tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/date-rape-57960/articlesDate rape – The Conversation2021-05-17T06:00:36Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1605382021-05-17T06:00:36Z2021-05-17T06:00:36ZWhat is drink spiking? How can you know if it’s happened to you, and how can it be prevented?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/399935/original/file-20210511-21-wi5zfe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5689%2C3789&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/colorful-cocktail-on-top-bar-italian-276150941">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/it-was-terrifying-police-on-alert-amid-rise-in-reports-of-drink-spiking-20210331-p57fil.html">Recent media reports</a> suggest drink spiking at pubs and clubs may be on the rise.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1378112697171120128"}"></div></p>
<p>“Drink spiking” is when someone puts alcohol or other drugs into another person’s drink without their knowledge.</p>
<p>It can include:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>putting alcohol into a non-alcoholic drink</p></li>
<li><p>adding extra alcohol to an alcoholic drink</p></li>
<li><p>slipping prescription or illegal drugs into an alcoholic or non-alcholic drink.</p></li>
</ul>
<p><a href="https://www.police.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/81374/fact_sheet_drink_spiking_myths.pdf">Alcohol</a> is actually the drug most commonly used in drink spiking. </p>
<p>The use of other drugs, such as benzodiazepines (like Rohypnol), GHB or ketamine is relatively rare.</p>
<p>These drugs are colourless and odourless so they are less easily detected. They cause drowsiness, and can cause “blackouts” and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27198055/">memory loss</a> at high doses.</p>
<p>Perpetrators may spike victims’ drinks to commit sexual assault. But <a href="https://www.aic.gov.au/sites/default/files/2020-05/national-project-on-drink-spiking-investigating-the-nature-and-extent-of-drink-spiking-in-australia.pdf">according to the data</a>, the most common type of drink spiking is to “prank” someone or some other non-criminal motive.</p>
<p>So how can you know if your drink has been spiked, and as a society, how can we prevent it?</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/weekly-dose-ghb-a-party-drug-thats-easy-to-overdose-on-but-was-once-used-in-childbirth-73266">Weekly Dose: GHB, a party drug that's easy to overdose on but was once used in childbirth</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How often does it happen?</h2>
<p>We don’t have very good data on how often drink spiking occurs. It’s often not reported to police because victims can’t remember what has happened.</p>
<p>If a perpetrator sexually assaults someone after spiking their drink, there are <a href="https://theconversation.com/almost-90-of-sexual-assault-victims-do-not-go-to-police-this-is-how-we-can-achieve-justice-for-survivors-157601">many complex reasons</a> why victims may not want to report to police.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/almost-90-of-sexual-assault-victims-do-not-go-to-police-this-is-how-we-can-achieve-justice-for-survivors-157601">Almost 90% of sexual assault victims do not go to police — this is how we can achieve justice for survivors</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><a href="https://www.aic.gov.au/sites/default/files/2020-05/national-project-on-drink-spiking-investigating-the-nature-and-extent-of-drink-spiking-in-australia.pdf">One study</a>, published in 2004, estimated there were about 3,000 to 4,000 suspected drink spiking incidents a year in Australia. It estimated less than 15% of incidents were reported to police.</p>
<p>It found four out of five victims were women. About half were under 24 years old and around one-third aged 25-34. Two-thirds of the suspected incidents occurred in licensed venues like pubs and clubs.</p>
<p>According to an Australian study from 2006, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16580243/">around 3%</a> of adult sexual assault cases occurred after perpetrators intentionally drugged victims outside of their knowledge.</p>
<p>It’s crucial to note that sexual assault is a moral and legal violation, whether or not the victim was intoxicated and whether or not the victim became intoxicated voluntarily.</p>
<h2>How can you know if it’s happened to you?</h2>
<p>Some of the <a href="https://adf.org.au/insights/drink-spiking/">warning signs</a> your drink might have been spiked include:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>feeling lightheaded, or like you might faint</p></li>
<li><p>feeling quite sick or very tired</p></li>
<li><p>feeling drunk despite only having a very small amount of alcohol</p></li>
<li><p>passing out</p></li>
<li><p>feeling uncomfortable and confused when you wake up, with blanks in your memory about what happened the previous night.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>If you think your drink has been spiked, you should ask someone you trust to get you to a safe place, or talk to venue staff or security if you’re at a licensed venue. If you feel very unwell you should seek medical attention.</p>
<p>If you believe your drink has been spiked or you have been sexually assaulted, contact the police to report the incident.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1369483648781672448"}"></div></p>
<h2>How can drink spiking be prevented?</h2>
<p>Most drink spiking occurs at licensed venues like pubs and clubs. Licensees and people who serve alcohol have a responsibility to provide a safe environment for patrons, and have an important role to play in preventing drink spiking.</p>
<p>This includes having clear procedures in place to ensure staff understand the signs of drink spiking, including with alcohol.</p>
<p>Preventing drink spiking is a collective responsibility, not something to be shouldered by potential victims.</p>
<p>Licensees can take responsible steps including:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>removing unattended glasses</p></li>
<li><p>reporting suspicious behaviour</p></li>
<li><p>declining customer requests to add extra alcohol to a person’s drink</p></li>
<li><p>supplying water taps instead of large water jugs</p></li>
<li><p>promoting responsible consumption of alcohol, including discouraging rapid drinking</p></li>
<li><p>being aware of “red flag” drink requests, such as repeated shots, or double or triple shots, or adding vodka to beer or wine.</p></li>
</ul>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Bartender pouring drinks" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/400926/original/file-20210517-17-rfcblw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/400926/original/file-20210517-17-rfcblw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/400926/original/file-20210517-17-rfcblw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/400926/original/file-20210517-17-rfcblw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/400926/original/file-20210517-17-rfcblw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/400926/original/file-20210517-17-rfcblw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/400926/original/file-20210517-17-rfcblw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Bartenders should be wary of ‘red flag’ drinks requests like people asking for double or triple shots.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A few <a href="https://adf.org.au/insights/drink-spiking/">simple precautions</a> everyone can take to reduce the risk of drink spiking include:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>have your drink close to you, keep an eye on it and don’t leave it unattended</p></li>
<li><p>avoid sharing beverages with other people</p></li>
<li><p>purchase or pour your drinks yourself</p></li>
<li><p>if you’re offered a drink by someone you don’t know well, go to the bar with them and watch the bartender pour your drink</p></li>
<li><p>if you think your drink tastes weird, pour it out</p></li>
<li><p>keep an eye on your friends and their beverages too.</p></li>
</ul>
<h2>What are the consequences for drink spiking in Australia?</h2>
<p>It’s a criminal offence to spike someone’s drink with alcohol or other drugs without their consent in all states and territories.</p>
<p>In some jurisdictions, there are specific drink and food spiking laws. For example, in <a href="http://classic.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/vic/consol_act/soa1966189/s41h.html">Victoria</a>, the punishment is up to two years imprisonment.</p>
<p>In other jurisdictions, such as Tasmania, drink spiking <a href="https://www.legislation.tas.gov.au/view/html/inforce/current/act-1924-069#JS1@GS176@EN">comes under broader offences</a> such as “administering any poison or other noxious thing with intent to injure or annoy”.</p>
<p>Spiking someone’s drink with an intent to commit a serious criminal offence, such as sexual assault, usually comes with very severe penalties. For example, this carries a penalty of up to 14 years imprisonment in <a href="http://www6.austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/viewdoc/au/legis/qld/consol_act/cc189994/s218.html">Queensland</a>.</p>
<p>There are <a href="https://justice.nt.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/171850/drink-spiking-discussion-paper.pdf">some ambiguities</a> in the criminal law. For example, some laws aren’t clear about whether drink spiking with alcohol is an offence.</p>
<p>However, in all states and territories, if someone is substantially intoxicated with alcohol or other drugs it’s good evidence they <a href="https://www.monash.edu/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/1092675/05_McNamara.pdf">aren’t able to give consent</a> to sex. Sex with a substantially intoxicated person who’s unable to consent may constitute rape or another sexual assault offence.</p>
<hr>
<p><strong><em>Getting help</em></strong></p>
<p><em>In an emergency, call triple zero (000) or the nearest police station.</em> </p>
<p><em>For information about sexual assault, or for counselling or referral, call 1800RESPECT (1800 737 732).</em></p>
<p><em>If you’ve been a victim of drink spiking and want to talk to someone, the following confidential services can help:</em></p>
<p><em>- Beyond Blue: 1300 22 4636</em></p>
<p><em>- Kids Helpline (5-25 year olds): 1800 55 1800</em></p>
<p><em>- National Alcohol and other Drug Hotline: 1800 250 015.</em></p>
<hr>
<p><em>This article has been amended to remove a reference to blood tests for criminal prosecution which may not be available across Australia.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/160538/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nicole Lee works as a consultant in the alcohol and other drug sector and a psychologist in private practice. She has previously been awarded funding by Australian and state governments, NHMRC and other bodies for evaluation and research into alcohol and other drug prevention and treatment, and currently receives funds from the Australian Government, and several state and territory governments. She is a member of the Australian Government's Australian National Advisory Council on Alcohol and other Drugs, a member of the board of directors of Hello Sunday Morning and volunteers with The Loop Australia.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jarryd Bartle works as a consultant in the alcohol and other drug sector.</span></em></p>Preventing drink spiking is a collective responsibility, not something to be shouldered by potential victims.Nicole Lee, Professor at the National Drug Research Institute (Melbourne), Curtin UniversityJarryd Bartle, Sessional Lecturer, RMIT UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1278522019-12-17T16:42:53Z2019-12-17T16:42:53ZRising rape cases, a broken criminal justice system and the ‘digital strip search’<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/307167/original/file-20191216-123987-1d8f8g7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/statue-justice-symbol-legal-law-concept-681265648?src=b4d36b19-25d5-498b-8115-78cff1765099-1-0&studio=1">Shutterstock/r.classen</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-50812810">New rape statistics </a> have highlighted what many people already know: the UK’s criminal justice system is broken. Rape allegations are at a record high, but the number of cases progressing through from <a href="https://www.cps.gov.uk/sites/default/files/documents/publications/cps-vawg-report-2019.pdf">charging to prosecution</a> have significantly dropped. </p>
<p>A Cabinet Office report <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/society/2019/nov/10/half-of-victims-drop-out-of-cases-even-after-suspect-is-identified">leaked to the Guardian</a> suggested a lack of police resources were a key contributing factor. While this is clearly having an impact, it would be wrong to blame the whole crisis on police resources. The issue goes to the heart of the criminal justice system and how it treats sexual assault victims.</p>
<p>The statistics on rape in the UK are shocking. According to the Crown Prosecution Service’s <a href="https://www.cps.gov.uk/sites/default/files/documents/publications/cps-vawg-report-2019.pdf">Violence Against Women and Girls report</a>, rape figures from 2017 to 2019 showed that the number of suspects referred for a charge of rape by the police has fallen by 22.8%. Charges for rape have fallen by 38%, prosecutions have fallen by 32.8% and the number of convictions have fallen by 26.9%. </p>
<p>Yet recorded offences of rape are increasing at <a href="https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/crimeandjustice/bulletins/crimeinenglandandwales/yearendingjune2019">an alarming rate</a>. The crime data shows there is a 350% increase in the number of rapes recorded by the police when comparing figures from 2008 to 2019. Recorded crimes, include offences reported to the police, but do not necessarily result in charge or conviction. </p>
<p>And, according to the Crime Survey for England and Wales, just 17% of people report their rape, so many offences <a href="https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/crimeandjustice/articles/sexualoffendingvictimisationandthepaththroughthecriminaljusticesystem/2018-12-13">do not even enter the criminal justice system</a>.</p>
<p>So why when we are finally at a point in society where the reporting of sexual violence is <a href="https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/crimeandjustice/articles/sexualoffendingvictimisationandthepaththroughthecriminaljusticesystem/2018-12-13">increasing</a> are there huge reductions in the amount making it through each stage of the criminal justice system?</p>
<h2>The digital strip search</h2>
<p>The majority of rapes take place in a room where there are no witnesses. And there is unlikely to be video evidence that shows consent was not given.</p>
<p>When a victim initially discloses to the police that they have been a victim of rape, the process often starts with them having to offer themselves up to a <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/law/2019/jul/23/police-demands-for-access-to-victims-phones-unlawful">“digital strip search”</a>. This involves police and lawyers scrutinising personal photographs and messages from the victim’s phone. A <a href="https://www.cps.gov.uk/sites/default/files/documents/publications/cps-vawg-report-2019.pdf">recent report by the Crown Prosecution Service (CPS)</a> states: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>This is not something that should be requested as a matter of course in every case. Only reasonable lines of inquiry should be pursued, to avoid unnecessary intrusion into a complainant’s personal life.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>But the <a href="https://www.cps.gov.uk/sites/default/files/documents/publications/Key-facts-about-how-the-CPS-prosecutes-allegations-of-rape.pdf">decision to charge a suspect</a> requires the CPS to find “sufficient evidence to provide a realistic prospect of conviction”. So the “type” of girl/victim becomes a key part in each stage of decision making as the narrative and evidence must be understood and interpreted by a jury.</p>
<p>Defence teams in rape trials often attempt to tarnish the credibility of the victim, questioning whether they showed “normal sexual behaviour”. But this is a dangerous game. Issues like <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/teenage-girl-underwear-rape-trial-cork-sex-latest-a8625871.html">what the victim was wearing</a>, intoxication levels, how the victim interacted with the attacker, have all been shown to influence <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6348335/">negative perceptions and outcomes</a> in rape cases. </p>
<h2>Victims are not “perfect”</h2>
<p>It is important for defence teams to challenge a victim’s versions of events, but now <a href="https://www.cps.gov.uk/sites/default/files/documents/publications/cps-vawg-report-2019.pdf">the CPS</a>, as well as <a href="https://wecantconsenttothis.uk/">victim groups</a>, are rightly raising questions about the requirements for victims to fully disclose all aspects of their lives, which make them feel like <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/society/2019/apr/29/why-might-rape-victims-refuse-to-give-phones-to-police">they are the ones under investigation</a>. </p>
<p>This problem was highlighted in the recent high-profile <a href="https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/entry/grace-millane-murder-rough-sex-defence-legal-court_uk_5dd52a54e4b0fc53f20bc589">Grace Millane murder trial</a> in New Zealand. In attempting to create <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-46618040">reasonable doubt</a> about the case, the accused lawyers brought into evidence the amount of alcohol Grace drank and her previous sexual history. Victims can face <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/society/2018/jan/29/uk-rape-complainants-unfair-questions-sexual-history">similar questioning</a> in the UK.</p>
<p>The fact is there is no such thing as the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/oct/04/friend-raping-me-case-dropped-uk-rape-prosecution">“perfect” rape victim</a>. We need to urgently review how far the courts can delve into a victim’s life and there should be clear guidelines about what should be off limits.</p>
<h2>Changes in offending behaviour</h2>
<p>Our work in <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0886260518756118">serious sexual offences and homicide</a> has shown how modern technology is leading to <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0886260517718187">key changes</a>, not just in the behaviour of sex offenders, but also in the behaviour shown by the general public when it comes to sex. </p>
<p>People are meeting their attackers <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-49508871">after brief online interactions</a>, in riskier, isolated places – sometimes even in the <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/newsbeat/article/37278670/how-to-stay-safe-when-youre-dating-online">victim or offender’s home</a>. This change from outdoors (where more precautions are taken) to indoors has led to more bold, confident and overt <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0886260518756118">sexual offending</a>. And defence teams can interpret these decisions to create reasonable doubt in a jury’s mind over the question of consent.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/stranger-danger-in-the-online-and-real-world-79517">'Stranger danger' in the online and real world</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Sexual offences where the victim <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0886260517718187">met their attacker online</a> are going to continue to increase, as will the technology and data which is available to examine. Huge <a href="https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/backlog-of-devices-awaiting-police-analysis-leaves-trials-facing-collapse-bgb6zft9x">backlogs across police forces </a> with additional <a href="https://www.itv.com/news/london/2019-07-03/rape-cases-delayed-by-months-because-of-digital-forensic-backlog/">delays in rape charge decision making</a> are already being reported.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-48871994">Urgent reviews and funding</a> are needed to ensure that victims are supported from the initial crime report through to court. It is in our power to ensure that victims aren’t prevented from reporting crimes because the system is not effectively set up to deal with the demand this creates. </p>
<p>But there are also <a href="https://theconversation.com/grace-millanes-murder-trial-shows-social-attitudes-continue-to-minimise-gendered-violence-127796">huge ethical questions</a> about the balance of justice regarding how far victims can reasonably be pushed in court. And given the clear increase of rape cases failing <a href="https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/crimeandjustice/articles/sexualoffendingvictimisationandthepaththroughthecriminaljusticesystem/2018-12-13">due to victims retracting their accusations</a>, this has never been so critical.</p>
<p>Simply stating this is <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-50812810">a policing resource issue</a> is not a sufficient response. The system is unintentionally giving confidence to perpetrators by effectively putting a victim’s personal life on trial before a case even gets to court. There is now a real risk society is going back to a time when victims were too afraid to report rape as they had no confidence the system would protect them.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/127852/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michelle McManus has previously received funding from the Home Office and actively works with a number of police forces and criminal justice agencies across the UK. Michelle was also a serving Magistrate for 10 years, but has since retired. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Louise Almond actively works with a number of police forces and criminal justice agencies across the UK</span></em></p>We can’t just blame falling rape prosecutions on a lack of resources.Michelle McManus, Subject Head in Criminal Justice, Liverpool John Moores UniversityLouise Almond, Senior lecturer in Investigative and Forensic Psychology, University of LiverpoolLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1230112019-09-29T19:55:19Z2019-09-29T19:55:19ZAnti-rape devices may have their uses, but they don’t address the ultimate problem<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/293357/original/file-20190920-50963-1ran02a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=398%2C23%2C4758%2C3438&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Technology can help crime victims deal with the situation - but the best solution is to avoid people being victims in the first place.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Crime prevention initiatives targeting sexual violence are by no means new. But as technology advances and costs decrease, we are seeing an abundance of digital and technological strategies emerge. </p>
<p>Last month, an <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-08-30/japanese-anti-groping-stamp-sells-out-within-an-hour/11466246">invisible anti-groping stamp</a> sold out within an hour of its launch in Japan. </p>
<p>The stamp can be used by victims to mark someone who gropes them on public transport. This mark can only be seen when a black light (that comes with the device) is cast over it.</p>
<p>But we need to ask: are apps, wearables and virtual reality programs really reducing incidents, improving safety or transforming responses to harm? </p>
<p>Ultimately, there can be benefits to using technology to prevent sexual violence, but we must also encourage social shifts that tackle the heart of the problem.</p>
<h2>Wearables and devices</h2>
<p>Anti-rape wear, promoted as “<a href="https://www.indiegogo.com/projects/ar-wear-confidence-protection-that-can-be-worn#/">wearable protection for when things go wrong</a>”, was introduced to the market around 2013. </p>
<p>Designed to be worn by women, anti-rape underwear and shorts are resistant to attempts at cutting, tearing and pulling. Some designs have a coded padlock and siren which sounds if someone tries to forcibly remove the clothing. Sirens can also be activated on demand. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-women-are-harmed-by-calling-sexual-assault-locker-room-talk-67422">How women are harmed by calling sexual assault 'locker room talk'</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Anti-vaginal penetration devices have also been designed. <a href="https://rape-axe.com">Rape-aXe</a>, introduced in 2010, is a “female latex condom” with rows of serrated “teeth” that <a href="http://www.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/africa/06/20/south.africa.female.condom/index.html">latch onto a penis during penetration</a>.</p>
<p>In 2014, undergraduate students at North Carolina University began promoting the <a href="https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/undercover-colors/">Undercover Colors</a> nail polish. The polish supposedly changes colour when dipped into a drink laced with date-rape drugs such as GHB, Rohypnol or Xanax. </p>
<p>The team now involved with the company has since launched <a href="https://www.undercovercolors.com/">SipChip</a>, a “coin-sized drug test” on a <a href="https://www.techopedia.com/definition/3998/key-fob">key fob</a> that can be slipped into a pocket or fixed onto a phone cover.</p>
<p>Ideally, these tests can be carried out discretely. </p>
<h2>Fundamental flaws</h2>
<p>Overwhelmingly, these digital devices are targeted at possible victims (typically women), asking them to assume responsibility for own their safety and management of risk. But as <a href="http://renabivens.com/">critics have noted</a>, they can reinforce misconceptions about sexual violence instead of challenging them. </p>
<p>Victim-blaming of those who have experienced sexual assault is unfortunately common. It occurs in a variety of domains, including in the media, community, and criminal justice settings. </p>
<p>All too often, victim/survivors are asked what they might have done to facilitate or provoke an attack. In expecting women to control their bodies and environments with the help of anti-rape devices, the question of “what were you wearing” could be reframed as “what anti-rape devices were you wearing?”. </p>
<p>“How much did you drink” could turn into “did you check the drink was drugged?”. </p>
<p>The constant vigilance expected of women cannot be overlooked. </p>
<p>Anti-rape apps and devices are specifically designed to intervene in risky situations. They can potentially be valuable in preventing particular incidents. </p>
<p>But such measures may only deter perpetrators from harming one person, not necessarily from harming others, or attacking the target at another time. </p>
<h2>Problematic perspectives</h2>
<p>Assaults on public transport and in public spaces are undoubtedly an issue. But focusing on the “unknown” danger from strangers can take away focus from the higher level of sexual violence enacted by acquaintances, friends, dates, and intimate partners - often in private places. </p>
<p>The most recent <a href="https://www.anrows.org.au/media-releases/young-australians-confused-about-consent-and-control-in-the-age-of-tinder-and-snapchat/">National Community Attitudes toward Violence against Women Survey</a> documented alarming attitudes about violence against women among young people. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/rape-myths-like-stranger-danger-challenged-by-global-drug-survey-116110">Rape myths like 'stranger danger' challenged by global drug survey</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>About one in seven young Australians reported a man would be justified in using force if a woman initiated sex but subsequently changed her mind about continuing. Almost one in four young men also believed women find it flattering to be persistently pursued, even if they are not interested.</p>
<p>Such “problematic attitudes to violence against women” were said to be common among young people with mainly male friends. </p>
<p>When it comes to technological responses to sexual violence, perpetrators and bystanders are rarely the focus. This is an oversight that warrants attention. </p>
<h2>Digital support solutions</h2>
<p>Technology can offer support for women in the aftermath of an incident. </p>
<p>Victim/survivors use digital channels to call out sexual hostilities, aggression or unfavourable experiences on dating apps. Examples include public Instagram accounts such as <a href="https://www.instagram.com/tindernightmares/?hl=en">tindernightmares</a>. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/BlZraLihH60","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<p><a href="https://www.instagram.com/byefelipe/?hl=en">Bye Felipe</a> also features posts “calling out dudes who turn hostile when rejected or ignored”. </p>
<p>Advocates have created apps that provide victim/survivors with ways to report violence and seek assistance. For instance, <a href="https://www.1800respect.org.au/sunny/">Sunny</a> helps survivors with disabilities share their stories and locate information about their rights and support.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/cyber-justice-how-technology-is-supporting-victim-survivors-of-rape-56022">Cyber justice: how technology is supporting victim-survivors of rape</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Apps such as <a href="https://www.dvrcv.org.au/file/smartsafe-mobile-app">SmartSafe+</a> and <a href="https://www.dvrcv.org.au/help-advice/women/arc-app">Arc</a>, developed by the Domestic Violence Research Centre Victoria, can help in evidence collection.</p>
<h2>Prevention before reaction</h2>
<p>Virtual reality is another innovative channel we can use to promote and practice <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/may/01/sexual-assault-training-program-vantage-point-virtual-reality-video-games">bystander intervention</a> in a simulated environment. </p>
<p>Users can see and experience how bystanders - which could be any of us - might intervene to prevent sexual violence.</p>
<p>Ideally, this would be trialled alongside discussions about ideologies and behaviours that foster perpetration, and how consent can be understood and respected. </p>
<p>In many ways, technology can provide tools that help prevent sexual violence and offer support to victim/survivors. But we must develop digital initiatives that seek to promote real world, social shifts. </p>
<p>Technologies should seek to engage with and prevent perpetration, promote bystander intervention and challenge the myths, attitudes and underlying structures that facilitate sexual violence.</p>
<p>In other words, we need to prevent sexual violence at its source.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/123011/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bridget Harris has previously receives funding from the Australian Institute of Criminology; Academy of Social Sciences and ACCAN. These projects have not informed this article. </span></em></p>The Rape-aXe ‘female condom’, anti-rape underwear and an anti-groping stamp are all now on the market. But they put the onus on women to protect themselves, rather than on men not to attack them.Bridget Harris, Senior Lecturer, School of Justice; Crime, Justice and Social Democracy Research Centre, Queensland University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1043602018-10-05T10:42:46Z2018-10-05T10:42:46Z‘Bystander effect’ and sexual assault: What the research says<p>Sexual assault, pushed into public conversation by the <a href="https://metoomvmt.org">#MeToo movement</a>, once again dominates the U.S. news cycle. Supreme Court nominee Brett Kavanaugh faces <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2018/09/27/brett-kavanaugh-allegations-sexual-misconduct-complete-list/?utm_term=.e2f508267f3e">allegations</a> that he sexually assaulted professor Christine Blasey Ford, a former high school classmate. </p>
<p>The allegations have led to a number of important questions regarding victim testimony, the veracity of memory and the justice system in America. </p>
<p>However, as social scientists who study sexuality and violence, we found ourselves asking a different question: Where were Kavanaugh and Ford’s classmates during this alleged incident? </p>
<h2>The role of bystanders</h2>
<p>Based on Dr. Ford’s testimony, party guests failed to notice this incident, let alone intervene to stop it. In fact, key witnesses have submitted affidavits stating that they did not see or that they have no recollection of the event. Whereas some politicians have used these affidavits <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/national/wp/2018/09/27/kavanaugh-hearing-transcript/?utm_term=.c4dbdcc321ba">to cast doubt</a> on Dr. Ford’s allegations, we believe these affidavits are in line with research concerning <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/record/1968-08862-001">bystanders’ behavior</a> in potentially dangerous situations. </p>
<p>Over 50 years of research has documented a “<a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/buy/2011-08829-001">bystander effect</a>” in which witnesses fail to intervene in emergency situations, often because they assume someone else will take action. <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11199-008-9581-5">Recent research</a> applying the bystander effect specifically to sexual assault
has revealed that witnesses fail to intervene for a number of common reasons: They fail to notice the assault; do not believe it is their responsibility to intervene; do not believe they have the skills to intervene; or are inhibited by the belief that those around them will negatively judge them for intervening. Witnesses to sexual assault often fail to intervene for one – or a combination of – these reasons. </p>
<p>Under mandate of the 2013 <a href="https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2013/08/06/2013-18920/the-violence-against-women-reauthorization-act-of-2013-overview-of-applicability-to-hud-programs">United States Campus Sexual Violence Elimination (SaVE) Act</a> college campuses across the United States have begun implementing bystander training programs. These programs strive to sensitize young people to the warning signs of sexual assault, like a young man leading a young woman into an isolated place, and provide them with skills so that they will know how to intervene when necessary. For example, <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jcop.10078">these programs</a> might teach young people to walk a friend home when he or she has had too much to drink, start a conversation with a young woman who appears to be uncomfortable with her date, or call the police.</p>
<h2>Bystander training appears to help</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/239375/original/file-20181004-52660-xwaeme.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/239375/original/file-20181004-52660-xwaeme.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=438&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/239375/original/file-20181004-52660-xwaeme.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=438&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/239375/original/file-20181004-52660-xwaeme.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=438&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/239375/original/file-20181004-52660-xwaeme.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=550&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/239375/original/file-20181004-52660-xwaeme.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=550&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/239375/original/file-20181004-52660-xwaeme.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=550&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">After a night of drinking, it is important to not let one another walk home alone.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/three-beautiful-girls-bar-94587037?src=kLGD9T_hnETwjJAXnWBPkw-1-41">bokan/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We were curious about the effects that these bystander programs have on the behavior of young people. So in a just-published study, <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10964-018-0927-1">we analyzed data</a> from over 6,000 college students across the United States and found that programs designed to prevent sexual assault by increasing onlookers’ interventions do have a meaningful effect on bystander behavior. Compared to peers who did not participate in a bystander program, college students who did participate reported a greater ability to intervene and greater intentions to intervene, should a situation require it. </p>
<p>Most importantly, those who participated in a bystander program reported actually engaging in more bystander intervention behaviors than those who did not participate in a program. On average, these participants reported two more instances of bystander intervention in the months following the bystander program than their peers who did not attend a bystander program. Simply put, bystander programs are successful at encouraging bystanders to intervene when witnessing sexual assault or its warning signs. </p>
<p>These findings are especially important considering that <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2005.00237.x?casa_token=DVSL8ImH6r8AAAAA:V8XWkSmOwwZEAPp6ieNHEPZ1GzcewkjdotzXUZY0dt8SE-CCyMFVqic5zSoU1_0-rwy6vm-Xq_U6">research</a> indicates that traditional sexual assault programs, which target the behavior of potential victims or of potential perpetrators, are not particularly effective at preventing assault. Thus, the power to prevent sexual assault may lie in the hands of bystanders. </p>
<p>The fact that allegations of sexual assault have entered into the process of appointing a Supreme Court justice reminds us that sexual assault affects us as a community and that its prevention is a communal responsibility. </p>
<p>As researchers who study sexuality, violence and prosocial behavior, we believe that bystanders need to keep their eyes open and speak up on behalf of potential victims. Our research demonstrates that having been educated about bystander strategies leads to greater intervention, which should lead to fewer sexual assaults. If a vigilant bystander noticed every time a young woman was led away to an isolated place at a party, then our world would be safer for all of us. We, as a society, should strive to become better bystanders by noticing the warning signs of a potential assault, knowing strategies to intervene, and remembering that we have a collective responsibility to prevent sexual assault.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/104360/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Heather Hensman Kettrey received funding from The Campbell Collaboration to conduct the research reported here. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Robert Marx does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The Kavanaugh hearings have brought sexual assault to the forefront. A just-published study suggests that bystanders can help prevent it.Heather Hensman Kettrey, Assistant Professor of Sociology, Clemson UniversityRobert Marx, Ph.D. Student, Vanderbilt UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1012612018-08-08T14:48:07Z2018-08-08T14:48:07ZSouth Africa may finally be marching towards solutions to sexual violence<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/231088/original/file-20180808-191019-1ewvrgs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">South African women march against high levels of gender based violence in the country.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">EPA/Nic Bothma</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The start of <a href="https://www.gov.za/womens-month">Women’s Month</a> (August) in South Africa this year was refreshingly different from other years as women took to the streets in <a href="https://www.thesouthafrican.com/thetotalshutdown-march-wednesday-1-august/">#TheTotalShutdown</a> protests. It saved the country from the yearly hackneyed speeches by politicians about women’s empowerment.</p>
<p>The marches reminded South Africans of women’s protests that took place during the country’s transition period between 1992 and 1994 under the banner of the <a href="http://www.sahistory.org.za/organisations/womens-national-coalition">Women’s National Coalition</a>. At the time women were demanding to be included in the negotiation process and in designing the architecture of the new democracy.</p>
<p>In the decade that followed activism around women’s issues became limited to campaigns that were smaller in scope, such as the <a href="http://shukumisa.org.za/">Shukumisa Campaign</a> that engaged the state around the Sexual Offenses Act, or the <a href="https://oneinnine.org.za/">One in Nine Campaign</a> which proclaims that only one in nine rapes are reported. There has also been NGO activism.</p>
<p>Five years ago when the country was shocked into action after the brutal murder of Anene Booysen. The 17-year old was gang raped, disembowled and <a href="https://ewn.co.za/2013/10/31/The-Anene-Booysen-Story">left for dead</a> in a small town called Bredasdorp in the Western Cape province. The brutal nature of the attack led to a country-wide outcry and was featured on the <a href="https://ewn.co.za/2013/10/31/The-Anene-Booysen-Story">front pages of newspapers</a>.</p>
<p>This campaign was short-lived, but it emphasised the need for state intervention that did not happen. Three years later, in 2016, protests erupted at universities across the country as students took gender based violence to the streets. The <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-south-africas-young-women-activists-are-rewriting-the-script-60980">#EndRapeCulture</a> protests were led by women at universities and was, in my view, South Africa’s <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/metoo-more-than-12-million-facebook-posts-comments-reactions-24-hours/">#Metoo moment</a> – even before #Metoo happened globally. </p>
<p>The #EndRapeCulture exposed the insidious nature of sexual violence, men’s entitlement and women living in constant fear of being raped or sexually brutalised. It was a resistance against the normalisation of gender based violence.</p>
<p>Then the issue once again fell away from public attention – until recently, when women began mobilising for the #TheTotalShutdown protests. This was the first time activism on a national level focused on gender based violence, not only against women but also against members of the <a href="https://www.thesouthafrican.com/thetotalshutdown-march-wednesday-1-august/">LGBTIQ communities</a>. </p>
<p>This activism was long overdue. Not only did the protest marches foreground sexual violence; they also attempted to change the binary view of sex as male and female.</p>
<h2>The demands</h2>
<p>The #TheTotalShutdown has <a href="http://thetotalshutdown.org.za/memorandum-of-demands/">24 demands</a> in its memorandum. None of these are really new, but they are the reiteration of requests that have been made again and again in the hope that something will change this time.</p>
<p>The most important demands are:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>a review of past national action plans on gender based violence and the development of a new National Action Plan; </p></li>
<li><p>the re-establishment of the Joint Monitoring Committee on the Quality of Life and the Status of Women that did stellar work monitoring state departments under the leadership of feminist and human rights activist Pregs Govender in South Africa’s first democratic parliament; </p></li>
<li><p>greater involvement in monitoring gender based violence by the country’s Chapter 9 bodies, such as the Commission for Gender Equality; and,</p></li>
<li><p>the prevention of secondary victimisation and consistent sentencing of perpetrators of sexual violence; psycho-social support and better resourcing of the Thuthuzela care centres, <a href="http://isssasa.org.za/care-centres">one stop centres</a> for reporting rape at police stations.</p></li>
</ul>
<h2>What’s next</h2>
<p>Women have been asking for a great deal of what’s on the list for more than a decade.</p>
<p>So why has there been no action? </p>
<p>There’s clearly a lack of political will to deal with sexual violence. This starts with state agencies such as the police that often trivialise women’s reports of rape, are quite <a href="https://theconversation.com/rape-in-south-africa-why-the-system-is-failing-women-54924">lethargic to investigate rape</a> and often are <a href="https://ewn.co.za/Topic/Cop-rapes-woman">complicit in rape themselves</a>. This needs to change.</p>
<p>South Africans need to know how police are trained to deal with victims of sexual violence.</p>
<p>The large numbers of women who took part in the #TotalShutDown marches showed that women are not only victims. They also have agency. Their decision <a href="https://www.thesouthafrican.com/thetotalshutdown-march-wednesday-1-august/">not to allow men</a> to participate was so that women could take a stand without men taking charge. Men can show solidarity through working with other men, and by challenging men who are involved in violence.</p>
<p>The #TotalShutDown protesters demand 365 days of action against gender based violence. But more powerful ways of keeping government to account must be found. The fight against gender based violence needs to move beyond simply seeking that perpetrators be jailed, as the ANC Women’s League does with its mantra </p>
<blockquote>
<p>rapists should rot in jail.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Violence should be dealt with not only <a href="https://m.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/Serial-rapist-should-rot-or-die-in-jail-20101203">once it has happened</a> but should also be prevented. How many more women have to get raped or lose their lives before South Africa develops interventions that will not put the burden of responsibility on women’s shoulders?</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/101261/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amanda Gouws receives funding from the National Research Foundation</span></em></p>Gender based violence should not be addressed only once it has happened, by jailing offenders. Prevention is just as important.Amanda Gouws, Professor of Political Science and SARChi Chair in Gender Politics, Stellenbosch UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.