tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/dependency-30825/articlesDependency – The Conversation2023-10-19T05:11:15Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2159872023-10-19T05:11:15Z2023-10-19T05:11:15ZAdele called herself a ‘borderline alcoholic’. But is that a real thing?<p>British singer-songwriter Adele says she has quit drinking, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/music/2023/oct/18/adele-says-she-has-quit-drinking-after-being-a-borderline-alcoholic">describing herself</a> as a “borderline alcoholic” when she was in her 20s.</p>
<p>She joins a <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-are-young-people-drinking-less-than-their-parents-generation-did-172225">growing number of people</a> who are trying to quit or reduce their drinking.</p>
<p>But what does “borderline alcoholic” mean and is it a real thing?</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1714705559771914732"}"></div></p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-are-young-people-drinking-less-than-their-parents-generation-did-172225">Why are young people drinking less than their parents’ generation did?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>It’s not all-or-nothing any more</h2>
<p>In the <a href="https://theconversation.com/does-alcoholics-anonymous-actually-work-179665">early days</a> of alcohol treatment, people used to think of problems with alcohol as all-or-nothing. They used to believe there was something different about people who had problems with alcohol and those who didn’t. That’s how the idea of the “<a href="https://theconversation.com/is-there-really-such-a-thing-as-an-addictive-personality-184137">addictive personality</a>” came about.</p>
<p>But now we think of drinking on a continuum. It goes from not drinking at all to dependent drinking. And people can move up and down that continuum at different points in their lives. The old saying “once an alcoholic, always an alcoholic” doesn’t apply any more.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/is-there-really-such-a-thing-as-an-addictive-personality-184137">Is there really such a thing as an 'addictive personality'?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How much is it OK to drink?</h2>
<p>The Australian national alcohol <a href="https://www.nhmrc.gov.au/health-advice/alcohol">guidelines</a> say healthy men and women should drink no more than ten <a href="https://alcoholthinkagain.com.au/resources-and-tools/standard-drink-tool">standard drinks</a> a week and no more than four a day. So that’s about two to three drinks three to four times a week. <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/health/health-conditions-and-risks/alcohol-consumption/latest-release">Most Australians</a> drink within these guidelines.</p>
<p>If you drink over those guidelines you are more likely to experience a number of long- and short-term <a href="https://www.nhmrc.gov.au/about-us/publications/australian-guidelines-reduce-health-risks-drinking-alcohol">problems</a> including alcohol dependence, cancers, diabetes and heart disease. The risk of problems increases the more you drink and the more frequently you drink.</p>
<p>About 25% of Australians drink at <a href="https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/illicit-use-of-drugs/national-drug-strategy-household-survey-2019/data">risky levels</a> and around 6% drink at such high levels that they would probably be dependent. Daily drinking is associated with dependence.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554657/original/file-20231019-29-3mp7dg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Someone with hand over glass of red wine, saying 'no' to a top up" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554657/original/file-20231019-29-3mp7dg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554657/original/file-20231019-29-3mp7dg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554657/original/file-20231019-29-3mp7dg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554657/original/file-20231019-29-3mp7dg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554657/original/file-20231019-29-3mp7dg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554657/original/file-20231019-29-3mp7dg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554657/original/file-20231019-29-3mp7dg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">How much do you drink a week, or on any one day?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/womans-hand-rejecting-more-alcohol-wine-1840663135">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>So when is someone an alcoholic or a borderline alcoholic?</h2>
<p>The term “alcoholic” is rarely used by health professionals any more. It can make people believe there is nothing they can do about the problems they might be experiencing. Historically, that’s what the early treatment providers believed in the 1930s and that <a href="https://theconversation.com/alcohol-problems-arent-for-life-and-aa-isnt-the-only-option-8-things-film-and-tv-get-wrong-about-drug-and-alcohol-treatment-180946">myth has continued</a>. But some people find identifying as an “alcoholic” helpful to maintain their goal of quitting drinking.</p>
<p>Health professionals have never used the term “borderline alcoholic”. But in describing herself that way Adele is really saying alcohol is having too much of a negative impact on her life, and like many others has decided to do something positive about it by taking a break.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/many-define-adeles-voice-by-its-power-but-the-true-artistry-comes-from-her-fragile-authentic-self-172299">Many define Adele's voice by its power. But the true artistry comes from her fragile, authentic self</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Which terms do we use now?</h2>
<p>Now, we tend to talk about “dependence” on a continuum from mild to moderate to severe. We also talk about the range of problems other than dependence that people can experience, which also lie on a continuum.</p>
<p>The threshold for whether someone is a problem or dependent drinker is not just how much they drink (although that is important), but also how severe the alcohol-related problems are. </p>
<p>Problems with alcohol don’t always correlate with consumption. Some people can drink a moderate amount and have a lot of problems and others can drink a lot and appear not to have many negative consequences.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/do-different-drinks-make-you-different-drunk-88247">Do different drinks make you different drunk?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>I’m worried about my drinking. What next?</h2>
<p>If you are wondering if you are drinking too much you can <a href="https://hellosundaymorning.org/nib_alcohol_self-assessment/">check online</a> with a free and anonymous assessment.</p>
<p>Signs you may have a <a href="https://alcoholtreatmentguidelines.com.au/resources/appendix-3-diagnostic-criteria-for-alcohol-dependence">problem with alcohol</a> include:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>having trouble stopping once you start drinking</p></li>
<li><p>wanting or trying to cut back but slipping up frequently</p></li>
<li><p>spending a lot of time drinking or recovering from drinking</p></li>
<li><p>having cravings to drink alcohol, such as if you come home from work and reach straight for a drink</p></li>
<li><p>dropping the ball at work, study or home because you’ve been drinking, such as not being able to do your work because you’re hungover</p></li>
<li><p>continuing to drink alcohol even though you know it’s causing problems with your health, friends, work or relationships</p></li>
<li><p>giving up or reducing social and work activities to drink instead</p></li>
<li><p>drinking when it’s not safe, such as before driving or swimming.</p></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/did-you-look-forward-to-last-nights-bottle-of-wine-a-bit-too-much-ladies-youre-not-alone-109078">Did you look forward to last night's bottle of wine a bit too much? Ladies, you're not alone</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554656/original/file-20231019-23-d4d6te.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Friends drinking alcohol, clinking glasses, outside" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554656/original/file-20231019-23-d4d6te.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554656/original/file-20231019-23-d4d6te.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554656/original/file-20231019-23-d4d6te.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554656/original/file-20231019-23-d4d6te.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554656/original/file-20231019-23-d4d6te.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554656/original/file-20231019-23-d4d6te.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554656/original/file-20231019-23-d4d6te.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">If you cannot quit alcohol like Adele, you can cut down.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/cheerful-young-friends-toasting-summer-cocktails-1868806051">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>If you find you aren’t getting the same effects from alcohol as you used to or you need more and more alcohol to get the same effect, you have probably developed a dependence. </p>
<p>Sometimes people who are very dependent can experience withdrawal symptoms when they stop – strong cravings, nausea, sweating, agitation and anxiety. </p>
<p>The more of these signs you have, the more likely you are to be dependent on alcohol. </p>
<p>If you have any of these signs, taking a break from alcohol for a few months or longer can help. If you find that’s too hard, you can try sticking within the Australian alcohol guidelines by reducing the number of drinks per occasion and increasing your drink-free days.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/trying-to-cut-back-on-alcohol-heres-what-works-179664">Trying to cut back on alcohol? Here's what works</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>There’s help</h2>
<p>Sometimes when people experience some of these problems they need a bit of help to keep them on track. You can talk to your GP who can refer you to a psychologist or treatment service. Or you can try self-help options such as the Hello Sunday Morning’s <a href="https://hellosundaymorning.org/daybreak/">Daybreak app</a> (a community of people supporting each other to change their relationship with alcohol). If your problems are more severe, you can try something like <a href="https://smartrecoveryaustralia.com.au">SMART Recovery</a> (evidence-based group support for alcohol and other drug problems).</p>
<hr>
<p><em>If you are worried about your own or someone else’s alcohol or other drug use, you can contact the National Alcohol and other Drug Hotline on 1800 250 015 for free, confidential advice.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215987/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nicole Lee is CEO at Hello Sunday Morning and also works as a consultant in the alcohol and other drug sector and a psychologist in private practice. She has previously been awarded funding by Australian and state governments, NHMRC and other bodies for evaluation and research into alcohol and other drug prevention and treatment.</span></em></p>Adele is really saying alcohol is have too much of a negative impact on her life, and like many others has decided to do something positive about it by taking a break.Nicole Lee, Professor at the National Drug Research Institute (Melbourne), Curtin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1562192021-04-18T07:37:15Z2021-04-18T07:37:15ZPeace and security in Africa: how China can help address weaknesses<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/391919/original/file-20210326-19-cubrjs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Africa Union's military intervention capacity can benefit hugely from the experience and capabilities of China's People's Liberation Army.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">EFE-EPA/Michael Reynoldss</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>African leaders have committed themselves to ending armed conflict on the continent and promoting lasting peace and economic prosperity. This is in keeping with the African Union’s <a href="https://au.int/en/agenda2063/overview">blueprint</a> for the continent. Sadly, though, the leaders’ 2013 pledge to <a href="https://dppa.un.org/en/un-support-to-au-initiative-silencing-guns-africa">“silence the guns”</a> by 2020 has failed. </p>
<p>Bloody conflicts continue to rage in many parts of Africa. This includes in the <a href="https://plan-international.org/emergencies/lake-chad-crisis">Lake Chad Basin</a>, <a href="https://issafrica.org/iss-today/mozambique-on-a-knifes-edge-with-its-cabo-delgado-insurgency">Cabo Delgado province of Mozambique</a>, <a href="https://issafrica.org/iss-today/gulf-of-guinea-piracy-a-symptom-not-a-cause-of-insecurity">Gulf of Guinea</a>, <a href="https://reliefweb.int/report/somalia/children-and-armed-conflict-monthly-update-february-2021">Somalia</a> and the <a href="https://www.cfr.org/in-brief/conflict-ethiopias-tigray-region-what-know">Tigray province of Ethiopia</a>. Conflict impedes the continent’s <a href="https://www.imf.org/%7E/media/Files/Publications/REO/AFR/2019/April/English/ch2.ashx">economic development</a>.</p>
<p>According to a <a href="https://au.int/sites/default/files/documents/33273-doc-report-_institutional_reform_of_the_au.pdf">2017 report</a> by Rwandan president Paul Kagame, then chairman of the African Union (AU), the failure to end conflict shows that member states do not take the AU’s decisions seriously. This gives the continental body little credibility.</p>
<p>Very little has changed since Kagame’s report. The inadequate response to security crises continues. This is because most of the <a href="https://au.int/en/member_states/countryprofiles2">55 member states</a> lack the capacity to carry out its mandate. There is also a lack of political will to implement its peace and security programmes. The emphasis, instead, is on respecting the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10246029.2007.9627428">sovereignty of the nation states</a>.</p>
<h2>The African peace and security architecture</h2>
<p>The ongoing conflicts indicate that the AU’s <a href="http://www.peaceau.org/en/topic/the-african-peace-and-security-architecture-apsa">peace and security architecture</a> is failing to prevent or manage conflict and build peace - despite <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-aus-role-in-brokering-sudan-deal-offers-lessons-for-the-future-121822">some progress</a>. The failures extend to the body’s eight <a href="https://au.int/en/organs/recs">regional economic communities</a>.</p>
<p>The architecture consists of the <a href="https://au.int/en/psc">Peace and Security Council</a>, supported by the <a href="https://au.int/en/commission">AU Commission</a>, <a href="https://www.un.org/en/chronicle/article/panel-wiseits-role-preventing-violent-conflicts-africa">Panel of the Wise</a>, the <a href="http://www.peaceau.org/en/page/28-continental-early-warning-system-cews">Continental Early Warning System</a>, <a href="https://www.peaceau.org/en/page/82-african-standby-force-asf-amani-africa-1">African Standby Force</a> and the Africa <a href="https://au.int/en/aureforms/peacefund">Peace Fund</a>. </p>
<p>The main reason for the failure of the peace and security architecture is organisational dysfunction. This results in an <a href="https://africacenter.org/spotlight/the-african-union-wavers-between-reform-and-more-of-the-same/">“ineffective response to security crises”</a>. </p>
<p>My <a href="https://ojs.ugent.be/AF/article/view/17576">ongoing research</a> into a new paradigm for peace and security in Africa examines how China can help address this weakness. </p>
<h2>China’s contribution to peace and security in Africa</h2>
<p>China is already contributing to the peace and security objectives of the AU. This, through capacity building for socio-economic development and education for social transformation. It also contributes to <a href="https://www.up.ac.za/media/shared/85/Strategic%20Review/Vol%2037%20(2)/neethling-pp7-28.zp74607.pdf">peace missions in Africa</a>. </p>
<p>China can enhance the AU’s military intervention capacity, too, by using the extensive military knowledge of the <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep06770?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents">Peoples Liberation Army</a>. This is especially so with regards to the non-combatant developmental approach to post-civil war peace-building, including the implementation of poverty alleviation programmes. </p>
<p>Chinese military assistance to Africa is shaped by the <a href="http://www.focac.org/eng/zywx_1/zywj/t1594297.htm">China-Africa Cooperation Beijing Action Plan (2019-2021)</a>. The plan includes assistance for military, police and counter terrorism activities.</p>
<p>It also provides for developing the <a href="https://gsdrc.org/document-library/the-role-and-place-of-the-african-standby-force-within-the-african-peace-and-security-architecture/">African Standby Force</a>. The force is supposed to enable the AU to intervene in “grave circumstances” such as genocide. </p>
<p><a href="https://ojs.ugent.be/AF/article/view/17576">Military cooperation</a> between China and Africa takes the form of intelligence exchange, military personnel training, <a href="https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2018-03/fssipri_at2017_0.pdf">commercial arms sales</a>, and regular peace and security forums. China also provides law enforcement training. </p>
<p>Specific <a href="https://www.ispionline.it/en/pubblicazione/beijings-security-plans-beyond-djibouti-and-horn-21278">military aid</a> includes support to countries in the Sahel region, the Gulf of Aden, the Gulf of Guinea and the Horn of Africa.</p>
<h2>China’s development model</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274336101_The_Chinese_Model_of_Development_Characteristics_Interpretations_Implications">“Chinese Model”</a> for development could be a blueprint for modernisation and transformation of African economies. The model includes “going global” to find multilateral solutions to reduce costs and share the burden of development. </p>
<p>China’s <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Chinas-New-Role-in-African-Politics-From-Non-Intervention-towards-Stabilization/Hartmann-Noesselt/p/book/9781138392076">new strategy for Africa</a> is to build its soft power. Peace missions, cultural exchanges, educational projects and financing educational infrastructure in Africa are integral to this strategy. </p>
<p>The strategy serves China’s own <a href="http://govt.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201812/03/WS5c04d35b498eefb3fe46e086.html">interests</a>. Helping create secure investment environments benefit its economy. This, while promoting transparent, accountable and rules-based governance in Africa.</p>
<p>China is heavily invested in Africa. In 2020, despite a challenging global market, <a href="http://johannesburg.china-consulate.org/eng/zxxx/t1844719.htm">trade between China and Africa</a> was nearly US$180 billion. Although less than the US$208.7 billion of 2019, China has been Africa’s biggest trading partner for the last 12 years. </p>
<h2>Multilateral platforms</h2>
<p>On a multilateral level, China’s security cooperation with Africa was boosted by the first <a href="https://mg.co.za/article/2018-10-24-chinas-expanding-military-footprint-in-africa/">China-Africa Defence and Security Forum of June 2018</a>. It focuses on peacekeeping and peace-building missions. </p>
<p>China is <a href="https://apcss.org/chinasglobalinfluence/">building the capacity of the armed forces</a> of several African states as part of bilateral and multilateral arrangements. It maintains strong bilateral relations with <a href="http://za.china-embassy.org/eng/sgxw/t1777261.htm">South Africa</a> and <a href="https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/1160414.shtml">Rwanda</a>, for example. It also has strategic ties with several countries in <a href="https://thediplomat.com/2019/07/china-has-quietly-carved-out-a-foothold-in-north-africa/">North Africa</a>. </p>
<p>China’s <a href="https://issafrica.org/iss-today/china-tests-its-military-muscle-in-africa">current peace and security activities</a> indicate a departure from its erstwhile policy of noninterference, to one that entails post conflict peace-building. This includes socio-economic reconstruction, which is vital for Africa’s development. In this, China’s vast military and developmental experience will play a prominent role.</p>
<p>Although China emphasises a multilateral approach to African peace and stability, it continues to collaborate with individual African states. For instance, most of its <a href="https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2019/642232/EPRS_BRI(2019)642232_EN.pdf">East African projects</a> are bilateral intergovernmental or private sector projects.</p>
<h2>Word of caution</h2>
<p>Given the African Union’s capacity challenges in ending or containing deadly conflict, cooperation with China provides a chance for African states to eradicate insecurity and instability for their own development and prosperity. </p>
<p>But, they need to be cautious that their partnership with China doesn’t turn into yet another relationship of dependency and exploitation.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/156219/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dries Velthuizen does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The “Chinese Model” for development could be a blueprint for the modernisation and transformation of African economies.Dries Velthuizen, Professor, University of South AfricaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1047002018-10-15T09:59:47Z2018-10-15T09:59:47ZTies between African countries and China are complex. Understanding this matters<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/240247/original/file-20181011-154549-1lowuqa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Ghana's President Nana Akufo-Addo and China's President Xi Jinping at the 2018 summit in Beijing.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">EPA-EFE/Andy Wong (Pool)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The complex relationship between Africa and China has become even more complicated this year. Initially, 2018 was set to reaffirm the bond through the latest Forum on China-Africa Cooperation summit held in Beijing in <a href="http://africachinareporting.co.za/2018/09/highlights-from-focac-2018/">September</a>. The summit delivered its usual pageant of African leaders, side deals, and the announcement of a <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-africa/chinas-xi-offers-another-60-billion-to-africa-but-says-no-to-vanity-projects-idUSKCN1LJ0C4">USD$60 billion</a> financing package. The year also saw the recurrence of misgivings about the relationship.</p>
<p>The most explicit theme of this conversation was debt. Donald Trump’s US administration added fuel to smouldering anxiety, and China found itself having to defend its lending to Africa – at home and globally. At the same time, African governments are battling rumours that they are about to hand over state assets to <a href="https://ewn.co.za/2018/09/13/zambia-denies-offering-power-utility-as-collateral-for-china-loan">the Chinese</a>. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://mg.co.za/article/2018-09-14-00-africas-debt-to-china-is-complicated">debt debate</a> is flawed – not least for underestimating Western contributions to African debt. Nevertheless, it is revealing. In particular, the debate reflects an anxiety that has haunted relations between China and the continent since the beginning of this century: the massive power gap between China and individual African countries. </p>
<h2>Power imbalances</h2>
<p>The constant rhetoric of win-win cooperation between China and Africa has never adequately answered the simple structural question at the heart of the relationship. That is: how is an economy the size of Benin’s or Togo’s, for example, supposed to meaningfully engage with the Chinese behemoth? It’s a bit like trying to speed up your bicycle by grabbing on to a passing jumbo jet. It can take you to the next level, or it can simply rip off your arms.</p>
<p>The fundamental economic and power imbalance between China and African countries has led to the relationship being criticised as <a href="https://intpolicydigest.org/2018/05/08/behind-the-goodwill-aid-china-s-neo-colonialism-in-africa/">neocolonial</a>. The truth, however, is that African governments exercise more agency than they are given credit for. This includes frequently playing China and traditional Western development partners off against one another. </p>
<p>The word “agency” is key here: to what extent is Africa able to freely make its own decisions and drive the best deals with China?</p>
<p>Our new <a href="http://www.saiia.org.za/research/in-the-drivers-seat-african-agency-and-chinese-power/">research</a> focused on this issue. We looked at two emerging areas shaping African agency in relation to China. These are reforms to the African Union (AU) and the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/cities/ng-interactive/2018/jul/30/what-china-belt-road-initiative-silk-road-explainer">Belt and Road Initiative</a> (BRI). The initiative involves a massive infrastructure rollout aimed at linking China to Europe and beyond. The aim is to set up a zone of shared development that encompasses <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/cities/ng-interactive/2018/jul/30/what-china-belt-road-initiative-silk-road-explainer">Central and Western Asia and Africa</a>.</p>
<h2>The AU and the Belt and Road initiative</h2>
<p>The AU has <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-the-african-unions-planned-overhaul-may-affect-its-ties-with-china-73160">proposed</a> a set of reforms to streamline African negotiations at events like the FOCAC under the auspices of the continental body. This could be seen as a step towards the frequently repeated goal of Africa negotiating collectively with China. But, in fact, we show that it faces significant resistance from within the continent. This comes both from powerful states worried about losing control of their bilateral relationships with China, and from smaller states worried about being excluded.</p>
<p>China’s BRI reveals other aspects of African agency. It’s structured by numerous bilateral agreements, but is also subject to regional as well as local pressures. The way the initiative’s projects have been pulled into national debates involving opposition politics shows that the range of actors constituting African agency is potentially much wider than national governments.</p>
<p>We argue that before African agency can be maximised, this aspect of relations between China and particular African governments needs to be taken into account. Thinking about the issue has so far fixated on the role of national governments, to the exclusion of other actors. The biggest include regional economic communities such as <a href="http://www.nepad.org/">Nepad</a> and the AU. The smaller ones comprise opposition parties, civil society, local businesses and communities. All contribute to and constitute African agency. </p>
<p>What is this agency, how does it work and how can it be strengthened? </p>
<h2>Understanding African agency</h2>
<p>We identified three key areas where African agency can be located.</p>
<p>Firstly, African agency is expressed in the frameworks and documents that govern bodies like the forum. For example, in the early days arrangements paid relatively little attention to the issue of industrialisation. That changed after the formal adoption in 2015 of the AU’s <a href="https://au.int/en/agenda2063">Agenda 2063</a> – its blueprint for Africa’s sustainable development. <a href="https://www.orfonline.org/research/focac-2015-consolidating-china-africa-relations/">The forum held that year</a> saw an uptick in how many times the issue was mentioned. </p>
<p>By 2016, African industrialisation had become a key initiative of <a href="http://www.g20chn.org/English/Documents/">China’s presidency</a> of the G20. Beijing directed an unprecedented level of G20 attention to the continent. </p>
<p>By <a href="https://www.focac.org/eng/">2018</a>, the Beijing summit ended with fewer declarations of intent relating to industrialisation. Instead, it had become integrated into the continental and bilateral planning processes. In particular, it features regularly in discussions on development financing. Likewise the word “training” was mentioned over 40 times and in virtually every section of the <a href="https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/zxxx_662805/t1593683.shtml">Beijing Action Plan</a>.</p>
<p>This suggests there is a shift from declarations of intent to more specific engagement towards industrialisation. This doesn’t necessarily guarantee the success of Africa’s industrialisation. But it shows that China responds to African agenda-setting.</p>
<p>Secondly, African agency is diffused across various levels and among various actors. Any analysis of African agency has to consider the complex interactions between continental bodies like the AU, regional economic blocs, national governments, civil society, business, and local communities. Each plays a role in shaping African decision making in relation to China. Partnerships that cut across the state-business-civil society divide are as important as state led initiatives in articulating policy initiatives in relation to China.</p>
<p>Thirdly, it’s important to think of the changing terms of agency as African governments face growing debt burdens via such initiatives as the BRI. For instance, rumours that the Zambian government offered its national electricity supplier as <a href="https://qz.com/africa/1391111/zambia-china-debt-crisis-tests-china-in-africa-relationship/">collateral</a> in exchange for a new tranche of Chinese loans have reportedly caused political division at home. </p>
<p>Critics have focused on debt as diminishing African agency. What they’ve ignored are the significant financial and reputational risks to China. </p>
<h2>Maximising African agency</h2>
<p>As Africa becomes more involved in global initiatives, and as it moves towards greater continental integration via AU reforms and the <a href="https://www.iol.co.za/capetimes/news/continents-free-trade-deal-a-game-changer-for-africa-15795779">Continental Free Trade Agreement</a>, the need increases to think harder and more creatively about what African agency means. It isn’t enough to simply reiterate the call for Africa to negotiate collectively with China – not least because this disregards the complex interactions between African governments. </p>
<p>Rather, it’s time for more comprehensive thinking about how African agency manifests across actors and geographic scales. Only once we have a firmer handle on this can we move towards maximising it.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/104700/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Yu-Shan is affiliated with the Africa-China Reporting Project (ACRP), Department of Journalism, University of Witwatersrand</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chris Alden is affiliated as a senior research associate with the South African Institute of International Relations </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cobus van Staden does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Not enough credit is given to the agency African governments have in their dealings with China.Yu-Shan Wu, Foreign policy researcher and doctoral candidate, University of the WitwatersrandChris Alden, Professor of International Relations, London School of Economics and Political ScienceCobus van Staden, Senior Researcher: China Africa, South African Institute of International AffairsLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/738292017-03-17T00:07:48Z2017-03-17T00:07:48ZWhat’s behind phantom cellphone buzzes?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/160993/original/image-20170315-5340-1n74g8s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">This is your brain on plugs.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/confirm/478917871?src=-ktPYA6l1Gi6QOxI8XWMDg-2-39&size=huge_jpg">'Brain' via www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Have you ever experienced a phantom phone call or text? You’re convinced that you felt your phone vibrate in your pocket, or that you heard your ring tone. But when you check your phone, no one actually tried to get in touch with you. </p>
<p>You then might plausibly wonder: “Is my phone acting up, or is it me?”</p>
<p>Well, it’s probably you, and it could be a sign of just how attached you’ve become to your phone. </p>
<p>At least you’re not alone. Over 80 percent of college students we surveyed <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0747563217300171">have experienced it</a>. However, if it’s happening a lot – more than once a day – it could be a sign that you’re psychologically dependent on your cellphone.</p>
<p>There’s no question that cellphones are part of the social fabric in many parts of the world, and some people spend hours each day on their phones. Our research team recently found that most people will <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s41347-017-0012-8">fill their downtime</a> by fiddling with their phones. Others even do so in the middle of a conversation. And most people will check their phones <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s41347-017-0012-8">within 10 seconds</a> of getting in line for coffee or arriving at a destination. </p>
<p>Clinicians and researchers still debate whether excessive use of cellphones or other technology can constitute an addiction. <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/appy.12164/abstract">It wasn’t included</a> in the latest update to the <a href="http://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/dsm">DSM-5</a>, the American Psychiatric Association’s definitive guide for classifying and diagnosing mental disorders.</p>
<p>But given <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/13/health/teenagers-drugs-smartphones.html?_r=0">the ongoing debate</a>, we decided to see if phantom buzzes and rings could shed some light on the issue.</p>
<h2>A virtual drug?</h2>
<p>Addictions are pathological conditions in which people compulsively seek rewarding stimuli, despite the negative consequences. We often hear reports about how cellphone use can be problematic <a href="https://theconversation.com/she-phubbs-me-she-phubbs-me-not-smartphones-could-be-ruining-your-love-life-68463">for relationships</a> and <a href="https://sites.psu.edu/siowfa15/2015/09/16/are-cell-phones-ruining-our-social-skills/">for developing effective social skills</a>.</p>
<p>One of the features of addictions is that people become hypersensitive to cues related to the rewards they are craving. Whatever it is, they start to see it everywhere. (I had a college roommate who once thought that he saw a bee’s nest made out of cigarette butts hanging from the ceiling.)</p>
<p>So might people who crave the messages and notifications from their virtual social worlds do the same? Would they mistakenly interpret something they hear as a ring tone, their phone rubbing in their pocket as a vibrating alert or even think they see a notification on their phone screen – when, in reality, nothing is there?</p>
<h2>A human malfunction</h2>
<p>We decided to find out. <a href="http%3A%2F%2Fwww.amta.org.au%2Famta%2Fsite%2Famta%2Fdownloads%2Fpdfs.2005.web%2Fdr.phillips.monash.cyber.psychology.mar.05.pdf">From a tested survey measure of problematic cellphone use</a>, we pulled out items assessing psychological cellphone dependency. We also created questions about the frequency of experiencing phantom ringing, vibrations and notifications. We then administered an online survey to over 750 undergraduate students.</p>
<p>Those who scored higher on cellphone dependency – they more often used their phones to make themselves feel better, became irritable when they couldn’t use their phones and thought about using their phone when they weren’t on it – <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0747563217300171">had more frequent phantom phone experiences</a>.</p>
<p>Cellphone manufacturers and phone service providers <a href="http://online.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/cyber.2015.0406">have assured us</a> that phantom phone experiences are not a problem with the technology. As <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HAL_9000">HAL 9000</a> might say, they are a product of “human error.”</p>
<p>So where, exactly, have we erred? We are in a brave new world of virtual socialization, and the psychological and social sciences can barely keep up with advances in the technology. </p>
<p>Phantom phone experiences may seem like a relatively small concern in our electronically connected age. But they raise the specter of how reliant we are on our phones – and how much influence phones have in our social lives. </p>
<p>How can we navigate the use of cellphones to maximize the benefits and minimize the hazards, whether it’s improving our own mental health or honing our live social skills? What other new technologies will change how we interact with others? </p>
<p>Our minds will continue to buzz with anticipation.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/73829/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Daniel J. Kruger does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Have you ever checked your phone thinking you had felt it vibrate or heard it ring, only to see that no one tried to reach you? One researcher decided to study this phenomenon.Daniel J. Kruger, Research Assistant Professor, University of MichiganLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/647112016-09-01T12:06:35Z2016-09-01T12:06:35ZMore Americans are using cannabis – and view it as harmless<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/136259/original/image-20160901-1061-pcl146.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-394085185/stock-photo-close-up-on-a-man-smoking-marijuana-cigarette-in-amsterdam.html?src=pTQ95ZuffKU7w5uyGw7iyQ-1-25">charnsitr/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>There has been a significant increase in the number of Americans using cannabis, rising from 21.9m in 2002 to 31.9m in 2014. The number of regular users doubled over the same period to 8.4m. This coincides with an increasingly liberal approach to cannabis regulation in several US states. The authors of a new study, published in <a href="http://bit.ly/2cbcMHo">The Lancet Psychiatry</a>, also found that people perceived cannabis to be less harmful. This perception seems justified as problems related to cannabis use, such as dependency, remained stable during the study period.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/136157/original/image-20160831-30780-ytijcr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/136157/original/image-20160831-30780-ytijcr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/136157/original/image-20160831-30780-ytijcr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=265&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/136157/original/image-20160831-30780-ytijcr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=265&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/136157/original/image-20160831-30780-ytijcr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=265&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/136157/original/image-20160831-30780-ytijcr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=332&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/136157/original/image-20160831-30780-ytijcr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=332&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/136157/original/image-20160831-30780-ytijcr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=332&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cannabis trends.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">The Lancet Psychiatry</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These findings are not what you would expect when cannabis use becomes more popular and is thought to be <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-cannabis-really-getting-stronger-62574">increasingly potent</a>. This study also contradicts another study, using data over the same period, which found that disorders associated with cannabis use have <a href="http://archpsyc.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=2464591&linkId=18129765">doubled</a>. So which one should we believe?</p>
<p>The study in The Lancet Psychiatry is problematic as it doesn’t include some of the most marginalised groups, such as the homeless or those in prison. These groups are more likely to use cannabis and develop problems, such as dependency. The absence of these people from the survey might account for the stable numbers of people with a cannabis dependency over the study period. Also, it excludes young people (people under the age of 18) who are more prone to developing cannabis problems than older people.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/136258/original/image-20160901-1023-dkpiqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/136258/original/image-20160901-1023-dkpiqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/136258/original/image-20160901-1023-dkpiqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/136258/original/image-20160901-1023-dkpiqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/136258/original/image-20160901-1023-dkpiqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/136258/original/image-20160901-1023-dkpiqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/136258/original/image-20160901-1023-dkpiqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Lancet study excluded marginalised groups, such as prisoners.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-152469683/stock-photo-prison-wall-and-cloudy-sky.html?src=vREUnht7tImV_d9pTSglfw-2-25">maxriesgo/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Not as harmless as suggested</h2>
<p>It can be an inconvenient fact for those lobbying for a more liberal policy approach to cannabis that its use is risky for some. We know that a small number of people use the majority of <a href="http://dspace.library.uu.nl/handle/1874/309585">cannabis consumed</a>. This group is more likely to use a <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/add.12829/full">range of substances</a> in addition to cannabis. They are also likely to have a range of additional social problems related to housing, education, employment and crime.</p>
<p>So far, the evidence suggests that those who dabble with cannabis are unlikely to suffer anything worse than feeling nauseous. Unfortunately, there is a small number of people who appear to develop more serious problems as a consequence of their cannabis use, such as <a href="https://theconversation.com/no-smoke-without-fire-the-link-between-smoking-and-mental-health-44620">mental health issues or dependency</a>. Cannabis has also been implicated in other issues, including poorer educational achievement and <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/add.12703/abstract">doubling the risk of a car crash</a>.</p>
<p>The greatest risk posed by cannabis is that it is still <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-cannabis-really-getting-stronger-62574">mixed with tobacco</a> by many users. For young new users this can be an introduction to tobacco which leads to dependency and all the harms caused by tobacco use.</p>
<p>An interesting contrast is emerging between the UK and the US. The US has increasingly adopted a more liberal policy approach to cannabis, and this research suggests it has been accompanied by increasing use of the drug. Meanwhile, the UK has continued to prohibit cannabis use – with the government claiming that falling use of the drug in the population justifies their policy position. Both countries are participating in a policy experiment on their populations. Unfortunately, neither country is collecting sufficiently detailed data to be able to draw any reliable conclusions. Both still have the opportunity to rectify this.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/64711/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ian Hamilton is affiliated with Alcohol Research UK.. </span></em></p>But is the data misleading?Ian Hamilton, Lecturer in Mental Health, University of YorkLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.