill.com/homenews/administration/3887075-white-house-weighs-mass-poultry-vaccination-amid-bird-flu-outbreak/">U.S.</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adc9644">Europe</a> are gearing up for a massive poultry vaccination campaign to curtail the spread of bird flu. </p>
<h2>How else can I protect myself against avian influenza?</h2>
<p>Avoiding direct contact with live poultry is perhaps the single most effective measure to prevent development of avian influenza. If exposure to potentially infected birds cannot be avoided, personal protective gear including gloves, gowns, face masks and eye shields should be worn. Hands should be thoroughly washed with soap and water after all potential exposures. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1128/mSphere.00474-19">Alcohol-based hand sanitizers are less effective at inactivating influenza viruses compared to handwashing</a>. </p>
<h2>Are bird feeders safe to use?</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517569/original/file-20230327-28-56ojl8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517569/original/file-20230327-28-56ojl8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517569/original/file-20230327-28-56ojl8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517569/original/file-20230327-28-56ojl8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517569/original/file-20230327-28-56ojl8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517569/original/file-20230327-28-56ojl8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517569/original/file-20230327-28-56ojl8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">There are divergent opinions on the potential role of bird feeders in spreading the disease.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Unsplash/Grayson Smith)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Although there is currently a negligible risk of developing avian influenza following wild bird exposure, there are divergent opinions on the role of bird feeders in potentially spreading the disease. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://spca.bc.ca/news/bc-spca-asks-public-to-remove-bird-feeders-due-to-avian-influenza-outbreak/">British Columbia Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals</a> recommends temporarily abandoning the practice of using backyard bird feeders. In contrast, the <a href="https://ask.usda.gov/s/article/Should-bird-feeders-be-taken-down-to-prevent-the-spread-of-diseases-such-as-bird-flu">U.S. Department of Agriculture</a> does not recommend against their use unless poultry are being farmed in the area. </p>
<h2>Is avian influenza the next viral pandemic?</h2>
<p>There is no way to predict if avian influenza will evolve into a pandemic affecting humans. Mitigation strategies to prevent cross-species transmission include large-scale pre-emptive vaccination of domestic birds and culling of infected flocks. </p>
<p>Of major concern is the potential for novel avian influenza subtypes to emerge through antigenic shift. This phenomenon involves reassortment of hemaglutinin and neuraminidase genes when a single host is infected with more than one viral subtype. As such, avian influenza is a <a href="https://www.gavi.org/vaccineswork/next-pandemic/h5n1-and-h7n9-influenza">prime contender as a pandemic viral disease</a> of animals and humans alike. </p>
<p>Current stockpiles of avian influenza vaccines for human use <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/health/bird-flu-vaccine-human-1.6784487">will likely be inadequate to meet societal needs</a> should there be a surge in human infections over time.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/201632/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sameer Elsayed does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Avian influenza — commonly known as ‘bird flu’ — is infecting domestic and wild birds in Canada and around the world.Sameer Elsayed, Professor of Medicine, Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, and Epidemiology & Biostatistics, Western UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2010562023-03-16T14:47:46Z2023-03-16T14:47:46ZBird flu: Nigeria is on major migratory bird routes, new strains keep appearing<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514989/original/file-20230313-28-msyt5e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2464%2C1648&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Nigeria has to step up biosecurity measures to check frequent bird flu outbreaks. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/dozens-of-birds-are-carried-in-wheel-barrows-to-a-dump-site-news-photo/1211936110?phrase=bird%20flu%20in%20nigeria&adppopup=true">Pius Utomi Ekpei/AFP via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Avian influenza is a highly contagious viral infection of birds, commonly called “bird flu”, which has been recurring in Nigeria <a href="https://www.cidrap.umn.edu/avian-influenza-bird-flu/nigeria-has-africas-first-h5n1-bird-flu-outbreak">since 2006</a>. It has <a href="https://www.one-health.panafrican-med-journal.com/content/article/2/16/full/">resulted in</a> the loss of millions of birds and income for people who rely on the poultry industry. Nigeria is currently grappling with another outbreak which <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/flu/avianflu/poultry.htm">started in 2021</a>.</em> </p>
<p><em>The Conversation Africa asked Clement Meseko, a virologist and expert on animal influenza, to explain the disease’s re-occurrences.</em></p>
<hr>
<h2>What is bird flu? How does it spread? Is it dangerous to humans?</h2>
<p>Bird flu is scientifically known as avian influenza and the pathogenic form as highly pathogenic avian influenza. It is <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-25385-1_17">a disease in birds</a> (specifically poultry) caused by an influenza virus. It is highly pathogenic, meaning it causes tissue and organ damage in the host, and can kill <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20591211/">more than 75%</a> of the infected flock.</p>
<p>Waterfowls like ducks are natural reservoirs of the disease. They can harbour avian flu without <a href="https://www.ajol.info/index.php/nvj/article/view/178945">showing any symptoms</a>. Many waterfowls and other wild birds are migratory, moving across and between continents – this brings them into contact with resident birds and domestic poultry. Their body secretions and excretions may contain virus that can then infect other birds and poultry.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.ajol.info/index.php/nvj/article/view/68949">The symptoms</a> in infected poultry include sudden death, respiratory distress, cough and haemorrhages in tissue and organs. Other animals, including pigs, horses and dogs can also be infected – and so can humans. In fact, it is zoonotic and therefore <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-24371-6">can be fatal</a> for humans too. Highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 virus infections have infected <a href="https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/wpro---documents/emergency/surveillance/avian-influenza/ai_20230224.pdf?sfvrsn=5f006f99_111">more than</a> 880 people with about 50% case fatality globally. </p>
<p>The virus also has the capacity to cause a pandemic: an influenza virus of avian origin, but not the currently circulating strain, caused the 1918 pandemic that ultimately <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/flu/pandemic-resources/1918-commemoration/1918-pandemic-history.htm">killed about 50 million people</a> – worse than the current <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcimb.2023.1145235/full">COVID-19 pandemic </a>.</p>
<h2>How many outbreaks have there been in Nigeria since 2006?</h2>
<p>Nigeria’s first outbreak of bird flu was confirmed in January 2006, the <a href="https://www.eurosurveillance.org/content/10.2807/ese.13.42.19007-en?crawler=true">first epidemic in poultry in Africa</a>. It killed millions of birds and millions more were culled to contain its spread. The economic and livelihood loss was huge as the disease spread all over the country with 100% mortality in many cases.
The estimate of the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320419066_Economic_Losses_and_Implications_of_Highly_Pathogenic_Avian_Influenza_HPAI_H5N1_Resurgence_in_Nigeria">economic cost</a> of bird flu outbreak in Nigeria was over nine billion Nigerian naira (about
US$32 million) – with people losing investment, livelihood and jobs.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/515817/original/file-20230316-28-qkc7jr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/515817/original/file-20230316-28-qkc7jr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515817/original/file-20230316-28-qkc7jr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515817/original/file-20230316-28-qkc7jr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515817/original/file-20230316-28-qkc7jr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515817/original/file-20230316-28-qkc7jr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515817/original/file-20230316-28-qkc7jr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dead birds are gathered in a dump for burning in Kano 11 February, 2006.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Pius Utomi EkpeiAFP via Getty Images</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The disease was brought under control by 2008 thanks to stringent biosecurity measures like depopulation (culling), decontamination and control of poultry movement. In 2015 <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4480409/">another strain</a> emerged in Nigeria. Since then, new strains <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/tbed.14000">keep appearing</a>. </p>
<p>Live bird markets, common across Nigeria, are the main points of spread of bird flu while wetlands are the points of initial transmissions. Local waterfowls and other birds that may harbour avian flu come into contact with other bird species and with people. In 2006, <a href="https://www.eurosurveillance.org/content/10.2807/ese.13.42.19007-en?crawler=true/">312 cases</a> and in 2015, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4480409/">256 outbreaks</a> of highly pathogenic avian influenza were recorded.</p>
<h2>What should Nigeria be doing differently?</h2>
<p>The disease may become endemic in Nigeria if circulation continuous and detection of the same strain is established. If a disease is constantly circulating in reservoir hosts it will lead to spill over to poultry and humans. </p>
<p>If that’s the case, biosecurity measures must be stepped up. For instance, the government may consider other measures in addition to biosecurity. This may include controlled and regulated vaccination. There are vaccines. They have been <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24026475/">used in</a> Egypt, China, Indonesia with a mixture of failure and success. Vaccines only reduce the impact of the disease but do not prevent infection or re-infection.</p>
<p>Those in the agricultural sector also need to introduce effective control measures at live bird markets and in the way poultry is traded more broadly. Measures would include restructuring the live bird markets, discouraging the mixing of species, the introduction of plastic cages and crates that can be easily cleaned and disinfected. Frequent cleaning, disinfection and decontamination of live bird market environments is very important for disease containment.</p>
<h2>You’ve described as Nigeria was an “ecological sink” for such viruses. Please explain</h2>
<p>In the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-019-13287-y">research</a> that examined the outbreak of the 2015-2016 bird flu, we found that west Africa was the epicentre of the virus that was later found in other sub-Saharan African regions – the central, eastern and southern African countries. In particular, within west Africa, Nigeria was the most important point of virus introduction and a central hub in the virus spread. </p>
<p>Bird flu is mostly introduced into Nigeria through the presence and activities of wild birds. For instance, in the 2015-2016 outbreak <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-019-13287-y">we identified</a> four virus introductions into Nigeria likely from east Europe.</p>
<p>These birds travel across continents and countries through multiple international migratory routes, in much the same way that airlines move across the world on designated routes. Three major wild bird migratory routes from Asia and Europe transverse Nigeria. That’s good news for biodiversity but bad news for disease control.</p>
<p>Bird watchers and ornithologists <a href="https://www.environewsnigeria.com/how-bird-migrated-from-germany-to-nigeria-in-122-days/">have found</a> that migratory birds from Europe move into Nigeria every year during the cold harmattan season (November - February). This is the peak time for avian flu outbreaks. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-019-13287-y">Nigeria is</a> the most affected African country in terms of the frequency and burden of avian flu. This makes it the destination “sink” of the strains that may be circulating in Europe at any given time. </p>
<p>Because we can’t change birds’ routes or habits, it would be up to Nigerian authorities to make sure it keeps its local birds and people as safe as possible. This would include surveillance of wild birds at wetlands and the monitoring of viral infections. Early detection is vital for early warning, risk analysis and control of infection.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/201056/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Clement Meseko receives funding from National Veterinary Research Institute. He is affiliated with OIE/FAO (OFFLU) Expert Working Group on Animal Influenza.</span></em></p>Bird flu has been recurring in Africa since 2006 and Nigeria is heavily affected. High-level biosecurity measures are required to keep people and animals safe.Clement Meseko, Veterinarian & Virologist, National Veterinary Research Institute, Vom, JosLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1968112022-12-21T17:08:14Z2022-12-21T17:08:14ZSquirrelpox outbreak detected in north Wales – without a vaccine, the disease will keep decimating red squirrels<p>Concerns over the spread of squirrelpox have increased after a <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-63865940">sick red squirrel was found in Bangor, Wales, in late November</a>. </p>
<p>It’s not the first time an outbreak has happened in the area – back in 2020/21, the disease caused a loss of <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/12/1/99">70%-80% of its red squirrel population</a>. Such major outbreaks are devastating and lead to <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ece3.1216">dramatic and ongoing red squirrel declines</a>.</p>
<p>Conservationists have a formidable task to ensure that similar losses do not happen again. The current national strategy is simple: <a href="https://www.gov.wales/grey-squirrel-management-action-plan-for-wales">cull grey squirrels</a> in areas where red squirrels persist. However, there is no single, straightforward way to safeguard the future of this native mammal at the moment.</p>
<p>It is the grey squirrel which <a href="https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1469-1795.2000.tb00107.x">carries squirrelpox virus infection</a>, but it does not cause them obvious harm. When they were first introduced from North America during the Victorian era, <a href="http://www.italian-journal-of-mammalogy.it/pdf-126011-61760?filename=Introduced%20Canadian.pdf">grey squirrels brought the virus to Britain</a> and Ireland. </p>
<p>Grey squirrels compete for resources with <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p0cc7l69">native red squirrels</a>, which is a species with <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1690913/pdf/11886647.pdf">little immunity to the virus</a>. The infection produces extensive skin lesions around the eyes, muzzle and mouth, on the digits and around the genitalia. The sores become infected by bacteria and are a major source of viral particles which contaminate the environment. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/502171/original/file-20221220-17-dycnm8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/502171/original/file-20221220-17-dycnm8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502171/original/file-20221220-17-dycnm8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502171/original/file-20221220-17-dycnm8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502171/original/file-20221220-17-dycnm8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502171/original/file-20221220-17-dycnm8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502171/original/file-20221220-17-dycnm8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Red squirrel with squirrelpox virus.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flickr.com/photos/55426027@N03/14469405549">Peter Trimming / Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This increases the likelihood of sick red squirrels spreading infection to other reds. Squirrelpox leads to <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/epidemiology-and-infection/article/epidemics-of-squirrelpox-virus-disease-in-red-squirrels-sciurus-vulgaris-temporal-and-serological-findings/6543EE3ED2792F0C9CD188EE3973EED8">death within three weeks</a> of infection. </p>
<h2>Does culling work?</h2>
<p>On the island of Anglesey, off the northern coast of Wales, culling between 1998 and 2013 led to the <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/climate-change/news/the-uk-island-which-has-completely-wiped-out-grey-squirrels-a6708781.html">eradication of grey squirrels</a>. As those efforts steadily reduced grey squirrel numbers, the proportion of remaining greys exposed to squirrelpox virus and showing <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10530-014-0671-8">antibodies progressively dwindled</a> to zero, revealing that the virus eventually disappeared from their population.</p>
<p>With fewer hosts to infect, eventually the infection was simply unable to spread between hosts. Although red squirrels were reintroduced before the grey squirrel eradication was completed, the steady decline in levels of infection among grey squirrels explains why no diseased reds were found on the island.</p>
<p>Across Wales, an <a href="https://research.bangor.ac.uk/portal/en/researchoutputs/striving-for-success-an-evaluation-of-local-action-to-conserve-red-squirrels-sciurus-vulgaris-in-wales(1963b515-5120-482d-b11b-59da05c9457a).html">estimated 1,500 red squirrels</a> may remain. Whereas there were only <a href="https://cdn.naturalresources.wales/media/691092/eng-red-squirrel-conservation-plan-for-wales.pdf">40 on Anglesey in 1998</a>, today there are perhaps 800. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1597980163266195456"}"></div></p>
<p>In 2009, red squirrels were first recorded on the Gwynedd mainland having <a href="https://www.dailypost.co.uk/news/north-wales-news/red-squirrels-spotted-areas-first-13519515">crossed the narrow Menai Strait from Anglesey</a>. This population expanded but since 2017, there have been repeated <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-north-west-wales-42377351">squirrelpox outbreaks</a> there. </p>
<p>The problem with culling outside of a closed environment like an island is that, to be effective, control has to be coordinated over ever-larger areas, which is expensive and time-consuming. Sporadic or localised mainland grey squirrel culling simply leads to <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20728617">rapid re-invasion</a>. </p>
<p>Red squirrels also naturally return to the habitats from where greys are removed. This inevitably leads to mixing and continued risk of infection.</p>
<h2>Birth control</h2>
<p>So what more can be done? A complementary, non-lethal population control method is being developed. This is an oral <a href="https://theconversation.com/grey-squirrels-is-birth-control-the-solution-to-britains-invasive-species-problem-154400">contraceptive bait</a> which, if consumed, makes grey squirrels infertile. It would be deployed in hoppers designed to only allow grey squirrels access.</p>
<p>Although this is an exciting prospect, research suggests effective use would <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0304380020304506">require grey populations to be reduced first by culling</a>, before the contraceptive is presented. Using bait will also require coordination between a multitude of landowners, not all of whom may wish to be involved or pay for control.</p>
<p>It is therefore an important part of a future solution, but not a simple panacea. </p>
<h2>Pine marten to the rescue?</h2>
<p>Another interesting possibility could be to use pine martens to control the grey population. The pine marten is being reintroduced into many parts of Britain <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2352249620300240">including woodlands adjacent to Anglesey</a>. The occasional individual has been <a href="https://www.dailypost.co.uk/news/north-wales-news/rare-squirrel-eating-predator-discovered-24466313">detected on the island</a> too. </p>
<p>Pine marten <a href="https://theconversation.com/grey-squirrels-are-oblivious-to-threat-from-pine-martens-giving-native-reds-the-advantage-131064">predation is more pronounced upon grey</a> than red squirrels, and this fact could lead to the suppression of the squirrelpox pathogen. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/502129/original/file-20221220-20-w0zd44.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/502129/original/file-20221220-20-w0zd44.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=352&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502129/original/file-20221220-20-w0zd44.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=352&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502129/original/file-20221220-20-w0zd44.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=352&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502129/original/file-20221220-20-w0zd44.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=443&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502129/original/file-20221220-20-w0zd44.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=443&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502129/original/file-20221220-20-w0zd44.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=443&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The pine marten is being reintroduced into many parts of Britain.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Recent <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304380022003143">mathematical modelling</a> has reinforced the potential role for this native predator in reducing the impact of invasive grey squirrels and the infectious diseases they harbour. <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2352249620300240">Research by myself and colleagues</a> suggests that grey squirrels would decline if pine martens are reintroduced, and often their numbers would then be insufficient for the virus to be maintained. </p>
<p>One uncertainty is exactly how much of an effect this predator would have, because it is omnivorous and hunts a wide variety of prey. When vole populations are high, for example, pine martens may focus their hunting on this prey, and <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/oik.08565">less on grey or red squirrels</a>. Nevertheless, pine marten recovery is likely to be a positive contribution to grey squirrel management and our modelling predictions are dramatic. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, both this and commercial contraceptive use are only likely to assist in the medium to long term. Consequently, we are currently left with expensive ongoing local culling programmes. </p>
<h2>A vaccine is essential</h2>
<p>A big gap in our ability to fight squirrelpox comes from the fact there is currently <a href="https://squirrelaccord.uk/squirrels/squirrel-pox-disease/">no vaccine available for the disease</a>. The <a href="https://www.wildlifearktrust.com/appeal.html">Wildlife Ark Trust</a> funded a vaccine development programme, but insufficient funding meant this research stopped a decade ago.</p>
<p>With no way to inoculate red squirrels against the pox virus, we can do little in the face of inevitable future squirrelpox outbreaks such as that which occurred near Bangor. It is to our collective shame that research halted because of insufficient funding and political will.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/196811/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>I have given long standing and public support for the Wildlife Ark Trust vaccine appeal. </span></em></p>There is no single, straightforward way to safeguard the future of this native mammal at the moment – but here are some optionsCraig Shuttleworth, Honorary Visiting Research Fellow, Bangor UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1824972022-05-25T20:14:59Z2022-05-25T20:14:59ZAvian influenza: How bird flu affects domestic and wild flocks, and why a One Health approach matters<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465133/original/file-20220524-21-6ngtt3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=80%2C4%2C2852%2C1953&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The strain of H5N1 bird flu identified in Canada, the United States and Europe can cause severe disease and high mortality in domestic poultry.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Robert F. Bukaty)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>A strain of avian flu virus is spreading in domestic poultry flocks in Canada, but is not a risk to humans at this point in time.</p>
<p>Avian influenza virus, commonly known as bird flu, is a contagious influenza type A virus that can infect and kill poultry (such as chickens, turkeys, pheasants, quail, domestic ducks, geese and guinea fowl) and wild birds (including migratory birds). </p>
<p>There are at least 16 types of avian influenza virus, which are classified by a combination of two groups of proteins: hemagglutinin or HA, and neuraminidase or NA. This is where the H and N in avian influenza strains come from: they identify specific HA and NA proteins, like the current H5N1 strain causing outbreaks in Europe, the <a href="https://www.ctvnews.ca/health/u-s-reports-its-first-human-case-of-h5-bird-flu-1.5881424">United States</a> and <a href="https://www.ctvnews.ca/health/avian-flu-is-spreading-across-canadian-poultry-farms-here-s-what-you-need-to-know-1.5853215">Canada</a>. </p>
<p>Types of avian influenza virus are further classified as highly pathogenic (HPAI) or low pathogenicity (LPAI). HPAI viruses — including the current strain of H5N1 — <a href="https://www.aphis.usda.gov/aphis/ourfocus/animalhealth/animal-disease-information/avian/avian-influenza">are extremely infectious, can cause severe disease and high mortality (90-100 per cent) in domesticated poultry</a> and spreads rapidly from flock to flock. </p>
<h2>Avian influenza: Where is it?</h2>
<p>Pathogenicity (the ability to cause disease) is defined in relation to disease severity in domestic poultry. Nonetheless, the reach of avian flu is not limited to this population. H5N1 is spreading in wild bird populations across the globe. <a href="https://www.oie.int/en/document/h5n1-highly-pathogenic-avian-influenza-in-poultry-and-wild-birds-winter-of-2021-2022-with-focus-on-mass-mortality-of-wild-birds-in-uk-and-israel/">Significant outbreaks have been detected in Asia, Africa and Europe since October 2021</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Red chickens at outdoor feeders" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465140/original/file-20220524-24-f7i299.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465140/original/file-20220524-24-f7i299.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465140/original/file-20220524-24-f7i299.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465140/original/file-20220524-24-f7i299.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465140/original/file-20220524-24-f7i299.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465140/original/file-20220524-24-f7i299.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465140/original/file-20220524-24-f7i299.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Domestic poultry can be exposed to avian flu by infected migratory birds.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Steve Helber)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>H5N1 is of immediate national concern in Canada, as migratory birds flock to our shores. The Eurasian strain of H5N1 was detected in Newfoundland in December 2021, and in hunted wild birds in the eastern U.S. in January 2022. Between December 2021 and May 2022, this virus has been detected in <a href="https://inspection.canada.ca/animal-health/terrestrial-animals/diseases/reportable/avian-influenza/hpai-in-canada/status-of-ongoing-avian-influenza-response-by-prov/eng/1640207916497/1640207916934">eight Canadian provinces</a> and <a href="https://www.aphis.usda.gov/aphis/ourfocus/animalhealth/animal-disease-information/avian/avian-influenza/hpai-2022">35 U.S. states</a>.</p>
<h2>Avian influenza and animal health</h2>
<p>Wild birds can be infected with highly pathogenic avian influenza and show no signs of illness. They can carry the disease to new areas when migrating, exposing domestic poultry to the virus. </p>
<p>An <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/migratory-game-bird-hunting/avian-influenza-wild-birds.html">infected bird may show signs</a> including coughing, gasping for air, head swelling and diarrhea. Because influenza viruses in birds can replicate in tissues beyond the respiratory system, infected birds may also display neurological signs including paralysis and tremor. </p>
<p>Once infected, mortality is nearly unavoidable in some bird species, occurring within 24-72 hours. The first sign of infection may sometimes be mass mortality events.</p>
<p>Ramifications of outbreaks are borne by individual farmers and felt throughout the agricultural sector. Where outbreaks occur, it is often the policy to <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-05-06/bird-flu-outbreak-nears-worst-ever-in-u-s-with-37-million-dead">cull all poultry</a>, whether infected or healthy, to help contain the spread of the virus. This represents <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/fraser-valley-avian-flu-1.6462000">heavy economic losses for farmers</a>, which can have a long-lasting impact on their livelihoods and well-being. </p>
<p>Of course, avian influenza virus does not differentiate between farm and field; it may decimate wild bird populations in addition to cultivated flocks, and there have been reports of <a href="https://www.oie.int/en/document/h5n1-highly-pathogenic-avian-influenza-in-poultry-and-wild-birds-winter-of-2021-2022-with-focus-on-mass-mortality-of-wild-birds-in-uk-and-israel/">mass mortality incidents in the United Kingdom and Israel in 2021 and 2022</a>. In addition to disrupting the local ecology, including often delicately calibrated food webs, such outbreaks occur at the detriment of biodiversity.</p>
<h2>Avian influenza virus and environmental health</h2>
<p>The effects of climate change on disease ecology are impossible to ignore. Migratory birds — especially waterfowl — are a <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/flu/avianflu/avian-in-birds.htm">natural reservoir for avian influenza virus</a>. As birds migrate and mingle with other individuals and flocks, viruses “drift” and “shift,” meaning that viral genetic material may change in unexpected ways. </p>
<p>In the context of <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.20506/rst.27.2.1821">avian flu and climate change</a>, where migration routes and seasons are changing, previously separate migratory bird populations are now encountering one another, increasing the probability that new virus variants will emerge. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465137/original/file-20220524-11834-snn7an.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Birds in a grassy area with more birds flying overhead" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465137/original/file-20220524-11834-snn7an.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465137/original/file-20220524-11834-snn7an.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465137/original/file-20220524-11834-snn7an.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465137/original/file-20220524-11834-snn7an.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465137/original/file-20220524-11834-snn7an.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465137/original/file-20220524-11834-snn7an.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465137/original/file-20220524-11834-snn7an.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cranes fly at the Hula Lake conservation area in January 2022 in northern Israel, where bird flu has killed thousands of migratory cranes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Ariel Schalit)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Avian influenza virus and human health</h2>
<p>Several avian influenza subtypes, including the H5 subtype, <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fpathogens10050630">have been shown to cross species, travelling from birds into mammals — including dogs, cats, swine and humans</a>. It is important to note that these events are infrequent and that <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/flu/avianflu/avian-in-humans.htm">avian influenza virus does not currently pose a health risk to humans</a>. </p>
<p>Although close to <a href="https://www.who.int/emergencies/disease-outbreak-news/item/influenza-a-(h5)---united-kingdom-of-great-britain-and-northern-ireland">880 human infections and over 450 deaths</a> have been attributed to previous strains of H5N1, there have only been two known cases of <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2022/s0428-avian-flu.html">human infection with the current circulating strain</a>. However, there is a concern that, through mutations and genetic exchanges, H5N1 avian influenza virus may gain the ability to transmit from birds to humans and possibly from humans to humans. </p>
<p>Because of avian flu’s potential to spread rapidly throughout an animal population, a robust surveillance program to monitor the evolution and diversity of avian influenza viruses for preventive action is an essential public health measure.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465141/original/file-20220524-12-1ibzmd.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Many white chickens at a chicken farm" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465141/original/file-20220524-12-1ibzmd.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465141/original/file-20220524-12-1ibzmd.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465141/original/file-20220524-12-1ibzmd.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465141/original/file-20220524-12-1ibzmd.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465141/original/file-20220524-12-1ibzmd.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=507&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465141/original/file-20220524-12-1ibzmd.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=507&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465141/original/file-20220524-12-1ibzmd.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=507&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">There is an urgent need for governments to invest in local and global initiatives that focus on the human-animal-environment interface of disease.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Jonathan Hayward</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Avian influenza virus and One Health</h2>
<p>Management and control of avian influenza virus requires a <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/questions-and-answers/item/one-health">One Health approach</a>, which places equal importance on measures that address avian influenza virus from animal, human and environmental health perspectives. </p>
<p>Climate change, human population growth and socio-economic factors have long-lasting impacts on environmental health. A cross-sectoral approach for communication and preparedness responses is needed to co-ordinate surveillance and biosecurity measures that will control outbreaks. A <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Ftropicalmed4020088">One Health approach</a> will help ensure environmental conservation obligations are met and the health of people, livestock and wildlife is protected.</p>
<p>There is an urgent need for governments to invest in local and global initiatives that focus on the <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/zoonoses">human-animal-environment interface of disease</a>. One such investment includes funding higher education programs in One Health. These programs will prepare the next generation of Canadians to address societal grand challenges — like pandemic preparedness — with a One Health lens, enabling the formation of teams whose expertise transcends disciplinary boundaries. </p>
<p>Now, more than ever, we need to ensure that both local and global One Health initiatives are developed as a core component of planning preparedness for future pandemics.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/182497/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Shayan Sharif receives funding from Food from Thought, Canadian Poultry Research Council, Egg Farmers of Canada and Saskatchewan Chicken Industry. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jeffrey Wichtel is President-Elect of the Deans Council Agriculture, Food and Veterinary Medicine</span></em></p>Avian influenza virus — or bird flu — can infect domestic poultry such as chickens and turkeys, as well as wild birds. The H5N1 strain has been identified in Canada.Shayan Sharif, Professor of Immunology and Associate Dean, Research and Graduate Studies, University of GuelphJeffrey J. Wichtel, Dean, Ontario Veterinary College, University of GuelphLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1544002021-02-03T14:21:34Z2021-02-03T14:21:34ZGrey squirrels: is birth control the solution to Britain’s invasive species problem?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/382224/original/file-20210203-21-kb8tu8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4020%2C2832&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/grey-squirrel-feeding-on-chestnuts-autumn-118390966">Scooperdigital/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>There are thought to be 2.7 million grey squirrels in the UK, versus only 287,000 <a href="http://publications.naturalengland.org.uk/publication/5636785878597632">red squirrels</a>. The invasive greys, brought to Britain and Ireland from North America in the 1870s, are blamed for the disappearance of the native red throughout much of England and Wales, due to the squirrel pox virus they transmit and the fact that they compete for food and habitat with their smaller relatives.</p>
<p>As with the UK’s other invasive species, such as rabbits, signal crayfish and Japanese knotweed, introducing the grey squirrel has proved to be an expensive mistake. Not only do grey squirrels displace red squirrels, they strip bark from trees. <a href="https://rfs.org.uk/news/2020/1-2021/grey-squirrels-threatening-our-woodlands-to-tune-of-11bn/">A recent report</a> estimated that this could cost commercial forestry and native woodlands £1.1 billion (US$1.5 billion) over the next 40 years, including revenue lost to damaged timber, reduced carbon storage, tree replacement costs and squirrel control.</p>
<p>Despite efforts to kill grey squirrels over several decades, their populations remain large and widespread. So could <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-55817385">government-backed plans</a> for using oral contraceptives to control their breeding be the turning point?</p>
<h2>Squirrel birth control</h2>
<p>Before we consider that question, let’s interrogate the idea that grey squirrels are bad for the environment because they damage trees. If we’re worried about carbon in the atmosphere then phasing out fossil fuels, not killing squirrels, is the top priority. And squirrels, even non-native greys, play an important role in woodlands by <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fevo.2020.00259/full">burying the nuts they find</a> and seeding new trees. If grey squirrels were to vanish overnight, then the natural regeneration of UK woodlands would probably slow.</p>
<p>Whether or not the damage caused by this invasive species is exaggerated, these reports inevitably encourage calls for bigger <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2021/01/21/royal-forestry-society-urges-grey-squirrel-cull-wake-1bn-woodland/">culls of grey squirrels</a>. Oral contraceptives might at least be a more humane alternative to live trapping and bludgeoning the animals to death.</p>
<p>Birth control has worked for keeping wildlife populations elsewhere in check. The method, which often involves injecting contraceptives, has proved successful in more than 85 species, including wild horses and elephants, according to <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1600-0897.2011.01003.x">a 2011 review</a>. Contraceptives halved dense and destructive populations of North American <a href="https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/7383/a4c2227392c16c8c6269fd3e91fa65c728a4.pdf?_ga=2.143665589.1480929846.1612138237-212678758.1612138237">white-tailed deer</a> in under 10 years.</p>
<p>Research into using oral contraceptives on grey squirrels in the UK has been ongoing for <a href="https://squirrelaccord.uk/squirrels/fertility_control/">several years</a>, and recent results show promise. Trials using feeders that only grey squirrels can access, baited with hazelnut spread laced with an <a href="https://www.humanesociety.org/resources/questions-and-answers-about-immunocontraception">immunocontraceptive</a> (a drug which tricks the body’s immune system into producing antibodies that interfere with reproduction, by blocking the sperm receptor sites on eggs, for example) indicate that <a href="https://squirrelaccord.uk/news/blog/fertility-research-news-from-the-field/">around 90%</a> of a local population can be treated using this method. Researchers hope this could induce infertility to such an extent that treated populations shrink substantially over time.</p>
<p>Contraceptives have their own <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/csp2.171">ethical concerns</a> though. Being alive isn’t necessarily always better than being dead. We don’t really know what physiological and psychological effects an inability to breed will have on the welfare of grey squirrels.</p>
<p>It’s also important that this contraceptive doesn’t affect other species, though there are measures to ensure this. Bespoke feeding boxes that only grey squirrels can enter limit the risk to other species, in particular red squirrels, by weighting the door of the feeder so that the smaller red <a href="https://squirrelaccord.uk/news/blog/fertility-research-news-from-the-field/">cannot enter</a>. Providing the bait in a hazelnut spread, rather than nuts which squirrels may bury, prevents other animals inadvertently finding and eating the contraceptive. But what about predators? Will their fertility be threatened by eating prey dosed with contraceptives?</p>
<h2>The alternatives</h2>
<p>There are other ways to control grey squirrel populations, such as <a href="https://thebiologist.rsb.org.uk/biologist/158-biologist/features/2245-accelerating-evolution">gene drives</a>. These are altered genes that can be implanted in males and programmed to induce infertility in the genome of their female offspring. Female infertility spreads through the population as the gene drive is carried and inherited by males. Gene drives don’t carry the same risk of cross-contamination between species that contraceptives do, and they are cheaper and easier to implement.</p>
<p>But they still have a long way to go before they’re approved as a control method, as scientists worry that a gene drive could spread from invasive to native populations. Imagine a grey squirrel in the UK that had been treated with a gene drive somehow made it back into their native range in North America – it could mean their extinction.</p>
<p>Perhaps the most popular solution to the grey problem is the pine marten, a predatory mammal that is slightly larger than a ferret. Almost hunted to extinction in the UK, pine martens have made a comeback in recent years. <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/pdf/10.1098/rspb.2017.2603">Research suggests</a> that where martens return to woodland they reduce grey squirrel populations, while boosting the number of red squirrels. But pine martens aren’t going to colonise the entire country – and they are still predators which eat other wildlife and some domestic animals. Their return is likely to face <a href="https://www.scotlandbigpicture.com/rewilding-stories/the-return-of-the-taghan">resistance in some places</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A weasel-like mammal hugging a river bank to sip the water." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381704/original/file-20210201-19-1s9s592.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381704/original/file-20210201-19-1s9s592.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=413&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381704/original/file-20210201-19-1s9s592.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=413&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381704/original/file-20210201-19-1s9s592.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=413&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381704/original/file-20210201-19-1s9s592.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=519&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381704/original/file-20210201-19-1s9s592.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=519&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381704/original/file-20210201-19-1s9s592.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=519&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pine martens are thought to hunt grey squirrels more readily than reds.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/pine-marten-drinking-lake-forest-1798450855">Beata Farkas/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://reader.elsevier.com/reader/sd/pii/S0304380020304506?token=65D4E8A4AD5ED08A53E7A0359A31A65414B15AB18285A97E020D0CB976E7BF1A903F54EFACC860BFCCAEFAB5F95054B7">A recent study</a> suggested the most efficient way to control grey squirrels is a combination of culling and contraceptives. So no matter how effective an oral contraceptive is, culls are likely to continue. Animal welfare campaigners are <a href="https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/562294">lobbying the government</a> to at least halt culls during the breeding season, when female grey squirrels have kits in the nest. As it stands, mothers can be killed and their offspring left to starve.</p>
<p>I’ve written <a href="https://theconversation.com/in-defence-of-the-grey-squirrel-britains-most-unpopular-invader-73983">in defence of grey squirrels</a> before, but I support controlling their populations with contraceptives. While I’d prefer nature to provide its own solution, I welcome methods of controlling so-called pest species that minimise pain and stress. Just because a species causes damage doesn’t mean that we can’t manage them with consideration for ethics and welfare.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/154400/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jason Gilchrist does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Squirrel feeders laced with contraceptives could be used to suppress grey squirrels in the UK.Jason Gilchrist, Ecologist, Edinburgh Napier UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1505672020-11-26T16:03:50Z2020-11-26T16:03:50ZWhy Mauritius is culling an endangered fruit bat that exists nowhere else<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371289/original/file-20201125-17-1jxfrza.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=9%2C6%2C2035%2C1355&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source"> Jacques de Speville</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/18743/86475525">endangered Mauritius fruit bat</a> is once again the centre of a controversial cull at the hands of its government, much to the alarm of wildlife conservation organisations. Under pressure from both farmers and the public, the government of the Indian Ocean island recently <a href="https://goc2020.govmu.org/gisnotice/wp-content/plugins/pdfjs-viewer-shortcode/pdfjs/web/viewer.php?file=https://goc2020.govmu.org/gisnotice/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/Mauritius-fruit-Bat-1.pdf&dButton=true&pButton=true&oButton=false&v=1.5.1#zoom=auto">announced a plan</a> to cull 10% of its 80,000 or so fruit bats to protect the nation’s fruit industry.</p>
<p>Bat culling in Mauritius is fraught with deep divisions and entrenched interests. No one disputes that the fruit bat – the clue is in its name – can cause damage to lychee and mango harvests in orchards and private gardens. That’s why pressure from fruit farmers and the general public led the government to order culls of tens of thousands of bats – at least a third of the species’ population – in 2015, 2016, 2018 and 2019. Many conservationists feel that these culls contravene the <a href="https://www.cbd.int/convention/articles/?a=cbd-08">UN Convention on Biological Diversity</a>, which Mauritius was the very first nation to sign and ratify in 1992.</p>
<p>This has led to perpetual arguments and increasing divisions between farmers, agricultural companies, fruit traders, conservationists academics, government agencies, media and the public.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371288/original/file-20201125-19-11v38hn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A bat hangs upside down from a branch." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371288/original/file-20201125-19-11v38hn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371288/original/file-20201125-19-11v38hn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371288/original/file-20201125-19-11v38hn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371288/original/file-20201125-19-11v38hn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371288/original/file-20201125-19-11v38hn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371288/original/file-20201125-19-11v38hn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371288/original/file-20201125-19-11v38hn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Precious endangered species or annoying pest…or both?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jacques de Speville</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These bats are found nowhere else in the world. That’s why conservation organisations both in Mauritius and elsewhere have raised concerns that these repeated culls could decimate their population. Large island fruit bats are <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/355/6332/1368.full">particularly vulnerable</a> because reproductive rates are low, with females giving birth to just one pup per year at best, which makes it difficult for populations to recover losses. Six of the past eight bat extinctions, including the <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/18763/8585073">Guam flying fox</a> and the lesser Mascarene flying fox, were similar species who succumbed to similar combinations of intense hunting and habitat loss. </p>
<p>Mauritius has already lost two bat species to extinction, and its fruit bats now find themselves in the same precarious situation. Less than 4% of their native forests remain, so there isn’t much leeway for the bats to recover from culls.</p>
<h2>Blame birds – not bats</h2>
<p>However, there is more to this case of <a href="http://www.hwctf.org/resources/tf-publications">human-wildlife conflict</a> than first meets the eye. For one thing, though both the government and media generally portray this as an agricultural problem centred around farmers losing income, several academic studies (including <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/comments?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0220955">one that one of us worked on</a>) have shown that most of the damage to fruit in the island’s orchards is not caused by bats but by birds, often species invasive in Mauritius. Bats, however, make for much better scapegoats.</p>
<p>Bats don’t specifically target orchards but, to the dismay of many Mauritians, also visit people’s backyards, feeding in large groups and making a great deal of noise and mess. These intrusions are hugely irritating and certainly don’t help bats with their popularity. Surprisingly though, we’ve found in our research that it is the general public who have the most hostile attitudes towards bats, many wanting them extinct. Orchard owners had softer NIMBY (“not in my backyard”) attitudes towards bats, wanting the damage taken care of but the bats left alone.</p>
<p>There is also a political angle to any human-wildlife conflict, involving political and economic interests, and the relative dynamics of institutions. It would not be fair to presume the entire government of Mauritius is in favour of killing bats, nor that this is necessarily its own first choice course of action. While the Ministry of Agro-Industry and Food Security may be ordering the culls, its own conservation and agricultural outreach sub-agencies are also keen to explore gentler solutions with minimal resources. To this end, a series of <a href="https://www.iucn.org/news/secretariat/201812/iucn-calls-end-culls-mauritius-fruit-bat">workshops and dialogues</a> with different groups and government agencies between 2017-18 offered initially promising results.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, the scientific conservation community repeatedly emphasises the importance of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1617138118303595?casa_token=BH6sa7Buqc8AAAAA:NPx3frhMKQdPf6e3sGRhekL0ThUxcx9UdC6ogfYKace0ZbYwyUmLBfAXC5m9xWUd7gNiRek31w8E">evidence-based decisions regarding bat culling</a>. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has issued official letters, passed a formal <a href="https://portals.iucn.org/library/node/46436">resolution</a> and a <a href="https://www.iucn.org/sites/dev/files/content/documents/mauritius_bat_position_statement_2018_final.pdf">position statement</a> urging for a U-turn on culling. It has even sent specialist technical assistance in the shape of conservation mediators and bat experts, requesting the Mauritian government to develop alternatives.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371515/original/file-20201126-15-12nt4dz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A tree covered in a net." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371515/original/file-20201126-15-12nt4dz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371515/original/file-20201126-15-12nt4dz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371515/original/file-20201126-15-12nt4dz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371515/original/file-20201126-15-12nt4dz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371515/original/file-20201126-15-12nt4dz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371515/original/file-20201126-15-12nt4dz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371515/original/file-20201126-15-12nt4dz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Tree netting trials in Mauritius.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Alexandra Zimmermann</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Non-lethal damage control solutions do exist. Orchards can be covered in nets, for instance, or trees can be planted in rows and pruned to stay small, which much improves the efficacy of netting as well as crop yield. Such techniques have been shown to work well in Australia and were demonstrated by <a href="https://www.facebook.com/grovesgrowntropicalfruit/">experts from a Queensland lychee farm</a> during a <a href="https://www.mauritian-wildlife.org/mwf-files/files/files/accounts/Netting%20Workshop%20Report%20Aug%202017.pdf">tree netting workshop</a> run as a collaboration between IUCN, the Mauritian Wildlife Foundation (an NGO) and the Mauritian government.</p>
<p>But the conflict seems at an impasse, as the proposed practical measures are proving near impossible to implement. So long as people are divided, and neither side trusts the other, evidence-based arguments simply won’t gain traction. There is great need for extensive mediation work to bring the parties together and rebuild cooperative relationships. As so often in <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/csp2.259">complex human wildlife conflicts</a>, the missing piece is the acceptance that you’ll rarely solve a complex social problem by arguing about facts. </p>
<p>Public opinion is deeply divided, and the escalating tensions between the farmers, public, conservationists, and government are the primary obstacle to progress. Soon this may become an intractable hindrance to finding any commonly acceptable way forward.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/150567/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alexandra Zimmermann is Chair of the IUCN SSC Human-Wildlife Conflict Task Force and has received funding from Chester Zoo. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ewan Macdonald currently receives funding from Saïd Business School's Future of Marketing Initiative and The Donkey Sanctuary, he has in the past received funding from Chester Zoo.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tigga Kingston received small grants in support of travel to Mauritius from Lubee Bat Conservancy, San Diego Zoo, Zoo Leipzig, Chester Zoo, Zoo Landau, Zoos Victoria, Paignton Zoo, Ray Hole Architects, Zoological Society of London, Houston Zoo, Wildlife Reserves Singapore. She is co-Chair of the IUCN Species Survival Commission Bat Specialist Group, with responsibility for the Old World. </span></em></p>Conflict between fruit-growers, the Mauritian government and conservationists has dragged on for years – it’s time for a new approach.Alexandra Zimmermann, Senior Research Fellow, University of OxfordEwan Macdonald, Research Fellow in Conservation Marketing, University of OxfordTigga Kingston, Professor, Department of Biological Sciences, Texas Tech UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1427212020-07-22T05:28:35Z2020-07-22T05:28:35ZLifeguards with drones keep us (and sharks) safe, and beach-goers agree<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/348758/original/file-20200722-21-168xw69.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=22%2C34%2C3811%2C2121&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Andrew Colefax</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/teenager-dies-after-shark-attack-on-mid-north-coast-of-nsw-20200711-p55b65.html">A teenager in New South Wales</a> recently died after a fatal shark bite, <a href="https://taronga.org.au/conservation-and-science/australian-shark-attack-file">adding to four</a> other unprovoked shark-related deaths this year. These tragic events send shockwaves through the community and re-ignite our fear of sharks. </p>
<p>They also fuel the debate around the best way to keep people safe in the water while minimising impacts on marine wildlife. This was the aim of a five-year trial of shark-mitigation technology – the <a href="https://www.sharksmart.nsw.gov.au/">Shark Management Strategy</a> – which finished recently. </p>
<p>The NSW government created this initiative in response to an <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-02-09/record-number-of-shark-attacks-in-2015/7153046">unprecedented spike</a> in shark bites in 2015, particularly on the north coast of NSW. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/348765/original/file-20200722-27-1h11moo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A red and white drone hovers by an empty beach." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/348765/original/file-20200722-27-1h11moo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/348765/original/file-20200722-27-1h11moo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/348765/original/file-20200722-27-1h11moo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/348765/original/file-20200722-27-1h11moo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/348765/original/file-20200722-27-1h11moo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/348765/original/file-20200722-27-1h11moo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/348765/original/file-20200722-27-1h11moo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The beach community overwhelmingly prefers drone surveillance to lethal strategies.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Andrew Colefax</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Among the various technology trials, drones were investigated for their potential to scan the surf for sharks and keep beach-goers safe. Increasingly, lifeguards are now operating drones. And our recent survey found this idea has public support, as it not only protects humans but helps keep sharks safe too.</p>
<h2>Lethal strategies are still in play, but not supported</h2>
<p>The media has in the past sensationalised calls for shark culling, but <a href="https://theconversation.com/tide-turned-surveys-show-the-public-has-lost-its-appetite-for-shark-culls-89163">public support has waned</a>. Yet the use of lethal strategies at various sections of the <a href="https://www.sharksmart.nsw.gov.au/shark-nets">NSW</a> and Queensland coastlines is ongoing. </p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/tide-turned-surveys-show-the-public-has-lost-its-appetite-for-shark-culls-89163">Tide turned: surveys show the public has lost its appetite for shark culls</a>
</strong>
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<p>For example, the <a href="https://www.sharksmart.nsw.gov.au/shark-nets">shark netting program</a> in NSW includes 51 beaches between Newcastle and Wollongong. In <a href="https://www.daf.qld.gov.au/business-priorities/fisheries/shark-control-program/shark-control-equipment">Queensland</a>, more than 26 shark nets and 350 drumlines are stationed between the Gold Coast and Cairns.</p>
<p>Drumlines catch (and kill) sharks using baited shark hooks suspended from large plastic floats, whereas shark nets aim to catch and entangle passing sharks. Shark nets also often accidentally catch – and kill – other marine wildlife, such as rays, turtles and dolphins. </p>
<p>Shark nets were among the trials in the NSW Shark Management Strategy. But community support <a href="https://www.sharksmart.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0018/1237014/sms-factsheet-nets.pdf">was low</a> as they were considered ineffective, outdated and destructive. </p>
<h2>Low-impact technology</h2>
<p>The program predominately tested and promoted emerging technologies considered non-lethal. Alongside drones, this <a href="https://www.sharksmart.nsw.gov.au/technology-trials-and-research">included</a> SMART (non-lethal) drumlines, helicopter surveillance, shark listening stations, shark barriers, buoys that detect sharks through their movement patterns, and personal shark deterrent devices that people can add to their surfboards or other gear.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/z007p-8e_QA?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
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<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2020.104127">Our recent research</a> found the NSW beach community mostly supported the use of drones. </p>
<p>Unlike other shark mitigation technologies, drones require little infrastructure. They can also provide other beach safety services, such as monitoring rips and assisting with search and rescue.</p>
<p>So far, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0964569118308135">shark surveillance drones</a> have operated on over 18 beaches, in collaboration with NSW Surf Life Saving. </p>
<p>Lifeguards manually fly drones throughout the day within their line-of-sight, and scan the live-streamed video feed for sharks. If they spot a shark, the pilots decide whether it threatens public safety, and whether sounding the drone’s alarm and evacuating the people from the water is required.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/shark-nets-and-culls-dont-necessarily-make-australian-beaches-safer-124156">Shark nets and culls don't necessarily make Australian beaches safer</a>
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<p>During the trials involving Surf Life Saving NSW between October 2018 and April 2019, <a href="https://www.sharksmart.nsw.gov.au/technology-trials-and-research/drones">350 sharks were spotted</a>, which led to 48 beach evacuations. </p>
<h2>Fitting drones with new tech</h2>
<p>Drones can also be further developed as new technology becomes available, such as customised sensors to improve detection reliability.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/348814/original/file-20200722-35-jem86t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A turtle swims by a school of fish and coral." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/348814/original/file-20200722-35-jem86t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/348814/original/file-20200722-35-jem86t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/348814/original/file-20200722-35-jem86t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/348814/original/file-20200722-35-jem86t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/348814/original/file-20200722-35-jem86t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=507&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/348814/original/file-20200722-35-jem86t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=507&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/348814/original/file-20200722-35-jem86t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=507&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Turtles are often unintended victims of shark nets.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>And the latest scientific drone trial, which finished at the end of the Easter school holidays this year, saw <a href="https://www.surflifesaving.com.au/news/lifesavers-use-ai-technology-spot-sharks">artificial intelligence technology</a> tested on five beaches to improve shark detection rates and species identification. </p>
<p>Species identification is important because not all sharks are considered potentially dangerous to swimmers and surfers. Misidentification or uncertainty can also result in unnecessary beach closures and disruptions, which can reinforce our fears around sharks. AI could assist lifeguards with drone surveillance as early as next summer. </p>
<h2>Backed by beach-goers</h2>
<p>Of all the shark safety measures, drones were by far the most preferred option with NSW beach communities. The next most popular choice was “other aerial surveillance”. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2020.104127">We surveyed</a> 439 people, and found 88% either support or strongly support the use of drones as a shark-bite mitigation measure. Many said they consider it an excellent, inexpensive tool for the safety of people and sharks. </p>
<p>However, 22% of respondents said they either weren’t sure or didn’t want to see drones on their beaches. Some had privacy concerns, and others (less than 10%) had issues around drone operational conduct and its ability to really “see” sharks. This illustrates the importance for drone surveillance operations to be transparent and particularly sensitive to privacy issues.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/348768/original/file-20200722-37-yoemqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A tiger shark swims beside large rocks." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/348768/original/file-20200722-37-yoemqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/348768/original/file-20200722-37-yoemqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/348768/original/file-20200722-37-yoemqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/348768/original/file-20200722-37-yoemqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/348768/original/file-20200722-37-yoemqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/348768/original/file-20200722-37-yoemqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/348768/original/file-20200722-37-yoemqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Sharks are often killed in nets and drumlines.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Interestingly, one in five people seemed more willing to accept personal risk when entering the ocean, selecting public education, “nothing” or the use of personal shark deterrents as their preferred options. </p>
<h2>The best available approach</h2>
<p>In facing an uncertain economic future and a growing ecological emergency, strategies to boost beach safety in NSW must be cost-effective, ecologically benign and acceptable to the beach community. </p>
<p>However, no strategy can claim to be 100% effective for keeping beach-goers safe from sharks. Drones too have their <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0964569118308135">limitations</a>. For example, the ability to see through the water is limited when its turbid or in low light.</p>
<p>Still, drones appear to provide the best available and most publicly acceptable approach as the NSW government moves beyond its five-year shark management program. </p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/not-just-nets-how-to-stop-shark-attacks-without-killing-sharks-69400">Not just nets: how to stop shark attacks without killing sharks</a>
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<p>For its long-term deployment, in NSW or elsewhere, we need continued community education, more research into improving detection and identification tools, and strong guidance and training for drone operators. </p>
<p>With this in place, drones can be a valuable asset to add to the beach-safety toolkit throughout Australia, and provide increasing safety from sharks with minimal impact.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/142721/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew Colefax had received funding from the NSW Department of Primary Industries (Shark Management Strategy) to investigate the use of drones for shark surveillance and beach safety as part of his PhD, which was submitted earlier this year. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Betty Weiler, Debra Stokes, and Kirin Apps do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Recent shark-related deaths fuel the debate around the best way to keep people safe in the water, without hurting marine wildlife.Debra Stokes, Lecturer in Environmental Science, Southern Cross UniversityAndrew Colefax, Postdoctoral research fellow, Southern Cross UniversityBetty Weiler, Professor, School of Business and Tourism, Southern Cross UniversityKirin Apps, Associate lecturer, Southern Cross UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1228882020-03-06T12:19:32Z2020-03-06T12:19:32ZBritain’s endangered native ponies could help habitats recover – and Brexit offers an opportunity<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/318271/original/file-20200303-66112-1nphz0r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C754%2C4200%2C1666&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Ponies grazing in a bluebell meadow in Dartmoor National Park, Devon.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/ponies-grazing-bluebell-meadow-emsworthy-mire-283019927">Helen Hotson/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The UK’s semi-wild ponies are for the most part small, hairy characters whose physique and behaviour have been shaped by the windswept highlands they live in. Two breeds that have been roaming free since the Bronze Age are the Dartmoor Hill Pony, which is found on the hills and commons of Dartmoor in south-west England, and the Carneddau Mountain Pony, native to the Carneddau Mountains in Snowdonia, Wales. </p>
<p>But after thousands of years of surviving in some of Britain’s most remote areas, what happens to the ponies next will be decided in offices and meeting rooms hundreds of miles away. As it stands, these ponies are not classed as domesticated breeds, nor agricultural animals, nor even wildlife.</p>
<p>This ambiguity is a problem because these primitive ponies need urgent help. Census data indicate that the Dartmoor Hill Pony herd has declined from a high of 12,250 in the 1960s to 1,200 today. Meanwhile, there are only around 300 Carneddau Ponies left in Snowdonia.</p>
<p>The situation for wild horse populations is reversed in other countries. On American ranges, the current population of mustangs is estimated to be <a href="https://theconversation.com/symbols-of-pioneer-spirit-they-may-be-but-wild-mustangs-cannot-manage-themselves-30167">twice the “appropriate management level”</a> as set by the Bureau of Land Management, while feral horse numbers have <a href="https://theconversation.com/double-trouble-as-feral-horse-numbers-gallop-past-25-000-in-the-australian-alps-128852">more than doubled</a> since 2014 in Australia’s Kosciusko National Park. </p>
<p>In both cases, extreme measures such as <a href="https://abcnews.go.com/US/wild-horses-facing-slaughter-us-government-proposes-regulations/story?id=52538898">culling</a> have been <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-ethical-and-cultural-case-for-culling-australias-mountain-horses-64602">proposed to control numbers</a>, leading to <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-do-brumbies-evoke-such-passion-its-all-down-to-the-high-countrys-cultural-myth-makers-97933">public protests</a>. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/when-introduced-species-are-cute-and-loveable-culling-them-is-a-tricky-proposition-130471">When introduced species are cute and loveable, culling them is a tricky proposition</a>
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<p>But the feral populations in these high-profile cases are not “native”. They are instead descended from animals that escaped from, or were released by, European settlers in the 16th century. This means that they are, in ecological terms, alien species, and there is <a href="https://theconversation.com/passing-the-brumby-bill-is-a-backward-step-for-environmental-protection-in-australia-97920">mounting scientific evidence</a> that they are putting the ecosystems they now call home at risk through trampling vegetation and changing plant communities.</p>
<p>In sharp contrast, the numbers of native horses and ponies in the countries where many of these feral populations originated are dwindling.</p>
<h2>Conservation grazing</h2>
<p>In the UK, conservationists trying to safeguard the future of native ponies are hindered by the government’s own criteria for defining these animals. Because they live and reproduce outside of human control, Britain’s semi-wild ponies aren’t protected by breed societies or registers. So although they’re both “native” and “rare”, they <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/uk-breeds-at-risk-from-exotic-animal-disease-outbreaks/uk-breeds-at-risk-list-bar">don’t qualify as a “native breed at risk”</a>, and so aren’t eligible for government support.</p>
<p>But indigenous ponies within their native ecosystems can have major benefits. Since Brexit is expected to lead to substantial changes in land use, the government should consider how useful these breeds might be, particularly in hilly and mountainous areas. </p>
<p>The new Agriculture Bill promises to pay farmers not for how much farmland they manage, but their ability to <a href="https://theconversation.com/agriculture-bill-heres-what-it-means-for-farming-and-the-environment-after-brexit-130091">deliver public goods</a>, like clean air and water. This is an opportunity to acknowledge and reward the grazing outcomes of livestock types other than sheep and cattle before it’s too late.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/agriculture-bill-heres-what-it-means-for-farming-and-the-environment-after-brexit-130091">Agriculture Bill: here's what it means for farming and the environment after Brexit</a>
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<p>Many upland areas of the UK and Europe have become dominated by plant species that grazing sheep and cattle don’t like to eat, such as purple moorgrass, bracken and rushes. As these plants tend to overrun the ecosystem, they drastically reduce biodiversity and <a href="https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/features/volunteers-tackle-invasive-grass-on-yorkshire-moors">increase the risk of destructive wildfires</a>. This deterioration of grassland ecosystems has led to an increasing interest in <a href="https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/woolbeding-countryside/features/conservation-grazing">conservation grazing</a>, that is, the targeted use of domesticated or semi-feral grazers to improve biodiversity.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/319065/original/file-20200306-118890-oymsnw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/319065/original/file-20200306-118890-oymsnw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/319065/original/file-20200306-118890-oymsnw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/319065/original/file-20200306-118890-oymsnw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/319065/original/file-20200306-118890-oymsnw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/319065/original/file-20200306-118890-oymsnw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/319065/original/file-20200306-118890-oymsnw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Flames engulf heathland in the North York Moors.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/goathland-yorkshire-uk-flames-engulf-heathlandmoorland-1325718758">Daniel J. Rao/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>Semi-wild ponies have been largely neglected in research, but there <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320718314800">is evidence</a> that they prefer to graze many of the highly competitive plants that threaten grassland biodiversity. They also have <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3631405/">rare genetics</a> that have been shaped by <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320718314800">natural and not artificial selection</a>. This could mean they possess physical or behavioural adaptations that are no longer present in domesticated horses and ponies, which might make them more effective at managing native grasslands.</p>
<p>Britain’s struggling semi-wild ponies need help, but they also offer a unique opportunity to help restore habitats and allow a diverse range of species to flourish. As the UK government shifts its priorities for managing land after Brexit, it should seize the chance to protect their rare genetics and unleash the potential of upland ecosystems at the same time.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/122888/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mariecia Fraser does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Wild ponies have lived in Britain for over 4,000 years, but they’re in danger of dying out.Mariecia Fraser, Reader in Upland Agroecology, Aberystwyth UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1304712020-02-10T19:11:34Z2020-02-10T19:11:34ZWhen introduced species are cute and loveable, culling them is a tricky proposition<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/314345/original/file-20200210-27533-kwgg4k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=672%2C226%2C3252%2C1956&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Almost <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320719300357?dgcid=author">one in five Australians</a> think introduced horses and foxes are native to Australia, and others don’t want “cute” or “charismatic” animals culled, even when they damage the environment. So what are the implications of these attitudes as we help nature recover from bushfires?</p>
<p>Public opposition to culling programs is often at odds with scientists and conservationists. </p>
<p>These tensions came to the fore last month when scientists <a href="https://theconversation.com/fire-almost-wiped-out-rare-species-in-the-australian-alps-feral-horses-are-finishing-the-job-130584">renewed calls</a> for a horse-culling program to protect native species in Kosciusko National Park – a move strongly opposed by some members of the public. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1225598738451685376"}"></div></p>
<p>To manage the environment effectively, including after bushfires, we need to understand the diversity of opinion on what constitutes a native animal, and recognise how these <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320716302774">attitudes can change</a>.</p>
<h2>Governments are responding</h2>
<p>In Australia, native species are usually defined as those present before European settlement in 1788. Lethal pest control usually targets species introduced after this time, such as horses, foxes, deer, rabbits, pigs, and cats.</p>
<p>But fire makes native fauna more vulnerable to introduced predators. Fire removes ground layer vegetation that small wildlife would use as protective cover. When this cover is gone, these animals are <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2017-06-02/cats-foxes-able-to-easily-target-native-animals-after-fires/8579838">easier targets</a> for predators like cats and foxes.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/fire-almost-wiped-out-rare-species-in-the-australian-alps-feral-horses-are-finishing-the-job-130584">Fire almost wiped out rare species in the Australian Alps. Feral horses are finishing the job</a>
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<p>State governments have started to respond to this impending crisis. In January, the New South Wales government announced its <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-4ZbBQfdCvI&fbclid=IwAR2HT_mWa7g3l5cLyuwk4-0e7RAJPlDbXIS7mcQAtwHOz9V6pjY--7QSg78&app=desktop">largest ever program</a> to control feral predators, in an effort to protect native fauna after the fires. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/-/media/OEH/Corporate-Site/Documents/Parks-reserves-and-protected-areas/Fire/wildlife-and-conservation-bushfire-recovery-immediate-response-january-2020-200027.pdf">plan</a> includes 1500-2000 hours of aerial and ground shooting of deer, pigs, and goats and distributing up to a million poison baits targeting foxes, cats, and dingoes over 12 months.</p>
<p>Similarly, the Victorian government announced a <a href="https://www.wildlife.vic.gov.au/home/biodiversity-bushfire-response-and-recovery">A$17.5 million program</a> to protect biodiversity the fires affected, including A$7 million for intensified management of threats like introduced animals.</p>
<p>But will the public be on board? Widespread media coverage of the recent fires and their impacts on wildlife, including the loss of <a href="https://sydney.edu.au/news-opinion/news/2020/01/08/australian-bushfires-more-than-one-billion-animals-impacted.html">more than a billion animals</a>, might garner support for protecting native wildlife from pests. </p>
<p>On the other hand, efforts to manage animals such as cats and horses might be hampered by a lack of public support for culling charismatic animals that many people value or view as belonging in Australia now.</p>
<h2>Different folks, different strokes</h2>
<p>The distinctions many Australians draw – native animals are “good” and introduced species are “bad” – shape how people view conservation efforts. A <a href="https://authors.elsevier.com/a/1aS2H1R%7EeEeS5">survey</a> we conducted in 2017 found people more likely to disapprove of lethal methods for managing species they perceived to be native.</p>
<p>In the same survey, we found nearly one in five Australians considered horses and foxes to be native to Australia.</p>
<p>This suggests either that a) people lack knowledge of Australia’s natural history or b) people disagree with conservationists’ definition of animal “nativeness”.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/314346/original/file-20200210-27569-7j0e6g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/314346/original/file-20200210-27569-7j0e6g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/314346/original/file-20200210-27569-7j0e6g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/314346/original/file-20200210-27569-7j0e6g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/314346/original/file-20200210-27569-7j0e6g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/314346/original/file-20200210-27569-7j0e6g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/314346/original/file-20200210-27569-7j0e6g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Calls to manage horses to prevent environmental degradation in Australian national parks are hugely controversial, with many people arguing the horses belong now.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Many introduced species, such as horses and foxes, have existed in Australia for more than a century and have established populations across much of the country. It’s unlikely they’ll ever be eradicated. </p>
<p>Some people, including <a href="https://theconversation.com/lets-give-feral-cats-their-citizenship-45165">scientists</a>, say we should just accept introduced species as part of Australia’s fauna. They argue current management justifies killing based on <a href="https://theconversation.com/non-native-species-should-count-in-conservation-even-in-australia-127926">moral, not scientific judgements</a> and introduced animals may <a href="https://theconversation.com/from-feral-camels-to-cocaine-hippos-large-animals-are-rewilding-the-world-83301">increase biodiversity</a>.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/feral-cat-cull-why-the-2-million-target-is-on-scientifically-shaky-ground-111824">Feral cat cull: why the 2 million target is on scientifically shaky ground</a>
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<p>But the issue remains extremely divisive. A central tenet of traditional conservation is that humans have a <a href="http://doi.org/10.2307/1310054">duty to protect</a> native species and ecosystems from the threat introduced species pose. It’s difficult to do this without culling introduced animals.</p>
<p>Animal welfare concerns may also drive opposition to culling, taking the view that all animals, even non-natives, have intrinsic value and the right to live.</p>
<p>What’s more, non-native culling programs can be controversial when the animal is considered “cute” or “charismatic”, or of cultural value. For example, a <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-08-02/protest-outside-nsw-parliament-against-kosciusko-brumbies-cull/7681444">plan to cull feral horses</a> in the Kosciusko National Park in 2018 was met with public outrage, prompting the NSW government to <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-05-20/culling-kosciousko-brumbies-banned-under-plan-national-icon/9780558">overturn the decision</a>. </p>
<p>Yet protecting introduced species in national parks goes against the very reason they were created – to conserve <em>native</em> ecosystems and species.</p>
<h2>Some animals are more equal than others</h2>
<p>When analysing public attitudes towards various species, we must also consider how attitudes shift over time. </p>
<p>In Australia, non-native animals such as <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2014.10.013">domestic camels</a> and donkeys were considered useful for transport and highly valued. But we ultimately turned them loose and relabelled them as pests when we started using cars. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/311887/original/file-20200125-81416-12q5bqv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/311887/original/file-20200125-81416-12q5bqv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=168&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311887/original/file-20200125-81416-12q5bqv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=168&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311887/original/file-20200125-81416-12q5bqv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=168&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311887/original/file-20200125-81416-12q5bqv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=211&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311887/original/file-20200125-81416-12q5bqv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=211&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311887/original/file-20200125-81416-12q5bqv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=211&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">We asked the Australian public whether they viewed dingoes, horses, and foxes as native or non-native in Australia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">van Eeden et al. (2020)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Interestingly, we’ve already accepted some introduced species as native. Humans brought dingoes to Australia <a href="https://www.anu.edu.au/news/all-news/research-reveals-when-dingoes-first-arrived-in-australia">at least 3,500 years ago</a>. They’re described as native under Australian biodiversity legislation, and 85% of our 2017 survey participants considered dingoes to be native.</p>
<p>Perhaps its only a matter of time until more recently arrived species like horses and foxes are counted as native. Some scientists argue this shift should be based on how ecosystems and species adapt to these new arrivals. For example, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0031804">some small Australian mammals</a> show fear of dingoes or dogs, but they haven’t yet learnt to fear cats.</p>
<h2>Native species can be pests too</h2>
<p>Native species, such as kangaroos and possums, <a href="https://www.canberratimes.com.au/story/6110070/protests-loom-as-acts-largest-kangaroo-cull-begins/">may also be culled</a> if they’re perceived to be overabundant or damaging economic interests like agriculture.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/from-feral-camels-to-cocaine-hippos-large-animals-are-rewilding-the-world-83301">From feral camels to 'cocaine hippos', large animals are rewilding the world</a>
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<p>While the plight of bushfire-affected koalas on Kangaroo Island attracted considerable <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-01-21/bushfire-relief-campaign-koalas-of-nyc-expands-to-london/11887110">media interest</a>, and the immediate welfare of any animal affected by fires is always a concern, koalas were actually introduced there. </p>
<p>They’ve been <a href="https://www.naturalresources.sa.gov.au/kangarooisland/plants-and-animals/native-animals/koala-management">managed</a> as a pest on Kangaroo Island for more than 20 years, and it’s <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-01-21/repopulation-of-pest-koalas-on-kangaroo-island-a-no-go/11885552">unlikely</a> the rescued koalas will be returned to the island. In this case, public concern transcends the distinction between native and introduced.</p>
<h2>Public perception is important</h2>
<p>We might never all agree on how best to manage native and non-native species. But effective environmental management, including after bushfires, requires understanding the diversity of opinion. </p>
<p>Doing so can help to develop management plans the public supports and allow effective communication about management that is controversial. </p>
<p>In fact, the NSW Office of Environment and Heritage <em>did</em> undertake an extensive <a href="https://engage.environment.nsw.gov.au/protectsnowies">public consultation process</a> in developing their horse management plan for Kosciuszko National Park, but it wasn’t used after the “<a href="https://theconversation.com/passing-the-brumby-bill-is-a-backward-step-for-environmental-protection-in-australia-97920">brumby bill</a>” gave horses protection in 2018.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/passing-the-brumby-bill-is-a-backward-step-for-environmental-protection-in-australia-97920">Passing the brumby bill is a backward step for environmental protection in Australia</a>
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<p>With human lives and many animal lives lost, response to the bushfires is already highly emotive. Failure to consider public attitudes towards managing animals will lead to backlash, wasted money and time, and continuing decline of the native species whose conservation is the goal of these actions.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/130471/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lily van Eeden received funding for this research from a Holsworth Wildlife Research Endowment and the RSPCA Alan White Scholarship. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chris Dickman receives funding from the National Environmental Science Program and the Australian Research Council, but this support does not relate directly to the subject of this article. He is affiliated with WWF-Australia as a Board member.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jeremy T. Bruskotter receives funding from the Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, the Ohio Department of Natural Resources, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the Association for Fish and Wildlife Agencies, and the National Science Foundation (through the Mountain Social Ecological Observatory Network). He is affiliated with the Terrestrial Wildlife Ecology Laboratory (at Ohio State), and is or has been a member of The Wildlife Society, the American Fisheries Society, the Society for Conservation Biology, and The International Association for Society & Natural Resources. He has served as an unpaid advisor or consultant for the Ohio Department of Natural Resources (Division of Wildlife), Project Coyote, Defenders of Wildlife, and the Humane Society of the United States’ Large Carnivore Advisory Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mathew Crowther receives funding from the Australian Research Council, Australia-Pacific Science Foundation, City of Sydney Council and NSW Government (NSW Koala Strategy).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Thomas Newsome receives funding from the Australian Government, Hermon-Slade Foundation, Australia Pacific Science Foundation, National Geographic, and Australian Academy of Science.</span></em></p>Introduced species are often targeted for culling in conservation, but killing charismatic animals like foxes can be controversial.Lily van Eeden, PhD Candidate in Human-Wildlife Conflict, University of SydneyChris Dickman, Professor in Terrestrial Ecology, University of SydneyJeremy T. Bruskotter, Professor, School of Environment and Natural Resources, The Ohio State UniversityMathew Crowther, Associate professor, University of SydneyThomas Newsome, Lecturer, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1282702019-12-20T11:50:37Z2019-12-20T11:50:37ZRescued grey squirrels to be killed under new law – but Britain’s ‘invasive’ problem runs much deeper<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/308089/original/file-20191220-11909-126w0br.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4352%2C3107&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/grey-squirrel-perched-on-fence-bird-234482893">Bruce MacQueen/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/march-2019-update-invasive-non-native-species-and-grey-squirrels">illegal in the UK for anyone to release grey squirrels into the wild</a> from December 2019. This means that wildlife rescue centres in England which previously took in, rehabilitated and released wild grey squirrels, will instead have to kill them, on both practical and ethical grounds.</p>
<p>The campaign against grey squirrels is justified by the UK government, which insists that grey squirrels <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/march-2019-update-invasive-non-native-species-and-grey-squirrels">threaten native wildlife and harm the economy</a>. The cost to UK forestry is <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ps.3458">estimated to be £10 million per year</a>, including damage to timber caused by the grey squirrel’s habit of stripping bark from trees. But that cost also includes money spent on controlling grey squirrels, and there is <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ps.3458">no link</a> between how much is spent on controlling their numbers and reducing damage to trees. So killing grey squirrels is not necessarily money well spent.</p>
<p>There are also glaring contradictions in what is considered invasive and what needs to be controlled. There are <a href="http://meowblog.cats.org.uk/2019/07/how-many-cats-are-there-in-uk.html">11 million pet cats in the UK</a>, which kill about <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1365-2907.2003.00017.x">27 million wild birds each year</a> and around 92 million wild prey in total.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/308090/original/file-20191220-11951-49em6q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/308090/original/file-20191220-11951-49em6q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/308090/original/file-20191220-11951-49em6q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/308090/original/file-20191220-11951-49em6q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/308090/original/file-20191220-11951-49em6q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/308090/original/file-20191220-11951-49em6q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/308090/original/file-20191220-11951-49em6q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Domestic cats are hunting many species of wildlife to extinction.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/cat-on-hunt-grass-just-before-557644864">Astrid Gast/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It’s often argued that killing grey squirrels is justified as they predate bird nests. They do, and so do red squirrels. But there is scant evidence that squirrels have a <a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/earth/hi/earth_news/newsid_8448000/8448807.stm">significant impact on songbirds</a>. While domestic and feral cats decimate songbird populations, they’re unlikely to be targeted for culls any time soon.</p>
<p>Why is it acceptable for animal shelters to rescue an invasive alien species, the domestic cat, and for the public to allow them to roam free, but unacceptable for wildlife rescue centres to help and release a few grey squirrels?</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/in-defence-of-the-grey-squirrel-britains-most-unpopular-invader-73983">In defence of the grey squirrel, Britain's most unpopular invader</a>
</strong>
</em>
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<h2>No game for wildlife</h2>
<p>On an even greater scale, the game bird industry <a href="http://robyorke.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/gamebird-release.pdf">releases millions of non-native birds</a> – 35 million pheasants and six-and-a-half million red-legged partridges – into the British countryside each year, to be shot for sport. The total mass of pheasants released annually <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10530-018-1795-z?wt_mc=Internal.Event.1.SEM.ArticleAuthorAssignedToIssue&utm_source=ArticleAuthorAssignedToIssue&utm_medium=email&utm_content=AA_en_06082018&ArticleAuthorAssignedToIssue_20181207">exceeds that of the entire breeding population of native birds</a>.</p>
<p>There’s evidence that pheasants <a href="https://www.gwct.org.uk/news/news/2019/january/shoots-urged-to-pay-more-attention-to-release-pen-locations,-says-new-gwct-study/">affect local plant communities</a> by increasing the area of bare ground and changing the soil chemistry. They’re also significant predators of <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/articles/1vLNlXWKyhrzHxLYDSGRtB0/pheasant-vs-adder-the-ancient-vendetta-between-unlikely-foes">native adders</a>, a species of major conservation concern, and <a href="http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/pdf/Article17/FCS2007-S1261-audit-Final.pdf">the extremely rare sand lizard</a>. Pheasants also cause around <a href="http://robyorke.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/gamebird-release.pdf">a million road accidents each year</a>. When grey squirrels are singled out for strict release control on the EU hit list of <a href="http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/invasivealien/list/index_en.htm">Invasive Alien Species</a>, why aren’t pheasants?</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/308091/original/file-20191220-11924-1b4zhlv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/308091/original/file-20191220-11924-1b4zhlv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/308091/original/file-20191220-11924-1b4zhlv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/308091/original/file-20191220-11924-1b4zhlv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/308091/original/file-20191220-11924-1b4zhlv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/308091/original/file-20191220-11924-1b4zhlv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/308091/original/file-20191220-11924-1b4zhlv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pheasants are a non-native species, but their UK population is boosted by the annual release of millions of birds for the sake of game bird shooting.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/pheasant-135679211">KDamian/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Many of the UK’s native predators are killed to maximise the density of game birds for hunters to shoot. Snares can be legally used to kill foxes and dogs can be legally used to <a href="https://www.gov.uk/guidance/foxes-moles-and-mink-how-to-protect-your-property-from-damage">flush foxes out of cover</a> to be shot. Stoats and weasels can be <a href="https://www.gwct.org.uk/game/research/predation-control/tunnel-traps/">killed in snap traps</a>. Bird traps used under general licence <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/general-licences-for-bird-control-major-changes-to-licensing-requirements">capture and kill corvids and gulls</a>. </p>
<p>Compared to the 11 million domestic cats and more than 40 million non-native game birds, there are only an <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/jun/02/kill-them-the-volunteer-army-plotting-to-wipe-out-britains-grey-squirrels">estimated 2.5 million grey squirrels living in the UK</a>, and <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/family/life/future-grey-area-much-maligned-squirrel/">700 are taken into captivity each year</a>. The environmental impact of releasing a handful of grey squirrels – particularly in areas where red squirrels are absent – is likely negligible.</p>
<h2>Alternatives to culling</h2>
<p>Should the UK commit to the relentless killing of grey squirrels in perpetuity? Too often the default response to a “problem” animal is simply to kill it. But just about everybody accepts the impossibility of eradicating grey squirrels. The only successful local eradication happened in Anglesey in Wales, where <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312119463_Economic_damage_by_invasive_grey_squirrels_in_Europe">9,597 grey squirrels were killed at a cost of £1,019,000</a> – that’s £106.18 per squirrel, and it took 16 years.</p>
<p>I would recommend alternative methods to limit grey squirrels, and to encourage natural processes that can set a new ecological balance. These <a href="https://theconversation.com/in-defence-of-the-grey-squirrel-britains-most-unpopular-invader-73983">alternatives to trapping and shooting</a> include developing oral contraceptives to prevent grey squirrels reproducing and managing woodlands to benefit reds over greys, by planting more conifer trees and allowing pine martens to return.</p>
<p>Research continues to develop a squirrel pox vaccine that would inoculate red squirrels against the disease that greys carry. An area-specific licensing system could also be maintained, whereby rescue centre greys are only released in areas with no red squirrels and no commercial forestry concerns.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/308092/original/file-20191220-11909-1q4tzyn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/308092/original/file-20191220-11909-1q4tzyn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/308092/original/file-20191220-11909-1q4tzyn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/308092/original/file-20191220-11909-1q4tzyn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/308092/original/file-20191220-11909-1q4tzyn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/308092/original/file-20191220-11909-1q4tzyn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/308092/original/file-20191220-11909-1q4tzyn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pine martens could be an effective, natural control on grey squirrel numbers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/pine-marten-on-side-tree-717435901">DigitalNatureScotland/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Elsewhere, it might make little sense for wildlife rescue centres to put time, effort and money into caring for animals that, upon release, would be targeted by a cull. But the point of rescue centres isn’t principally conservation, it’s about animal welfare and well-being. Too often, when an animal is referred to as a pest or an invasive species, any concerns for their welfare go out the window.</p>
<p>In the meantime, my advice to the public is to leave injured or orphaned grey squirrels be. They are better off taking their chances in the wild.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/128270/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jason Gilchrist does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>If harm to native wildlife is the main concern then there are much bigger targets for control than grey squirrels.Jason Gilchrist, Ecologist, Edinburgh Napier UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1202112019-07-14T18:46:32Z2019-07-14T18:46:32ZMaking deer fair game for unlicensed hunting is the right step for New South Wales<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/283798/original/file-20190712-173376-1l2abyh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The fate of deer carcasses is a crucial consideration in monitoring the success of future culling.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Emma Spencer</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The New South Wales government <a href="https://www.theland.com.au/story/6266252/nsw-set-to-relax-shooting-rules-on-feral-deer/">last week revealed plans</a> to ease shooting restrictions on feral deer. If the plans go ahead, deer will be stripped of their status as a game animal and will no longer be afforded protection under the state’s <a href="https://www.legislation.nsw.gov.au/#/view/act/2002/64/part3/div2/sec16">animal control laws</a>. </p>
<p>This will mean that a <a href="https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/hunting/hunting-licences">game hunting licence</a> would not be required for recreational, commercial and professional hunting of deer species. Restrictions on how and when deer can be hunted would also be lifted. </p>
<p>Feral deer will be treated the same as other pest animals in NSW, including red foxes, feral cats and rabbits.</p>
<h2>Deer are already considered a pest</h2>
<p>Last year the NSW government <a href="https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/biosecurity/pestplan">approved 11 regional pest animal plans</a>, each of which declared deer as a priority pest species. Several hunting regulations have <a href="https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/hunting/game-and-pests/managing-wild-deer-in-nsw">already been suspended</a> to manage abundant deer populations, and in February 2019 the government announced a A$9 million deer control program described as the <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2019-02-28/deer-mangement-plan-launched-nsw/10858226">most extensive of its kind</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/oh-deer-a-tricky-conservation-problem-for-tasmania-43702">Oh deer: a tricky conservation problem for Tasmania</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Removing the game status of deer is the next logical step towards controlling existing deer numbers in NSW, and slowing their spread to new areas. Deer currently cover 17% of NSW, and this area has <a href="https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/biosecurity/vertebrate-pests/pest-animals-in-nsw/wild-deer/wild-deer">more than doubled since 2009</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/283799/original/file-20190712-173329-1u2wysx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/283799/original/file-20190712-173329-1u2wysx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/283799/original/file-20190712-173329-1u2wysx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283799/original/file-20190712-173329-1u2wysx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283799/original/file-20190712-173329-1u2wysx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283799/original/file-20190712-173329-1u2wysx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283799/original/file-20190712-173329-1u2wysx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283799/original/file-20190712-173329-1u2wysx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Deer now cover 17% of NSW.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">NSW Dept of Primary Industries</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Without urgent and effective control, the deer population could spread <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/wr/fulltext/WR16148">throughout the entire state and beyond</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/283704/original/file-20190711-173338-1iwa7h7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/283704/original/file-20190711-173338-1iwa7h7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=343&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283704/original/file-20190711-173338-1iwa7h7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=343&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283704/original/file-20190711-173338-1iwa7h7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=343&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283704/original/file-20190711-173338-1iwa7h7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283704/original/file-20190711-173338-1iwa7h7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283704/original/file-20190711-173338-1iwa7h7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Effective control is needed to stop the spread of feral deer in Australia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Emma Spencer</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The impacts of deer</h2>
<p>Feral deer remain one of Australia’s least studied introduced mammals. Yet the evidence shows they have a substantial impact on Australia’s ecosystems and agriculture. </p>
<p>Since 2005, grazing and environmental damage by feral deer has been listed as a <a href="https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/Topics/Animals-and-plants/Threatened-species/NSW-Threatened-Species-Scientific-Committee/Determinations/Final-determinations/2004-2007/Herbivory-and-environmental-degradation-caused-by-feral-deer-key-threatening-process-listing">key threatening process under NSW legislation</a>. Deer are known to <a href="https://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=864886033639373;res=IELHSS">graze on threatened plant species</a>, and also cause erosion and soil compaction. They damage pasture; destroy fences and contaminate water sources; harm trees via antler rubbing; rip up the ground during rutting season; and potentially contribute to the spread of livestock diseases. </p>
<p>Deer are a threat to humans too. The Illawarra region south of Sydney, a hotspot for deer activity, <a href="https://invasives.org.au/blog/feral-deer-putting-nsw-drivers-at-risk/">has seen one death and multiple serious injuries</a> between 2003 and 2017 due to vehicle collisions with deer. </p>
<p>Deer can also carry <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/wr/fulltext/WR16148">pathogens that cause human disease</a> such as Leptospirosis and Cryptosporidium. </p>
<h2>Choosing the right control method</h2>
<p>Ground-based shooting is the main way to manage deer in the urban fringes, regional areas and national parks. Unfortunately, coordinated ground shoots <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/wr/fulltext/WR16148">have only been effective for areas of less than 1,000 hectares</a>, and there is no evidence that uncoordinated shooting by recreational hunters actually works to control deer on a widespread basis. </p>
<p>Aerial shooting can potentially be more successful over large tracts of land, but may not be a good option when tree cover is high and visibility is low. Poison baiting could help, although there is no method available to deliver baits safely, effectively and specifically to deer. </p>
<p>Irrespective of the control method, a coordinated approach is needed. We need a strategy that not only controls deer where damage is worst, but also prevents their spread to new areas. This will require NSW to work closely with the ACT and Victoria. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/283694/original/file-20190711-173351-1y7pz99.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/283694/original/file-20190711-173351-1y7pz99.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283694/original/file-20190711-173351-1y7pz99.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283694/original/file-20190711-173351-1y7pz99.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283694/original/file-20190711-173351-1y7pz99.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=525&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283694/original/file-20190711-173351-1y7pz99.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=525&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283694/original/file-20190711-173351-1y7pz99.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=525&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A red fox feeds on a culled feral deer.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Emma Spencer</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Rigorous monitoring will also be vital. This is important to gauge success (how many deer were culled, and the ethics of shooting, trapping and baiting), and to determine whether the control efforts have unintended impacts on the environment, such as deer carcasses providing <a href="https://www.weeklytimesnow.com.au/news/victoria/deer-cull-carcasses-an-allyoucaneat-buffet-for-wild-dogs/news-story/2d0bbdb22da3ef97b5e193f78a8b160a">food for scavenging pests</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-protected-pest-deer-in-australia-11452">The protected pest: deer in Australia</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Scavenging pests have been observed feeding on carcasses, but whether culling deer and other feral animals actually increases their abundance and impacts is unknown. Carcasses also provide a source of food for native scavengers such as eagles and ravens, and are integral to the structure and function of ecosystems. </p>
<p>The negative and positive impacts of deer culling on the broader ecosystem therefore needs consideration when developing and implementing monitoring plans. NSW can be the leader in this regard, starting from day one after removing the status of the deer as a game species.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/120211/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Thomas Newsome receives funding from the Australian Government, Hermon-Slade Foundation, Australia Pacific Science Foundation, National Geographic, and Australian Academy of Science. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Emma Spencer receives funding from the Australian Government, Australian Academy of Science and Holsworth Wildlife Research Endowment.</span></em></p>The NSW government has announced plans to remove feral deer from its list of official game animals. With careful monitoring, the resulting free-for-all could help curb their booming numbers.Thomas Newsome, Lecturer, University of SydneyEmma Spencer, PhD candidate, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1191992019-07-03T14:25:20Z2019-07-03T14:25:20ZLionfish: the Mediterranean invasion of an untouchable and enigmatic predator<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282465/original/file-20190703-126355-1gt53g0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C7%2C995%2C739&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/fish-lion-lionfish-warrior-zebra-1418210480?src=4GPFdS_AU-Qx0cgbFUl6ZQ-1-30&studio=1">Shutterstock/Vitaliy6447</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The <a href="https://www.fishbase.se/summary/Pterois-volitans.html">lionfish</a> is a stunning, mesmerising and highly adorned creature that drifts slowly through coral reefs, seemingly unaware of its natural beauty. But it is quickly causing devastation and destruction to the nature it inhabits, decimating biodiversity in the marine environment.</p>
<p>The lionfish hails from the warm, marine waters of the South Pacific and Indian oceans. Here it feeds on a huge variety of prey including smaller fish, molluscs and invertebrates, sometimes blowing water to <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2012/02/video-huffing-and-puffing-dinner">disorient its prey</a> before consuming them. </p>
<p>The most noticeable feature of the lionfish is the line of spines that runs along the length of its body, with more fanning out from the fins. These spines are striped, brown and white, providing a warning colouration to indicate that they are highly venomous, even to humans. This results in few natural predators, with the exception of <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1fBQXCxnlJc">moray eels</a> and <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mz3S9fCJf5k">sharks</a>. </p>
<p>In their natural habitat, lionfish are part of a marine ecosystem that has evolved to interact in harmony, with each species playing a vital role. So, how has the lionfish gradually become responsible for creating havoc across the oceans? </p>
<p>Unfortunately, the lionfish has established populations <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/stories/lionfish/lion02_invade.html">off south-eastern USA</a>, in <a href="https://www.wri.org/atlantic-and-caribbean-lionfish-invasion-threatens-reefs">the Caribbean</a> and more recently, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/blog/2016/jul/19/invasive-lionfish-have-reached-the-mediterranean-luckily-theyre-tasty-">the Mediterranean</a>. Here, they have essentially invaded the area, preying voraciously on native fish species, increasing rapidly in abundance, and expanding over a vast range. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282467/original/file-20190703-126396-1e92jfc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282467/original/file-20190703-126396-1e92jfc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282467/original/file-20190703-126396-1e92jfc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282467/original/file-20190703-126396-1e92jfc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282467/original/file-20190703-126396-1e92jfc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=553&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282467/original/file-20190703-126396-1e92jfc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=553&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282467/original/file-20190703-126396-1e92jfc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=553&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Big fish, little fish.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/lionfish-mouth-open-wide-feeds-on-112340756?src=PU0K_wh2UurP6b7KNFmW9A-1-1&studio=1">Shutterstock/Richard Whitcombe</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For example, the first lionfish were <a href="https://myfwc.com/wildlifehabitats/nonnatives/marine-fish/scorpionfish-and-lionfish/lionfish/">reported near Florida in 1985</a> but by 2001 they had become established across the eastern seaboard of the USA, with densities of <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10530-011-0020-0">more than 100 fish per hectare</a>. Lionfish now outnumber native fish across many sites, and in parts of the western Atlantic are over <a href="https://www.int-res.com/articles/meps_oa/m446p189.pdf">four times as abundant as they are in their native area</a>.</p>
<p>It is not known exactly how lionfish populations first colonised these locations, but theories include the intentional release from the aquatic trade, and unintentional release through Hurricane Andrew washing captive specimens into the sea, or via <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0165584">boat ballast tanks accidentally containing specimens</a>.</p>
<p>After arriving in a new part of the sea, the lionfish reproduces at an astonishing and alarming rate, capable of <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273510096_Reproductive_biology_of_invasive_lionfish_Pterois_spp">spawning every two to three days, all year round</a>. The eggs are released into open water where they hatch and drift in the plankton, before settling onto a reef. </p>
<p>This means there are potentially millions of eggs hitching a ride on the ocean currents for around a month at a time, giving lionfish huge potential to spread fast and wide across a continually moving body of water. </p>
<p>Alongside their voracious appetite – <a href="http://lionfish.info/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/DNA-indicates-dispersal-of-lionfish-from-US-East-coast.pdf">their stomach can expand up to 30 times its size</a> – the local prey are unfamiliar with this new predator, making the new environment an ideal hunting ground. The indirect effects of this include a reduction in prey for the native predators, causing a major imbalance of the ecosystem.</p>
<p>The lionfish also has no known natural predators outside of its native range to keep its populations in check. Even predators of eggs and juvenile lionfish across the globe currently remain unknown. </p>
<p>We are left with the only true predator being humans – and the need to cull lionfish is becoming an urgent priority for conservation. There have been many calls from both nature and economic groups, stating that targeted culling of this invasive species is the only effective way to reduce their numbers.</p>
<h2>Hunting the hunter</h2>
<p>There are several ways this can happen. Firstly, recreational scuba divers have been <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/invasion-of-the-lionfish-131647135/">trying to keep numbers in check</a> by culling them. But the venomous nature of lionfish means that divers need to be specially trained. Consequently, groups such as the <a href="https://m.facebook.com/profile.php?v=timeline&timecutoff=1333664989&sectionLoadingID=m_timeline_loading_div_1325404799_1293868800_8_&timeend=1325404799&timestart=1293868800&tm=AQCL_yQKnrLV_wXO&id=101557233257490">Fraternal Order Of Lionfish Slayers</a> (FOOLS) have been set up to maintain care for divers who can help reduce the amount of lionfish safely.</p>
<p>Some divers are trialling the use of traps to aid safer and more rapid culling of larger numbers. In the Caribbean, the answer to culling has come from researchers at <a href="http://www.robotsise.org">Robots In Service of the Environment</a> (RSE) with their “<a href="https://www.technologyreview.com/f/613623/meet-the-robot-submarine-that-acts-as-a-lionfish-terminator/">Lionfish Terminator</a>”. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/44GaC-YsAtQ?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>This <a href="https://youtu.be/44GaC-YsAtQ">robotic zapper</a> has been developed in an attempt to cull lionfish remotely. While there is still a long way to go in terms of full ocean deployment, this could restore the native balance of the ecosystem.</p>
<p>However, another way to control lionfish numbers is to eat them. They are quickly becoming a <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/people-and-culture/food/the-plate/2016/06/lionfish-may-finally-meet-their-match/">delicacy on restaurant menus</a>, and have also found their way onto supermarket shelves. Hopefully this opportunistic demand will help to reduce their numbers drastically – but even this could be too little too late. </p>
<p>Eventually, as with all invasive species, the lionfish will find its functional niche and the balance of the ecosystem will be restored. But the current invasion into the Mediterranean has sent a ripple through the natural dynamics of predators and prey, with serious effects on local fisheries and tourism. </p>
<p>We cannot simply wait for balance to be restored. We need to restore the health of the regional marine ecosystems and eradicate such a visually alluring threat before the inevitable apocalyptic destruction.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/119199/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Louise Gentle works for Nottingham Trent University</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nicholas Ray works for Nottingham Trent University</span></em></p>They swim, they eat, they multiply.Louise Gentle, Senior Lecturer in Behavioural Ecology, Nottingham Trent UniversityNicholas Ray, Senior Lecturer, Nottingham Trent UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1118242019-02-19T19:10:16Z2019-02-19T19:10:16ZFeral cat cull: why the 2 million target is on scientifically shaky ground<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/259415/original/file-20190217-56243-jbdoqp.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C36%2C2035%2C1051&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The government's target to kill 2 million feral cats sounds impressive, but lacks scientific rigour.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The Australian government’s target of <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/publications/ts-strategy-summary">killing 2 million feral cats by 2020</a> attracted significant public interest and media attention when it was unveiled in 2015.</p>
<p>But in our new research, <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/conl.12633">published today in Conservation Letters</a>, we explain why it has a shaky scientific foundation. </p>
<p>The target was developed for the Threatened Species Strategy. At the time of its launch in 2015, there was no reliable estimate of the size of Australia’s feral cat population. Figures of between 5 million and 18 million were quoted, but their origin is murky: it’s <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/wr/WR14059">possible</a> they came from a single <a href="http://www.publish.csiro.au/wr/WR9820409">estimate</a> of feral cat density in Victoria, extrapolated across the continent.</p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320716309223">recent review</a> estimated a much smaller population size — probably varying from 2 million to 6 million, depending on environmental conditions. Using this estimate, the proportion of Australia’s cat population to be killed under the government’s target is now likely in the range 32-95%, rather than 11-40% based on the original population estimate. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australias-species-need-an-independent-champion-83580">Australia's species need an independent champion</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Targets for the removal of pest animals should consider how they will affect an animal’s current and future population size. But because a scientific justification for the 2 million target was never provided, it is unclear whether or how the revised estimate would alter the target.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/259419/original/file-20190217-56215-1qvsyv9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/259419/original/file-20190217-56215-1qvsyv9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/259419/original/file-20190217-56215-1qvsyv9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/259419/original/file-20190217-56215-1qvsyv9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/259419/original/file-20190217-56215-1qvsyv9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/259419/original/file-20190217-56215-1qvsyv9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/259419/original/file-20190217-56215-1qvsyv9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Feral cats culled in Queensland.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">http://www.couriermail.com.au/news/queensland/news-story/746d8ad0366fe9f64ea9c26d36a41a37</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Hitting the target, missing the point</h2>
<p>For cat control to have a lasting effect on feral populations, it needs to be intense, sustained, and carried out over large areas. This is because cats can <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/conl.12251">rapidly reproduce and re-invade areas</a>. To benefit threatened species, cat control also needs to be undertaken in areas that contain — or could potentially contain — native species that are threatened by cats.</p>
<p>Research commissioned by the government conservatively estimated that around <a href="https://researchbank.rmit.edu.au/view/rmit:43775">211,500</a> feral cats were killed in 12 months in 2015–16 (ranging between around 135,500 and 287,600). This estimate was used to <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/dc0680d1-c280-4500-8cc3-b071fda69d34/files/threatened-species-strategy-year-one-report.pdf">report</a> that the first-year target to kill 150,000 cats was met with room to spare. </p>
<p>The benefit to threatened species of achieving this target is unclear, because we don’t know if the control efforts had a measurable effect on cat populations; whether they took place in areas that would benefit threatened species; or how (or if) the target and related activities contributed to the estimated 211,500 cat deaths. </p>
<p>Around 75% of the killed cats were attributed to shooting by farmers and hunters. It is questionable whether such approaches could keep pace with high rates of population growth and re-invasion from surrounding areas.</p>
<p>These and other issues were known before the target was set, leading experts to <a href="https://www.pestsmart.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/2015CatWorkshop_Proceedings_FINAL.pdf#page=19">recommend</a> that an overall cat culling target should not be set.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/259389/original/file-20190217-56236-1rd4jsp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/259389/original/file-20190217-56236-1rd4jsp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/259389/original/file-20190217-56236-1rd4jsp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/259389/original/file-20190217-56236-1rd4jsp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/259389/original/file-20190217-56236-1rd4jsp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=561&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/259389/original/file-20190217-56236-1rd4jsp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=561&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/259389/original/file-20190217-56236-1rd4jsp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=561&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cat image captured using camera traps in the Hawkesbury region, NSW.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Western Sydney University</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Shifting focus</h2>
<p>The focus on killing cats risks distracting attention from other threats to native wildlife. These threats include habitat loss, which has been largely <a href="https://theconversation.com/australias-species-need-an-independent-champion-83580">overlooked</a> in the Threatened Species Strategy.</p>
<p>Habitat loss is politically sensitive because its main driver is the clearing of land to make way for economic activities such as agriculture, urban development, and mining. The strategy mentions feral cats more than 70 times, but habitat loss is mentioned just twice and land clearing not at all. Australia has one of the world’s worst rates of land clearing, which has recently increased in some regions. For instance, clearing of native vegetation in New South Wales <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2018/aug/04/clearing-of-native-vegetation-in-nsw-jumps-800-in-three-years">rose by 800%</a> between 2013 and 2016.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/lets-get-this-straight-habitat-loss-is-the-number-one-threat-to-australias-species-85674">Let’s get this straight, habitat loss is the number-one threat to Australia's species</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>A focus on feral cats is warranted, but not at the expense of tackling other conservation threats too. A comprehensive, integrated approach towards threatened species conservation is essential.</p>
<h2>Any upside?</h2>
<p>Despite its questionable scientific basis, it is possible that the ambitious nature of the 2 million target has raised the public profile of <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/mam.12080">feral cats as a conservation issue</a>. However, to our knowledge, there has been no attempt to measure the effectiveness of the target in raising awareness or changing attitudes, and so this remains a hypothetical proposition. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/1SIVirQ8Iyw?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Raising awareness about the negative impacts of cats on native wildlife is important.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Threatened Species Strategy has other targets that are more closely linked to conservation outcomes, such as the eradication of cats from five particular islands and the establishment of ten new fenced cat-free exclosures. Achieving these targets will make a small contribution to the culling target, but have a comparatively large benefit for some threatened species. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/for-whom-the-bell-tolls-cats-kill-more-than-a-million-australian-birds-every-day-85084">For whom the bell tolls: cats kill more than a million Australian birds every day</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Australia’s target to kill 2 million feral cats is a highly visible symbol of a broader campaign, but the success of policies aimed at reducing the impacts of feral cats should focus squarely on the recovery of native species.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/111824/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tim Doherty receives funding from the Australian Academy of Science, Hermon Slade Foundation and NSW Environmental Trust. He is Secretary of the Society for Conservation Biology Oceania.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dale Nimmo receives funding from the Australian Research Council, the Hermon Slade Foundation, WA Department of Biodiversity, Conservation and Attractions, and the Australian Academy of Science. He is a member of the Ecological Society of Australia. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Don Driscoll receives funding from the Victorian Department of Environment, Lands, Water and Planning, Hermon Slade Foundation and NSW Environmental Trust. He is President of the Ecological Society of Australia, Director of the Centre for Integrative Ecology and Director of the Deakin University Research Network TechnEcology.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Euan Ritchie receives funding from the Australian Research Council, The Australia and Pacific Science Foundation, The Hermon Slade Foundation, Australian Geographic, and Parks Victoria. Euan Ritchie is a Director (Media Working Group) of the Ecological Society of Australia, and a member of the Australian Mammal Society. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ricky Spencer receives funding from Australian Research Council, Foundations for National Parks and Wildlife (FNPW), NSW Office of Environment and Heritage (OEH), Victorian Department of Water, Environment, Land and Planning (DEWLP), North Central Catchment Management Authority (CMA), Winton Wetlands, Yorta Yorta Nation, ACT Woodlands Trust He is affiliated with Royal Zoological Society of NSW, Ecological Society of Australia, Hawkesbury Wetlands Working Group and World Congress of Herpetology</span></em></p>The plan to kill 2 million feral cats nationwide by 2020 makes for good headlines. But it’s also a simplistic goal that won’t necessarily deliver conservation benefits to native species.Tim Doherty, Research Fellow, Deakin UniversityDale Nimmo, Associate professor/ARC DECRA fellow, Charles Sturt UniversityDon Driscoll, Professor in Terrestrial Ecology, Deakin UniversityEuan Ritchie, Associate Professor in Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, Centre for Integrative Ecology, School of Life & Environmental Sciences, Deakin UniversityRicky Spencer, Associate Professor of Ecology, Western Sydney UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1104542019-01-30T13:30:09Z2019-01-30T13:30:09ZNo wonder fox hunting is still prevalent – the ban is designed to fail British wildlife<p>Despite overwhelming public opposition and a longstanding ban, fox hunting shows <a href="https://www.league.org.uk/news/eight-reports-of-kills-by-fox-hunts-since-boxing-day">no signs of abating</a> in the UK. The 2018 hunt season alone saw <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/hunts-illegal-hundreds-autumn-season-figures-animal-rights-hunting-ban-england-wales-a8286336.html">550 reports of illegal hunting</a>, though these figures only represent known incidents. </p>
<p>In 2014 it was found that <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/earth/countryside/11313805/250000-people-turn-out-to-support-Boxing-Day-hunts.html">250,000 fox hunters attended Boxing Day hunts</a> across the UK. In 2019, so far, at least <a href="https://www.league.org.uk/news/greene-king-urged-to-ban-fox-hunt-meets">21 foxes have been killed by the hunt and 151 incidents</a> of illegal hunting have been reported since the season began on November 1.</p>
<p>The Hunting Act, which prohibited hunting foxes and wild mammals with dogs, was approved by the UK’s parliament in 2003 with <a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1846577.stm">362 MPs in favour and 156 against</a>. The following year it became law. In 2017, the British people were surveyed on whether they continue to support the ban on fox hunting and the result was resounding – the highest margin ever recorded on the matter - <a href="https://www.ipsos.com/ipsos-mori/en-uk/attitudes-hunting-2017">85% thought fox hunting should remain prohibited</a>.</p>
<p>So if the ban is entering its 15th year, why is fox hunting still happening?</p>
<h2>A legal let-down</h2>
<p>This question is answered in the Hunting Act itself, particularly the manner in which it “outlaws” fox hunting. <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2004/37/section/1">Article 1</a> states that a “person commits an offence if he hunts a wild mammal with a dog”. But the provision continues: “Unless his hunting is exempt.”</p>
<p>Herein lies the deceit of the Hunting Act, for it lists a total of nine reasons <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2004/37/schedule/1">a hunt may flout the general ban</a>. One of the more commonly invoked exemptions maintains that it is legal to hunt foxes if they pose a danger to livestock, game, crops or fisheries. As such, fox hunting advocates would have us believe that Roald Dahl’s tale of Fantastic Mr Fox and his endeavours to outwit farmers is all too common a curse in rural communities. </p>
<p>This remains nothing more than a smokescreen to defy the ban. Research has shown that foxes naturally control rabbit populations that if left unchecked, would <a href="https://www.gwct.org.uk/research/long-term-monitoring/national-gamebag-census/mammal-bags-comprehensive-overviews/interpretation-of-ngc-trends-rabbit/">cause significant economic harm to farmers</a>. The UK government’s Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) also advises against controlling foxes, and instead favours strengthening protection around livestock to <a href="https://www.discoverwildlife.com/people/do-we-really-need-to-control-foxes-in-the-uk/">guard against natural predation</a>.</p>
<p>Another commonly used exemption exploits a loophole around flushing foxes out to help birds of prey hunt. This has seen fox hunters disguising their true intentions by <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/p06w6r99">taking birds of prey along with them</a> without ever letting them loose. </p>
<p>There is also the dubious practise of <a href="http://www.countryside-alliance.org/countryside-alliance-guide-trail-hunting/">“manufactured” trail hunting</a> in which hounds are supposed to follow an artificial scent trail with no animal chased or killed. In reality, hunt organisers use actual fox scent and lay routes deliberately close to where foxes are known to live, meaning they quickly become the subject of a hunt. Trail hunting is again an attempt to <a href="https://www.league.org.uk/trail-hunting">hide the true intentions of those that wish to continue fox hunting</a>.</p>
<p>Monitoring and gathering accurate information on all this to help prosecute offenders is a dangerous task, with members of the public often exposed to <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/long_reads/fox-hunting-uk-britain-mobs-driving-communities-apart-a7948516.html">insults, intimidation and threats</a> from hunters.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/Z5yw-heybH8?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>The inadequate Hunting Act and the nefarious practises of hunt organisers mean fox hunting endures in England and Wales. Scotland too, offers no refuge for foxes and the <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/asp/2002/6/contents">Protection of Wild Mammals Act 2002</a> provides similar loopholes that allow hunting to continue.</p>
<p>Setting aside the cruelty of fox hunting, evidence from the Breeding Bird Survey suggests red fox numbers have <a href="https://www.bto.org/volunteer-surveys/bbs/latest-results/mammal-monitoring">declined by 41% since 1995</a>. Introducing a complete hunting ban is more essential than ever to protect the UK’s foxes.</p>
<h2>A fox-centric approach</h2>
<p>The Hunting Act has humans as its focus by specifying how people can bend the law’s provisions to their circumstances. Despite its prevalence in much of environmental law, this human-centric idea is entirely the wrong approach. Any future legislative efforts need to place foxes, and other mammals, at the centre of legislation.</p>
<p>Foxes must be protected for their own right, and a blanket ban on hunting, absent any exemptions, is the only way to safeguard populations. <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/labour-fox-hunting-illegal-prison-sentences-boxing-day-hunt-sue-hayman-hounds-a8698871.html">Severe penalties must also be included</a>, to ensure that those already willing to flout the law will rethink their actions.</p>
<p>The likelihood of such a move materialising during this parliament is slim, however. Prime Minister Theresa May offered a free vote to repeal the Hunting Act during the 2017 election but <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2018/jan/07/theresa-may-drops-manifesto-promise-to-allow-foxhunting-vote">withdrew the pledge after her disastrous election result</a>.</p>
<p>It’s essential that campaigns for stronger anti-hunting laws highlight how widespread resistance to diluting the ban is. The failures of the existing ban endanger foxes and betray the wishes of a majority of the public. Any update to the Hunting Act must crack down on those who think they are above the law.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/110454/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ash Murphy does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Fox hunting has been banned in the UK since 2004 – so why is it still happening?Ash Murphy, PhD Researcher, Keele UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1099172019-01-18T15:58:25Z2019-01-18T15:58:25ZPoland’s wild boar targeted in pointless cull that could actually spread swine fever<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/254182/original/file-20190116-163274-3iotqt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/wild-boar-sus-scrofa-1098698285?src=W6OHjCiz9e7D-_NCBYVWew-1-1">Martin Prochazkacz/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Most of Poland’s wild boars are <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/jan/11/planned-wild-boar-cull-in-poland-angers-conservationists">being culled</a> to stop the spread of African swine fever, a deadly viral disease that endangers farm pigs. </p>
<p>The Polish Hunting Association was mandated to organise large-scale hunts to kill more than 200,000 wild boars by the end of January, reducing its population by almost 90%. The government had been planning to erect a 1200 km-long <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/03/14/poland-build-one-worlds-longest-fences-keep-marauding-boars/">fence</a> along the eastern border of Poland to stop infected wild boars from moving westward, but the costly project was abandoned. </p>
<p>The war against African swine fever lifts some of the hunting restrictions, allowing licensed hunters to kill pregnant sows and organise hunts in national parks and nature reservations. These drastic measures have sparked <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-46838627">protests</a>. Even some of the <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/01/07/mass-boar-cull-described-polish-hunters-sick/?fbclid=IwAR0bP9yofHYPJrlAPecc8OCLmBXpaXfcNfAvpw7ZenIQIMykV1O3LOcM8GY">hunters</a> have refused to take part in the slaughter of wild boars. </p>
<p>Wildlife biologists also warn that mass hunts are not only pointless, but can even spread the deadly virus through human-mediated contact with infected blood. A <a href="https://naukadlaprzyrody.pl/2019/01/09/list-otwarty-srodowiska-naukowego-w-sprawie-redukcji-populacji-dzikow/">letter</a> from over 1000 scientists urges Polish government to seek out other solutions, highlighting the importance of following <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/food/animals/animal-diseases/control-measures/asf_en">biosecurity guidelines</a>. </p>
<p>So: why are wild boars scapegoated? </p>
<h2>African swine fever</h2>
<p>While the disease takes its toll on the wild boar population across Eastern Europe, the authorities are trying to prevent an epidemic in another species: domestic pigs. Due to high mortality rates, African swine fever poses high risk to the <a href="https://www.asf-stop.com/">European pork industry</a>. Every outbreak in pig farms is followed by gassing all livestock, a quarantine period, and harsh trade restrictions. It is the potential economic loss that drives the political war against this deadly disease, for which there is no vaccine.</p>
<p>The current European epidemic <a href="https://porcinehealthmanagement.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40813-018-0109-2">started in 2007</a>, when a ship containing infected pork meat entered the harbour of Poti in Georgia. From there, African swine fever spread in the <a href="http://www.fao.org/docs/eims/upload/242232/ew_caucasus_apr08.pdf">Caucasus</a>, to Chechnya and Russia. When the <a href="http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2017/12/african-swine-fever-outbreak-alarms-wildlife-biologists-and-veterinarians">epidemic</a> reached the eastern borders of the EU in 2014, with cases of infected wild boars in Lithuania, Poland, Latvia and Estonia, wild boars became an <a href="https://efsa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.2903/j.efsa.2018.5344">international concern</a>.</p>
<p>The virus initially occurred in Sub-Saharan Africa, where it affected wild pigs, bushpigs, and warthogs. It was <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0368174221800314">first described</a> in 1921, recording an earlier diagnosis from 1910, when domestic pigs brought by European settlers became infected. African swine fever started to spread across British East Africa, mostly in what is now Kenya, with the colonial traffic in commodities. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/254186/original/file-20190116-163280-13gsx9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/254186/original/file-20190116-163280-13gsx9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/254186/original/file-20190116-163280-13gsx9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/254186/original/file-20190116-163280-13gsx9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/254186/original/file-20190116-163280-13gsx9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/254186/original/file-20190116-163280-13gsx9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/254186/original/file-20190116-163280-13gsx9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Historically, the response to outbreaks of African swine fever has been a cull.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/asf-african-swine-fever-summer-largest-729794614?src=VCFwOGI_PSSmxi8rckITCQ-1-8">Galitsin/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0020383">first outbreak</a> in Europe was reported in 1957 in Lisbon, Portugal. By the 1990s, the Iberian Peninsula had suffered major economic losses caused by the disease decimating its swine population. Pork prices dropping drastically. Eventually, Portugal and Spain took <a href="http://www.asf-referencelab.info/asf/images/files/publicaciones/04_03_ARIAS.pdf">radical steps</a> towards eliminating the virus and achieved it by culling nearly all of their farm pigs and wild boars. This seems to be the model of containing the most recent outbreaks that the Polish authorities are following. But it’s not the appropriate response.</p>
<h2>Who’s to blame?</h2>
<p>The viral cycle in Africa and Iberia involves a soft tick that transmits the virus between wild and domestic pigs, but this particular type of parasite is absent Eastern Europe. Biologists are still searching for an insect mechanical vector of the disease in this geographical context. </p>
<p>But the virus can be also transmitted between swines through direct contact, bodily fluids, and ingestion of infected meat. That is why highly mobile wild boars are believed to carry the virus, and figure as the main culprits of the epidemic. The disease can be transmitted by infected boars, but also through their carcasses and contaminated meat, putting <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/food/sites/food/files/animals/docs/ad_control-measures_asf_factsheet_hunters_en.pdf">hunting</a> practices and meat consumption under suspicion. The two incursions of the virus to Europe occurred through improper disposal of food waste.</p>
<p>But even before the introduction of African swine fever to Europe, wild boars had a bad reputation. In rural areas, wild boars are notoriously blamed for crop damage. They have also become a more <a href="https://theconversation.com/wild-boars-run-amok-in-the-city-of-genoa-as-abandoned-rural-areas-are-rewilded-102752">frequent sight in European cities</a>, often causing <a href="https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1254&context=hwi">human-wildlife conflicts</a> as they raid garbage, and pose a risk of attacks or road collisions. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/254183/original/file-20190116-163280-nxymhi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/254183/original/file-20190116-163280-nxymhi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/254183/original/file-20190116-163280-nxymhi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/254183/original/file-20190116-163280-nxymhi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/254183/original/file-20190116-163280-nxymhi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=527&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/254183/original/file-20190116-163280-nxymhi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=527&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/254183/original/file-20190116-163280-nxymhi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=527&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">On the rise.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/wild-boar-sus-scrofa-ferus-walking-703444501?src=Whi97b2kWjYcnxy52vS5og-1-2">Budimir Jevtic/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Since the 1990s, the wild boar population has been rising rapidly across Europe due to <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0132178">mild winters</a> and industrial agriculture privileging energy-rich corn and soy production (the same crops that enjoy EU subsidies). These favourable conditions have even altered the <a href="http://abc.museucienciesjournals.cat/files/ABC_35-2_pp_209-217.pdf">reproductive patterns</a> of the species, allowing for more frequent pregnancies and larger litters. Human-induced conditions, such as the elimination of natural predators, climate change and agricultural mono-cultures aided wild boars to thrive. </p>
<p>Meanwhile, scientists have linked the most recent cases of African swine fever (reported in the Czech Republic, Hungary, Belgium and China) to human rather than wildlife mobility. Such long-distance jumps in the distribution of the virus suggest that <a href="http://blogs.biomedcentral.com/on-biology/2019/01/08/understanding-humans-key-african-swine-fever-control/">humans play a significant role</a> in spreading African swine fever. </p>
<p>As the first large-scale hunts in Poland began in mid-January, <a href="https://www.tvn24.pl/zbiorowy-odstrzal-dzikow-w-sobote-ruszyly-polowania,899789,s.html">anti-hunting activists</a> claimed that hunters were carrying traces of blood on their shoes and cars, rendering the whole operation counterproductive and dangerous. Even though wild boars are typically considered invasive pests, many Poles have started to defend the swines against such drastic eradication plans. Activists are not only disrupting hunts, but also taking to the streets, where the wild boar is becoming a symbol of <a href="https://boar.hypotheses.org/472">political resistance</a>. Following earlier protests against logging in the <a href="http://www.wwf.eu/what_we_do/eu_forests/saving_biaowiea_forest/">Białowieża Primeval Forest</a>, the environmental policy of the Polish government is increasingly coming under public scrutiny.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/109917/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marianna Szczygielska does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Wild boars are being scapegoated for an epidemic of African swine flu that threatens the pork industry.Marianna Szczygielska, Postdoctoral Fellow, Max Planck Institute for the History of ScienceLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1027022018-09-27T10:34:16Z2018-09-27T10:34:16ZAfter a fatal shark attack on Cape Cod, will the reaction be coexistence or culling?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/238152/original/file-20180926-48650-1p9k13w.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Warning sign at a Cape Cod beach.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Carlos García-Quijano</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Interactions between people and animals offer insights into human culture and societies’ core values. This is especially true with respect to large predators – perhaps due to a collective memory of our <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Man-the-Hunted-Primates-Predators-and-Human-Evolution-Expanded-Edition/Hart-Sussman/p/book/9780813344034">evolutionary past as hunted prey</a>. </p>
<p>Along with fellow anthropologist <a href="https://web.uri.edu/soc-anth/meet/john-poggie/">John Poggie</a>, I have been studying relationships between humans and <a href="https://www.fishbase.de/summary/Carcharodon-carcharias.html">white sharks</a> (<em>Carcharodon carcharias</em>) on Cape Cod since 2015. Atlantic white sharks have historically <a href="https://www.mass.gov/files/documents/2016/08/qd/contribution-36_0.pdf">preyed on grey seals</a>, but largely disappeared from Cape waters after hunting reduced local seal populations in the 19th century. After the Marine Mammal Protection Act was adopted in 1972, seals <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp/2017/06/14/sharks-should-be-happy-about-new-google-earth-survey-of-seal-populations/?utm_term=.966b6b6650f5">recovered in force</a>, and white sharks have followed. </p>
<p>Since the mid-2000s, shark sightings in Massachusetts waters in summer and early fall have progressively increased. Until recently, the public response was <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2014/07/28/us/sharks-in-cape-cod-town-draw-tourists-flipping-the-jaws-script.html">largely positive</a>. Our work with local stakeholders indicated an encouraging but delicate balance in the relationship between people and sharks. </p>
<p>But with more sharks appearing, risks increased. In 2012 a swimmer sustained <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2012/08/08/us/massachusetts-shark-victim/index.html">moderate injuries</a> from a white shark bite. Another swimmer was <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/shark-attacks-swimmer-at-cape-cod-beach-longnook-beach-truro-2018-08-16/">seriously injured by a shark</a> on August 16, 2018. Then, on September 16, a 26-year-old bodyboarder was killed in what is believed to be the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/17/us/cape-cod-shark-attack.html">first fatal shark attack in Massachusetts since 1936</a>. </p>
<p>We have been told often on Cape Cod that a fatal attack could change everything. Now the region faces a choice: Live with predators, or try once again to eliminate either sharks or their prey. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/237528/original/file-20180921-129868-1jw5ds1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/237528/original/file-20180921-129868-1jw5ds1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/237528/original/file-20180921-129868-1jw5ds1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/237528/original/file-20180921-129868-1jw5ds1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/237528/original/file-20180921-129868-1jw5ds1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/237528/original/file-20180921-129868-1jw5ds1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/237528/original/file-20180921-129868-1jw5ds1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/237528/original/file-20180921-129868-1jw5ds1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">William Lytton, of Scarsdale, New York, suffered deep puncture wounds to his leg and torso after being attacked by a shark on Aug. 15, 2018 while swimming off a beach in Truro, Massachusetts.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Shark-Study/ea4357f7be0f482b84284ade2a2c2443/2/0">AP Photo/Steven Senne, File</a></span>
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<h2>A changing ecosystem and economy</h2>
<p>Cape Cod is an extremely popular warm-weather destination that is highly dependent on beach tourism. Its year-round population of <a href="http://www.statscapecod.org/towndata/population.php">about 215,000</a> swells to over 500,000 in summer.</p>
<p>According to a 2012 study led by Massachusetts state shark biologist Greg Skomal, white sharks are <a href="https://www.mass.gov/files/documents/2016/08/qd/contribution-36_0.pdf">repeat seasonal visitors</a> to Cape Cod waters, and new white shark individuals continue to be recruited to the region every year. Anecdotal evidence supports this pattern, with shark sightings and beach closures increasing around the Cape. Media reports have featured <a href="https://www.wcvb.com/article/video-captures-shark-attacking-seal-feet-away-from-cape-cod-beach/22752280">sharks killing seals just feet from a beach</a> and <a href="http://video.foxnews.com/v/5813734137001/?#sp=show-clips">taking striped bass off fishing lines</a>. </p>
<p>Sharks are culturally salient for practically every human society that has come into contact with them. Part of this reflects the risk of attack. Fatal shark attacks in the Americas have been documented by archaeologists <a href="http://www.uapress.ua.edu/product/Talking-Taino,1914.aspx">as far back as A.D 1000</a>. </p>
<p>In a variety of coastal locations, including South Africa, Australia and California, beach tourism and water sports-dependent economies have developed in the presence of white sharks. On Cape Cod, however, the timing has been different. As grey seal populations dwindled by mid-20th century, white sharks “left” the area. </p>
<p>Meanwhile, the relationship between people and their local coastal environment <a href="http://www.umass.edu/umpress/title/cape-cod">shifted</a> as the Cape transitioned from a fishing-dependent economy into a water tourism destination. Most tourism revenue for the entire year is earned in summer – precisely when sharks converge around Cape Cod to hunt seals. </p>
<p>As sightings increased around the Cape over the past decade, the Massachusetts state government and nongovernmental organizations such as the <a href="http://www.atlanticwhiteshark.org/">Atlantic White Shark Conservancy</a> launched acoustic tagging and monitoring programs to understand shark behavior. They also conduct public outreach and education initiatives to help people understand, appreciate and respect sharks. </p>
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<h2>Embracing the return of white sharks</h2>
<p>We have interviewed and surveyed more than 1,300 Cape Cod residents and visitors to document challenges and opportunities posed by the sharks’ growing presence. For example, while the risk of shark attack can negatively impact beach tourism, visitor interest in white sharks is also a <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/shark-sightings-off-cape-cod-a-boon-for-tourism/">potential source of revenue</a>. </p>
<p>In previous research, I have found that the tourism industry can be highly responsive to people’s <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44150988?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents">interest in charismatic wildlife</a>. The Cape Cod town of Chatham has adopted white sharks as icons, <a href="https://www.bostonglobe.com/magazine/2013/08/17/chatham-bold-attempt-become-new-england-great-white-shark-capital/TtfcEZsAo6PN7lUoBKe1kO/story.html">branding itself as “the summer home of the great white.”</a> In June 2015 Massachusetts enacted regulations <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-shark-massachusetts/massachusetts-sets-restrictions-on-shark-baiting-tours-idUSKBN0OX2NV20150617">restricting recreational and commercial activities around white sharks</a>.</p>
<p>Shortly after the August 16 nonfatal attack, we conducted an online survey of 1,120 Cape Cod residents and visitors to assess beliefs, attitudes, values and knowledge about white sharks in local waters. Overall, nonresidents’ attitudes seemed to be driven by their general views of nature and sharks’ place in it. Residents tended more to draw on their experience of local issues and conditions, such as how their use of beaches and local waters had changed because of sharks. They also were more likely to refer to the return of seals as a driver of rising shark populations.</p>
<p>Other researchers have found that when people perceive the presence of large land predators as conveying both risks and benefits, they are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12072">more likely to tolerate those predators near places of human activity</a>. In our survey, respondents strongly agreed that white sharks had great potential to attract tourism revenue and raise environmental awareness. However, there was less agreement about how much inherent risk from sharks was acceptable. Residents were more likely to be concerned about the growing potential for shark attacks to harm tourism, fishing and their own enjoyment of water activities. </p>
<p>Respondents almost universally opposed lethal control measures. However, some residents strongly supported seal culls, and a number of them called the Marine Mammal Protection Act an unwanted intrusion into local affairs. In their view, the law had caused overpopulation that threatened fisheries and human safety, both via direct conflict with seals and by attracting sharks. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Massachusetts state marine biologist Greg Skomal explains how little is known about white shark populations along the East Coast.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>A decision point</h2>
<p>Since the fatal September 16 attack, one local politician has endorsed culling both <a href="https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/cape-cod-shark-sightings-killing_us_599f86f9e4b05710aa5b537d">sharks</a> and <a href="https://boston.cbslocal.com/2018/09/17/cape-cod-culling-seals-shark-attack/">seals</a>. Biologists call culling ineffective and assert that tagging sharks is providing <a href="http://www.capecodchronicle.com/en/5235/opinion/2045/Why-Culling-Great-White-Sharks-Is-A-Bad-Idea.htm">crucial scientific knowledge</a>. Nonetheless, the attack has raised serious concern on and around Cape Cod, and is spurring discussion about <a href="https://www.bostonglobe.com/business/2018/09/21/after-cape-shark-fatality-tourism-industry-reels/a3uCRU6VnjEDPsnc4JdIYI/story.html">the ethics of profiting from shark tourism</a>.</p>
<p>As a precedent, Cape Cod officials and residents could look to Colorado, where <a href="http://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Puma_concolor/">cougars</a> <a href="https://www.beastinthegarden.com/">recolonized the area around Boulder in the 1990s</a>. </p>
<p>As with sharks on Cape Cod, cougars were not purposefully reintroduced. Rather, measures protecting their habitat and food sources and restricting hunting made it possible for them to return to a new, human-dominated landscape, where leisure and outdoor recreation had largely replaced extractive resource uses such as logging and ranching. And Boulder residents had developed new sets of beliefs, attitudes and values about sharing space with large predators. After a <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1997/09/03/us/too-often-cougars-and-people-clash.html">high-profile fatal attack in 1997</a> and a contentious political process, Coloradans opted to forgo lethal control and focus on modifying human behavior near cougars. </p>
<p>Ultimately, in my view, the only activities that humans can manage and modify in a lasting way are our own. Social science can help communities strike a balance with nature by identifying acceptable trade-offs between the risks and benefits of coexistence. The return of white sharks to Cape Cod is just the latest example of the complex challenges, opportunities, and trade-offs posed by conservation in a time when humans have such broad influence over the natural world.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/102702/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Carlos G. García-Quijano has received research funding from the National Science Foundation and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration-Sea Grant. </span></em></p>The return of white sharks to Cape Cod, Massachusetts was a tourism success story – until a shark killed a swimmer. Can the Cape’s residents and visitors learn to share the ocean with these apex predators?Carlos G. García-Quijano, Associate Professor of Anthropology and Marine Affairs, University of Rhode IslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/980112018-06-13T06:16:18Z2018-06-13T06:16:18ZMass slaughter of wedge-tailed eagles could have Australia-wide consequences<p>Last week it was revealed that at least 136 wedge-tailed eagles have been <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-06-12/wedge-tailed-eagles-killed-east-gippsland/9859880">intentionally poisoned</a> in East Gippsland, with concerns that more are yet to be found. </p>
<p>In the past five years I have used satellite tracking devices to research wedge-tailed eagles’ movements across Australia, and I’ve never encountered raptor deaths on this scale.</p>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-birds-survived-the-dinosaur-killing-asteroid-97021">How birds survived the dinosaur-killing asteroid</a>
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<p>It’s been suggested that the birds were killed to protect lambs. Tragically, not only was this illegal cull unnecessary – evidence suggests that eagles do not often kill livestock – but it could also have ecological consequences right across Australia.</p>
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<h2>Juvenile birds</h2>
<p>There are two main categories of wedge-tailed eagles, based on their age class: sedentary breeding adults, which stay in a home range with nest sites; and highly nomadic juvenile birds that can cover huge distances. There are usually fewer adult birds in one place, because they are territorial. </p>
<p>The very high number of birds affected make it likely that they were largely juveniles. There is currently no accurate data on how many wedge-tailed eagles are in Australia, but this single culling event could have serious effects on future generations’ breeding capacity. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/bold-and-aggressive-behaviour-means-birds-thrive-in-cities-94600">Bold and aggressive behaviour means birds thrive in cities</a>
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<p>Sites of persecution can have impacts to eagle populations if they become “ecological sinks”. These are places that draw birds in from a wide area, perhaps because of an unnaturally abundant food source, and then result in birds dying. If these ongoing “mortality black holes” cause hundreds of birds to die in relatively short periods of time, this can start impacting the population.</p>
<h2>Do eagles kill lambs?</h2>
<p>The wedge-tailed eagle is a powerful predator that kills a variety of mammals. Anecdotal observations by landowners describe birds attacking live lambs and even half-grown sheep. There are also cases in the literature of them working in tandem to hunt larger prey such as kangaroos – behaviour that has been widely documented for large eagle species. </p>
<p>However, evidence gathered during <a href="http://www.publish.csiro.au/wr/WR9800433">extensive research</a> in Australia has shown that in most cases, eagles seen feeding on lamb or sheep carcasses are “cleaning up” after other predators like foxes and crows, which were actually the direct cause of death.</p>
<p>There are no documented cases of wedge-tailed eagles causing significant economic impacts to the sheep industry. But even if they did, there are other options besides culling. Carcasses placed near livestock would provide easier alternative food sources, for example. Shepherds can effectively guard flocks and protect lambs. Finally, given that wedge-tailed eagles are protected, it may be appropriate for the government to pay compensation for livestock losses. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/birds-wearing-backpacks-trace-a-path-to-conservation-93782">Birds wearing backpacks trace a path to conservation</a>
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<p>It must also be emphasised that eagles prey on a range of other species that are considered to be agricultural pests, such as overabundant native kangaroos, cockatoos, and feral species like rabbits and foxes. </p>
<p>Some eagles live, and some die. Such is life on this amazing, arid continent. Death itself is a normal ecological phenomenon, but unnatural deaths on such a large scale can have disastrous consequences for long-lived raptors like the wedge-tailed eagle. We must as a community respect the critical role that predators play in the landscape.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/98011/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Simon Cherriman receives funding from The Goldfield's Environmental Management Group for his research into tracking eagles.</span></em></p>The poisoning of dozens of wedge-tailed hawks in Victoria could affect the entire wild population.Simon Cherriman, Ornithology, Murdoch UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/969052018-05-21T19:49:30Z2018-05-21T19:49:30ZNSW’s no-cull brumby bill will consign feral horses to an even crueller fate<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/219697/original/file-20180521-42242-2iay92.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Research suggests there is no "safe number" of brumbies that will avoid harm to mountain ecosystems.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wild_Horses_in_the_Kosciuszko_National_Park,_NSW,_Australia.jpg">Jimmyvanderwall/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>New South Wales’ proposed brumby legislation – which abandons plans to cull feral horses in Kosciuszko National Park – is a dangerously reckless policy that will escalate environmental impacts, escalate costs, and put horses at risk of extreme suffering.</p>
<p>The New South Wales’ Deputy Premier John Barilaro was <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-05-20/culling-kosciousko-brumbies-banned-under-plan-national-icon/9780558">reported</a> as <a href="http://johnbarilaro.com.au/save-the-snowy-mountains-brumby-john-speaks-in-nsw-parliament-about-the-wild-brumby/">saying</a> the cultural significance of the brumbies needed to be recognised.</p>
<p>But the evidence regarding feral horse (brumby) impacts on the environment in the Australian alps makes it clear that large numbers of feral horses are incompatible with maintaining the ecological values of Kosciuszko National Park.</p>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/without-culling-victorias-feral-horse-plan-looks-set-to-fail-89753">Without culling, Victoria's feral horse plan looks set to fail</a>
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<p>In a <a href="https://dondriscoll.files.wordpress.com/2016/08/aug-19-science-statement-on-horses-in-kosciuszko.pdf">letter</a> to the then premier Mike Baird in 2016, I and 40 other ecologists noted that feral horses have <a href="https://www.environment.act.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0010/901954/NNP_Feral_Horse_Mgt_Plan_2007.pdf">well documented impacts</a> on streams and catchments: </p>
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<p>Feral horses damage waterways, degrade soil, spread weeds and alter vegetation. These changes are likely to have <a href="http://aciucn.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/18-Worboys.pdf">negative</a> <a href="http://www.ecolsoc.org.au/hot-topics/feral-horses-australia">impacts</a> on native fauna.</p>
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<p>Reports to both the <a href="https://engage.vic.gov.au/application/files/9115/1391/2382/Protection_of_Alpine_NP_-_Strategic_Action_Plan_2018-20_Draft.pdf">Victorian</a> and <a href="http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/protectsnowies/knp-horse-plan-review-160272.pdf">NSW</a> governments have expressed concern over the impact on threatened species unless horses are culled. In NSW, horses directly destroy the habitat of already threatened species, including <a href="http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/threatenedspeciesapp/profile.aspx?id=10693">two species</a> of critically endangered <a href="http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/threatenedspeciesapp/profile.aspx?id=10694">corroboree frogs</a>, the <a href="http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/threatenedspeciesapp/profile.aspx?id=10686">critically endangered smoky mouse</a>, endangered reptiles like the <a href="http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/threatenedSpeciesApp/profile.aspx?id=20164">alpine she-oak skink</a> and <a href="http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/threatenedSpeciesApp/profile.aspx?id=20251">Guthega skink</a>, and <a href="http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/threatenedspeciesapp/profile.aspx?id=20256">several</a> <a href="http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/threatenedspeciesapp/profile.aspx?id=10147">plant</a> <a href="http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/threatenedspeciesapp/profile.aspx?id=10149">species</a>. </p>
<p>In its report, <a href="https://engage.vic.gov.au/application/files/9115/1391/2382/Protection_of_Alpine_NP_-_Strategic_Action_Plan_2018-20_Draft.pdf">Parks Victoria suggested</a> that native mammals such as wallabies and kangaroos are also out-competed and driven away by feral horses.</p>
<p>The threat posed by feral horses to native species and communities is so great that the NSW Threatened Species Scientific Committee has released a preliminary determination to <a href="http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/threatenedspecies/determinations/PDFeralHorsesKTP.pdf">list feral horses as a key threatening process</a>. This report demonstrates that feral horses have well established environmental impacts and that action to reduce this threat is now urgent.</p>
<p>What’s more, there may be no “safe level” of feral horse numbers, below which the environment can cope with the damage. In a new <a href="https://engage.vic.gov.au/application/files/3615/1572/4458/Assessing_the_Impacts_of_Feral_Horses_on_the_Bogong_High_Plains_ATolsma_2018.pdf">report</a> for the Victorian government, the impacts of feral horses on the Bogong High Plains was found to be cumulative, meaning that the damage caused by even a small number of horses accumulates over time, because the rate of recovery in alpine conditions is extremely slow.</p>
<h2>Horse-free zones</h2>
<p>Contrary to the “brumby bill” which would leave thousands of feral horses in Kosciuszko National Park, and contrary to the <a href="https://engage.environment.nsw.gov.au/wild-horse-management-plan">draft management plan</a> that would reduce feral horses down to 600 over 20 years, to prevent horse damage, all of the horses must be removed.</p>
<p>Removing all of the feral horses from Kosciuszko National Park is also a value judgement. NSW sets aside only <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/pages/761994ab-42cc-4f24-952c-c21221861884/files/capad2016nsw.xlsx">9.2% of its land in protected areas</a>. That’s less than 10% where nature conservation has priority, and more than 90% where people and our livestock and crops take precedence. This is already an extreme compromise, and does not even reach international targets under the Convention on Biological Diversity to have <a href="https://www.cbd.int/sp/targets/rationale/target-11/">17% of land area in protected areas</a>. </p>
<p>The brumby bill will worsen this already below-par compromise by reneging on commitments to protect Australian native species, and transforming our national park into a playground for escaped exotic livestock.</p>
<p>The bill proposes to move horses from sensitive areas into less sensitive parts of the national park. But this is likely to fail, for two reasons. First, there is no clear way that this could be achieved without great cost and horse suffering. </p>
<p>Trapping horses has been <a href="http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/protectsnowies/knp-wild-horse-plan-draft-160271.pdf">experimented with since 2008</a>, with, on average, 450 horses removed from Kosciuszko each year, at a cost of more than A$1,000 per horse. This was from open woodland habitat with good road access. But many of the most sensitive environments are in the least accessible areas, such as the main Kosciuszko range. </p>
<p>Without culling, it is not clear how parks staff could remove horses from these areas. At best, it would be expensive because it would be so labour-intensive. It would require new infrastructure in remote areas (which is <a href="https://parkweb.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0017/314450/19_1161.pdf">undesirable</a> for <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-global-road-building-explosion-is-shattering-nature-70489">several</a> reasons), and could require mustering with helicopters, also very costly. Mustering, trapping and trucking horses have serious animal welfare concerns, making them a <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-ethical-and-cultural-case-for-culling-australias-mountain-horses-64602">crueller alternative than culling</a>. </p>
<p>Second, moving more horses into areas that are already overrun by these quadrupeds places the horse population at risk of ecological collapse. Horse populations can <a href="http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/threatenedspecies/determinations/PDFeralHorsesKTP.pdf">increase at 20% or more every year</a>. There were 6,000 horses in Kosciuszko National Park in 2014, so there could be more than twice that number by now. </p>
<p>By moving horses from one part of the park to another, the brumby bill will inevitably lead to unprecedented horse densities relative to the food available. There would be a real risk of mass horse starvation. By ignoring these basic ecological processes, the bill is likely to preside over more horse suffering than would be caused by a cull.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-grim-story-of-the-snowy-mountains-cannibal-horses-31691">The grim story of the Snowy Mountains' cannibal horses</a>
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<p>The proposed legislation is bad for horses, disastrous for the environment and, if relocations are actually implemented, extremely expensive. There are <a href="https://theconversation.com/without-culling-victorias-feral-horse-plan-looks-set-to-fail-89753">less cruel, cheaper, and more environmentally friendly solutions to this problem</a>. Cull the horses in the national park (<a href="http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/protectsnowies/knp-sssessing-humaneness-wild-horse-management-methods-2804.pdf">the least cruel of the range of viable methods</a>), constrain brumby herds to the many private properties around the park to foster innovation in ecotourism, and invest in other environmentally friendly cultural activities to celebrate brumby culture, such as horse events outside the park, signs <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-ethical-and-cultural-case-for-culling-australias-mountain-horses-64602">such as those around Victoria’s alpine huts</a>, sculptures, poetry and movies. </p>
<p>This is the win-win solution we should be aiming for, not the reckless version on the table at the moment.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>This article was amended on May 22, 2018, to clarify that the brumby population in Kosciuszko National Park was 6,000 in 2014, not 2016 as previously stated.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/96905/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Don Driscoll is President of the Ecological Society of Australia, a member of the Society for Conservation Biology and Director of the Centre for Integrative Ecology at Deakin University.</span></em></p>Failing to cull feral horses in Kosciuszko National Park may end up promoting environmental destruction while actually increasing the horses’ suffering.Don Driscoll, Professor in Terrestrial Ecology, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/961402018-05-11T15:30:26Z2018-05-11T15:30:26ZRewilding’s next generation will mean no more reserves full of starving animals<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/218112/original/file-20180508-184630-xou2oq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=77%2C423%2C3941%2C2144&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Goldilock Project / shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>In the late 1960s a patch of land to the east of Amsterdam was reclaimed from the sea for industry. Following the 1973 oil crisis this plan was abandoned and flocks of geese moved in. As the geese grazed the land they created changing mosaics of vegetation and a rich and unique environment spontaneously developed.</p>
<p>Dutch ecologists saw this and were inspired by the potential for animal grazing to restore a thriving “self-willed” ecosystem. They proposed a unique experiment to recreate the mix of large herbivores that inhabited the region after the last ice age, around 8,000 years ago, and to let natural forces, rather than human management, decide what environment they would create. The Oostvaardersplassen nature reserve, or OVP, was established on the site in 1986. Founder herds of konick horses, heck cattle and deer were introduced and the reserve became an iconic example of “rewilding”.</p>
<p>Recently, however, this 55 square kilometre reserve became front-page news in the Netherlands after images of starving animals spread outrage across social media. Plans to cull 3,000 weakened animals led to protests and prompted activists to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/apr/27/dutch-rewilding-experiment-backfires-as-thousands-of-animals-starve">throw bales of hay</a> over the fence. Rangers and ecologists associated with the project have even faced death threats.</p>
<p>Yet hungry animals at winter’s end is a natural situation. Allowing nature to take its course means that animal numbers will fluctuate, and following a series of mild winters the reserves’s populations of konik horses, heck cattle and deer were unusually high. In a hard winter, like the most recent, the grass stops growing and many animals will starve and die. </p>
<p>Nonetheless, some have suggested <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/apr/27/dutch-rewilding-experiment-backfires-as-thousands-of-animals-starve">the experiment has failed</a>, and that OVP simply creates animal suffering. But the starving animals and public outcry is a failure of politics rather than a failure of rewilding itself.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"993560673635520512"}"></div></p>
<p>All rewilding projects operate on the principle that herbivore populations should fluctuate as nature intended. This is important because it leads to varied vegetation with lots of different species. As a “first generation” rewilding experiment, the OVP left its animals to fend entirely for themselves. </p>
<p>Elsewhere in the Netherlands, ecologists quickly modified the concept into something more inclusive and entrepreneurial that takes animal welfare into account. This is why second generation rewilding projects, such as those at <a href="https://www.staatsbosbeheer.nl/Natuurgebieden/gelderse-poort">Gelderse Poort</a>, the <a href="https://rewildingeurope.com/rew-project/meuse-valley-river-park/">Border Meuse</a> and <a href="https://www.kempenbroek.eu/nl">Kempen Broek</a> are less controversial and hence less well known. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/218599/original/file-20180511-34009-ceakn9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/218599/original/file-20180511-34009-ceakn9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/218599/original/file-20180511-34009-ceakn9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/218599/original/file-20180511-34009-ceakn9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/218599/original/file-20180511-34009-ceakn9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/218599/original/file-20180511-34009-ceakn9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/218599/original/file-20180511-34009-ceakn9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/218599/original/file-20180511-34009-ceakn9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Kempen Broek is home to beavers, cattle – and this kingfisher.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/jacjanssen/22953808152/in/photolist-AXghV7-AYmgsY-AB9qNU-A3vkVo-B1xMWt-AXeweL-A3DgGB-AGVjK7-B18VGe-AGX2eb-A3F1CK-AXex5d-B1xGkZ-AB8GJd-AYo1xJ-B1xMqt-AoT5U2-AmKTQH-AYnTL7-AZyzvV-A3vjyq-AoT44D">Jac. Janssen / flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These reserves are developing the category of “kept wild”, where herds behave like wild animals and perform the same ecological role, but are also managed by humans to some degree. In these projects, the condition of each animal is assessed at the end of each winter. Those that would suffer and die from starvation or predation if left to nature are fed until they regain their condition in the spring. At this point they are removed to new rewilded areas or harvested and sold as “wild meat”.</p>
<p>This approach has created flourishing rewilding areas where visitors can feel the tingle of unease that comes from being in the proximity of large free-living animals. In the Netherlands there are now dozens of such areas along the coast and rivers.</p>
<p>Social enterprises have emerged to manage the wilded herds on these second generation projects. Some are <a href="https://rewildingeurope.com/news/new-publication-sharing-practices-on-natural-grazing-in-europe/">developing breeds better suited</a> to living in rewilded landscapes and with public access. Traits include a more docile temperament, smaller udders to reduce injury, or larger horns for defence against wolves and feral dogs. </p>
<p>For rewilding purists, there is a trade-off: carcasses are removed, even though they are key to <a href="https://rewildingeurope.com/news/introducing-the-circle-of-life/">restoring natural scavengers</a> – anything from vultures to carrion beetles – and the ecological processes they encourage. However, contemporary attitudes to processes of death, decay and decomposition are mostly negative. In places with lots of visitors, people find rewilding principles easier to accept if there are no dead animals around.</p>
<h2>Renewing the OVP experiment</h2>
<p>In April this year, a local government committee advised that the number of large herbivores on the OVP should be “reset” and <a href="https://www.flevoland.nl/actueel/oostvaardersplassen-ingrijpen-in-een-incompleet">actively managed at sustainable levels</a>. But, if adopted, the park’s natural cycle of grazing-induced ebbs and flows in different species at different times would be constrained, and the experimental principle lost.</p>
<p>The OVP was previously part of a progressive vision – the OostvaardersWold – to create a natural corridor linking it with the Veluwe, a national park to the south. This would have created the conditions for animals to move with the seasons and for predators such as wolves to establish themselves. Although the Dutch state had acquired most of the land in the corridor, the <a href="https://www.raadvanstate.nl/pers/persberichten/tekst-persbericht.html?id=409">policy was abandoned in 2010</a> following a change of government and a new minister who thought it a waste to convert good agricultural land to nature.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.omroepflevoland.nl/nieuws/157635/wnf-oostvaardersplassen-en-veluwe-alsnog-met-elkaar-verbinden">corridor idea should be reignited</a>. Politicians are wary of trying things again, but ideas are emerging to present a new strategy that integrates “kept wild” approaches. This is important because in the longer term even an expanded system may not avert population booms and the starvation events that follow. <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature01934">Studies from Africa</a> show that it is the availability of food, not the presence of predators, that limit populations of larger herbivores (which are too big for Europe’s lynx and foxes to tackle anyway).</p>
<p>Opening up the corridor even in a limited way would enable hungry animals to leave the OVP. They would migrate in social groups and decisions could be made on what to do with each group – a sort of “tap” in the system. The main expense would be building an <a href="https://www.wur.nl/en/Dossiers/file/Wildlife-bridges.htm">ecoduct</a> over the A6, a large motorway that runs north from Amsterdam around the edge of the park. The land for the corridor is already bought and the Netherlands has plans to build another 20 ecoducts.</p>
<p>Society and rewilding have both moved on since the Oostvaardersplassen was created, but the OVP “experiment” has not been able to do so. It’s time to change this – after all, rewilding should be <a href="https://theconversation.com/rewilding-isnt-about-nostalgia-exciting-new-worlds-are-possible-44854">about the future</a>, not the past.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/96140/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paul Jepson is a member of the supervisory board of Rewilding Europe</span></em></p>A reserve near Amsterdam lost many wild cattle and deer over the tough winter, leading to public protests. Yet this was a failure of Dutch politics rather than rewilding itself.Paul Jepson, Course Director, MSc Biodiversity, Conservation and Management, University of OxfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/739832017-03-08T00:10:57Z2017-03-08T00:10:57ZIn defence of the grey squirrel, Britain’s most unpopular invader<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/159869/original/image-20170308-14966-kvh4eq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jason Gilchrist / jasongilchrist.co.uk</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Furry, fast, occasionally chubby. Small, whiskered, bushy tailed. An expert climber. A nut eater. And grey.</p>
<p>For those in the UK, everything was going great until that last trait. You were probably thinking “cute” and “cuddly”, and feeling positive about this mystery mammal. Until you discover it is the grey and not the red squirrel.</p>
<p>Grey squirrels are a contradiction. They have all the characteristics of animals that people tend to love, and yet they are actively persecuted by humankind. BBC presenter Chris Packham calls them Britain’s “most unpopular non-native invader” – and one of their unflattering nicknames is the “<a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-390805/Damn-tree-rats.html">tree rat</a>”. </p>
<p>The Wildlife Trust has recently announced plans to recruit <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/feb/24/red-squirrels-5000-volunteers-sought-to-save-species-and-help-kill-invasive-greys">an army of 5,000 volunteers</a> to monitor their endangered native relative, the red squirrel – and kill the greys.</p>
<h2>Cute but criminal</h2>
<p>So why such a bad press for grey squirrels? Firstly, they ain’t from around here: greys were deliberately introduced from North America in the late 19th century as an exotic addition to country estates. They soon spread across the UK, however, and today the invaders are the dominant squirrel across almost all of England and Wales and much of Scotland and Ireland.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"835126115362619398"}"></div></p>
<p>But hostility towards invasive animals can’t explain the grey squirrel’s unpopularity – as other non-native species don’t get the same negative attention. The UK’s <a href="http://www.mammal.org.uk/species-hub/uk-mammal-list/">naturalised mammals</a> include the brown hare, the edible dormouse, and sika deer. Even the much-loved rabbit is a <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/earth/wildlife/6574709/Mouse-and-rabbits-among-non-native-species.html">Roman import</a>.</p>
<p>Instead, grey squirrels are disliked, by foresters due to the damage that they inflict upon trees, and more generally because of the harm they cause to their native relatives, red squirrels. Studies have shown that <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00265-001-0446-y">greys can outcompete reds</a> – the two species do not directly fight for resources, it is just that the greys are better at gathering the nuts and berries that both live off. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/159587/original/image-20170306-20749-82nt7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/159587/original/image-20170306-20749-82nt7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/159587/original/image-20170306-20749-82nt7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=354&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159587/original/image-20170306-20749-82nt7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=354&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159587/original/image-20170306-20749-82nt7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=354&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159587/original/image-20170306-20749-82nt7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=445&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159587/original/image-20170306-20749-82nt7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=445&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159587/original/image-20170306-20749-82nt7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=445&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Red squirrel: across the UK greys now outnumber these reds by around 17 to 1.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jason Gilchrist/www.jasongilchrist.co.uk</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Grey squirrels are also unknowingly the carrier of a disease, squirrel pox, to which they are immune, but sadly the red is not. For red squirrels, the pox means painful scabs, ulcers and <a href="http://www.northernredsquirrels.org.uk/squirrels/squirrel-pox-virus/">almost certain death</a> (although some are finally <a href="http://www.forestry.gov.uk/pdf/ukrsg_advice_note_E1.pdf/$FILE/ukrsg_advice_note_E1.pdf">developing resistance</a>). The pox itself may actually be the chief “evil immigrant” in this eco-relationship, with the grey squirrel simply moving into vacant habitat following an epidemic among local red squirrels.</p>
<h2>Ethics and welfare of killing</h2>
<p>Whatever the true ecological relationship between red and grey squirrel, the human species has for many years been waging war on the unfortunate invader. Human nature is such that, the moment we label a species as a “pest”, the welfare of individual animals is often ignored. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/159856/original/image-20170307-14934-qg84ga.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/159856/original/image-20170307-14934-qg84ga.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/159856/original/image-20170307-14934-qg84ga.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=367&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159856/original/image-20170307-14934-qg84ga.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=367&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159856/original/image-20170307-14934-qg84ga.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=367&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159856/original/image-20170307-14934-qg84ga.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159856/original/image-20170307-14934-qg84ga.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159856/original/image-20170307-14934-qg84ga.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Watch out! The grey squirrel is under attack.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jason Gilchrist/www.jasongilchrist.co.uk</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The grey squirrel is not so different from the red. How would we feel if we were to trap, poison and shoot the red squirrel? Greys did not come over here of their own accord and did not ask to be introduced. Neither do they have any control over the pox that they carry. They do what they do; which is to be grey squirrels. In response, what we do, is kill them by the tens of thousands, year after year. The killing is “humane” – but how free of pain and suffering is it for the squirrels? We poison them. We trap them. We shoot them. We bludgeon them to death.</p>
<p>How many dead greys is a live red worth? The success of this sustained massacre is debatable. Nobody seriously believes that the grey squirrel could be exterminated in the UK. A report by Stephen Harris and colleagues at the University of Bristol concluded that culling greys to save reds is <a href="https://www.onekind.scot/wp-content/uploads/0811_grey_squirrel_populations.pdf">neither viable nor economic</a>. Harris has instead suggested that we should move the reds to <a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/5238462.stm">protected islands</a> and let nature take its course on the mainland. We could <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/earth/wildlife/11301638/Millions-of-pounds-of-public-money-to-pay-for-grey-squirrel-cull.html">save ourselves a lot of time, money and effort</a> by not persecuting grey squirrels.</p>
<h2>We don’t need to kill to conserve</h2>
<p>I don’t want Britain to lose its native red squirrel. But neither do I take any joy from the thought of the tens of thousands of culled grey squirrels and the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/feb/24/red-squirrels-5000-volunteers-sought-to-save-species-and-help-kill-invasive-greys">infinite number that we will have to kill</a> if current plans are to continue in perpetuity. </p>
<p>We need to show a bit more respect to this highly successful species and there are alternative options to culling. We could start by managing forests to favour conifers (which reds prefer) over deciduous trees (the grey’s favourite).</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/159585/original/image-20170306-20739-1199mrs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/159585/original/image-20170306-20739-1199mrs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/159585/original/image-20170306-20739-1199mrs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159585/original/image-20170306-20739-1199mrs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159585/original/image-20170306-20739-1199mrs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159585/original/image-20170306-20739-1199mrs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159585/original/image-20170306-20739-1199mrs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159585/original/image-20170306-20739-1199mrs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pine marten: the smaller and more agile red squirrel evolved alongside this predator and may be better at escaping it.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Peter Cairns/scotlandbigpicture.com</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>The resurgence of the native pine marten could also swing the balance in favour of reds over greys. A conservation success story in itself, these ferret-like predators were recently spotted in England for the first time in more than a century. In areas of Ireland where pine martens are thriving, grey squirrels have <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/jan/30/how-to-eradicate-grey-squirrels-without-firing-a-shot-pine-martens">almost disappeared</a>, allowing reds to reestablish themselves.</p>
<p>The occurrence of <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/earth/wildlife/11516777/Squirrel-Nutkin-fights-back-in-battle-against-grey-rivals.html">pox-resistance</a> within some red squirrel populations is also a reason for hope for red over grey. Last but not least is the development of <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/shortcuts/2017/feb/26/grey-squirrels-prince-charles-nutella?CMP=twt_a-environment_b-gdneco">an oral contraceptive for grey squirrels</a> together with plans to bait them using Nutella.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/159874/original/image-20170308-14932-n1fsc6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/159874/original/image-20170308-14932-n1fsc6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/159874/original/image-20170308-14932-n1fsc6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159874/original/image-20170308-14932-n1fsc6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159874/original/image-20170308-14932-n1fsc6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159874/original/image-20170308-14932-n1fsc6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159874/original/image-20170308-14932-n1fsc6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159874/original/image-20170308-14932-n1fsc6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The humane way to reduce grey squirrel numbers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jason Gilchrist / jasongilchrist.co.uk</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Some would describe the grey squirrel as criminal. Others would describe the way they are treated by humans as criminal. Ultimately, we don’t necessarily need to kill to conserve.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/73983/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jason Gilchrist does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Grey squirrels have lots of attractive characteristics, yet they are actively persecuted by humankind.Jason Gilchrist, Ecologist, Edinburgh Napier UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/726822017-02-14T14:59:30Z2017-02-14T14:59:30ZRuffled feathers: angry Britons’ battle with dive-bombing birds moves inland<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/156783/original/image-20170214-25972-1g8jutv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">When the chips are down.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/seagull-staring-camera-great-number-pictures-375461371?src=ixW7jI13IzZNbkktBfnhmA-2-0">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The seaside and cities of Britain are under siege by wild and ferocious predators. Birds are wreaking havoc on innocent members of the public with indiscriminate attacks. Some fearful citizens have even reportedly <a href="http://www.itv.com/news/tyne-tees/2017-02-07/berwick-mp-warns-of-people-using-firearms-to-kill-seagulls/">taken to carrying firearms</a> for protection – from gulls.</p>
<p>For the seagulls’ list of victims seems to grow all the time. Tourists daring to eat ice creams in daylight, fans of fish and chip take-aways, festival goers, school children, cyclists, <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3164431/Family-s-pet-tortoise-pecked-death-SEAGULLS-left-drowning-blood-garden.html">tortoises</a>, <a href="http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/seagulls-swoop-kill-chihuahua-pup-5647915">Chihuahuas</a>, <a href="https://www.thesun.co.uk/news/1628380/tesco-store-evacuated-after-a-seagull-flies-in-and-attacks-a-customer/">supermarket customers</a>, are all seen as fair game from the skies.</p>
<p>So serious is the airborne threat that the Conservative MP for one south-west England constituency <a href="http://www.plymouthherald.co.uk/plymouth-mp-wants-to-get-tough-on-seagulls/story-30109464-detail/story.html">called for a parliamentary debate</a> after a friend lost his fish and chips to gulls. Even the notoriously tough South Africa rugby team was <a href="http://www.theargus.co.uk/news/13772890.Seagulls_wreak_havoc_at_Springboks__training_ground/">accused of being unnerved</a> as their British coastal training ground was dive-bombed during the 2015 World Cup. National newspapers have <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3174337/That-s-one-way-control-vermin-Peckish-seagull-swallows-rat-whole.html">featured photos of the birds swallowing rats</a>, pigeons, and in <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3174337/That-s-one-way-control-vermin-Peckish-seagull-swallows-rat-whole.html">one case reported</a> the violent eating of a starling, as “the poor starling chicks were forced to look on”.</p>
<p>In 2015 the then prime minister, David Cameron, called for a “big conversation” about the challenge and <a href="http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/david-cameron-on-seagulls-we-need-to-have-a-big-conversation-about-aggressive-birds-10398685.html">pledged a quarter of a million pounds to fight back</a>, egged on by the then Liberal Democrat MP Don Foster. The gull has Britain rattled, and its enemies appear to crumble. Neither the £250,000 nor Foster survived that year’s general election.</p>
<p>The creatures supposedly terrorising towns and capturing the public imagination are two particular species, the herring gull, <em>Larus argentatus</em>, and its very close cousin the lesser black backed gull, <em>Larus fuscus</em>. Both are large, feisty, greedy generalists happy to pull a worm from a wet lawn or dive bomb a jittery tourist into dropping their lunch. </p>
<p>Both attract critics and supporters in equal measure. The birds are either seen as viscous free loaders who pose a genuine threat to children, or an entertaining part of the British seaside tradition. After all, what exactly do you expect to find beside the sea?</p>
<p>But the gulls’ recent fortunes are complex, with both species widespread in northern Europe. In the 20th century their range of habitat expanded and overall populations rose, perhaps due to a decline in hunting and egg collecting, combined with their adoption of refuse tips as prime foraging sites. </p>
<p>At the same time they have retreated from their traditional coastal breeding haunts and have been making their homes in big cities since the 1940s. But despite appearing to be common, their overall numbers are not on the increase. In the UK in the late 1900s the population of lesser black backed gulls <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/268816736_The_Lesser_Black-backed_Gull_Larus_fuscus_in_England_how_to_resolve_a_conservation_conundrum">fell by 48% between 2000 and 2013</a>. With most birds breeding in just four super-colonies which have all shown marked declines, the lesser black back is now officially an “<a href="https://www.rspb.org.uk/birds-and-wildlife/bird-and-wildlife-guides/bird-guide/status_explained.aspx">amber listed</a>” endangered species.</p>
<p>Inevitably, labelling the birds both as a psychotic murderer and an endangered species causes confusion. Both species are protected by a mix of UK and European law, although nuisance lesser black backs could, until recently, be controlled with a general licence under the UK’s <a href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1981/69/contents">Wildlife and Countryside Act</a>. But this option was withdrawn as the gulls’ numbers fell and did not apply to herring gulls in the first place. </p>
<p>So what do we do about the sometimes ruffled relationship between gulls and humans? Research from a <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00063657.2016.1159179?journalCode=tbis20">study in the Netherlands</a> indicated that culling of urban populations may be largely ineffective, merely resulting in new birds migrating in to exploit new nesting and feeding opportunities. One response may be to “gull-proof” rubbish and waste bins, reducing the food available and so reducing the major incentive for the birds to share our urban living spaces. </p>
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<p>The trouble is, you cannot gull-proof a tourist. The traditional British seaside sights of donkey rides, deck chairs and buckets and spades are now joined by the day tripper holding out a chip to lure in a beady-eyed gull next to a “Do not feed the gulls” sign as other tourists run for shelter. The gulls continue to dive bomb, terrify, and target the unwary. </p>
<p>Meanwhile, the pair of lesser black backs that last year bred on the roof outside my city centre office in northern England are back. As I write this, they are swooping, mewling, and fighting for dominance in the gusts and eddies of campus buildings. Both of their chicks apparently survived and are probably looking forward to their first high season of adolescent rampage at the nearby promenade, where the notorious local gulls have learned to use the automatic doors of fast food outlets.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/72682/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mike Jeffries does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>What’s the answer? Fight or flight?Mike Jeffries, Teaching Fellow, Ecology, Northumbria University, NewcastleLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/662062016-09-28T20:12:21Z2016-09-28T20:12:21ZQueensland’s culling program is not the solution to New South Wales’ shark problem<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139541/original/image-20160928-732-1d4w1ys.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">White sharks are one of the species targeted in shark programs, but are also threatened. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">White shark image from www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Sharks are back in the headlines this week following the <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/nsw/surfer-cooper-allen-shows-off-bite-marks-after-lighthouse-beach-shark-attack-20160926-grp3ko.html">attack of 17-year-old Cooper Allen</a> off the coast of New South Wales. </p>
<p>In response there have been renewed calls for culling and even the establishment of a <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/sep/27/tony-abbott-at-odds-with-mike-baird-over-shark-nets-after-teenager-attacked">commercial shark fishery</a>. Queensland premier Annastacia Palaszczuk offered to <a href="http://www.theaustralian.com.au/national-affairs/state-politics/rival-premier-palaszczuk-puts-bite-on-mike-baird-over-sharks/news-story/83d3a72966297ed339c5fb076141aac1">extend her state’s shark control program</a> to include northern New South Wales beaches.</p>
<p>Any unprovoked shark bite is devastating for individuals and communities. Accepting Queensland’s offer of increased culling in New South Wales waters, however, will not automatically reduce the chance of these bites occurring.</p>
<p>So how does Queensland’s program stack up and should it be extended?</p>
<h2>How does Queensland’s program work?</h2>
<p>Queensland’s <a href="https://www.daf.qld.gov.au/fisheries/services/shark-control-program">Shark Control Program</a> relies on sharks being caught in large mesh fishing nets or <a href="https://www.daf.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/73455/Shark-Drumline-Arrangement.pdf">drumlines</a>, or a combination of both. </p>
<p>The program uses <a href="https://www.daf.qld.gov.au/fisheries/services/shark-control-program/shark-control-equipment-and-locations">hundreds of hooked drumlines and tens of shark nets</a> at popular beaches from Cairns to the Gold Coast. Equipment is checked every couple of days by government contractors, and target sharks that have been caught are killed with a firearm. The idea is to prevent sharks reaching the beaches and interacting with people. </p>
<p>The Queensland program has been running since 1962 as a public safety measure to reduce the risk of shark bites and attacks.</p>
<p>New South Wales already uses a <a href="http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/fishing/sharks/management/shark-meshing-bather-protection-program">similar program</a>, which deploys nets set below the surface roughly 500m from the shoreline on 51 beaches from Wollongong to Newcastle between September and April each year. </p>
<p>The equipment is designed to target sharks of 2m or larger, but in reality <a href="https://data.qld.gov.au/dataset/shark-control-program-non-target-statistics-by-year">indiscriminately kills animals of all sizes and species</a> beyond the targets of white sharks, tiger sharks and bull sharks.</p>
<h2>Do shark programs stop shark attacks?</h2>
<p>A recent study has shown that <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0964569116302058">unprovoked shark bites appear to have increased</a> in recent years in eastern and southern Australia, but it is difficult to tease apart what environmental conditions are causing the increase, and even more difficult to predict when and where these conditions will next occur. </p>
<p>Important environmental conditions include sea surface temperature, freshwater runoff, turbidity (the cloudiness of water), currents and circulation patterns. While there are correlations between these factors and shark bites, that is all we know so far. <a href="http://tylervigen.com/spurious-correlations">Correlation does not mean causation</a>. </p>
<p>The big problem is that there is currently <a href="https://coreybradshaw.files.wordpress.com/2014/07/wa-drum-lines-expert-submission-20140707.pdf">no scientific evidence to link shark nets or drumlines to ocean safety</a>.</p>
<p>It is not a matter of putting humans at the “top of the food chain” as <a href="http://www.theaustralian.com.au/national-affairs/state-politics/rival-premier-palaszczuk-puts-bite-on-mike-baird-over-sharks/news-story/83d3a72966297ed339c5fb076141aac1">Nationals president Larry Anthony</a> (who represented the north coast in parliament) stated earlier this week. </p>
<p>It is a matter of whether (1) the strategies directly reduce the number of shark-related deaths, and (2) any reductions outweigh the ecological costs of these mitigation strategies.</p>
<p>Interestingly, <a href="https://theconversation.com/has-queensland-really-saved-lives-by-killing-thousands-of-sharks-23437">shark-related fatalities have declined in Queensland </a> since the state’s shark program began, but fatalities have declined in areas with and without shark mitigation equipment. The greatest decline actually occurred before deployment of nets and drumlines began.</p>
<h2>And what about the sharks?</h2>
<p>The dangers posed by Queensland’s shark program to shark populations are substantial. The vast majority of sharks that are caught by the program are threatened according to the <a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/static/categories_criteria_3_1">International Union for Conservation of Nature</a>. This includes target species such as <a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/3855/0">white sharks</a> and <a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/39378/0">tiger sharks</a>, and non-target species such as <a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/3854/0">grey nurse sharks</a>.</p>
<p>Some of these species are already listed by the <a href="http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/fishing/species-protection/fsc">New South Wales Fisheries Scientific Committee</a>. The same committee has listed the state’s current program as a <a href="http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/636537/FR24-shark-meshing.pdf">threatening process for marine wildlife</a>. These species are in need of increased conservation and management rather than increased slaughter. Removing even a few of these larger predators can have <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2010.01489.x/full">unpredictable and cascading negative impacts on whole ecosystems</a>. </p>
<p>Any removal of sharks are exacerbated by the slow growth and relatively low reproduction rate of these animals, which make them particularly vulnerable.</p>
<p>What Annastacia Palaszczuk is really offering New South Wales is to indiscriminately kill a large portion of species that should be protected by our state legislation. </p>
<p>What we should be doing is tagging and following the movements of these highly migratory species to understand <a href="https://theconversation.com/state-of-fear-what-should-we-do-about-sharks-in-new-south-wales-47413">where they go, and why</a>. </p>
<p>Shark experts associated with the New South Wales government are trialling various forms of shark deterrent technology, some of which are looking promising. Priority has been given to development of <a href="http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/fishing/sharks/shark-management">personal shark deterrents</a>, such as electrical and magnetic devices, and protective wetsuits. </p>
<p>While things are progressing since the <a href="https://theconversation.com/shields-and-smart-buoys-new-technology-to-protect-sharks-and-people-48577">Shark Summit hosted by premier Mike Baird in September 2015</a>, any solution is going to take time.</p>
<p><em>Update: this article was updated on October 3 to correct that Larry Anthony does not currently represent New South Wales in federal politics.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/66206/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jane Williamson has received funding from the Australian Research Council. She is Deputy Chair of the NSW Fisheries Scientific Committee.</span></em></p>Queensland premier Annastacia Palaszczuk has offered to extend the state’s shark netting and drum lines into New South Wales.Jane Williamson, Associate Professor in Marine Ecology, Macquarie UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.