tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/geothermal-energy-3148/articlesGeothermal energy – The Conversation2022-05-16T19:59:26Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1827602022-05-16T19:59:26Z2022-05-16T19:59:26ZHow NZ could become a world leader in decarbonisation using forestry and geothermal technology<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462620/original/file-20220512-21-bzoz4c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=8%2C0%2C5973%2C3970&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Energy is the double-edged sword at the root of the climate crisis. Cheap energy has improved lives and underpinned massive economic growth. But because most of it comes from burning hydrocarbon fuels, we’re now left with a legacy of high atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>) and an emissions-intensive economy. </p>
<p>But what if we could flip the energy-emissions relationship on its head? We would need a technology that both generates electricity <em>and</em> removes CO<sub>2</sub> from the atmosphere. </p>
<p>The good news is this technology already exists. What’s more, New Zealand is perfectly positioned to do this “decarbonisation” cheaper than anywhere else on the planet. </p>
<p>And the timing couldn’t be better, with the government’s first <a href="https://environment.govt.nz/publications/aotearoa-new-zealands-first-emissions-reduction-plan/">Emissions Reduction Plan</a> (released yesterday) calling for bold projects and innovative solutions.</p>
<p>We research how to burn forestry waste for electricity while simultaneously capturing the emissions and trapping them in geothermal fields. Since forests remove CO<sub>2</sub> from the atmosphere as they grow, this process is emissions negative. </p>
<p>This also means a carbon “tax” can be turned into a revenue. With New Zealand’s CO<sub>2</sub> price at an all-time high of <a href="https://www.interest.co.nz/rural-news/114099/nzu-investors-are-now-driving-price-carbon-they-play-market">NZ$80 per tonne</a>, and overseas companies announcing <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-04-21/stripe-s-climate-fund-shows-shift-in-carbon-removal">billion-dollar funds</a> to purchase offsets, now is time for cross-industry collaboration to make New Zealand a world leader in decarbonisation. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463156/original/file-20220516-65038-rta54a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463156/original/file-20220516-65038-rta54a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463156/original/file-20220516-65038-rta54a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463156/original/file-20220516-65038-rta54a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463156/original/file-20220516-65038-rta54a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463156/original/file-20220516-65038-rta54a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463156/original/file-20220516-65038-rta54a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Wairakei geothermal power station with its existing pipelines, wells and steam turbines.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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<h2>Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage</h2>
<p>Artificial carbon sinks are engineered systems that permanently remove CO<sub>2</sub> from the atmosphere. </p>
<p>Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) achieves this by trapping the CO<sub>2</sub> from burned organic matter – trees, biowaste – deep underground. An added bonus is that the energy released during combustion can be used as a substitute for hydrocarbon-based energy. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/as-nz-gets-serious-about-climate-change-can-electricity-replace-fossil-fuels-in-time-155123">As NZ gets serious about climate change, can electricity replace fossil fuels in time?</a>
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<p>The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/chapter/chapter-4/">has said</a> climate mitigation pathways must include significant amounts of BECCS to limit global warming to 1.5°C. However, the technology is still new, with <a href="https://biomarketinsights.com/swedish-beccs-project-included-in-e1-1bn-eu-grants/">only a few</a> <a href="https://bellona.org/news/ccs/2022-03-oslo-leading-by-example-worlds-first-co2-capture-and-storage-on-waste-incinerator-to-become-reality-in-2026">plants</a> around the world currently operating at scale. </p>
<p>Cost is a major barrier. New projects need expensive pipelines to move the CO<sub>2</sub>, and deep injection wells to store it underground. Because CO<sub>2</sub> is more buoyant than water, there are also concerns that any gas stored underground might leak out over time. </p>
<p>This is where geothermal fields can help. </p>
<h2>Geothermal systems for BECCS</h2>
<p>Geothermal is a reliable source of energy in New Zealand, supplying almost 20% of our electricity. We use deep wells to tap into underground reservoirs of hot water, which then passes through a network of pipes to a steam turbine that generates electricity. </p>
<p>Afterwards, the water is pumped back underground, which prevents the reservoir from “drying out”. New Zealand companies are world leaders at managing geothermal resources, and some are even <a href="https://contact.co.nz/-/media/contact/mediacentre/2021/contact-energy-submission-to-climate-change-commission-march-2021.ashx?la=en">experimenting with reinjecting</a> the small amounts of CO<sub>2</sub> that come up with the geothermal water. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463223/original/file-20220516-14-cm7an2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463223/original/file-20220516-14-cm7an2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463223/original/file-20220516-14-cm7an2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=287&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463223/original/file-20220516-14-cm7an2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=287&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463223/original/file-20220516-14-cm7an2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=287&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463223/original/file-20220516-14-cm7an2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463223/original/file-20220516-14-cm7an2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463223/original/file-20220516-14-cm7an2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">A geothermal BECCS system showing how wood and water can be converted into electricity and negative CO2 emissions. Except for (3), all the infrastructure already exists.</span>
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<p>Herein lies the opportunity. Geothermal systems already have the infrastructure needed for a successful BECCS project: pipelines, injection wells and turbines. We just need to figure out how to marry these two renewable technologies.</p>
<p>We propose that by burning forestry waste we can supercharge the geothermal water to higher temperatures, producing even more renewable power. Then, CO<sub>2</sub> from the biomass combustion can be dissolved into the geothermal water – like a soda stream – before it is injected back underground. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/ipcc-report-how-new-zealand-could-reduce-emissions-faster-and-rely-less-on-offsets-to-reach-net-zero-180658">IPCC report: how New Zealand could reduce emissions faster and rely less on offsets to reach net zero</a>
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<p>Projects in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1876610218301462">Iceland</a> and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1876610217321082">France</a> have shown that dissolving CO<sub>2</sub> in geothermal water is better than injecting it directly. It cuts the cost of new infrastructure (liquid CO<sub>2</sub> compression is expensive) and means reinjection wells built for normal geothermal operation can continue to be used. </p>
<p>Unlike pure CO<sub>2</sub> that is less dense than water and tends to rise, the reinjected carbonated water is about 2% heavier and will sink. As long as equal amounts of geothermal water are produced and reinjected, the CO<sub>2</sub> will stay safely dissolved, where it can slowly turn into rocks and be permanently trapped.</p>
<h2>How do the numbers stack up?</h2>
<p>Our <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4091223">initial modelling</a> shows that geothermal BECCS could have negative emissions in the order of -200 to -700 grams of CO<sub>2</sub> per kilowatt hour of electricity (gCO2/kWh). Compared to about 400 gCO₂/kWh of positive emissions from a natural gas power plant, this is a dramatic reversal of the energy-emissions trade-off. </p>
<p>Applied to a geothermal system the size of Wairakei (160 megawatts), a single geothermal BECCS system could lock away one million tonnes of CO<sub>2</sub> each year. This is equivalent to taking two hundred thousand cars off the road and, at current prices, would net tens of millions of dollars in carbon offsets. </p>
<p>These could be traded via the Emissions Trading Scheme to buy valuable time for industries that have been slow to decarbonise, such as agriculture or cement, to get down to net zero.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462615/original/file-20220512-13-9ewls2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462615/original/file-20220512-13-9ewls2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462615/original/file-20220512-13-9ewls2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462615/original/file-20220512-13-9ewls2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462615/original/file-20220512-13-9ewls2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462615/original/file-20220512-13-9ewls2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462615/original/file-20220512-13-9ewls2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Fuel for the future: forestry waste is an untapped and valuable resource.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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<p>Even better, most of New Zealand’s geothermal fields are located near large forests with expansive forestry operations. Estimates put our forestry waste generation at around <a href="https://www.mpi.govt.nz/dmsdocument/41824/direct">three million cubic meters</a> each year. Rather than leaving it to rot, this could be turned into a valuable resource for geothermal BECCS and a decarbonising New Zealand. </p>
<h2>We can start doing this now</h2>
<p>According to the IPCC it is “<a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-60984663#:%7E:text=Science-,Climate%20change%3A%20IPCC%20scientists%20say%20it%27s%20%27now,or%20never%27%20to%20limit%20warming&text=UN%20scientists%20have%20unveiled%20a,carbon%20dioxide%20(CO2)%20emissions">now or never</a>” for countries to dramatically decarbonise their economies. Geothermal BECCS is a promising tool but, as with all new technologies, there is a <a href="https://blog.ucsusa.org/peter-oconnor/what-is-the-learning-curve/">learning curve</a>. </p>
<p>Teething problems have to be worked through as costs are brought down and production is scaled. New Zealand has a chance to get on that curve now. And the whole world will benefit if we do.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/ipcc-report-this-decade-is-critical-for-adapting-to-inevitable-climate-change-impacts-and-rising-costs-177724">IPCC report: this decade is critical for adapting to inevitable climate change impacts and rising costs</a>
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<p>The success of geothermal BECCS will turn on new partnerships between New Zealand’s geothermal generators, manufacturers and the forestry sector. Forestry owners can help transition wood waste into a valuable resource and drive down gate costs. </p>
<p>Most importantly, geothermal operators can leverage their vast injection well inventories and detailed understanding of the underground to permanently lock up atmospheric carbon. </p>
<p>With the government <a href="https://www.stuff.co.nz/environment/climate-news/128581866/government-sets-stricter-carbon-budgets-after-stuff-unearths-error">tightening emissions budgets</a> and investing billions in a <a href="https://budget.govt.nz/budget/2022/bps/budget-allowances-cerf.htm">Climate Emergency Response Fund</a>, now is the perfect time to make geothermal BECCS work for Aotearoa New Zealand.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/182760/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Dempsey receives funding from the New Zealand Ministry for Business, Innovation and Employment (Empowering Geothermal).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nothing to disclose. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rebecca Peer does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Our research shows NZ’s potential to burn forestry waste and capture the emissions in geothermal wells. But we’ll need new partnerships between power generators, manufacturers and the forestry sector.David Dempsey, Senior lecturer, University of CanterburyKaran Titus, PhD Student, University of CanterburyRebecca Peer, Lecturer, University of CanterburyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1800762022-04-04T09:02:32Z2022-04-04T09:02:32ZThese energy innovations could transform how we mitigate climate change, and save money in the process – 5 essential reads<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/454426/original/file-20220325-23-1asrf9z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=367%2C208%2C1465%2C864&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Building solar panels over water sources is one way to both provide power and reduce evaporation in drought-troubled regions.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Robin Raj, Citizen Group & Solar Aquagrid</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>To most people, a solar farm or a geothermal plant is an important source of clean energy. Scientists and engineers see that plus far more potential.</p>
<p>They envision offshore wind turbines capturing and storing carbon beneath the sea, and geothermal plants producing essential metals for powering electric vehicles. Electric vehicle batteries, too, can be transformed to power homes, saving their owners money and also <a href="https://theconversation.com/revolutionary-changes-in-transportation-from-electric-vehicles-to-ride-sharing-could-slow-global-warming-if-theyre-done-right-ipcc-says-179535">reducing transportation emissions</a>.</p>
<p>With scientists worldwide <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/">sounding the alarm</a> about the increasing dangers and costs of climate change, let’s explore some cutting-edge ideas that could transform how today’s technologies <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/sixth-assessment-report-working-group-3/">reduce the effects of global warming</a>, from five recent articles in The Conversation.</p>
<h2>1. Solar canals: Power + water protection</h2>
<p>What if solar panels did double duty, protecting water supplies while producing more power?</p>
<p>California is developing the United States’ first solar canals, with solar panels built atop some of the state’s water distribution canals. These canals run for thousands of miles through arid environments, where the dry air boosts evaporation in a state frequently troubled by water shortages.</p>
<p>“In a 2021 study, we showed that <a href="https://theconversation.com/first-solar-canal-project-is-a-win-for-water-energy-air-and-climate-in-california-177433">covering all 4,000 miles of California’s canals</a> with solar panels would save more than 65 billion gallons of water annually by reducing evaporation. That’s enough to irrigate 50,000 acres of farmland or meet the residential water needs of more than 2 million people,” writes engineering professor <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=S2cxf2IAAAAJ&hl=en">Roger Bales</a> of the University of California, Merced. They would also expand renewable energy without taking up farmable land.</p>
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<span class="caption">Other countries including China and India are also testing the solar farms over water.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Solar Aquagrid LLC</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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<p><a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/">Research shows</a> that human activities, particularly using fossil fuels for energy and transportation, are <a href="https://theconversation.com/ipcc-climate-report-profound-changes-are-underway-in-earths-oceans-and-ice-a-lead-author-explains-what-the-warnings-mean-165588">unequivocally warming the planet</a> and increasing extreme weather. Increasing renewable energy, currently about <a href="https://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.php?id=427&t=3">20% of U.S. utility-scale electricity</a> generation, can reduce fossil fuel demand.</p>
<p>Putting solar panels over shaded water can also improve their power output. The cooler water lowers the temperature of the panels by about 10 degrees Fahrenheit (5.5 Celsius), boosting their efficiency, Bales writes. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/first-solar-canal-project-is-a-win-for-water-energy-air-and-climate-in-california-177433">First solar canal project is a win for water, energy, air and climate in California</a>
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<h2>2. Geothermal power could boost battery supplies</h2>
<p>For renewable energy to slash global greenhouse gas emissions, buildings and vehicles have to be able to use it. Batteries are essential, but the industry has a supply chain problem.</p>
<p>Most batteries used in electric vehicles and utility-scale energy storage are lithium-ion batteries, and most lithium used in the U.S. comes from Argentina, Chile, China and Russia. China is the leader in lithium processing. </p>
<p>Geologist and engineers are working on an innovative method that could boost the U.S. lithium supply at home by <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-a-few-geothermal-plants-could-solve-americas-lithium-supply-crunch-and-boost-the-ev-battery-industry-179465">extracting lithium from geothermal brines</a> in California’s Salton Sea region.</p>
<p>Brines are the liquid leftover in a geothermal plant after heat and steam are used to produce power. That liquid contains lithium and other metals such as manganese, zinc and boron. Normally, it is pumped back underground, but the metals can also be filtered out.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">How lithium is extracted during geothermal energy production. Courtesy of Controlled Thermal Resources.</span></figcaption>
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<p>“If test projects now underway prove that battery-grade lithium can be extracted from these brines cost effectively, 11 existing geothermal plants along the Salton Sea alone could have the potential to produce enough lithium metal to provide about 10 times the current U.S. demand,” write geologist <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=GN_MdtQAAAAJ&hl=en">Michael McKibben</a> of the University of California, Riverside, and energy policy scholar <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=gLrgWW4AAAAJ&hl=en">Bryant Jones</a> of Boise State University.</p>
<p>President Joe Biden <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/presidential-actions/2022/03/31/memorandum-on-presidential-determination-pursuant-to-section-303-of-the-defense-production-act-of-1950-as-amended/">invoked the Defense Production Act</a> on March 31, 2022, to provide incentives for U.S. companies to mine and process more critical minerals for batteries.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-a-few-geothermal-plants-could-solve-americas-lithium-supply-crunch-and-boost-the-ev-battery-industry-179465">How a few geothermal plants could solve America's lithium supply crunch and boost the EV battery industry</a>
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<h2>3. Green hydrogen and other storage ideas</h2>
<p>Scientists are working on other ways to boost batteries’ mineral supply chain, too, including recycling lithium and cobalt from old batteries. They’re also <a href="https://theconversation.com/these-3-energy-storage-technologies-can-help-solve-the-challenge-of-moving-to-100-renewable-electricity-161564">developing designs with other materials</a>, explained <a href="https://www.nrel.gov/research/staff/kerry-rippy.html">Kerry Rippy</a>, a researcher with the National Renewable Energy Lab.</p>
<p>Concentrated solar power, for example, stores energy from the sun by heating molten salt and using it to produce steam to drive electric generators, similar to how a coal power plant would generate electricity. It’s expensive, though, and the salts currently used aren’t stable at higher temperature, Rippy writes. The Department of Energy is funding a similar project that is experimenting with heated sand.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Hydrogen’s challenges, including its fossil fuel history.</span></figcaption>
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<p>Renewable fuels, such as green hydrogen and ammonia, provide a different type of storage. Since they store energy as liquid, they can be transported and used for shipping or rocket fuel.</p>
<p>Hydrogen gets a lot of attention, but not all hydrogen is green. Most hydrogen used today is actually produced with natural gas – a fossil fuel. Green hydrogen, in contrast, could be produced using renewable energy to power electrolysis, which splits water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen, but again, it’s expensive.</p>
<p>“The key challenge is optimizing the process to make it efficient and economical,” Rippy writes. “The potential payoff is enormous: inexhaustible, completely renewable energy.”</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/these-3-energy-storage-technologies-can-help-solve-the-challenge-of-moving-to-100-renewable-electricity-161564">These 3 energy storage technologies can help solve the challenge of moving to 100% renewable electricity</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<h2>4. Using your EV to power your home</h2>
<p>Batteries could also soon turn your electric vehicle into a giant, mobile battery capable of powering your home.</p>
<p>Only a few vehicles are currently designed for vehicle-to-home charging, or V2H, but that’s changing, writes energy economist <a href="https://scholar.google.ca/citations?user=07sAJX8AAAAJ&hl=en">Seth Blumsack</a> of Penn State University. Ford, for example, says its new F-150 Lightning pickup truck will be able to power an average house for three days on a single charge.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/w4XLBOnzE6Q?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">How bidirectional charging allows EVs to power homes.</span></figcaption>
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<p>Blumsack explores the technical challenges as V2H grows and its potential to change <a href="https://theconversation.com/can-my-electric-car-power-my-house-not-yet-for-most-drivers-but-vehicle-to-home-charging-is-coming-163332">how people manage energy use and how utilities store power</a>.</p>
<p>For example, he writes, “some homeowners might hope to use their vehicle for what utility planners call ‘peak shaving’ – drawing household power from their EV during the day instead of relying on the grid, thus reducing their electricity purchases during peak demand hours.”</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/can-my-electric-car-power-my-house-not-yet-for-most-drivers-but-vehicle-to-home-charging-is-coming-163332">Can my electric car power my house? Not yet for most drivers, but vehicle-to-home charging is coming</a>
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<h2>5. Capturing carbon from air and locking it away</h2>
<p>Another emerging technology is more controversial.</p>
<p>Humans have put so much carbon dioxide into the atmosphere over the past two centuries that just stopping fossil fuel use won’t be enough to quickly stabilize the climate. Most scenarios, including <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch">in recent Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change reports</a>, show the world will have to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, as well.</p>
<p>The technology to capture carbon dioxide from the air exists – it’s called <a href="https://theconversation.com/these-machines-scrub-greenhouse-gases-from-the-air-an-inventor-of-direct-air-capture-technology-shows-how-it-works-172306">direct air capture</a> – but it’s expensive. </p>
<p>Engineers and geophysicists like <a href="https://www.earth.columbia.edu/users/profile/david-s-goldberg">David Goldberg</a> of Columbia University are exploring ways to cut those costs by combining direct air capture technology with renewable energy production and carbon storage, like offshore wind turbines built above undersea rock formations where captured carbon could be locked away. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Construction of a wind farm off Rhode Island" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/454424/original/file-20220325-21-19jxroc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/454424/original/file-20220325-21-19jxroc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454424/original/file-20220325-21-19jxroc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454424/original/file-20220325-21-19jxroc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454424/original/file-20220325-21-19jxroc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454424/original/file-20220325-21-19jxroc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454424/original/file-20220325-21-19jxroc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The U.S. had seven operating offshore wind turbines with 42 megawatts of capacity in 2021. The Biden administration’s goal is 30,000 megawatts by 2030.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/OffshoreWind/933c4adb5d06417c8d42f69986bae5d6/photo">AP Photo/Michael Dwyer</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>The world’s largest direct air capture plant, launched in 2021 in Iceland, uses geothermal energy to power its equipment. The captured carbon dioxide is mixed with water and pumped into volcanic basalt formations underground. Chemical reactions with the basalt turn it into a hard carbonate.</p>
<p>Goldberg, who helped developed the mineralization process used in Iceland, sees similar <a href="https://theconversation.com/offshore-wind-farms-could-help-capture-carbon-from-air-and-store-it-long-term-using-energy-that-would-otherwise-go-to-waste-173208">potential for future U.S. offshore wind farms</a>. Wind turbines often produce more energy than their customers need at any given time, making excess energy available. </p>
<p>“Built together, these technologies could reduce the energy costs of carbon capture and minimize the need for onshore pipelines, reducing impacts on the environment,” Goldberg writes. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/offshore-wind-farms-could-help-capture-carbon-from-air-and-store-it-long-term-using-energy-that-would-otherwise-go-to-waste-173208">Offshore wind farms could help capture carbon from air and store it long-term – using energy that would otherwise go to waste</a>
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</p>
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<p><em>Editor’s note: This story is a roundup of articles from The Conversation’s archives.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/180076/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
From pulling carbon dioxide out of the air to turning water into fuel, innovators are developing new technologies and pairing existing ones to help slow global warming.Stacy Morford, Environment + Climate EditorLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1768472022-02-16T12:39:52Z2022-02-16T12:39:52ZWho owns Britain’s underground heat? Answering this could help slash energy bills and carbon emissions<p>While most UK homes are burning the <a href="https://theconversation.com/energy-discounts-are-a-sticking-plaster-heres-a-long-term-solution-to-soaring-household-bills-176402">increasingly expensive</a> fossil fuel natural gas in boilers, a vast and zero-carbon source of heating lies untapped underground.</p>
<p>Greenhouse gas emissions from heating buildings make up <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1044598/6.7408_BEIS_Clean_Heat_Heat___Buildings_Strategy_Stage_2_v5_WEB.pdf">23% of the national total</a> – second only to those from transport. Most of the accessible geothermal heat in the UK is <a href="https://www.bgs.ac.uk/geology-projects/geothermal-energy/">between 100°C and 150°C</a>, which is too cold for generating electricity efficiently. But it can be pumped directly into central heating systems and district heat networks to warm entire neighbourhoods.</p>
<p>And geothermal energy has an advantage over other green sources. Unlike wind and solar, which are weather-dependent, the heat retained inside the Earth from the planet’s formation is a very consistent source of energy. But at present, the UK is barely paying attention to it. </p>
<p>Geothermal energy is most commonly used in the UK to regulate the temperature of individual properties through heat pumps. These appliances extract buried warmth using a system of shallow water pipes running underground. Combined with <a href="https://theconversation.com/tapping-into-the-energy-that-lies-deep-underground-16495">deeper sources</a>, geothermal heat supplies <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/904503/UK_Energy_in_Brief_2020.pdf">just over 4%</a> of the country’s renewable energy.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A 3D illustration showing a series of pipes extracting heat from below ground and channeling into a home central heating system." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446728/original/file-20220216-19-ctajgb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446728/original/file-20220216-19-ctajgb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446728/original/file-20220216-19-ctajgb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446728/original/file-20220216-19-ctajgb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446728/original/file-20220216-19-ctajgb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446728/original/file-20220216-19-ctajgb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446728/original/file-20220216-19-ctajgb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The typical design of a ground source heat pump.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/heat-pump-ground-source-system-3d-1925157890">Studio Harmony/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>Cutting emissions from heating will require a variety of different technologies, but it’s <a href="https://senseaboutscience.org/evidence-week/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2021/09/ScienceBriefingDeepGeothermal_BGSTechnicalReport.pdf">estimated</a> that the UK has enough accessible geothermal energy near populated areas to meet current heating demand across the UK for at least 100 years.</p>
<p>So what’s holding back this stable – and sustainable – source of home heating? The first and biggest hurdle is in the UK’s legal system, which lacks a clear definition of “heat” as a resource that can be owned and which needs protecting.</p>
<p>The result is that, at present, the UK has no bespoke regime for regulating the extraction of geothermal energy. Instead, extracting this heat is regulated through a number of other regimes which deal with other activities, such as the planning system which regulates the use of land.</p>
<p>The law regards heat not as something useful, but as a physical characteristic of a property. This is in contrast to oil and gas, which are treated as separate resources which can be licensed and sold no matter where they are found. This leaves no clear answer as to who owns the heat. Answering this question is essential to develop a regulatory system which can deliver affordable and sustainable energy.</p>
<h2>License to drill</h2>
<p>One way forward would be to define heat as a resource over which the owner of the land has proprietary rights. This might encourage widespread use of geothermal energy as a replacement for fossil fuels, as financial gain would motivate landowners to extract it. But without careful regulation, extraction could become unsustainable or interfere with the rights of other landowners where geothermal reservoirs cross property boundaries. </p>
<p>An alternative regulatory system would give ownership of all underground heat to the state. This already happens with oil and gas. In this system, Westminster would award permits and concessions to companies able to look for and exploit heat on a commercial scale.</p>
<p>A centrally run regime, in which only the government can license access to geothermal heat to skilled operators, could help manage potential environmental impacts. For instance, the government could set licence terms and conditions which require the operator to use particular techniques and equipment which reduce the risk of soil and water pollution. </p>
<p>Fines, or even imprisonment, could punish non-compliance. A government-run licensing system would also be better equipped to guarantee a stable supply of heat, as there would be no disputes over ownership between neighbouring landowners.</p>
<p>Legal support for a state-led approach already exists in the Infrastructure Act 2015. <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2015/7/section/43/enacted">This allows</a> any person the right to exploit geothermal heat from 300 metres or more below the land surface without having to compensate the landowner.</p>
<p>The state could guarantee a company that it will not grant further licences which might interfere with the amount of heat the company is entitled to extract, in turn making the company’s necessary (and substantial) investment safer. This investment can take a long time to deliver returns, which is particularly troubling for smaller, specialist companies who are unable to take significant risks. </p>
<p>While individual property owners can install heat pumps with relative ease (there is no planning permission necessary), a proper regulatory regime is needed to allow the UK to scale up the extraction of geothermal heat on an industrial scale. A secure, affordable and carbon-neutral heating source is possible, but to achieve it, geothermal heat must be considered a part of the energy system, and subject to a set of rules akin to the tried and tested regimes that govern the extraction and distribution of other fuels. </p>
<p>An important place to start would be sorting out who actually owns the heat.</p>
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<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><strong><em>Don’t have time to read about climate change as much as you’d like?</em></strong>
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<hr><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/176847/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anna McClean receives funding from the Engineering and Physical Science Research Council (EPSRC). </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ole Pedersen receives funding from the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC).</span></em></p>UK law currently regards heat as a physical characteristic, rather than a useful resource.Anna McClean, Research Assistant, Newcastle UniversityOle Pedersen, Professor of Environmental Law, Aarhus UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1668292021-12-02T01:48:20Z2021-12-02T01:48:20ZThere’s an enormous geothermal pool under the Latrobe Valley that can give us cheap, clean energy<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/435197/original/file-20211202-23-12fgweb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=51%2C51%2C5760%2C3776&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>About 650 metres beneath the Latrobe Valley, the heart of Victoria’s coal country, lies a little-known, naturally hot 65°C pool of water in an enormous aquifer.</p>
<p>This aquifer is a source of geothermal energy – a renewable source of heat or electricity that is, so far, being used <a href="https://youtu.be/8MZkOzvgYOI">to heat an aquatic centre</a> in the town of Traralgon. They chose it – over natural gas, coal-fired power or even emissions-free solar and wind – because geothermal energy is now the cheapest option for heating. </p>
<p>The hot aquifer was <a href="http://www.ccmaknowledgebase.vic.gov.au/shkb/maynard/view_resource.php?resource_id=4158&account=3817ce75cf365e79fc5aad26383c6347">first reported</a> as long ago as 1962, when government geologist J.J. Jenkin noted many “occurrences of high temperature waters in East Gippsland”. We now know the hot water underlies about 6,000 square kilometres of Gippsland, from Morwell in the west to Lakes Entrance in the east, and holds the equivalent of <a href="https://lva.vic.gov.au/home/Global-Scan-Report-LVA_GS3-June-2021.pdf">A$30 billion</a> of heat at today’s natural gas price. </p>
<p>But with natural gas flowing from Bass Strait, and vast reserves of brown coal in the Latrobe Valley, there has been little incentive to develop alternative energy sources. With the coal era now drawing to a close, it’s time we made better use of this vast, clean source of energy to help cut national emissions and ease the energy transition. </p>
<h2>Geothermal energy around the world</h2>
<p>The core of the Earth is about the <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-22297915#:%7E:text=New%20measurements%20suggest%20the%20Earth's,actually%20crystalline%2C%20surrounded%20by%20liquid.">same temperature</a> as the surface of the sun. That vast internal heat is like a hotplate warming natural groundwater from below. Beneath the Latrobe Valley, thick coal layers act like a blanket, which makes the underlying aquifers hotter than aquifers in other locations. </p>
<p>The result is unusually hot natural water without needing to burn any fossil fuels – emissions free. At deeper depths we can capture natural steam, and use it to turn turbines for a generator.</p>
<p>In many parts of the world, natural hot water already provides sustainable, low emissions heat to a wide range of residential and industrial consumers. </p>
<p>In carrying out a recent <a href="https://lva.vic.gov.au/home/Global-Scan-Report-LVA_GS3-June-2021.pdf">global scan of energy production</a> from hot aquifers, I learned large parts of suburban Paris are heated by geothermal energy from a hot (56–85°C) aquifer between 1,600 and 1,800m beneath the city. </p>
<p>In the Netherlands, industrial scale greenhouses are replacing their natural gas heating systems with geothermal heat from aquifers, 1,800-2,200m below the surface.</p>
<p>Beijing is one of the world’s leading urban centres using geothermal energy. Wells as deep as 2,600m produce up to 70°C water for many industrial purposes, from winter heating for hotels and factories, to greenhouse cultivation, to public geothermal bathing pools visited by as many as 50,000 people per day. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-transition-from-coal-4-lessons-for-australia-from-around-the-world-115558">How to transition from coal: 4 lessons for Australia from around the world</a>
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<p>On a smaller scale, a town in Hungary circulates natural hot water (64–72°C from 1,450–1,700m depth) through a network of distribution pipes. And Perth, Western Australia, uses natural hot water (40–52°C from 750–1,150m) to heat at least 14 leisure and aquatic centres. </p>
<p>Importantly, in almost every case, the water itself is returned to the aquifer after delivering its heat. In other words, water is not consumed in the production of geothermal energy, making it renewable and sustainable.</p>
<p>When compared to geothermal systems around the world, it’s obvious natural hot water beneath the Latrobe Valley, at only 650m depth, is a truly world class geothermal energy resource that has, until now, been largely overlooked. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/435200/original/file-20211202-13-1ct0pmw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Beijing skyline" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/435200/original/file-20211202-13-1ct0pmw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/435200/original/file-20211202-13-1ct0pmw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/435200/original/file-20211202-13-1ct0pmw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/435200/original/file-20211202-13-1ct0pmw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/435200/original/file-20211202-13-1ct0pmw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/435200/original/file-20211202-13-1ct0pmw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/435200/original/file-20211202-13-1ct0pmw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Beijing is a world leader in geothermal energy use.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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</figure>
<h2>A cheaper alternative to gas</h2>
<p>It’s a lot cheaper to drill a 650m bore than a 1,500m or deeper bore. This means it’s cheaper to produce geothermal energy in the Latrobe Valley than many places where geothermal energy already provides economic advantage. </p>
<p>In fact, geothermal heat is very likely a much cheaper alternative to natural gas. Since Australia began exporting liquified natural gas out of Queensland in 2015, the wholesale price of natural gas in eastern Australia has <a href="https://www.aer.gov.au/wholesale-markets/wholesale-statistics/sttm-quarterly-prices">roughly tripled</a> and is <a href="https://www.accc.gov.au/regulated-infrastructure/energy/gas-inquiry-2017-2025/lng-netback-price-series">projected</a> to rise further and remain high. </p>
<p>The higher price of natural gas affects the economy across the whole of Australia. The <a href="https://www.yourhome.gov.au/energy">federal government</a> estimates 40% of energy Australian households use is for heating and cooling, and a further 23% is for water heating. A <a href="https://arena.gov.au/assets/2019/11/renewable-energy-options-for-industrial-process-heat.pdf">2019 report</a> commissioned by the Australian Renewable Energy Agency found 52% of energy used by the nation’s industrial sector is consumed as heat. </p>
<p>But there are other long-term benefits the geothermal energy resource could deliver to the Latrobe Valley. </p>
<p>Victoria’s heavy reliance on natural gas for heat also presents a huge challenge for the state to meet its <a href="https://www.climatechange.vic.gov.au/legislation/climate-change-act-2017">legislated</a> greenhouse gas emission reduction targets of net zero by 2050. </p>
<p>Under this plan, the remaining coal-fired power plants in the Latrobe Valley are all scheduled to close in the coming years and decades, requiring support for workers to be reskilled. </p>
<p>Producing geothermal energy from hot aquifers can help on both fronts: by avoiding greenhouse-gas emissions and by reemploying skilled workers into new industries.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-explained-why-does-geothermal-electricity-count-as-renewable-143433">Climate explained: why does geothermal electricity count as renewable?</a>
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<hr>
<h2>What’s next?</h2>
<p>I’m working closely with a number of stakeholders – including the Latrobe City Council, the Latrobe Valley Authority, the Geological Survey of Victoria, local businesses and community groups – to help <a href="https://vimeo.com/641772403/4acc447695">realise the potential</a> of this massive, undervalued source of clean energy. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/hp5-CH_q-qs?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The untapped potential for geothermal energy in the Latrobe Valley.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We seek to better understand and sustainably develop this resource to help Australia meet it’s emissions reduction targets, and to bring the price of energy down. </p>
<p>This <a href="https://lva.vic.gov.au/projects/gippslands-smart-specialisation-strategy">includes projects</a> such as mapping, investigating the potential for power generation from deeper hotter rocks, and identifying and clearing policy and regulatory barriers.</p>
<p>The lessons we learn in the Latrobe Valley will carry across to other parts of Victoria and Australia – such as the Mornington Peninsula, Otway coast, and the Great Artesian Basin spanning NSW, Queensland and South Australia – where hot water is known to lie deeper, but still very accessible.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-tale-of-two-valleys-latrobe-and-hunter-regions-both-have-coal-stations-but-one-has-far-worse-mercury-pollution-163180">A tale of two valleys: Latrobe and Hunter regions both have coal stations, but one has far worse mercury pollution</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/166829/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Graeme Beardsmore is a Director of the Australian Geothermal Association and Secretary of the Asia Western Pacific Regional Branch of the International Geothermal Association. He has previously received funding from Regional Development Victoria and the Latrobe Valley Authority to research the geothermal energy potential of the Latrobe Valley. </span></em></p>It’s 650 metres below the surface, across 6,000 square kilometres – and has been overlooked for far too long.Graeme Beardsmore, Senior Fellow in Crustal Heat Flow, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1517882020-12-15T19:16:52Z2020-12-15T19:16:52ZWhere does the Earth’s heat come from?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/373907/original/file-20201209-15-1i85cih.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=3%2C79%2C2040%2C1311&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Piton de la Fournaise in eruption, 2015.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Greg de Serra/Flickr</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Earth generates heat. The deeper you go, the higher the temperature. At 25km down, temperatures rise as high as 750°C; at the core, it is said to be 4,000°C. Humans have been making use of hot springs as far back as antiquity, and today we use geothermal technology to heat our apartments. Volcanic eruptions, geysers and earthquakes are all signs of the Earth’s internal powerhouse.</p>
<p>The average heat flow from the earth’s surface is 87mW/m<sup>2</sup> – that is, 1/10,000th of the energy received from the sun, meaning the earth emits a total of <a href="https://unt.univ-cotedazur.fr/uved/bouillante/cours/i.-la-geothermie-manifestations-quantification-origine-et-utilisations-de-la-chaleur-interne-du-globe/2.-comprendre-et-modeliser-les-transferts-de-chaleur-pour-determiner-l2019origine-de-la-chaleur-interne-du-globe/2.3-origine-de-la-chaleur-interne-du-globe.html">47 terawatts</a>, the equivalent of several thousand nuclear power plants. The source of the earth’s heat has long remained a mystery, but we now know that most of it is the result of radioactivity.</p>
<h2>The birth of atoms</h2>
<p>To understand where all this heat is coming from, we have to go back to the birth of the atomic elements.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/big-bang-470">Big Bang</a> produced matter in the form of protons, neutrons, electrons, and neutrinos. It took around 370,000 years for the first atoms to form – protons attracted electrons, producing hydrogen. Other, heavier nuclei, like deuterium and helium, formed at the same time, in a process called <a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucl%C3%A9osynth%C3%A8se_primordiale">Big Bang nucleosynthesis</a>.</p>
<p>The creation of heavy elements was far more arduous. First, stars were born and heavy nuclei formed via accretion in their fiery crucible. This process, called <a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucl%C3%A9osynth%C3%A8se_stellaire">stellar nucleosynthesis</a>, took billions of years. Then, when the stars died, these elements spread out across space to be captured in the form of planets.</p>
<p>The earth’s composition is therefore highly complex. Luckily for us, and our existence, it includes all the natural elements, from the simplest atom, hydrogen, to heavy atoms such as uranium, and everything in between, carbon, iron – the entire periodic table. Inside the bowels of the earth is an entire panoply of elements, arranged within various onion-like layers.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374908/original/file-20201214-15-1ylfnmj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374908/original/file-20201214-15-1ylfnmj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374908/original/file-20201214-15-1ylfnmj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374908/original/file-20201214-15-1ylfnmj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374908/original/file-20201214-15-1ylfnmj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374908/original/file-20201214-15-1ylfnmj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374908/original/file-20201214-15-1ylfnmj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Our planet contains all the elements of the periodic table.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sandbh/Wikipedia</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We know little about the inside of our planet. The deepest mines reach down 10km at the most, while the earth has a radius of 6,500km. Scientific knowledge of deeper levels has been obtained through seismic measurements. Using this data, geologist divided the earth’s structure into various strata, with the core at the center, solid on the inside and liquid on the outside, followed by the lower and upper mantles and, finally, the crust. The earth is made up of heavy, unstable elements and is therefore radioactive, meaning there is another way to find out about its depths and understand the source of its heat.</p>
<h2>What is radioactivity?</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371006/original/file-20201124-21-6w5mly.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371006/original/file-20201124-21-6w5mly.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371006/original/file-20201124-21-6w5mly.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=601&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371006/original/file-20201124-21-6w5mly.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=601&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371006/original/file-20201124-21-6w5mly.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=601&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371006/original/file-20201124-21-6w5mly.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=755&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371006/original/file-20201124-21-6w5mly.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=755&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371006/original/file-20201124-21-6w5mly.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=755&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Drugs and cosmetics containing a small dose of radium, early 20th century.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Tho-Radia-IMG_1228.JPG/1023px-Tho-Radia-IMG_1228.JPG">Rama/Wikimedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Radioactivity is a common and inescapable natural phenomenon. Everything on earth is radioactive – that is to say, everything spontaneously produces elementary particles (humans emit a few thousand per second). In Marie Curie’s day, no one was afraid of radioactivity. </p>
<p>On the contrary, it was said to have beneficial effects: beauty creams were certified radioactive and contemporary literature extolled the radioactive properties of mineral water. Maurice Leblanc wrote of a thermal spring saving his protagonist Arsène Lupin during one of his adventures:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“The water contained such energy and power as to make it a veritable fountain of youth, properties arising from its incredible radioactivity.” (Maurice Leblanc, <a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Demoiselle_aux_yeux_verts">“La demoiselle aux yeux verts”</a>, 1927)</p>
</blockquote>
<p>There are various kinds of radioactivity, each involving the spontaneous release of particles and emitting energy that can be detected in the form of heat deposits. Here, we will be talking about “beta” decay, where an election and a neutrino are emitted. The electron is absorbed as soon as it is produced, but the neutrino has the surprising ability to penetrate a wide range of materials. The whole of the Earth is transparent to neutrinos, so detecting neutrinos generated by radioactive decay within the Earth should give us an idea of what is happening at its deepest levels.</p>
<p>These kinds of particles are called <a href="https://neutrino-history.in2p3.fr/the-earth-seen-through-neutrinos/">geoneutrinos</a>, and they provide an original way to investigate the depths of the Earth. Although detecting them is no easy matter, since neutrinos interact little with matter, some detectors are substantial enough to perform this kind of research.</p>
<p>Geoneutrinos mainly arise from heavy elements with very long half-lives, whose properties are now thoroughly understood through lab studies: chiefly uranium, thorium and potassium. The decay of one uranium-238 nucleus, for example, releases an average of 6 neutrinos, and 52 megaelectronvolts of energy carried by the released particles that then lodge in matter and deposit heat. Each neutrino carries around two megaelectronvolts of energy. According to standardized measures, one megaelectronvolt is equivalent to 1.6 10<sup>-13</sup> joules, so it would take around 10<sup>25</sup> decays per second to reach the earth’s total heat. The question is, can these neutrinos be detected?</p>
<h2>Detecting geoneutrinos</h2>
<p>In practice, we have to take aggregate measurements at the detection site of flows coming from all directions. It is difficult to ascertain the exact source of the flows, since we cannot measure their direction. We have to use models to create computer simulations. Knowing the energy spectrum of each decay mode and modeling the density and position of the various geological strata affecting the final result, we get an overall spectrum of expected neutrinos which we then deduct from the number of events predicted for a given detector. This number is always very low – only a handful of events per kiloton of detector per year.</p>
<p>Two recent experiments have added to the research: <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0550321316300529">KamLAND</a>, a detector weighing 1,000 metric tons underneath a Japanese mountain, and <a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/borexino-spots-solar-neutrinos-from-elusive-fusion-cycle/">Borexino</a>, which is located in a tunnel under the Gran Sasso mountain in Italy and weighs 280 metric tons. Both use “liquid scintillators”. To detect neutrinos from the earth or <a href="https://www.futura-sciences.com/sciences/actualites/physique-neutrinos-cosmiques-naissent-eruptions-quasars-50447/">the cosmos</a>, you need a detection method that is effective at low energies; this means exciting atoms in a scintillating liquid. Neutrinos interact with protons, and the resulting particles emitted produce observable light.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371009/original/file-20201124-23-cplwt9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371009/original/file-20201124-23-cplwt9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371009/original/file-20201124-23-cplwt9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371009/original/file-20201124-23-cplwt9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371009/original/file-20201124-23-cplwt9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371009/original/file-20201124-23-cplwt9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/371009/original/file-20201124-23-cplwt9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Sno+ experiment uses the SnoLab detector in Canada, to detect geoneutrinos, among other things.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/138424555@N03/23753317224/in/photolist-CbZXE9-CGoBWC-D9vPxZ-Cc82tr-D2dSae-Cc82va-CGoBSj-D2dSct-CYWVvC">SNOLAB</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>KamLAND has announced more than 100 events and Borexino around 20 that could be attributed to geoneutrinos, with an uncertainty factor of 20-30%. We cannot pinpoint their source, but this overall measurement – while fairly rough – is in line with the predictions of the simulations, within the limits of the low statistics obtained.</p>
<p>Therefore, the <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-0-387-70771-6_4">traditional hypothesis</a> of a kind of nuclear reactor at the center of the earth, consisting of a ball of fissioning uranium like those in nuclear power plants, has now been excluded. Fission is not a spontaneous radioactivity but is stimulated by slow neutrons in a chain reaction.</p>
<p>There are now new, more effective detectors being developed: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SNO%2B">Canada's SNO+</a>, and <a href="https://www.scmp.com/news/china-insider/article/1456878/guangdong-races-ahead-global-effort-measure-elusive-neutrinos">China's Juno</a>, which will improve our knowledge of geoneutrinos.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“Far from diminishing it, adding the invisible to the visible only enriches the latter, gives it meaning, completes it.” (Paul Claudel, <a href="http://www.gallimard.fr/Catalogue/GALLIMARD/Blanche/Positions-et-propositions">“Positions et propositions”</a>, 1928)</p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p><em>Translated from the French by Alice Heathwood for <a href="http://www.fastforword.fr/en">Fast ForWord</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/151788/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>François Vannucci ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>The study of neutrinos produced within the Earth’s interior provides a better understanding of the radioactivity of our planet.François Vannucci, Professeur émérite, chercheur en physique des particules, spécialiste des neutrinos, Université Paris CitéLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1434332020-08-11T20:09:24Z2020-08-11T20:09:24ZClimate explained: why does geothermal electricity count as renewable?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/351880/original/file-20200810-20-eg2res.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">geothermal</span> </figcaption></figure><figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/287622/original/file-20190811-144878-bvgm9l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/287622/original/file-20190811-144878-bvgm9l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287622/original/file-20190811-144878-bvgm9l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287622/original/file-20190811-144878-bvgm9l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287622/original/file-20190811-144878-bvgm9l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287622/original/file-20190811-144878-bvgm9l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287622/original/file-20190811-144878-bvgm9l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><em><strong><a href="https://theconversation.com/nz/topics/climate-explained-74664">Climate Explained</a></strong> is a collaboration between The Conversation, Stuff and the New Zealand Science Media Centre to answer your questions about climate change.</em> </p>
<p><em>If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, please send it to climate.change@stuff.co.nz</em></p>
<hr>
<blockquote>
<p><strong>Geothermal electricity produces emissions but is categorised with wind and solar power as a renewable source of power. Why? Can we reduce the emissions geothermal plants produce?</strong></p>
</blockquote>
<p>Geothermal resources occur where magma has come up through the Earth’s crust at some point in the distant past and created large reservoirs of hot rock and water. </p>
<p>In New Zealand, the <a href="https://www.gns.cri.nz/Home/Learning/Science-Topics/Volcanoes/New-Zealand-Volcanoes/Taupo-Volcano">Taupo Volacanic Zone</a> has 23 known geothermal reservoirs. Seven of these are currently used to generate more than <a href="https://www.mbie.govt.nz/building-and-energy/energy-and-natural-resources/energy-generation-and-markets/geothermal-energy-generation/">15% of New Zealand’s electricity supply</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/352079/original/file-20200811-24-18kw3ll.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/352079/original/file-20200811-24-18kw3ll.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=247&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/352079/original/file-20200811-24-18kw3ll.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=247&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/352079/original/file-20200811-24-18kw3ll.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=247&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/352079/original/file-20200811-24-18kw3ll.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=311&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/352079/original/file-20200811-24-18kw3ll.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=311&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/352079/original/file-20200811-24-18kw3ll.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=311&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">New Zealand’s geothermal areas also include mineral pools and geysers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock/Dmitry Pichugin</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Continuous but finite energy source</h2>
<p>The geothermal reservoirs are vast in both size and stored energy. For example, the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281186624_Ngatamariki_Geothermal_Field_New_Zealand_Geology_geophysics_chemistry_and_conceptual_model">Ngatamariki reservoir</a> extends over seven square kilometres and is more than a kilometre thick. </p>
<p>The geothermal resource is more consistent than hydro, solar and wind, as it doesn’t depend on the weather, but the geothermal heat in a reservoir is finite. Environment Waikato estimates that if the thermal energy in New Zealand were extracted to generate 420MW of electricity, the resource would likely last for 300 years. The current generation is more than twice this rate, so the reservoirs will last about half as long. </p>
<p>Geothermal energy is extracted by drilling up to 3km down into these hot zones of mineral-laden brine at 180-350°C. The engineering involves drilling a number of wells for extraction and re-injection of the brine, and the big pipes that connect the wells to the power plant. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/352080/original/file-20200811-20-1perkqe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/352080/original/file-20200811-20-1perkqe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/352080/original/file-20200811-20-1perkqe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/352080/original/file-20200811-20-1perkqe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/352080/original/file-20200811-20-1perkqe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/352080/original/file-20200811-20-1perkqe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/352080/original/file-20200811-20-1perkqe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A geothermal power plant converts heat into electricity.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock/Joe Gough</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The power plant converts the thermal energy into electricity using steam turbines. These plants generate nearly continuously and can last for more than 50 years. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/new-zealand-wants-to-build-a-100-renewable-electricity-grid-but-massive-infrastructure-is-not-the-best-option-143592">New Zealand wants to build a 100% renewable electricity grid, but massive infrastructure is not the best option</a>
</strong>
</em>
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<h2>Greenhouse gas emissions</h2>
<p>The brine contains dissolved gases and minerals, depending on the minerals in the rocks the water was exposed to. Some of these are harmless, like silica which is basically sand. But some are toxic like stibnite, which is antimony and sulphur. </p>
<p>Some gases like carbon dioxide and methane are not poisonous, but are greenhouse gases. But some are toxic. For example, hydrogen sulfide gives geothermal features their distinctive smell. The carbon dioxide dissolved in geothermal brine normally comes from limestone, which is fossilised shells of sea creatures that lived millions of years ago. </p>
<p>The amount of greenhouse gas produced per kWh of electricity generated varies, depending on the reservoir characteristics. It is not well known until the wells are in production. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://nzgeothermal.org.nz/geothermal-energy/emissions/">New Zealand Geothermal Association</a> reports the greenhouse gas emissions for power generation range from 21 grams CO₂ equivalent per kWh to 341gCO₂(equiv)/kWh. The average is 76gCO₂(equiv)/kWh. For comparison, fossil fuel generation emissions range from 970 to 390gCO₂(equiv)/kWh for coal and gas combined cycle plants.</p>
<p>The gases have to be removed from the brine to use it in the plant, so they are released to the atmosphere. The toxic gases are either diluted and released into the atmosphere, or scrubbed with other substances for disposal. The Mokai power plant <a href="https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=3531865">supplies carbon dioxide to commercial growers</a> who use it in glasshouses to increase the growth rate of vegetables. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-explained-could-the-world-stop-using-fossil-fuels-today-138605">Climate explained: could the world stop using fossil fuels today?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Finding ways to use less energy</h2>
<p>All energy-conversion systems can be made better by employing engineering expertise, investing in research and enforcing regulations, and through due diligence in the management of the waste products. All energy-conversion technology has costs and consequences. No energy resource should be thought of as unlimited or free unless we use very small quantities. </p>
<p>New Zealand is in a period of energy transition, with a goal of reducing <a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/national/programmes/ninetonoon/audio/2018731409/climate-change-commission-preparing-for-2050">greenhouse gas emissions to net zero</a> by 2050. The production and use of <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/environment/climate-change/coal-power-remains-in-global-decline-despite-chinese-surge-20200326-p54e6j.html">coal is already in decline globally</a> and oil and gas are expected follow. </p>
<p>We tend to think about energy transition in terms of technologies to substitute “bad” energy with “green” energy. But the transition of how energy is produced and consumed will require a massively complex re-engineering of nearly everything. </p>
<p>The installed capacity for wind and solar has been <a href="https://www.newsroom.co.nz/ideasroom/storing-energy-for-a-transitioning-grid">growing</a> over the past decade. In 2018, however, New Zealand consumption of electricity generated by wind and solar was 7.72PJ, while oil, diesel and LPG consumption was 283PJ and geothermal electricity was 27PJ. Another consideration is lifetime; wind turbines and solar panels need to be replaced at least three times during the lifetime of a geothermal power plant. </p>
<p>A successful energy transition will require much more R&D and due diligence on <a href="https://resource.co/article/study-finds-45-cent-fall-purchases-bottled-water-go">products</a>, <a href="https://www.nrel.gov/about/sustainable-buildings.html">buildings</a> and <a href="https://www.aemslab.org.nz/from_the_ground_up">lifestyles</a> that need only about 10% of the energy we use today. An energy transition to build sustainable future systems is not only possible, it is the only option.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/143433/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Susan Krumdieck does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Geothermal reservoirs supply more than 15% of New Zealand’s electricity. The heat energy stored in geothermal fields is vast but not infinite.Susan Krumdieck, Professor and Director, Advanced Energy and Material Systems Lab, University of CanterburyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1338712020-05-26T12:17:39Z2020-05-26T12:17:39ZBuildings consume lots of energy – here’s how to design whole communities that give back as much as they take<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/337615/original/file-20200526-106836-15wrcm0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C8%2C3000%2C1675&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Artist rendition of the National Western Center, a net-zero campus under construction in Denver to house multiple activities. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">City and County of Denver | Mayor’s Office of the National Western Center</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Although the coronavirus pandemic has dominated recent headlines, climate change <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-co2-isnt-falling-more-during-a-global-lockdown/">hasn’t gone away</a>. Many experts are calling for a “<a href="https://www.carbonbrief.org/leading-economists-green-coronavirus-recovery-also-better-for-economy">green” economic recovery</a> that directs investments into <a href="https://time.com/5835402/green-stimulus-climate-change-coronavirus/">low-carbon energy sources and technologies</a>.</p>
<p>Buildings account for <a href="https://www.eia.gov/totalenergy/data/monthly/pdf/flow/total_energy.pdf">40% of total energy consumption in the U.S.</a>, compared to 32% for industry and 28% for transportation. <a href="https://www.cpuc.ca.gov/ZNE/">States</a> and <a href="https://www.boston.gov/sites/default/files/embed/file/2019-10/city_of_boston_2019_climate_action_plan_update_4.pdf">cities</a> with ambitious climate action plans are working to reduce emissions from the building sector to zero. This means maximizing energy efficiency to reduce building energy use, and then supplying the remaining energy needs with electricity generated by carbon-free sources. </p>
<p>My colleagues and I study the best ways to <a href="https://www.nrel.gov/buildings/">rapidly reduce carbon emissions from the building sector</a>. In recent years, construction designs have advanced dramatically. Net zero energy buildings, which produce the energy they need on site from renewable sources, increasingly are the default choice. But to speed the transition to zero carbon emissions, I believe the United States must think bigger and focus on designing or redeveloping entire communities that are zero energy. </p>
<p>Tackling energy use in buildings at the district level provides economies of scale. Architects can deploy large heat pumps and other equipment to serve multiple buildings on a staggered schedule across the day. Districts that bring homes, places of work, restaurants, recreation centers and other services together in walkable communities also significantly reduce the energy needed for transportation. In my view, this growing movement will play an increasingly important role in helping the U.S. and the world address the climate crisis.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Zero energy buildings produce enough renewable energy to offset or even exceed the energy they consume.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Ambient loops heat and cool</h2>
<p>Heating and cooling are the biggest energy uses in buildings. District design strategies can address these loads more efficiently. </p>
<p>District heating has <a href="https://www.euroheat.org/news/district-energy-in-the-news/top-district-heating-countries-euroheat-power-2015-survey-analysis/">long been used in Europe</a>, as well as on some U.S. college and other campuses. These systems typically have a central plant that burns natural gas to heat water, which then is circulated to the various buildings. </p>
<p>To achieve zero carbon emissions, the latest strategy uses a design known as an <a href="https://www.integralgroup.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/IntegralGroup_District-Energy-101.pdf">ambient temperature loop</a> that simultaneously and efficiently both heats and cools different buildings. This concept was first developed for the Whistler Olympic Village in British Columbia.</p>
<p>In a typical ambient loop system, a pump circulates water through an uninsulated pipe network buried below the frost line. At this depth, the soil temperature is near that of the yearly average air temperature for that location. As water moves through the pipe, it warms or cools toward this temperature.</p>
<p>Heat pumps at individual buildings or other points along the ambient loop add or extract heat from the loop. They can also move heat between deep geothermal wells and the circulating water.</p>
<p>The loop also circulates through a central plant that keeps it in an optimum temperature range for maximum heat pump performance. The plant can use cooling towers or wastewater to remove heat. It can add heat via renewable sources, such as solar thermal collectors, renewable fuel or heat pumps powered by renewable electricity.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335460/original/file-20200515-138644-3vmjby.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335460/original/file-20200515-138644-3vmjby.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335460/original/file-20200515-138644-3vmjby.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=432&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335460/original/file-20200515-138644-3vmjby.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=432&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335460/original/file-20200515-138644-3vmjby.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=432&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335460/original/file-20200515-138644-3vmjby.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=542&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335460/original/file-20200515-138644-3vmjby.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=542&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335460/original/file-20200515-138644-3vmjby.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=542&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Schematic of the ambient loop system for the Whistler Olympic Village in British Columbia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Integral Group</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Putting wastewater to use</h2>
<p>One example of a potentially zero-energy district currently being developed, the <a href="https://www.thesolutionsjournal.com/article/national-western-center-sun-valley-ecodistrict-infusing-large-scale-urban-development-projects-sustainability/">National Western Center</a>, is a multi-use campus currently under construction in Denver to house the annual National Western Stock Show and other public events focused on food and agriculture. </p>
<p>A 6-foot-diameter pipe carrying the city’s wastewater runs underground through the property before delivering the water to a treatment plant. The water temperature stays within a narrow range of 61 to 77 degrees F throughout the year.</p>
<p>The wastewater pipe and a heat exchanger transfer heat to and from an ambient loop circulating water throughout the district. The system provides heat in winter and absorbs heat in the summer via heat recovery chillers, which are heat pumps that can simultaneously provide heating and cooling. This strategy serves individual buildings at very high efficiency. </p>
<p>Electricity used to operate the heat pumps, lighting and other equipment will come from on-site photovoltaics and wind- and solar-generated electricity imported from off-site. </p>
<h2>Integrated low-energy housing in Austin</h2>
<p>Another district that will minimize carbon emissions is the <a href="https://www.whispervalleyaustin.com/living-ecosmart/net-zero-energy/#geothermal">Whisper Valley Community</a>, under construction in Austin, Texas. This 2,000-acre <a href="https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20190402005438/en/Taurus-Investment-Holdings-Receives-Investment-Shell-New">multi-use development</a> includes 7,500 all-electric houses, 2 million square feet of commercial space, two schools, and a 600-acre park. Its design has already received a <a href="https://www.greenbuildermedia.com/design/2019-green-home-of-the-year-award-winner-loud-as-a-whisper">green building award</a>.</p>
<p>Whisper Valley will run on an integrated energy system that includes an extensive ambient loop network heated and cooled by heat pumps and geothermal wells located at each house. Each homeowner has the option to include a 5-kilowatt rooftop solar photovoltaic array to operate the heat pump and energy-efficient appliances, including heat pump water heaters and inductive stovetops. According to the developer, Whisper Valley’s economy of scale allows for a median sale price US$50,000 below that of typical Austin houses.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Ross Trethewey of “This Old House” visits the low-energy Whisper Valley development outside Austin, Texas, in 2018.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The future of zero-energy communities</h2>
<p>The National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, and other project partners are developing an open source software development kit called <a href="https://www.nrel.gov/buildings/urbanopt.html">URBANopt</a> that models elements of zero energy districts, such as building efficiency/demand flexibility strategies, rooftop photovoltaic arrays and ambient loop district thermal systems. The software can be integrated into other computer models to aid in the design of zero energy communities. NREL engineers have been engaging with high-performance district projects across the country, such as the National Western Center, to help inform and guide the development of the URBANopt platform. </p>
<p>The projects I’ve described are new construction. It’s harder to achieve net zero energy in existing buildings or communities economically, but there are ways to do it. It makes sense to apply those efficiency measures that are the <a href="https://resstock.nrel.gov/factsheets">most cost-effective to retrofit</a>, convert building heating and cooling systems to electricity and provide the electricity with solar photovoltaics. </p>
<p>Utilities are increasingly offering <a href="https://news.energysage.com/whats-the-cheapest-time-of-day-to-use-electricity-with-time-of-use-rates/">time-of-use rate schedules</a>, which charge more for power use during high demand periods. Emerging home energy management systems will allow home owners to heat water, charge home batteries and electric vehicles and run other appliances at times when electricity prices are lowest. Whether we’re talking about new or existing buildings, I see sustainable zero energy communities powered by renewable energy as the wave of the future as we tackle the climate change crisis.</p>
<p>[<em>You’re smart and curious about the world. So are The Conversation’s authors and editors.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/weekly-highlights-61?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=weeklysmart">You can get our highlights each weekend</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/133871/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Charles F. Kutscher retired in 2018 from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, where he directed the Buildings and Thermal Sciences Center. He is a fellow at the Renewable and Sustainable Energy Institute, a joint institute of the University of Colorado-Boulder and NREL.</span></em></p>Net zero energy buildings produce at least as much energy as they use. Designing whole net zero campuses and communities takes the energy and climate benefits to a higher level.Charles F. Kutscher, Fellow and Senior Research Associate, Renewable & Sustainable Energy Institute, University of Colorado BoulderLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1048992018-10-22T10:41:01Z2018-10-22T10:41:01ZIt’s the economics: Red states embracing wind energy don’t do it for the climate<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/241324/original/file-20181018-67173-tjv14b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Energy Secretary and former Texas Gov. Rick Perry checks out a wind turbine.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Perry-Earth-Day/c403f6401bf64eb1ab915143f3e2a1b7/1/0">AP Photo/LM Otero</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The federal government has never played a leading role in restricting the carbon footprint of the nation’s power plants. But now that the <a href="https://www.eenews.net/stories/1060095133">Trump administration</a> is <a href="https://theconversation.com/trump-may-dismantle-the-epa-clean-power-plan-but-its-targets-look-resilient-68460">trying to dismantle</a> many energy regulations, that national role is even smaller.</p>
<p>Many states have been trying to fill this vacuum for years with <a href="https://www.utilitydive.com/news/virginia-regulators-approve-draft-carbon-cap-and-trade-plan/511225/">cap-and-trade systems</a>, <a href="https://www.agweb.com/article/renewable-standards-help-drive-energy-and-economic-development-/">renewable energy mandates</a> and other efforts to discourage the use of fossil fuels and encourage the deployment of renewable energy like wind and solar power.</p>
<p>These policies have mainly taken hold along the <a href="http://www.ncsl.org/research/energy/renewable-portfolio-standards.aspx">East and West Coasts</a>, where Democrats command a majority of the vote and <a href="http://climatecommunication.yale.edu/visualizations-data/partisan-maps-2016/?est=happening&group=rep&type=value&geo=cd">concern about global warming</a> is highest.</p>
<p>Yet as someone who <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=BHmUzmYAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=sra">researches these policies and incentives</a>, I’m constantly reminded that renewable energy is on the rise in not just Democratic strongholds and the “purple” states where leadership is bipartisan. It’s booming in some of the nation’s <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/red-states-rank-among-renewable-energy-leaders/">most conservative</a> bastions.</p>
<h2>Windy red states</h2>
<p>Iowa, Kansas and Oklahoma lead the nation in renewable energy generation, with more than 30 percent of the power generated in each of these states coming from wind turbines and other renewable sources. Three nearby Great Plains states, Nebraska, South Dakota and North Dakota, are also in the top 10. </p>
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<p>Yet on the political map, this swath of the country is usually marked “red,” for Republican.</p>
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<p>One reason why these states are greening their electricity is simple. <a href="https://windexchange.energy.gov/maps-data/324">They are in the nation’s windiest region</a>, which runs through the middle of the country from North Dakota down through Texas. </p>
<h2>An economic boon</h2>
<p>Another reason for this wind boom: Many communities in these states see renewable energy as an economic opportunity.</p>
<p>Landowners <a href="https://www.omaha.com/money/turning-to-turbines-as-commodity-prices-remain-low-wind-energy/article_2814e2cf-83a3-547d-a09e-f039e935f399.html">earn money</a> when they host wind turbines or solar panels on their property. This arrangement provides a <a href="https://www.aweablog.org/concrete-benefits-wind-power-farmers/">drought-proof and pest-proof</a> income stream that supplements what they make from agriculture.</p>
<p>And solar and wind developers also often pay property taxes that fund <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/usa-municipals-windfarms/wind-farms-boost-tax-base-for-local-u-s-governments-moodys-idUSL1N1SE0WH">government services</a>, such as local public schools. </p>
<p>This revenue supplies a much-needed boost in areas that are struggling financially or <a href="https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/rural-economy-population/population-migration/">losing population</a>, two challenges all too many rural communities face. </p>
<h2>Few renewable energy requirements</h2>
<p>As it happens, few of these wind-rich states are using the typical state-level climate policies to drive the growth of renewable energy. For example, <a href="https://www.eenews.net/stories/1060074965">none</a> are among the dozen states participating in <a href="https://www.c2es.org/content/state-climate-policy/">cap-and-trade</a> systems by 2018. In those parts of the country, quotas limit how much carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases can be emitted and <a href="https://theconversation.com/taxes-and-caps-on-carbon-work-differently-but-calibrating-them-poses-the-same-challenge-104898">permits authorizing the emissions are traded</a>.</p>
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<p>Iowa was the <a href="http://programs.dsireusa.org/system/program/detail/265">first state in the nation</a> to adopt a <a href="http://www.ncsl.org/research/energy/renewable-portfolio-standards.aspx">renewable portfolio standard</a> – a policy requiring utilities to get a set proportion of their electricity from renewable energy. But after hitting its initial target years ago, the state has taken <a href="https://www.eenews.net/stories/1060087435">no steps</a> to raise its official goals.</p>
<p>Texas is in a similar position. It met its target well before its target date, despite a move in 2015 by state Republican lawmakers to <a href="https://www.utilitydive.com/news/mission-accomplished-inside-the-battle-over-texas-renewable-energy-incen/389444/">repeal its own renewable portfolio standard</a>.</p>
<p>And the Dakotas, Nebraska and Oklahoma never enacted a renewable energy mandate with <a href="http://www.ncsl.org/research/energy/renewable-portfolio-standards.aspx">any teeth</a>.</p>
<p>Data from a <a href="http://closup.umich.edu/national-surveys-on-energy-and-environment/">national survey</a> that I manage shows that, though Democrats are extremely supportive of state-level mandates requiring the use of renewable energy, Republicans are significantly less enthusiastic about them. The survey finds 94 percent of Democrats say they <a href="http://closup.umich.edu/issues-in-energy-and-environmental-policy/39/solar-wind-and-state-mandates-10-years-of-renewable-energy-in-the-nsee/">support such policies</a>, compared to 69 percent of Republicans – a 25-point gap in support.</p>
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<p>The gap in support for increasing the use of wind or solar is much smaller: just 6 percentage points for solar energy and 10 percentage points for wind.</p>
<p>What that means is that conservatives like wind and solar power. They just don’t want the government to tell them that they must use renewable energy.</p>
<h2>Other policies</h2>
<p>Instead, the wind industry in the Great Plains may have taken off with help from other policies that are less explicitly linked to climate.</p>
<p>Oklahoma, for example, had offered wind developers a <a href="https://stateimpact.npr.org/oklahoma/2017/04/18/fallin-signs-bill-to-end-tax-credit-that-helped-fuel-oklahomas-wind-energy-boom/">sizable tax credit</a>. Texas managed to get more wind turbines than any other state after building extra transmission lines in its windy western region – paid for with money raised from <a href="https://www.technologyreview.com/s/602468/the-one-and-only-texas-wind-boom/">a modest fee</a> tacked onto residential electricity bills that Texan lawmakers approved.</p>
<p>While I believe state-level climate policies will undoubtedly play an important role in creating a market for renewable energy, <a href="http://closup.umich.edu/renewable-energy-policy-initiative/">ongoing research</a> at the University of Michigan is looking at some of these other state-level policies that facilitate getting renewable energy projects built – even in places where <a href="https://theconversation.com/red-state-rural-america-is-acting-on-climate-change-without-calling-it-climate-change-69866">talking about climate change</a> may be untenable.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/104899/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sarah Mills does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>There are some good explanations for the mismatch between regional support for climate action and the areas where renewable energy is making the biggest inroads.Sarah Mills, Senior Project Manager, Ford School's Center for Local, State, and Urban Policy (CLOSUP); Project Manager, National Surveys on Energy and Environment (NSEE), University of MichiganLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/958832018-05-31T13:14:12Z2018-05-31T13:14:12ZEvidence suggests fracking linked to South Korea’s 2017 earthquake<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/218096/original/file-20180508-34006-e58t6w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.epa.eu/disasters-photos/earthquake-photos/shelter-for-earthquake-victims-in-pohang-photos-53902019">EPA</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A magnitude 5.5 earthquake shook the industrial city of Pohang in South Korea on 15 November 2017, injuring almost 100 people and damaging thousands of buildings at a cost of millions of US dollars. Six months on, two academic papers have <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/apr/27/fracking-south-korean-earthquake">suggested that fracking</a> was probably the cause of this earthquake.</p>
<p>A local <a href="https://www.renewableenergyworld.com/geothermal-energy/tech.html">geothermal</a> energy <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2017.05.250">project</a> had been injecting highly pressurised water into two, four kilometre-deep boreholes for almost two years. This process, known as <a href="https://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/print/volume-16/issue-4/geothermal-energy/is-fracking-for-enhanced-geothermal-systems-the-same-as-fracking-for-natural-gas.html">hydraulic fracturing</a> or fracking, creates or enhances fractures in rock to harness the heat stored there.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/AQ9qcb9lTuQ?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
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<p>Once the network of fractures connected the two boreholes, the plan was to pump water into one, circulate it through the <a href="https://geology.com/rocks/granite.shtml">granite</a> rock, absorbing heat, then extract it from the other borehole and use the heat to generate electricity. Afterwards, the cooled water would be reinjected to begin the process over again.</p>
<p>The proposed cause-and-effect connections now identified make the Pohang earthquake by far the largest recorded for which fracking is the likely cause. The <a href="https://doi.org/10.1785/gssrl.80.5.784">previous record holder</a> linked to geothermal development – of magnitude 3.4 – occurred a decade ago in the Swiss city of Basel.</p>
<p>Ten days after the Pohang earthquake, the South Korean government suspended the geothermal plant’s operations and ordered an investigation into a possible link, which is still ongoing.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/218097/original/file-20180508-34027-3yw014.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/218097/original/file-20180508-34027-3yw014.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=314&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/218097/original/file-20180508-34027-3yw014.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=314&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/218097/original/file-20180508-34027-3yw014.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=314&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/218097/original/file-20180508-34027-3yw014.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/218097/original/file-20180508-34027-3yw014.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/218097/original/file-20180508-34027-3yw014.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The area of Pohang where the 5.5 magnitude earthquake occurred on November 15, 2017.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">GoogleEarth</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Seismographs, satellites and faults</h2>
<p>The <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/early/2018/04/27/science.aat2010/tab-pdf">first</a> of the papers reports a collaboration between researchers from <a href="https://www.ethz.ch/en.html">Zurich</a>, Switzerland, <a href="https://www.gfz-potsdam.de/en/home/">Potsdam</a>, Germany, and myself. We used public domain data from <a href="https://www.gns.cri.nz/Home/Learning/Science-Topics/Earthquakes/Monitoring-Earthquakes/Seismic-Activity/What-are-Seismographs">seismographs</a> (instruments for recording ground motion caused by earthquakes) and remote-sensing <a href="http://www.bgs.ac.uk/research/earthHazards/epom/SatelliteInSAR.html">satellites</a> to determine the location and position of the geological fault that slipped in the earthquake.</p>
<p>Both types of data indicate the rupture of a fault running southwest to northeast and dipping steeply to the northwest. Recorded by satellites, the rock above this fault moved upward, lifting the Earth’s surface by four centimetres. This analysis indicates that the fault slipped over a depth range of three to six kilometres, encompassing the depth of the injection and passing within hundreds of metres of the boreholes. This points strongly to a connection between the high-pressure fluid injection and the earthquake. </p>
<p>The <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/early/2018/04/25/science.aat6081/tab-pdf">second paper</a>, by Korean colleagues, reports the locations of the many <a href="https://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/animations/aftershocks.php">aftershocks</a> of the Pohang earthquake, more accurately defining its fault plane. As shown in the cross-section below, their study indicates the fault passing between the bases of the two boreholes where water was injected, cutting across one borehole at a depth of around three to four kilometres. The results from the two papers are consistent with each other, despite the different types of data used, providing strong confirmation.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/218346/original/file-20180509-184630-1luf3uv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/218346/original/file-20180509-184630-1luf3uv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/218346/original/file-20180509-184630-1luf3uv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/218346/original/file-20180509-184630-1luf3uv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/218346/original/file-20180509-184630-1luf3uv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/218346/original/file-20180509-184630-1luf3uv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=487&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/218346/original/file-20180509-184630-1luf3uv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=487&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/218346/original/file-20180509-184630-1luf3uv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=487&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="attribution"><span class="source">sciencemag.org</span></span>
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<p>Preliminary surveys for the geothermal project over a decade ago <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/12269328.2003.10541204">identified</a> a fault (its position at a depth of four kilometres is shown in orange on the image below) with essentially the same position and alignment as that which slipped in the November 2017 earthquake (its position, also at a depth of four kilometres, is shown in red for comparison). Taking into account the uncertainties in each of the analyses, this comparison indicates that these surveys revealed the fault that is now known to have slipped in the November 2017 earthquake. </p>
<p>Further surveys taken before drilling started led the developers to revise their <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877705817323901">plans</a> to focus on a WNW-ESE fracture in the granite beneath the site. The boreholes, shown in the cross-section above, were designed for flow in this direction.</p>
<p>During drilling, fluid (or <a href="https://www.rigzone.com/training/insight.asp?insight_id=291&c_id=">drilling “mud”</a>) <a href="https://pangea.stanford.edu/ERE/db/WGC/papers/WGC/2015/06034.pdf">leaked</a> from one borehole at roughly the depth where the fault cuts across the well bore, with <a href="https://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/glossary/?term=fault%20gouge">fault gouge</a> – crushed rock debris produced by the movement of the rocks on either side of a fault – indicating a fault there before any injection had taken place.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/217557/original/file-20180503-153869-c7zjsb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/217557/original/file-20180503-153869-c7zjsb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/217557/original/file-20180503-153869-c7zjsb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/217557/original/file-20180503-153869-c7zjsb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/217557/original/file-20180503-153869-c7zjsb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/217557/original/file-20180503-153869-c7zjsb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=459&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/217557/original/file-20180503-153869-c7zjsb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=459&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/217557/original/file-20180503-153869-c7zjsb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=459&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The geothermal project site, north of Pohang, marked in green.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Google Earth</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Testing the cause-and-effect connection</h2>
<p>More than 20 years ago, a <a href="https://scits.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/207.full_.pdf">set of criteria</a> was devised for assessing whether earthquakes are caused by high pressure fluid injection. The Pohang earthquake meets most of these criteria. Notably, it occurred within hundreds of metres of the injection, and at the same depth. Also, during much of the injection, the pressure was <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877705817323901">high enough</a> for <a href="https://doi.org/10.1029/JB074i022p05343">standard calculations</a> to predict the slipping of the fault, if water at this pressure reached this fault.</p>
<p>However, the two-month interval between the end of injection in September 2017 and the earthquake in November provides a potential argument against any cause-and-effect connection. A possible explanation for this delay is that once water entered the fault it began to dissolve the granite, gradually weakening the fault so it eventually failed and slipped. It seems entirely plausible at this stage to believe that the earthquake was caused by the injection, and to examine the implications.</p>
<p>One reason this seismicity is significant is the disproportion between the size of the main shock and the volume of water injected. A theory has been <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/2013JB010597">developed</a> for determining the “worst case scenario” earthquake feasible for a given volume of fluid injection. The overall volume injected at Pohang was roughly 12,000 cubic metres, whereas this theory requires around 1,000 times more volume to cause an earthquake as large as magnitude 5.5. This suggests that the theory needs improving, possibly to incorporate the injection pressure as well as the injected volume.</p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/217506/original/file-20180503-153884-1svr1vz.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/217506/original/file-20180503-153884-1svr1vz.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/217506/original/file-20180503-153884-1svr1vz.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/217506/original/file-20180503-153884-1svr1vz.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/217506/original/file-20180503-153884-1svr1vz.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/217506/original/file-20180503-153884-1svr1vz.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/217506/original/file-20180503-153884-1svr1vz.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The drilling rig at the Pohang geothermal project site. Work here is now suspended.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Rob Westaway</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the meantime, designs for future geothermal fracking projects might require independent expert assessment, as is already the case for projects involving fracking for shale gas in the UK. At Pohang, this could have highlighted the potential implications of a fault cutting across the site, leading to recommendations such as limiting the injection pressure, which could have lessened the force of the earthquake.</p>
<p>Elsewhere in the world, successful deep geothermal projects have been designed to incorporate circulation of water along faults, requiring high pressure injection to create or enhance fractures. Pohang illustrates the need for accurate information on the geometry of faults on which project designs can be based. </p>
<p>Still, the disproportion between the small volume of water injected at Pohang and the size of the November 2017 earthquake may give geothermal fracking developers worldwide pause for thought. It may well be the game changer for their industry.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/95883/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rob Westaway receives funding from European Commission Horizon 2020 project EC-691728, DESTRESS (DEmonstration of soft Stimulation TREatmentS of geothermal reservoirS).</span></em></p>Two separate studies have concluded that fracking was the likely cause of a fault line rupture, precipitating the 5.5 earthquake.Rob Westaway, Senior Research Fellow, School of Engineering, University of GlasgowLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/963782018-05-14T11:25:19Z2018-05-14T11:25:19ZEarthquake science could have predicted North Korea’s nuclear climbdown<p>Just days after <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-northkorea-missiles/north-korea-says-will-stop-nuclear-tests-scrap-test-site-idUSKBN1HR37J">North Korea announced</a> it was suspending its testing programme, <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2018GL077649">scientists revealed</a> that the country’s underground nuclear test site had <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/apr/26/north-korea-nuclear-test-site-collapse-may-be-out-of-action-china">partially collapsed</a>. This assessment was based on data gathered from smaller earthquakes that followed North Korea’s biggest nuclear test in 2017. <a href="https://eurekalert.us12.list-manage.com/track/click?u=394dac0d2e831bfd2ca7fc3b5&id=f009a9c627&e=7bcb5ee039">A new study</a> published in Science has now confirmed the collapse using satellite radar imaging.</p>
<p>The collapse may have played a role in North Korea’s change in policy. If correct, and with the hindsight of this research, we might have speculated that the North Koreans would want to make such an offer of peace. This shows how scientific analysis normally reserved for studying natural earthquakes can be a powerful tool in deciphering political decisions and predicting future policy across the globe. </p>
<p>In fact, another unusual earthquake in South Korea in 2017 also has the potential to affect geo-politics, this time by changing energy policy. “Seismic shift” may be a cliche often used by journalists and policymakers to describe changing political landscapes, but these recent earthquakes along the Korean Peninsula remind us there can really be authentic links between seismic events and global affairs.</p>
<p>On November 3 2017, North Korea announced that it had successfully tested a thermo-nuclear hydrogen bomb. Global monitoring networks of the <a href="https://www.ctbto.org/">Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Organisation (CTBTO)</a> detected this explosion within minutes of it happening, classifying it as a magnitude 6 seismic event. We knew that this event was caused by an explosion because all the fastest-travelling seismic waves (“<a href="https://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/glossary/?term=P%20wave">P-waves</a>”) detected on seismometer instruments around the world caused the ground to initially move in an upwards motion. The energy released by the test was equivalent to up to 300 kilotonnes of TNT explosive.</p>
<p>While this H-bomb test sent diplomatic shudders around the world, it is what happened in the minutes to weeks after the explosion that might have determined the future of nuclear testing on the Korean peninsula. The recent studies revealed the mechanism of a magnitude 4.5 aftershock that occurred eight minutes after the initial explosion. Analysis of the <a href="https://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/glossary/?term=Rayleigh%20wave">slow-travelling, rolling seismic waves</a> from this event, together with a 50-centimetre drop of the summit of the mountain above recorded by satellite images, revealed large-scale collapse of the test site and adjacent tunnel system.</p>
<p>Mount Mantap is North’s Korea’s only active nuclear test site, hosting of all the country’s nuclear tests since the country first went nuclear in 2006. Given the scientific evidence for the collapse, the test site, located 450 metres beneath the summit of the mountain, may have been rendered unusable. If so, this may have contributed to North Korea’s decision to give up nuclear testing, instead of it being solely due to the diplomatic efforts of the US, South Korea and China.</p>
<p>Two weeks after the North Korea nuclear test, an unrelated <a href="https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/us2000bnrs#executive">magnitude 5.4 earthquake struck South Korea</a>, the most damaging in the country since detailed records began at the start of the 20th century. The earthquake occurred close to a site that is testing the feasibility of extracting natural geothermal energy from the ground. Cold water is injected into the ground at high pressures to stimulate the movement of hot geothermal fluids along pre-existing fractures in the rock. This process is subtly different to hydraulic fracturing for oil and gas (commonly called “fracking”), which involves creating new fractures.</p>
<p>Two independent studies <a href="http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2018/04/second-largest-earthquake-modern-south-korean-history-tied-geothermal-plant">published in Science</a> used detailed seismic measurements of this earthquake and its aftershock sequence to show that the rupture occurred at a shallow depth of around four kilometres. This is normally too shallow for natural earthquakes but is about the depth of the bottom of the geothermal well. As with the seismic events in North Korea, these events did not involve simple slip along a single, straight geological fault.</p>
<p>Even though South Korea is far from an active tectonic plate boundary, the earthquake demonstrates how ancient faults that appear dormant for long periods of time actually lie close to failure. Tiny nudges of these faults can cause them to slip and release seismic energy, and injecting fluids at high rates into Earth’s crust can do just this.</p>
<h2>Fate determined by earthquakes</h2>
<p>Similar sized events have occurred in <a href="https://theconversation.com/earthquakes-from-the-oil-and-gas-industry-are-plaguing-oklahoma-heres-a-way-to-reduce-them-91044">recent years in Oklahoma</a>, US, from the injection of wastewater from oil and gas production. Any large-scale process that causes changes in fluid pressure in the ground, even <a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1996/of96-011/induced.html">storing water in surface reservoirs</a>, has the potential to induce earthquakes.</p>
<p>The fate of these industries that extract energy from the ground are crucial in determining whether we meet our targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. If such a large earthquake is an inherent risk, we might have to rethink the use of geothermal energy and rely on traditional, higher-emission sources of energy for longer. Equally, the oil and gas industry may have to rethink its more unconventional techniques, depending on the local geological setting of certain extraction sites, which could speed up the decline of fossil fuels. Understanding the seismic activity that is related to them could help us determine whether such extraction can be done safely, and in turn, the popular and political support they could have.</p>
<p>In these ways, detailed analysis of tiny seismic vibrations around the world can provide crucial evidence for understanding how the world will change in the future. And that’s on top of the value of <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/348/6240/1224.full">studying man-made earthquakes in order to better understand</a> – and potentially mitigate – the risks of natural quakes.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/96378/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stephen Hicks receives funding from the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC).</span></em></p>Earthquakes can shape political decisions so understanding them is crucial.Stephen Hicks, Postdoctoral Research Fellow in Seismology, University of SouthamptonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/838482017-11-27T13:30:28Z2017-11-27T13:30:28ZWe could use old coal mines to decarbonise heat – here’s how<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/196152/original/file-20171123-18001-1drty2v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Rasta777/Shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Fossil fuels currently dominate the production of electricity and heat. Although renewable energy accounts for around <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/647386/Renewables.pdf">a quarter</a> of electricity produced in the UK, the production of central heating is dominated by natural gas, which supplies around <a href="http://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/PO%5D%E2%80%99/ST-PN-0513/POST-PN-0513.pdf">70% of UK heat demand</a> (the UK has been a net importer of gas since 2004). </p>
<p>There are fewer low carbon alternatives for heat production than there are for electricity. Solar hot water and biomass are the two main touted alternatives. Solar hot water is usually produced at a domestic level and requires access to a south facing roof. Biomass can be used as a heat source but may be constrained by availability and the transportation of fuel. And so it is unclear how future heat demands could be met from low carbon sources.</p>
<p>Geothermal heat is one solution that offers a low carbon, secure and continuous energy source. Classic geothermal regions such as Iceland and New Zealand capitalise on their volcanic landscapes by capturing the steam and hot fluids produced as a result of tectonic activity. Geothermal fluids in the UK are over 100°C and hot enough to drive turbines, produce electricity and also supply heat. Also, geothermal fluids may issue naturally at the surface as hot springs and geysers, avoiding the need to drill to access them.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/196158/original/file-20171123-17988-at51nn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/196158/original/file-20171123-17988-at51nn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/196158/original/file-20171123-17988-at51nn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/196158/original/file-20171123-17988-at51nn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/196158/original/file-20171123-17988-at51nn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/196158/original/file-20171123-17988-at51nn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/196158/original/file-20171123-17988-at51nn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Geothermal power generates 25% of Iceland’s total electricity production.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Burben/Shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Of course, the UK is not characterised by such tectonic activity. But we believe that abandoned deep mines contain good geothermal potential.</p>
<h2>Geothermal potential</h2>
<p>The deeper you drill into the Earth, the warmer it gets. Geologists call this the Earth’s “geothermal gradient”, driven by heat produced at the Earth’s core that radiates towards the crust. In non-tectonic areas, temperatures increase on average by around <a href="http://grsj.gr.jp/iga/iga-files/Fridleifsson_et_al_IPCC_Geothermal_paper_2008.pdf">25°C per kilometre</a>. This means we can predict what temperature may be encountered at any specific depth. </p>
<p>But extracting geothermal energy from these warm depths is only possible if water is present and is able to flow from the rock. Heat and water flow are essential for extracting geothermal energy. </p>
<p>Abandoned coal mines, therefore, seem incredibly promising due to their networks of flooded galleries and shafts lying at depths of up to several hundred metres below the surface. One can be almost certain that the water flow necessary for deep geothermal wells will be found in these flooded underground voids. The risk of not finding flowing water underground can inhibit deep geothermal developments elsewhere.</p>
<p>Vast volumes (over <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/statistical-data-sets/historical-coal-data-coal-production-availability-and-consumption-1853-to-2011">15 billion tonnes</a>) of coal have been extracted from deep mines in the UK over the last century. To put this into context, if this extracted coal were spread over the UK land surface, this would result in a five cm deep layer of coal across the country. Today, UK coal production from deep mining has declined to almost zero and the nation recently celebrated its first <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/apr/21/britain-set-for-first-coal-free-day-since-the-industrial-revolution">coal free day</a> of power generation, in April 2017. </p>
<h2>Eco-friendly coal mines</h2>
<p>Think about this. The volume of coal extracted compares to an equivalent void volume underground. On this basis (once allowing for subsidence), we estimate that the abandoned mines of the UK contain around two billion cubic metres of water at temperatures which are constantly around 12-16°C, and in some instances higher still. If heat corresponding to a 4°C temperature drop was removed from this volume, around 38,500TJ of heat could be liberated. This conservative estimate could provide enough heat for around 650,000 homes nationally.</p>
<p>Clearly, you wouldn’t want to take a bath or heat your home with water at these low temperatures, but using a heat pump, the water temperature could be upgraded to more useful temperatures of 40-50°C. </p>
<p>A heat pump takes energy from a source such as water within an abandoned mine and “lifts” it to a more useful temperature. You can think of it working like a fridge: if you put food at room temperature in a fridge, after a while it will be cooled to the temperature of the fridge. The heat removed from the food is lost from the back of the fridge, which is why this area feels warm. The radiators in a home are effectively the same as the back of the fridge. A heat pump uses electricity to boost the temperature but for every kW of electrical power used, the heat pump will produce three to four kW of heat. This is why heat pumps are a low carbon alternative to gas boilers.</p>
<h2>Next steps</h2>
<p>So we know that the UK has sufficient potential for geothermal heat production in its extensive mines. The next consideration, then, is proximity to the heat demand. Given the low temperatures involved, the heat source needs to be close to the end user to minimise losses. Many UK towns and cities grew due to their coal reserves, meaning that centres of heat demand and areas of abandoned mines often coincide, making them ideal targets. The UK government’s <a href="https://www.theccc.org.uk/publication/the-fifth-carbon-budget-the-next-step-towards-a-low-carbon-economy/">fifth carbon budget</a> sets out plans to decarbonise heat by stating that one in 20 homes should be connected to a heat network by 2030. This is an ambitious challenge but abandoned mines could make a significant contribution here.</p>
<p>Minewater district heating schemes have already been successfully developed at several locations. <a href="http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/sites/oee.nrcan.gc.ca/files/pdf/publications/infosource/pub/ici/caddet/english/pdf/R122.pdf">One early example</a> was developed at the Ropak packaging plant in Springhill, Nova Scotia, in 1998. A minewater and heat pump system that uses minewater at 18°C provides heating and cooling for the 13,500-square-metre site leading to huge savings in avoided fuel-oil costs. And at Heerlen in the Netherlands, <a href="http://www.mijnwater.com/?lang=en">a larger scheme</a> has been operating since 2008, supplying heat to 500,000 square metres of commercial and residential buildings. Areas planned for new development in former mining areas make ideal targets as they provide an opportunity to incorporate the necessary above ground infrastructure.</p>
<p>But if coal mines are to decarbonise heat, we need to deploy these systems in more places. Is this possible? We think so. The fact that many coalfields are overlain by urban centres means that there is certainly good potential for many former mining areas. Although abandoned mines provide a lower temperature resource than deeper geothermal sources, they are systems known to flow copious quantities of relatively warm water and provide a readymade subsurface store of heat. </p>
<p>There is a delightful irony that the legacy of the dirtiest of fuels, coal, now has the potential to deliver a low carbon energy future.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/83848/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The legacy of the dirtiest of fuels – coal – has the potential to deliver a low carbon energy future.Charlotte Adams, Assistant Professor, Durham UniversityJon Gluyas, Durham UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/854362017-11-07T15:34:40Z2017-11-07T15:34:40ZFive things the new government should do to help Kenya meet its energy needs<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/193388/original/file-20171106-1032-1t5zux8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Kenya needs to expand its energy transmission network which is plagued by flaws dating back decades.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Reuters/Thomas Mukoya</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Without energy there would be no electricity to support the economic, social or political growth of any country. But to make it a real enabler of growth, there needs to be enough of it and it must be clean, affordable and reliable. </p>
<p>Kenya faces challenges around availability, affordability and reliability. Kenya ranks quite well on some scores compared to other countries on the continent, but quite badly on others. On the bright side Kenya’s electricity generation is clean compared to a country like South Africa which relies heavily on coal. Kenya’s power mix is <a href="https://makewealthhistory.org/2012/07/09/countries-with-100-renewable-energy/">85% plus renewable</a> based as it relies mostly on hydro and geothermal.</p>
<p>But in terms of <a href="https://www.clingendael.org/publication/power-generation-alone-not-enough-kenya">supply</a> it doesn’t rank that well. If we divide the total installed capacity by the number of inhabitants, every Kenyan would have a meagre 50 Watts if we divided the total installed capacity between the country’s inhabitants. For their part, South African citizens would have 30 times more, or 1,500 Watts. </p>
<p>The inadequate supply of electricity for industrial and domestic needs is due to several challenges. These include the high cost of building new energy infrastructure as well as the inability to get electricity from the points of generation to rural areas which is where <a href="https://tradingeconomics.com/kenya/rural-population-percent-of-total-population-wb-data.html">about</a> 74% of Kenyans live.</p>
<p>On top of these challenges, Kenya has made a commitment to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 30% in <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/jul/24/kenya-pledges-to-cut-carbon-emissions-30-by-2030">the next 13 years</a>. There are five action points that the next government should focus on.</p>
<h2>Support renewable energy</h2>
<p>The government needs to support the expansion of solar, wind and geothermal power generation. The current situation is that wind and solar together account for <a href="https://energypedia.info/wiki/Kenya_Energy_Situation">less than 1% </a> of Kenya’s energy supply. By comparison Morocco has a combined installed capacity in wind and solar <a href="https://books.google.co.za/books?id=fs0Fog7XneUC&pg=PA146&lpg=PA146&dq=Morocco+%2B+wind+and+solar+accounts+for+25%25+of+supply&source=bl&ots=UKSPdzLgoD&sig=VTHJcKnaE5eICo3AzC-2ilNFWWY&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwix69vbhqzXAhUH2xoKHeEIB4QQ6AEIVjAI#v=onepage&q=Morocco%20%2B%20wind%20and%20solar%20accounts%20for%2025%25%20of%20supply&f=false">of about 25%</a>.</p>
<p>To achieve this, the government should be more dynamic in supporting investments in the renewable energy sector by aligning them with support from the international community. One possibility is for the Ministry of Energy to run auctions where private sector companies bid to invest in infrastructure. </p>
<p>The government should also ensure that incentives such as tax exemption, speedy approval processes and suitable regulations are available to interested parties and provide a framework for private sector investment.</p>
<h2>Promote solar energy</h2>
<p>South Africa <a href="http://www.irena.org/publications/2017/Oct/Electricity-storage-and-renewables-costs-and-markets">now accounts</a> for 65% (1 361 MW) of the continent’s cumulative installed solar PV capacity, Algeria for 13% (274 MW), Réunion for 9% (180 MW) and Egypt for 1% (25 MW). Uganda, Namibia and Kenya also account for around 1% each, with between 20 MW and 24 MW each. </p>
<p>One significant advance would be to make solar power affordable and available, particularly in rural areas where far fewer people are connected to the national grid. The main reason for this is cost given that grid extensions are incredibly expensive. Mini-grids make much more sense. </p>
<p>Solar could penetrate many more rural areas if government welcomed the support of international agencies willing to avail funds for investment capital at attractive interest rates.</p>
<p>Kenya has taken a few progressive steps. In 2012 it emulated Japan by putting in place a <a href="https://www.iea.org/policiesandmeasures/pams/japan/name-30660-en.php">feed-in tariff</a> under which electricity companies are obliged to purchase electricity generated from solar energy at a fixed price for 10 or 20 years. The effect of this regulation in Japan was that solar power became a national priority and went from <a href="https://japantoday.com/category/features/lifestyle/Japan-sees-potential-in-solar-power">meeting</a> 0.4% of Japan’s electricity demands in 2012 to <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/williampentland/2017/01/23/japans-solar-boom-is-accelerating/">approximately</a> 5% in 2016. </p>
<p>The feed in tariff in Kenya didn’t have the same success as fewer people had the initial capital to install the panels to produce their own electricity.</p>
<h2>Invest in energy transmission</h2>
<p>Kenya needs to exponentially expand its energy transmission network which is plagued by flaws dating back decades. For example, power generated from the <a href="http://projects.worldbank.org/P001275/olkaria-geothermal-power-project?lang=en">Olkaria</a> geothermal power station, can’t be used by the households and businesses who need it in Kisumu – about 250 km away. As a result, Kenya has to make do with expensive diesel generators or, as it has done, import power from Uganda. This import <a href="http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/business/Kenya-power-imports-from-Uganda-now-rise-32-per-cent-/2560-3371112-12t3q0e/index.html">grew by</a> 32% in 2016 – from 31 million kilowatt hours in 2015 to 40.7 million kilowatt hours. </p>
<p>The next government needs to seriously invest in expanding and modernising the transmission network to reach more parts of the country and minimise losses. </p>
<h2>Stay away from nuclear and coal</h2>
<p>For a sunny and <a href="http://www.nation.co.ke/business/Kenya-s-geothermal-capacity-fourth-largest-in-the-world--Report/996-3236228-12j8fq/index.html">geothermally-endowed</a> nation like Kenya, nuclear and coal power are a bad option. Yet Kenya has plans to generate 1,000 MW to 4,000 MW from <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-11-30/kenya-plans-first-nuclear-power-plant-by-2027-at-5-billion-cost">nuclear power plants</a> in the near future. </p>
<p>There <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/add_edexcel/radioactive_materials/radioactiveproblemsrev3.shtml">are many</a> problems with any nuclear plans, most crucially the issue of nuclear waste. In addition, there’s no economic justification for nuclear power as one KWh generated by this kind of plant is <a href="http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/ugc/articles/2015/04/renewables-vs-nuclear-do-we-need-more-nuclear-power.html">always more</a> expensive than the renewable options. </p>
<p>In terms of coal power, Kenya has plans to launch the <a href="https://www.the-star.co.ke/news/2017/10/04/nssf-eyes-amu-coal-power-project-to-grow-revenue-base_c1646312">huge</a> Amu coal power plant expected to produce 5,000MW of power within a period of three years. With the country’s other options, it doesn’t make <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-the-lamu-coal-plant-doesnt-make-sense-kenya-has-better-energy-options-78479">economic</a> or <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-environmental-impact-of-a-coal-plant-on-kenyas-coast-is-being-underplayed-84207">environmental</a> sense to pursue coal-burning power stations. </p>
<h2>Technology and innovations</h2>
<p>The government should also expand and adopt the latest technology and innovations in the energy sector.</p>
<p>For instance, instead of committing resources to nuclear and fossil fuel studies, it should empower engineers to explore new technologies such as <a href="http://www.essentialenergy.com.au/asset/cms/pdf/energyanswers/TOUM.pdf">time-of-use</a> metering (charging higher rates during peak periods and cheaper rates during off peak periods), mini-grids, smart-grids and off-grid technologies. They should also look at applying the <a href="https://dupress.deloitte.com/dup-us-en/focus/internet-of-things/iot-in-electric-power-industry.html">Internet of Things</a> in electrification – this is when devices can communicate information about their status to other systems, creating the opportunity to evaluate and act on this new information.</p>
<p>The government doesn’t need to start from scratch. Italy’s national utility, ENEL, for example is supporting <a href="https://www.enel.com/en/stories/a201705-horizon-africa.html">a project</a> called
Renewable Energy Solutions for Africa. In partnership with the Kenya Power Institute and Strathmore University, the project trains young engineers, economists, lawyers and environmentalists to support Kenyans in the pursuit of 100% access to reliable and affordable energy in the near future. </p>
<p>There is no doubt that access, by households and businesses, to sufficient and reliable energy is the bedrock of any modern economy. To get there the next Kenyan government must pursue solar energy, courageously cut ties with old technology and think innovatively.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/85436/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Izael Pereira Da Silva received funding from USAID, GIZ and Africa-EU energy partnership. He is affiliated with the association of energy professionals eastern Africa.</span></em></p>Kenya’s inadequate electricity supply is due to an over-reliance on hydropower, high energy and infrastructure costs.Izael Pereira Da Silva, DVC Research and Innovation, Strathmore UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/857592017-11-05T08:57:58Z2017-11-05T08:57:58ZCape Verde’s goal is 100% renewable energy by 2025. Why it may just do it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/190625/original/file-20171017-30441-9ow7so.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Cape Verde's renewable energy resources account for about 25% of total energy production</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Cape Verde, the small island archipelago nation off Africa’s northwest coast, has set itself a very <a href="http://www4.unfccc.int/Submissions/INDC/Published%20Documents/Cabo%20Verde/1/Cabo_Verde_INDC_.pdf">bold</a> renewable energy target. As part of <a href="https://www.se4all-africa.org/se4all-in-africa/country-data/cabo-verde/">its</a> “sustainable energy for all” agenda, it has pledged to obtain 100% of its electricity from renewable resources by 2025. </p>
<p>Cape Verde is made up of 10 islands, nine of which are inhabited, that lie about 600km west of Senegal. <a href="https://www.german-energy-solutions.de/GES/Redaktion/DE/Publikationen/Praesentationen/2015/2015-07-21-iv-kap-verde-03-mtide.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=7">Almost all</a> of the islands’ 550,000 residents have access to electricity, but about one-third still rely on firewood and charcoal for cooking. Cape Verde’s per capita electricity consumption of 727 kWh per person per year is substantially higher than the sub-Saharan Africa average of <a href="https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.USE.ELEC.KH.PC?locations=ZF">488 kWh per person per year</a>. But electricity prices are high. They range from <a href="http://cabeolica.com/site1/docs/Annual%20Report%202015%20-%20website.pdf">US$0.26 - 0.32</a> in recent years compared, for example, to an average of <a href="https://www.eia.gov/electricity/monthly/epm_table_grapher.php?t=epmt_5_6_a">US$0.13</a> for residential homes in the US.</p>
<p>Although most of its electricity is produced by generators, which run on imported petroleum products, Cape Verde has started to diversify its energy portfolio. A quarter is now provided by <a href="https://www.german-energy-solutions.de/GES/Redaktion/DE/Audioslidehows/2015/Kap-Verden/Vortrag3/praesentation.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=2">renewable sources</a>. This is good news because there are <a href="http://gestoenergy.com/en/project/50-renewable-cape-verde-renewable-action-plan/">estimates</a> that, between 2015 and 2020, Cape Verde will almost double its annual electricity consumption to 670 GWh, up from 360 GWh. </p>
<p>With cutting-edge technologies and innovative business practices, Cape Verde can achieve its 100% renewable energy goal in a way that is cost-effective and equitable. <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360544215001656">One research team</a> suggested that a system based on solar, wind and energy storage (as batteries and pumped hydropower) could meet Cape Verde’s goals. It certainly has a wide range of options for increasing its share of renewable energy to achieve this.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.clickenergy.com.au/news-blog/12-countries-leading-the-way-in-renewable-energy/">Some countries</a> obtain almost all of their electricity from renewable sources, but these have substantial hydroelectric resources. Cape Verde, lacking large hydropower resources, would be unique in achieving 100% renewable energy with a diverse resource mix.</p>
<h2>Resource variety</h2>
<p>Like its mainland African neighbours, Cape Verde has a variety of resources and technologies to choose from. It has wind resources like Morocco, the solar potential of the Sahel, geothermal resources like Kenya, and marine energy comparable to many coastal countries.</p>
<p>Cape Verde’s northeasterly trade winds are considered excellent for wind power production. A wind farm typically requires wind speeds of at least <a href="https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy12osti/52409-2.pdf">6.4 m/s</a> at 50m above ground. Cape Verde’s average annual wind speeds <a href="http://www.cabeolica.com/site1/about-us/annual-reports/">exceed 9.0 m/s</a> at the wind farm. Already three of the islands, including the two most populated, <a href="http://gestoenergy.com/en/project/50-renewable-cape-verde-renewable-action-plan/">produce about 25%</a> of their electricity from wind turbines. But without energy storage there is little opportunity to expand wind energy on these islands. </p>
<p>Another technology that could be integrated into the electricity generation offering is the country’s desalination systems. Many of Cape Verde’s communities depend partially, or entirely, on <a href="http://www.dw.com/en/cape-verde-desalination-against-aridity/av-39350560">these</a> for drinking water. Desalination systems require electricity and can be run at times when the wind turbines are operating, but electricity demand is low – such as at night. </p>
<p>Additionally, the desalinated freshwater can be pumped into a high-elevation reservoir and used for energy. When demand peaks the water flows back down, spinning hydro turbines and generating electricity in the process. Integrating desalination and energy systems like this could be highly beneficial. For example, on the island of São Vicente it could enable wind turbines to meet <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360544215001656">up to 84%</a> of the island’s electricity demand. </p>
<p>Like many African countries, Cape Verde’s tropical location has good potential for solar photovoltaic (PV) electricity. <a href="http://gestoenergy.com/en/project/50-renewable-cape-verde-renewable-action-plan/">One study</a> suggests that the solar PV capacity potential is more than double the currently installed electrical generating capacity. Most of the potential development is on the densely populated island of Santiago. The challenge, as with wind, is integrating irregular flows into the grid.</p>
<p>Cape Verde could also take advantage of an emerging technology called ocean thermal energy conversion. This uses the difference between warm surface water and cold, deep ocean water to produce electricity. <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/hawaii-first-to-harness-deep-ocean-temperatures-for-power/">It works best</a> in equatorial latitudes where there is a large difference in temperature between surface water and deep water. <a href="https://www.ocean-energy-systems.org/ocean-energy-in-the-world/gis-map/">Assessments</a> show that the ocean waters around the southernmost tip of Santiago might be suitable for it. </p>
<p>In addition, as a volcanic archipelago Cape Verde has potential for <a href="http://gestoenergy.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/PowerGen-Africa2012-Geothermal-resource-assessment-in-volcanic-islands-Fogo.pdf">geothermal energy</a> – which uses heat from the earth. Both geothermal and ocean thermal energy conversion electricity generation have the advantage of running all the time. This provides baseload power, meeting the minimum level of power demand all day. </p>
<h2>Energy technologies</h2>
<p>When it comes to distributing and paying for energy, systems also need a re-think.</p>
<p>Although the centralised grid model of electricity has been effective, technological advancements are making community-based “micro-grids” increasingly attractive. At least three communities in Cape Verde are already using <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306261913010428">a solar and wind-based micro-grid</a>.</p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.energy.gov/articles/how-microgrids-work">microgrid</a> is a local electricity grid. It includes electricity generation, distribution to customers, and, in some cases, energy storage. It’s beneficial because solar- or wind-based microgrids are cleaner than diesel-based systems and have lower life cycle costs. Microgrids are also often connected to the main electricity grid but can disconnect and operate independently, for example, when a storm damages the main grid. </p>
<p>“Pay-as-you-go” energy systems have also revolutionised the delivery of electricity services in Africa. They integrate energy technologies, mobile communications and mobile banking. This allows households to purchase “solar home systems” and pay the cost over time. Kenya and Tanzania have emerged as leaders in this sector and are home to companies such as <a href="http://www.m-kopa.com/">M-KOPA</a>, <a href="http://www.plugintheworld.com/mobisol/">Mobisol</a>, and <a href="http://offgrid-electric.com/">Off-Grid Electric</a>. Pay-as-you-go systems could enable Cape Verde to reach its renewable energy goals without the large capital investments of centralised systems.</p>
<p>Cape Verde has already had tremendous success in integrating wind and solar into its energy system. By adopting cutting-edge technologies and innovative business practices, Cape Verde can achieve its 100% renewable energy goal in a way that is cost-effective and equitable.</p>
<p><em>The following research assistants contributed to this project: Abigail Barrenger, Jessica Crawford, Jacob McLaughlin, and Chad Wilcox. Dr Anildo Costa provided technical assistance and insights into Cape Verde’s energy system.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/85759/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Erik Nordman has received funding from the US State Department, US Department of Energy, US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Michigan Sea Grant, and the Pan American Development Foundation for energy-related research projects. He has memberships in professional societies including the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Society of American Foresters, and American Wind Energy Association.</span></em></p>With cutting-edge technologies and innovative business practices, Cape Verde can achieve its goal in a way that is cost-effective and equitableErik Nordman, Associate Professor, Grand Valley State University Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/677252016-10-27T14:06:20Z2016-10-27T14:06:20ZMagma power: how superheated molten rock could provide renewable energy<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/143298/original/image-20161026-11265-1b7ixuo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Magma is molten rock below the Earth's surface. Once erupted, it becomes lava (pictured).</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Benjamin van der Spek / shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Iceland is about to tap into water as hot as lava. Several kilometres below ground, a drilling rig named Thor will <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/2109872-iceland-drills-hottest-hole-to-tap-into-energy-of-molten-magma/">soon penetrate</a> the area around a magma chamber, where molten rock from the inner Earth heats up water that has seeped through the seafloor. This water – up to 1,000°C and saturated with corrosive chemicals – will eventually be piped up to the surface and its heat turned into usable energy.</p>
<p>It is a huge engineering challenge, and one which may usher in a new age of geothermal power production. Existing geothermal projects around the world need waters heated to less than 300°C, so why go to this extra effort and expense?</p>
<p>The answer is simple: water at the most extreme temperatures exists in a state described as “<a href="http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/supercritical/scintro.html">supercritical</a>”, where it behaves as neither a true liquid, nor a true gas, and is capable of retaining a phenomenal amount of energy. Supercritical water can generate up to <a href="http://sciencenordic.com/drilling-worlds-hottest-geothermal-well">ten times more power</a> than conventional geothermal sources.</p>
<p>Iceland is a nation built on about 130 volcanoes resting above a <a href="http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/facts/plate-boundaries.html">divergent plate boundary</a> which brings a continuous supply of hot, fresh magma up from the mantle just a few kilometres below. Icelanders have capitalised on this, and now generate more than a quarter of their electricity through <a href="http://www.nea.is/media/myndir/popup/Iceland_Leader_RenewableEnergy_Mynd.png">geothermal</a>, accessing boiling temperature water within 2km of the surface.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/143297/original/image-20161026-11278-z24o5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/143297/original/image-20161026-11278-z24o5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/143297/original/image-20161026-11278-z24o5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143297/original/image-20161026-11278-z24o5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143297/original/image-20161026-11278-z24o5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143297/original/image-20161026-11278-z24o5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143297/original/image-20161026-11278-z24o5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143297/original/image-20161026-11278-z24o5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Iceland is happy to exploit its unusual geology.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jose Arcos Aguilar / shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The <a href="http://iddp.is/">Iceland Deep Drilling Project</a> (IDDP) was set up to find out what happens at depths below 4km in the Icelandic crust. In 2009, during their first drilling leg, they accidentally <a href="https://theconversation.com/drilling-surprise-opens-door-to-volcano-powered-electricity-22515">hit a magma pocket</a>, and eventually stabilised the system to create the <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3d8hC71xGpc">hottest steam</a> ever produced in geothermal exploration: 450°C. </p>
<p>The second borehole now being drilled aims to tap the deep circulating water which penetrates the rock around a magma chamber below the Reykjanes peninsula near Reykjavik.</p>
<h2>Follow the volcanoes</h2>
<p>The embarrassment of geothermal riches on offer in Iceland is unusual, but by no means unique. Indeed, while the country has one of the highest geothermal electricity productions in terms of total energy share, it is neither the highest, nor is it in the top five countries for total geothermal capacity. In fact, the countries in the top five may come as a surprise.</p>
<p>The absolute biggest geothermal electricity producer in the world is the US, <a href="https://pangea.stanford.edu/ERE/db/WGC/papers/WGC/2015/01001.pdf">with around 3,450 MW of capacity in 2015</a>, largely centred in California (a typical nuclear power station produces around 1,000 MW). Next up are the Philippines and Indonesia, at 1,870 and 1,340 MW respectively. Mexico and New Zealand trail at a little over 1,000 MW each, and Iceland (665 MW) comes in seventh behind Italy (916 MW). </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/143300/original/image-20161026-11265-10libvz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/143300/original/image-20161026-11265-10libvz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/143300/original/image-20161026-11265-10libvz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=302&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143300/original/image-20161026-11265-10libvz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=302&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143300/original/image-20161026-11265-10libvz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=302&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143300/original/image-20161026-11265-10libvz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143300/original/image-20161026-11265-10libvz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143300/original/image-20161026-11265-10libvz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Geothermal energy will usually be found near active volcanoes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Spreading_ridges_volcanoes_map-en.svg">Eric Gaba</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Volcanoes are the common factor in the geothermal resources of all these countries. The US has also utilised the enormous San Andreas fault zone and its ability to conduct heat and fluids through the crust.</p>
<h2>In search of the perfect geothermal site</h2>
<p>For geothermal energy to succeed there must be heat, it must be accessible, and you must be able to move water around it. These three simple requirements can be difficult to find together. </p>
<p>Across most of the planet the hot material is simply too deep down to be economically within reach. The temperature of the Earth’s crust generally increases by <a href="http://www.geologyin.com/2014/12/geothermal-gradient.html">25°C for every 1km depth</a>; for geothermal to be economical that value must be nearer 50 or even 150°C/km. That means you need to be near something geologically unusual: either thinned crust (so you’re closer to the hot mantle), or features such as plate boundaries or volcanoes which can direct heat or magma toward the surface.</p>
<p>If that condition is met you must still be able to move water around. Rocks are not all alike, as some can allow water to easily flow through the pores and boundaries between grains, while others are more like a barrier. If water cannot flow to the borehole then it cannot be brought to the surface. </p>
<p>If the hot area doesn’t have any natural water then engineers can pump some down. However, if the rocks prevent it flowing and dispersing then the water will simply cool the area immediately around the borehole, making it pointless in geothermal terms.</p>
<p>As with gold, rare-earth elements or good farmland, the geology of an area controls access to this valuable resource. Anywhere with active volcanoes could potentially benefit from the high temperature geothermal exploration being pioneered by the IDDP. That includes every country around the Pacific <a href="http://nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/ring-fire/">Ring of Fire</a> – an opportunity perhaps to extract some benefit from the volcanoes which dot their landscapes.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/67725/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Pete Rowley does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>In Iceland, an audacious project to tap into magma deep below the surface may usher in a new era of geothermal power.Pete Rowley, Senior Scientific Officer, Earth Science, University of PortsmouthLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/606882016-06-09T21:07:35Z2016-06-09T21:07:35ZPutting CO2 away for good by turning it into stone<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/125936/original/image-20160609-7064-1deaxsl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The test site in Iceland where gases from a geothermal power plant are pumped underground and converted into minerals by reacting with basalt stone.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Juerg Matter </span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>We seriously need to do something about CO2 emissions. Besides shifting to renewable energy sources and increasing energy efficiency, we need to start putting some of the CO2 away before it reaches the atmosphere. Perhaps the impacts of human-induced climate change will be so severe that we might even have to capture CO2 from the air and convert it into useful products such as plastic materials or put it someplace safe.</p>
<p>A group of scientists from several European countries and the United States including myself met in the middle, in Iceland, to figure out how CO2 could be put away safely – in the ground. In a recently <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/352/6291/1312">published study</a>, we demonstrated that two years after injecting CO2 underground at our pilot test site in Iceland, almost all of it has been converted into minerals.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/125942/original/image-20160609-7059-2lajpc.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/125942/original/image-20160609-7059-2lajpc.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/125942/original/image-20160609-7059-2lajpc.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/125942/original/image-20160609-7059-2lajpc.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/125942/original/image-20160609-7059-2lajpc.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/125942/original/image-20160609-7059-2lajpc.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/125942/original/image-20160609-7059-2lajpc.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/125942/original/image-20160609-7059-2lajpc.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The injection well that pumped waste CO2 and hydrogen sulfide gas from a geothermal well underground.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Martin Stute</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Mineralization</h2>
<p>Iceland is a very green country; almost all of its electricity comes from renewable sources including <a href="https://www.nrel.gov/workingwithus/re-geothermal.html">geothermal energy</a>. Hot water from rocks beneath the surface is converted into steam which drives a turbine to <a href="https://www.extremeiceland.is/en/information/about-iceland/hellisheidi-geothermal-power-station">generate electricity</a>. However, geothermal power plants there do emit CO2 (much less than a comparable coal-fired power plant) because the hot steam from deep wells that runs the turbines also contains CO2 and sometimes hydrogen sulfide (H2S). Those gases usually just get released into the air.</p>
<p>Is there another place we could put these gases? </p>
<p>Conventional <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/srccs/">carbon sequestration</a> deposits CO2 into deep saline aquifers or into depleted oil and natural gas reservoirs. CO2 is pumped under very high pressure into these formations and, since they held gases and fluids already over millions of year in place, the probability of CO2 leaking out is minuscule, as many <a href="http://www.netl.doe.gov/research/coal/carbon-storage/carbon-storage-faqs/how-do-we-know-that-co2-storage-is-safe">studies</a> have shown. </p>
<p>In a place like Iceland with its daily earthquakes cracking the volcanic rocks (basalts), this approach would not work. The CO2 could bubble up through cracks and leak back into the atmosphere. </p>
<p>However, basalt also has a great advantage: it reacts with CO2 and converts it into carbonate minerals. These carbonates form naturally and can be found as white spots in the basalt. The reactions also have been demonstrated in laboratory experiments.</p>
<h2>Dissolving CO2 in water</h2>
<p>For the first test, we used pure CO2 and pumped it through a pipe into an existing well that tapped an aquifer containing fresh water at about 1,700 feet of depth. Six months later we injected a mixture of CO2 and hydrogen sulfide piped in from the turbines of the power plant. Through a separate pipe we also pumped water into the well. </p>
<p>In the well, we released the CO2 through a sparger – a device for introducing gases into liquids similar to a bubble stone in an aquarium – into water. The CO2 dissolved completely within a couple of minutes in the water because of the high pressure at depth. That mixture then entered the aquifer. </p>
<p>We also added tiny quantities of tracers (gases and dissolved substances) that allow us to differentiate the injected water and CO2 from what’s already in the aquifer. The CO2 dissolved in water was then carried away by the slowly flowing groundwater. </p>
<p>Downstream, we had installed monitoring wells that allowed us to collect samples to figure out what happened to the CO2. Initially, we saw some of the CO2 and tracers coming through. After a few months, though, the tracers kept arriving but very little of the injected CO2 showed up. </p>
<p>Where was it going? Our pump in the monitoring well stopped working periodically, and when we brought it to the surface, we noticed that it was covered by white crystals. We analyzed the crystals and found they contained some of the tracers we had added and, best of all, they turned out to be mostly carbonate minerals! We had turned CO2 into rocks. </p>
<p>The CO2 dissolved in water had reacted with the basalt in the aquifer and more than 95 percent of the CO2 precipitated out as solid carbonate minerals – and it all happened much faster than anticipated, in less than two years. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/125933/original/image-20160609-7096-1dv3r7m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/125933/original/image-20160609-7096-1dv3r7m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/125933/original/image-20160609-7096-1dv3r7m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/125933/original/image-20160609-7096-1dv3r7m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/125933/original/image-20160609-7096-1dv3r7m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/125933/original/image-20160609-7096-1dv3r7m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/125933/original/image-20160609-7096-1dv3r7m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/125933/original/image-20160609-7096-1dv3r7m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The fracture in this basalt rock shows the white calcium carbonate crystals that form from the injection of CO2 with water at the test site.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Annette K. Mortensen</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This is the safest way to put CO2 away. By dissolving it in water, we already prevent CO2 gas from bubbling up toward the surface through cracks in the rocks. Finally, we convert it into stone that cannot move or dissolve under natural conditions. </p>
<p>One downside of this approach is that water needs to be injected alongside the CO2. However, because of the very rapid removal of the CO2 from the water in mineral form, this water could be pumped back out of the ground downstream and reused at the injection site.</p>
<h2>Will it work elsewhere?</h2>
<p>Ours was a small-scale pilot study, and the question is whether these reactions would continue into the future or pores and cracks in the subsurface basalt stone would eventually clog up and no longer be able to convert CO2 to carbonate.</p>
<p>Our Iceland <a href="http://www.onpower.is/about-us#power-plants">geothermal power plant</a> has increased the amount of gas injected several times in the years since our experiment was started using a different nearby location. No clogging has been encountered yet, and the plan is to soon inject almost all waste gases into the basalt. This process will also prevent the toxic and corrosive gas hydrogen sulfide from going into the atmosphere, which currently still can be detected at low levels near the power plant because of its characteristic rotten egg smell.</p>
<p>The very reactive rocks found in Iceland are quite common on Earth; about 10 percent of the continents and almost all of the ocean floors are made of basalt. This technology, in other words, is not limited to emissions from geothermal power plants but could also be used for other CO2 sources, such as fossil fuel power plants.</p>
<p>The commercial viability of the process still needs to be established in different locations. Carbon mineralization adds costs to a power plant’s operation, so this, like any form of carbon sequestration, needs an economic incentive to make it feasible. </p>
<p>People like to live near coasts, and many power plants have been built near their customers. Perhaps this technology could be used to put away CO2 emissions in coastal areas in nearby offshore basalt formations. Of course, there would be no shortage of water to co-inject with the CO2. </p>
<p>If we are forced to lower atmospheric CO2 levels in the future because we underestimate the damaging effects of climate change, we could perhaps use wind or solar-powered devices on an ocean platform to capture CO2 from the air and then inject the CO2 into basalt formations underneath.</p>
<p>Carbon mineralization, as demonstrated in Iceland, could be part of the solution of our carbon problem.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/60688/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Martin Stute receives funding from the US Department of Energy and the US National Science Foundation.</span></em></p>Storing waste CO2 in rock? Results from a test site at a geothermal plant in Iceland show that CO2 mixed with water can be turned into minerals in locations with basalt volcanic rock.Martin Stute, Professor of Environmental Science, Columbia UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/415052015-05-08T04:31:35Z2015-05-08T04:31:35ZHow will the reduced Renewable Energy Target affect investment?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/80949/original/image-20150508-9093-1xvhnhf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=10%2C122%2C2258%2C1340&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Investment in technologies beyond the existing wind and solar could stagnate in the face of the government's reduced Renewable Energy Target.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3ACallicum_Hills_Wind_Farm.jpg">Rolandg/Wikimedia Commons</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>After <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-has-investment-in-renewable-energy-projects-stalled-34197">months of uncertainty</a> over the future level of Australia’s Renewable Energy Target (RET), the federal government and opposition have <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-05-08/government-opposition-reach-deal-on-renewable-energy-target/6455406">reached a compromise agreement</a> to scale back the target.</p>
<p>The deal will see the RET wound back to 33,000 gigawatt hours of renewable energy by 2020, down from its previous level of 41,000 GWh. The government had earlier sought a target of <a href="https://theconversation.com/planned-cut-to-renewable-energy-target-a-free-kick-for-fossil-fuels-33317">around 27,000 GWh</a>, but the new compromise was reached after the <a href="http://www.businessspectator.com.au/news/2015/4/8/policy-politics/labor-backs-33500gwh-compromise-target-ret">Labor opposition</a> and the <a href="http://reneweconomy.com.au/2015/cec-proposes-compromise-deal-and-massive-cut-to-ret-86215">renewables industry</a> each indicated they would be willing to agree on a level in the low-30,000s to end the stalemate.</p>
<p>An end to uncertainty, yes, but what will the new target mean for the future of Australia’s renewable energy industry? </p>
<h2>Fossil fuels still dominant</h2>
<p>The Energy Supply Association of Australia, in its <a href="http://www.esaa.com.au/policy/electricity_gas_australia_2014">Electricity Gas Australia 2014</a> report, indicates that 88% of power generation (192,205 GWh of the 218,000 GWh total) still comes from fossil fuels. Most of the rest comes from hydro power, most of which falls outside the RET scheme. Solar, wind and biofuels only account for about 8,000 GWh.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/80936/original/image-20150508-1212-so5146.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/80936/original/image-20150508-1212-so5146.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/80936/original/image-20150508-1212-so5146.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=456&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/80936/original/image-20150508-1212-so5146.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=456&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/80936/original/image-20150508-1212-so5146.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=456&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/80936/original/image-20150508-1212-so5146.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=573&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/80936/original/image-20150508-1212-so5146.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=573&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/80936/original/image-20150508-1212-so5146.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=573&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Australia’s energy-generation mix.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">ESAA (2014)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This means that to meet the newly mandated 33,000 GWh in 2020, the renewable energy sector will have to more than quadruple in size from its current level of output. Encouraging investment will be crucial.</p>
<p>The government’s rationale for the cut is that, given future projections, 41,000 GWh will end up being far more than the 20% of total energy output that the scheme was intended to deliver. But future energy projections are inherently uncertain, being dependent on economic growth and a host of other factors.</p>
<p>What we can say, based on the most recent (2012-13) annual power generation figure of 218,000 GWh, is that if this level of demand is the same in 2020, then 20% of that would be 43,600 GWh of renewables. This is more than the current 41,000 GWh provided in the legislation, so why reduce the target and widen the gap even more?</p>
<p>Cutting back the RET risks future investment, because many companies looking at investing in projects that would help deliver this 20% are now likely to think twice, given that the reduced target means there is now much less subsidy on offer. It’s just as likely that future economic growth through to 2020 would require more electricity, not less – unless the government is planning to leave the economy in neutral, which is hardly likely given what its <a href="http://ewp.industry.gov.au/">Energy White Paper</a> has to say about growing resource exports. </p>
<h2>The investment pipeline</h2>
<p>Besides the renewable energy facilities that are already up and running, there is currently a further 1,540 megawatts of committed renewable energy projects (1,287 MW of wind and the rest solar) in the pipeline, according to a <a href="http://www.industry.gov.au/industry/Office-of-the-Chief-Economist/Publications/Pages/Major-electricity-generation-projects.aspx">report from the Bureau of Resource and Energy Economics</a>. (The intermittency of many renewable energy sources makes it difficult to say exactly how many GWh of power this new capacity will deliver.)</p>
<p>While Australia has been a leader in innovative renewable energy research in fields such as geothermal and wave systems, there is currently nothing committed in these two areas.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/80937/original/image-20150508-1207-1d2zl2q.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/80937/original/image-20150508-1207-1d2zl2q.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/80937/original/image-20150508-1207-1d2zl2q.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=365&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/80937/original/image-20150508-1207-1d2zl2q.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=365&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/80937/original/image-20150508-1207-1d2zl2q.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=365&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/80937/original/image-20150508-1207-1d2zl2q.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=458&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/80937/original/image-20150508-1207-1d2zl2q.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=458&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/80937/original/image-20150508-1207-1d2zl2q.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=458&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hydro and wind are the most established renewable sources, but there is little more in the pipeline.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">BREE (2014)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>If we extend this to include renewable energy projects that are currently going through the feasibility stage, then the amount of renewable energy projects under consideration increases by an extra 14,048 MW of capacity. </p>
<p>But to put this into context, there is also an extra 13,094 MW of non-renewable generation – and given that the government’s <a href="http://ewp.industry.gov.au/">Energy White Paper</a> states that 75% of existing coal-fired power plants have already passed their expected useful life (and promises a “technology-neutral” approach to future generation capacity), one would expect to see even more coal and gas plants being developed before renewable projects, to ensure that baseload power needs are met.</p>
<p>As the Energy White Paper shows, the government is intent on ensuring that no favours are handed to the renewable energy sector. Instead, its focus is on how to progress exploration in the coal and gas sectors and increase revenues from exports, rather than delivering future energy security by diversifying into renewable energy.</p>
<h2>The problem with investing in renewables</h2>
<p>One of the constant problems with renewable energy projects is the up-front cost of development. </p>
<p>For the projects noted above that are at the feasibility stage, the total cost of the renewable projects is A$21.8 billion, compared with only A$9.1 billion for the fossil fuel projects with almost the same power-generating capacity.</p>
<p>But this comparison fails to take into account the cost of fuel over the life of the fossil fuel projects. While renewable projects may have higher up-front costs, they also deliver considerable long-term benefits. Initiatives such as the <a href="http://www.cleanenergyfinancecorp.com.au/">Clean Energy Finance Corporation (CEFC)</a> recognise this, but as stated in the Energy White Paper, the government is keen to push ahead with plans to abolish it. </p>
<p>This, along with the planned abolition of the <a href="http://arena.gov.au/">Australian Renewable Energy Agency (ARENA)</a>, will prolong the uncertainty for the renewables industry, even after the end of the guessing-game over the level of the RET.</p>
<p>This means we are likely to see further stagnation in investment in renewable energy projects. Many of the recently completed generation projects were approved several years ago, and while newer projects can still be expected to enter the planning phase, many will not move out of the feasibility stage.</p>
<p>While the RET will be retained in its reduced form, without the support of the CEFC and ARENA the ability to help industry to move projects from concept to deployment will be significantly diminished.</p>
<p>This means that renewable energy in Australia will be based solely on using mature and proven technologies (such as solar and wind), at the expense of less established prospects such as geothermal or wave energy. The innovation that Australia has been known for internationally within this sector would become a distant memory.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/41505/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Craig Froome does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>After months of deadlock, a deal has finally been reached to reduce the Renewable Energy Target, ending the uncertainty for industry but also risking an already sparse pipeline of future projects.Craig Froome, Global Change Institute – Clean Energy Program Manager , The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/355332014-12-16T19:47:46Z2014-12-16T19:47:46ZChile’s mines set hot pace on renewables — Australia take note<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/67323/original/image-20141216-24313-d83bd7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Increasing Chinese investment in renewables is driving costs down. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/danishwindindustryassociation/4271373850/in/photolist-7vrUCJ-9bKNB1-9cMxS7-7vrUBo-cgtkPC-cYExL9-8PbiMC-9NDvLH-8Qeupr-9NJybd-9NApiT-9NBBMn-94EcJg-9M2DZZ-9NAsCc-9NGKrb-9NEtYQ-dQA2ZE-7vrTZY-dQA31S-dQurCD-dsTLfT-dFx3CB-71PnxX-9NFVNX-6fSNKq-8Prtry-7vrUcC-7vrUq7-7vrTRJ-7wJa5b-6fNCyF-9NKJWL-6fSXcE-9NGabs-9NJAiA-5vDSaf-8PNfQW-6fNCrV-8MBDdG-7SJGNy-9NDZCz-9NC9uz-9NGYu8-6fSSyE-6fNDGX-6fSNBA-9NGokq-9NJKMw-9NGBho">The Danish Wind Industry Association / Vindmølleindustrien/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Mining is the fourth-largest energy consumer in Australia, using <a href="http://www.bree.gov.au/files/files/publications/energy-in-aust/bree-energyinaustralia-2013.pdf">roughly 10%</a> of Australia’s total. Some of this comes from the electricity grid — but much is supplied offgrid in the form of diesel and other fossil fuels.</p>
<p>Could some of this be replaced by renewable sources? Recently I participated in the <a href="http://www.austrade.gov.au/EventViewBookingDetails.aspx?Bck=Y&EventID=3911&M=281#.VI9gOmSUfGI">Australia Chile: Asia Pacific Economic Forum</a> in Santiago, Chile. I was surprised to learn that Chile is now emerging as the southern hemisphere’s renewable energy giant, particularly in the mining sector. Falling costs, driven by increasing renewable investment in China, are driving the trend. </p>
<p>The Australian mining sector has been slow to take advantage. So, what could we learn from our Pacific neighbours? </p>
<h2>Chile: the renewable energy giant</h2>
<p>In the Pacific Century Chile and Australia are natural partners across the ocean. A <a href="http://www.dfat.gov.au/fta/aclfta/">free trade agreement</a> signed five years ago has strengthened trade and investment between the two countries. Both are major exporters of mineral commodities to China as well as India. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/67317/original/image-20141216-24309-ec9ocs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/67317/original/image-20141216-24309-ec9ocs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/67317/original/image-20141216-24309-ec9ocs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67317/original/image-20141216-24309-ec9ocs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67317/original/image-20141216-24309-ec9ocs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67317/original/image-20141216-24309-ec9ocs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67317/original/image-20141216-24309-ec9ocs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67317/original/image-20141216-24309-ec9ocs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Atacama is a great place to put solar panels.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/embajadaeeuu-chile/15557898285/in/set-72157648405420269">US Embassy Santiago, Chile/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>One important difference is in the field of energy. As the Chilean Energy Minister Maximo Pacheco pointed out at the economic forum, Australia exports 70% of its energy (oil, natural gas and coal), while Chile imports 70% of its energy needs. The country has abundant minerals (including the world’s largest copper producer, the <a href="http://www.bhpbilliton.com/home/businesses/copper/Pages/default.aspx">Escondida mine</a>, operated by BHP-Billiton) but not abundant oil or gas. </p>
<p>But now this could work to the advantage of the Chilean minerals producers, who are meeting the challenge of soaring energy costs by developing their own renewable power supplies. </p>
<p>Miners in Chile are building independent solar, solar thermal, wind and geothermal power plants that produce power at costs competitive with or lower than conventional fuel supplies or grid-connected electric power. </p>
<p>Consider these facts.</p>
<p>The Cerro Dominador concentrated solar power (CSP) plant (see <a href="https://theconversation.com/with-a-bit-of-concentration-solar-thermal-could-power-your-town-2005">here</a> for an explanation of the different solar technologies), rated at 110 megawatts, will supply regular uninterrupted power to the Antofagasta Minerals complex in the dry north of Chile, in the Atacama desert. Construction began in 2014. This is one of the largest CSP plants in the world, utilising an array of mirrors and lenses to concentrate the sun’s rays onto a power tower, and utilising thermal storage in the form of molten salts, perfected by Spanish company <a href="http://www.abengoasolar.com/web/en/innovacion/principales_proyectos_de_i_d_i/">Abengoa</a>. It will supply steady, dispatchable power, day and night.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/YOnlp9RD1nk?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The planned solar plant at Cerro Dominador in Chile.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The <a href="http://patternenergy.com/en/operations/projects/el_arrayan/">El Arrayán</a> wind power project, rated at 115 megawatts, now supplies power to the Los Pelambres mine of Antofagasta Minerals, using Pattern Energy (US) as technology partner. Antofagasta Minerals has also contracted with US solar company SunEdison to build solar panel arrays at the Los Pelambres mine, with a power plant rated at 70 megawatts; while the related plant operated by Amenecer Solar CAP is rated at 100 megawatts, the largest such array in Latin America when it came online in 2014. </p>
<p>There are many more such projects under review or in the pipeline. The Chilean Renewable Energy Center <a href="http://switchboard.nrdc.org/blogs/amaxwell/the_future_of_chiles_energy_se.html">reported in 2014</a> that the pipeline of renewable power projects in Chile added up to 18,000 megawatts (or 18 gigawatts), which is more than the country’s entire current electric power grid. </p>
<h2>Australia falling behind</h2>
<p>The one Australian company involved in this proliferation of renewables projects is Origin Energy, with its joint venture Energía Andina, in partnership with AMSA, to develop geothermal projects for the Chilean minerals sector. </p>
<p>Origin can offer technology based on its extensive geothermal operations in New Zealand; it reported plans to upscale these activities in Chile at the recent economic forum. </p>
<p>You can’t say the same about the wider minerals sector in Australia. Big miners like BHP-Billiton, or Rio Tinto continue to operate mines using expensive diesel supplies and in some cases grid-connected electric power — ignoring their capacity to generate their own energy in abundant and reliable manner by turning towards renewables. </p>
<p>Contractors such as Leighton Holdings and Ausenco have some modest renewables operations like stand-alone wind farms, not yet integrated into their primary service activities. By embracing renewables there would be the added bonus of exporting the technology involved, to free trade partners such as Chile.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/67318/original/image-20141216-24303-1onl9wr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/67318/original/image-20141216-24303-1onl9wr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/67318/original/image-20141216-24303-1onl9wr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67318/original/image-20141216-24303-1onl9wr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67318/original/image-20141216-24303-1onl9wr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67318/original/image-20141216-24303-1onl9wr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67318/original/image-20141216-24303-1onl9wr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/67318/original/image-20141216-24303-1onl9wr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A geothermal project on a volcano in Chile.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/geothermalresourcescouncil/7945749310">Geo Thermal/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>China leading the charge</h2>
<p>Why are the costs of generating renewable power in remote mining sites coming down, to becoming competitive with conventional fossil fuelled generation? The answer, in a word, is China. </p>
<p>Alongside its well-recognised “black” power system based on coal and gas (supplied to a large extent from Australia) China has been building by far the world’s largest renewable power sector, based on hydro, wind and solar. </p>
<p>In 2014 this complementary “green” system was rated at 378 gigawatts – by far the largest in the world – and it is set to grow to a staggering 1,000 gigawatts of zero-carbon power by 2030, under the terms of the recent <a href="http://www.rtcc.org/2014/07/01/chinese-coal-power-to-peak-in-2024-bloomberg/">US-China climate deal</a>. </p>
<p>As the scale of China’s renewable power expands, so the unit costs decline. This is the iron law of the learning curve. It is advantageous for China, of course, but it also means that the same lower costs can be enjoyed by other countries — in this case, Chilean power producers supplying renewable power to the minerals sector. The underlying technology is diffused around the world, and competition ensures that the lower costs are shared by all.</p>
<p>Chile has been astute in taking advantage of these cost trends to build its renewables sector. It is ensuring that costs come down through competition by staging a series of auctions for renewable power licenses — the latest just this past week, coinciding with the Chile-Australia Business Forum. No fewer than 17 projects were solicited, with costs coming down to US$80 per megawatt hour (a bid by Santiago Solar). In contrast new coal-fired power plants are <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cost_of_electricity_by_source">estimated</a> by the US Energy Information Administration to cost on average US$95.</p>
<p>So Chile might have fewer deposits of oil, coal and gas than Australia — but it is now “mining” its substantial supplies of renewable energy to produce cost-effective power for its minerals industry, in a way that would have been unthinkable just 10 years ago, before the arrival of China and its marked influence in driving down renewables costs.</p>
<p>Australian heavyweights such as BHP-Billiton are late to note and take advantage of these trends. Perhaps they are afraid of offending the Abbott government with its ideological opposition to renewables. </p>
<p>But economic rationality cannot be resisted forever; in the end the sheer cost competitiveness of renewables as sources of power both for grid applications and for remote mining operations can be expected to assert itself.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/35533/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>John Mathews does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Mining is the fourth-largest energy consumer in Australia, using roughly 10% of Australia’s total. Some of this comes from the electricity grid — but much is supplied offgrid in the form of diesel and…John Mathews, Professor of Strategic Management, Macquarie Graduate School of Management, Macquarie UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/351642014-12-09T19:33:23Z2014-12-09T19:33:23ZCoal seam gas is just the latest round in an underground war<p>In a recent article on The Conversation, Queensland coal seam gas (CSG) researchers <a href="https://theconversation.com/science-and-coal-seam-gas-a-case-of-the-tortoise-and-the-hare-35100">argued</a> that the industry is progressing faster than the science, leading to concerns over fugitive emissions and impacts on water. </p>
<p>The Southern Cross University team found unexpectedly high levels of methane in the air near CSG wells. They concluded that we do not yet know enough about the impact of CSG mining. Their findings were attacked by industry interests as well as some politicians. </p>
<p>But the search for CSG is just the latest round in an ongoing contest for the ground beneath our feet. The underground pore space where CSG is found — known to geologists as “sedimentary basins” — is one of our most important resources. </p>
<p>While you may not have given them much thought, these basins underlie half of Australia, provide 90% of our primary energy through fossil fuels, and sustain most of our agriculture and rural populations with water. </p>
<p>Governments around Australia are making decisions about underground resources. Victoria, for example, recently released its <a href="http://www.energyandresources.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/214543/Earth-Resources-Statement.pdf">Earth Resources Statement</a>, calling for extensive reforms to the state’s resources regulation. It remains to be seen how the change in government will affect this. </p>
<p>In New South Wales, the recently established <a href="http://www.resourcesandenergy.nsw.gov.au/landholders-and-community/coal-seam-gas/office-of-coal-seam-gas">Office of Coal Seam Gas</a> has been tasked with similar work. </p>
<p>These regulatory decisions will have impacts for generations. And the worrying thing is, we don’t yet know what all those impacts will be. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/66687/original/image-20141209-6723-16nf423.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/66687/original/image-20141209-6723-16nf423.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/66687/original/image-20141209-6723-16nf423.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=515&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/66687/original/image-20141209-6723-16nf423.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=515&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/66687/original/image-20141209-6723-16nf423.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=515&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/66687/original/image-20141209-6723-16nf423.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=647&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/66687/original/image-20141209-6723-16nf423.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=647&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/66687/original/image-20141209-6723-16nf423.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=647&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sedimentary basins underlie half of Australia (blue). Important aquifers are shown in green, coal seam gas basins in purple. Dots show coal mines (brown and black), geothermal wells (red) and other mining activities (yellow).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Figure by AProf Tim Rawling, University of Melbourne.</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Rocky sponges</h2>
<p>Gas and water reside in the sedimentary basins held in the “pore spaces” of rock, like water in a sponge. </p>
<p>Increasingly, sedimentary basins are being explored for new resources and services, such as CSG and shale gas, CO<sub>2</sub> storage and geothermal energy. </p>
<p>For example, the federal industry minister, Ian Macfarlane, <a href="http://news.smh.com.au/breaking-news-national/renewable-energy-safe-with-us-macfarlane-20140910-3f7j5.html">has said</a> New South Wales gas supplies must be developed, mainly through extraction of coal-seam gas, or the state will face shortages.</p>
<p>Protesters, concerned about impacts on water resources and agricultural productivity, seek to <a href="https://theconversation.com/new-tactics-see-coal-seam-gas-protests-gain-the-upper-hand-26645">block any such development</a>. </p>
<p>At the same time our dependence on groundwater is increasing. These reserves also support a large fraction of Australia’s endangered riverine and rangeland ecosystems. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/66682/original/image-20141209-6732-1wvudiy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/66682/original/image-20141209-6732-1wvudiy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/66682/original/image-20141209-6732-1wvudiy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=306&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/66682/original/image-20141209-6732-1wvudiy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=306&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/66682/original/image-20141209-6732-1wvudiy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=306&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/66682/original/image-20141209-6732-1wvudiy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=385&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/66682/original/image-20141209-6732-1wvudiy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=385&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/66682/original/image-20141209-6732-1wvudiy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=385&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Australia’s resource-rich sedimentary basins contain a variety of resources.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>More and better science</h2>
<p>Sedimentary basins are a public good. </p>
<p>The search for new resources like unconventional gas marks a new stage in the contest for the subsurface. The increasingly heated rhetoric about environmental risks associated with coal-seam gas developments and geological CO<sub>2</sub> storage illustrates the need for new approaches to the management of sedimentary basins worldwide.</p>
<p>Australian Chief Scientist Ian Chubb <a href="http://www.chiefscientist.gov.au/wp-content/uploads/shalegas-recommendationsFINAL.pdf">has responded</a> to a <a href="http://www.acola.org.au/PDF/SAF06FINAL/Final%20Report%20Engineering%20Energy%20June%202013.pdf">report on unconventional gas</a> delivered to the Prime Minister’s Science Engineering and Innovation Council, saying we need to support research into “the geological and geophysical aspects of prospective sedimentary basins” and “the surface and groundwater dynamics of prospective sedimentary basins”. </p>
<p>In other words, we need to build a better understanding of how Australia’s sedimentary basins work and how new technologies and extractive processes such as CSG may affect precious water resources. And we need to do this now.</p>
<p>This urgent need for a beefed-up science and monitoring capacity should drive a new research agenda, providing trusted, credible information and analysis of sedimentary basins, as well as the opportunities and risks posed by new uses of their resources.</p>
<p>This agenda needs to be shared and supported by industries, governments, communities and the research sector. The <a href="http://www.energy.unimelb.edu.au/node/605">Melbourne Energy Institute</a> is advancing a <a href="http://www.energy.unimelb.edu.au/node/605">Sedimentary Basins Management Initiative</a> to meet this need. </p>
<h2>Building trust</h2>
<p>Communities need access to robust research findings they can trust. Governments need to make evidence-based decisions in a timely manner. Companies require leading-edge data.</p>
<p>Politicians and public servants must work across parties and jurisdictions to enact policy decisions on basins that cross state and territory lines. </p>
<p>We will need geoscience for comprehensive and independent monitoring under (groundwater systems) and above ground (fugitive emissions of methane). This will provide baseline data against which future impacts can be detected and managed, a crucial need highlighted by the Southern Cross University researchers, who note in their paper the need to quantify greenhouse gas emissions “before and after production commences”.</p>
<p>We need the legal and regulatory expertise to develop management regimes that cross different resources and jurisdictions. </p>
<p>We need economic expertise to assess the costs and benefits of multiple uses of the pore space. </p>
<p>Perhaps most importantly we need to apply social sciences to ensure that community aspirations are met and that a “<a href="https://theconversation.com/from-divestments-to-protests-social-licence-is-the-key-33576">social licence</a>” is fully integrated into basin management decisions.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/35164/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sara Bice receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mike Sandiford receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Will Howard does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>In a recent article on The Conversation, Queensland coal seam gas (CSG) researchers argued that the industry is progressing faster than the science, leading to concerns over fugitive emissions and impacts…Sara Bice, Research Fellow, Centre for Public Policy, The University of MelbourneMike Sandiford, Professor of Geology and Director of Melbourne Energy Institute, The University of MelbourneWill Howard, Research scientist, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/286702014-07-09T20:11:54Z2014-07-09T20:11:54ZRenewables still have a long way to go to compete with fossil fuels<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/53378/original/8sns6q8z-1404880575.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=45%2C36%2C5934%2C3935&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Wind farms: great, unless it's not windy.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3ALeonards_Hill_Hepburn_Wind_Farm.JPG">mattinbgn/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://artlibre.org/licence/lal/en">FAL</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australia has some fairly ambitious goals for green energy: a <a href="https://theconversation.com/topics/renewable-energy-target">renewable energy target</a> (currently <a href="https://theconversation.com/renewables-inquiry-leader-vows-open-mind-on-targets-future-23305">under review</a>) of 20% of electricity from renewables by 2020, and a forecast to get <a href="http://www.bree.gov.au/sites/default/files/files//publications/aep/australian-energy-projections-to-2050.pdf">51% of electricity from renewables by 2050</a>. </p>
<p>But in setting these targets, not enough consideration is being given to the difficulty of getting the job done – in terms of generating enough renewable energy, and of storing it so it can be supplied 24 hours a day. </p>
<p>Renewable energy sources, mainly hydroelectric and wind with a smaller amount of solar, currently provide around 13% of Australia’s power; the rest comes from fossil fuels. Increasing renewable sources to and beyond 20% will depend on being able to generate power at the right locations, and building enough storage infrastructure too.</p>
<h2>The problem of consistency</h2>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-hydroelectricity-12931">Hydroelectric power</a> requires reliable rainfall upstream; <a href="https://theconversation.com/topics/wind-power">wind power</a> needs consistent wind speeds; and <a href="https://theconversation.com/topics/solar-power">solar energy</a> naturally depends on sunshine. <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-geothermal-energy-12913">Geothermal</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-ocean-energy-12921">ocean</a> power sources are unproven at any scale in Australia, while <a href="https://theconversation.com/topics/bioenergy">biomass</a> resources will always be very limited without having a <a href="https://theconversation.com/if-we-burn-wood-for-energy-we-cant-have-our-cake-and-eat-it-15634">major impact on food production</a>.</p>
<p>The common factor for all of these sources is irregular weather patterns, which lead to uncertain and intermittent power output. This is a big challenge for electricity generators and retailers, and it can cost lots of money. </p>
<p>Solar and wind, even in favourable locations, typically produce power at around 20-30% of their total theoretical capacity, compared with more than 90% for many fossil fuel plants. This means that to produce the same amount of electricity, the renewable plant must have around four times the capacity of the fossil fuel plant. For example, a 1000 megawatt wind farm would typically be needed to produce the same electricity output as a 250 megawatt coal or gas plant.</p>
<p>To look at it another way, while fossil fuel plants can be online 24 hours a day, we can only rely on wind or solar sources to generate electricity for an average of 5 to 8 hours each day (although the energy can potentially be stored for use later in the day, which we will come to shortly).</p>
<h2>Consumer expectations</h2>
<p>Australians expect that when they turn on a light switch, be it 8 am or 8 pm, the light will come on. If we depended solely on renewable energy for direct power generation, this wouldn’ happen. We need baseload electric power, generated reliably around the clock, to guarantee security of supply.</p>
<p>Advocates for high levels of renewable electricity, such as supporters of the <a href="http://www.bree.gov.au/">Bureau of Resources and Energy Economics</a> projection of 51% by 2050, or even for 100% renewable energy, argue that energy storage can overcome this problem. In reality, however, few financially and technically viable solutions exist to store large amounts of electrical energy for significant periods of time. <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-pushing-water-uphill-can-solve-our-renewable-energy-issues-28196">Pumped water storage</a> is the favoured solution, but this requires dams and water normally near to the power sources to minimise transmission losses. </p>
<p>Australia has very limited capacity for growth in this area. Battery storage is typically limited to tens of kilowatt hours discharged over a few hours or days at best. Batteries will not serve the needs of most industries. Molten salt storage has been advocated for solar thermal plants, but the scale required to achieve more than a few hours’ storage makes this solution unviable for most applications. An electrolysis process to produce hydrogen from water for subsequent use in a gas-fired plant or with fuel cells is possible, but unlikely on a large scale because of practicality and cost.</p>
<h2>Weighing the options</h2>
<p>So what options do we have in Australia to ensure security of electricity supply on a 24/7 basis? The reality is that the higher the proportion of electricity produced from renewable sources, the more we must have available standby baseload capacity from fossil- or nuclear-fuelled plants for when the wind does not blow and the sun does not shine. </p>
<p>Of course, it is expensive to have power stations sitting there on standby, which in turn drives up the cost to consumers. Gas-fired standby plants are favoured because of their flexibility, but the long-term security of supply and the <a href="https://theconversation.com/dont-get-burnt-by-gas-price-rises-tips-for-homes-and-industry-28198">escalating cost of gas</a> are significant concerns.</p>
<p>A credible Australian energy policy must reflect the limitations on the use of renewable energy sources, and focus more on other greenhouse gas mitigation strategies. It has been proven internationally that coal-fired electricity generating plants can be around twice as efficient as most existing Australian plants. Technology also exists to capture around 90% of all the emissions from fossil-fuelled plants, but further cost reductions and incentives will be needed to help generators invest this new equipment. The other option is to build low-emitting nuclear plants, but that is another story. And consumers can also focus on trying to reduce their own power use.</p>
<p>More attention must be given to greenhouse gas emissions from outside the energy sector, which account for more than 60% of all Australia’s emissions. Direct fuel combustion, transport and agriculture <a href="http://www.climatechange.gov.au/reducing-carbon/reducing-australias-emissions/australias-emissions-projections">contribute some 46% of emissions</a> – and might offer easier ways to cut down.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/28670/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Frank Larkins does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Australia has some fairly ambitious goals for green energy: a renewable energy target (currently under review) of 20% of electricity from renewables by 2020, and a forecast to get 51% of electricity from…Frank Larkins, Professor Emeritus and Former Deputy Vice Chancellor, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/288752014-07-08T12:56:19Z2014-07-08T12:56:19ZCaribbean island buried by eruption goes green with volcano power<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/53213/original/4xvs25qw-1404766585.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Plymouth, Montserrat's abandoned capital, buried under ash and mud.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/mikeschinkel/288577635">mikeschinkel</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The eastern Caribbean island of Montserrat has suffered more than its fair share of natural disaster. </p>
<p>In 1989, Hurricane Hugo struck the island, causing massive destruction with <a href="http://www.intrescue.info/hub/index.php/missions/montserrat-hurricane-sept-1989/">more than 90%</a> of the island’s structures damaged. In 1995, just as the island started to recover, the island’s <a href="http://www.bgs.ac.uk/discoveringGeology/hazards/volcanoes/montserrat/home.html">Soufrière Hills volcano</a> burst into life, entering a cycle of eruptive activity that <a href="http://www.tboeckel.de/EFSF/efsf_wv/montserrat_10/Montserrat_2010_e.htm">continues to the present day</a>. The eruption had an enormous impact on the island, killing 19 people, leaving two-thirds of the island nation uninhabitable, and in 1997 completely burying the capital city, Plymouth, under metres of volcanic rock, ash and mud. More than half the island’s population of around 10,000 were compelled to emigrate.</p>
<p>Today, however, Montserrat is putting this violent geological heritage to good use. Known as the “Emerald Isle” of the Caribbean due to historical ties with the Irish, Montserrat (in fact a UK dependent territory) is poised to become one of the world’s few metaphorically “green” and sustainable islands. The same geological forces unleashed by the Soufrière Hills volcano are being harnessed to power the island’s electricity grid from a geothermal source. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/jRRCysLUde8?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>Geothermal energy, the productive use of the vast quantity of thermal energy within the Earth’s crust, is one of the few renewable, low-carbon emission energy sources that can consistently generate power 24-hours a day, irrespective of the season. Its primary limitation is not weather but location, as it can only be exploited in places with specific geology, where some of the Earth’s intense inner heat <a href="https://theconversation.com/drilling-surprise-opens-door-to-volcano-powered-electricity-22515">reaches close enough to the surface</a> to be of use.
Montserrat’s geology is ideal for geothermal use: hot molten magma rises to shallow depths, driven by the forces of <a href="http://www.caribbeanvolcanoes.com/index.htm">regional plate tectonics</a>. The heat from this magma warms the surrounding rocks, providing a heat source that can be tapped if it can be brought back to the surface. Rainwater and seawater are natural aids to this process as they penetrate through cracks and pores in the rocks to several kilometres beneath the island, absorbing heat from the magma heated rocks. Once heated, the hot fluid rises buoyantly to shallower levels where it can be tapped by drilling geothermal wells. As the ascending fluid boils it produces pressurised steam which rotates turbines to generate electricity.</p>
<p>The high cost of drilling wells (a single well can cost several million US dollars) coupled with the potential risk of drilling an unproductive well, are the principle reasons that geothermal potential has not been fully exploited. To increase the likelihood of drilling a productive well, the project to exploit geothermal power on Montserrat used an array of technologies, such as <a href="http://www.see.leeds.ac.uk/afar/new-afar/what-doing/how-mag-works.html">magnetotellurics</a> and <a href="http://geo.web.ru/sbmg/sbor/tomography/Harvard/tomo.htm">seismic tomography</a> to more clearly understand the rocks beneath the surface.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/53214/original/k74jcq2z-1404771678.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/53214/original/k74jcq2z-1404771678.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53214/original/k74jcq2z-1404771678.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53214/original/k74jcq2z-1404771678.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53214/original/k74jcq2z-1404771678.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=649&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53214/original/k74jcq2z-1404771678.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=649&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53214/original/k74jcq2z-1404771678.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=649&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Conceptual model based on survey data to home in on best site for drilling a well.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ryan, Peacock, Shalev, Rugis (2013), Montserrat geothermal system: a 3D conceptual model, Geophys. Res. Lett. doi: 10.1002/grl.50489.</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Magnetotellurics uses naturally occurring signals from lightning storms and charged particles ejected from the sun to penetrate below ground. Seismic tomography uses the responses of pressure waves created by carefully generated explosions to generate images of the rocks. Aided by researchers at the University of Auckland these techniques were used to create the subsurface maps that have successfully guided Montserrat’s geothermal drilling programme.</p>
<p>Between March and September of 2013 the <a href="http://www.jardboranir.is/">Iceland Drilling Company</a> drilled Montserrat’s first two geothermal wells, to depths of 2,300 and 2,900 metres, striking temperatures of over 260°C. While testing is still ongoing, the initial results suggest that the fluid flowing from the wells will be able to generate more power than needed by the island’s reduced population of around 5,000 inhabitants. Once completed, the geothermal power station will free the island from its current reliance on expensive diesel-powered generators for its electricity – currently among the most expensive electricity in the world.</p>
<iframe src="https://www.google.com/maps/embed?pb=!1m18!1m12!1m3!1d7884294.378639129!2d-67.67320977696463!3d15.226671392356723!2m3!1f0!2f0!3f0!3m2!1i1024!2i768!4f13.1!3m3!1m2!1s0x8c13ab53e1c7369d%3A0x1e0fea838805b1a2!2sMontserrat!5e0!3m2!1sen!2suk!4v1404824291757" width="100%" height="450" frameborder="0" style="border:0"></iframe>
<p>Montserrat is not the only nation in the region with geothermal aspirations. All of the islands of the Lesser Antilles have similar geological settings and therefore geothermal potential. The French island of Guadeloupe, with 15MW of installed capacity, is the only Caribbean island that currently uses geothermal energy for electricity, but recently private investment in <a href="http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2014/01/caribbean-islands-fight-high-electricity-costs-with-geothermal-energy">St Kitts and Nevis</a> and a European Union funded project in <a href="http://thinkgeoenergy.com/archives/15004">Dominica</a> have also resulted in several promising exploratory wells, with discussions underway on other islands keen to harness their geothermal potential. </p>
<p>Geoscientists have recognised the geothermal potential of the region for many decades. But it is only in the past few years that the promise of a cheap, local energy source that can free the region from volatile oil prices has caught the imagination of regional governments and agencies.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/28875/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Graham Ryan provides geothermal consulting work, including on Montserrat, through the University of Auckland's Institute of Earth Science and Engineering, and received funding from the UK Department for International Development.</span></em></p>The eastern Caribbean island of Montserrat has suffered more than its fair share of natural disaster. In 1989, Hurricane Hugo struck the island, causing massive destruction with more than 90% of the island’s…Graham Alexander Ryan, Research Fellow, University of Auckland, Waipapa Taumata RauLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/272752014-05-28T20:13:43Z2014-05-28T20:13:43ZCSIRO risks backing the wrong horse as it reacts to budget cuts<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/49621/original/shtvyfj6-1401256416.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=9%2C11%2C1544%2C1013&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">CSIRO is contending with a A$111 million hit to its budget over four years.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3ACSIRO.jpg">Bidgee/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>What happens to CSIRO when the federal government decides to strip away A$111 million over four years from its A$733 million annual contribution to the organisation’s budget? We are beginning to find out.</p>
<p>CSIRO, which has already suffered many budget cutbacks over the years, is reportedly set to make <a href="http://www.theage.com.au/federal-politics/political-news/csiro-closes-sites-and-cuts-research-as-result-of-budget-20140527-392ba.html">a series of cuts to its environmental programs</a>, closing eight sites and reducing funding to key research areas including geothermal energy, liquid fuels, carbon capture and storage, and climate change. </p>
<p>At the same time, funding for CSIRO’s research on <a href="https://theconversation.com/topics/coal-seam-gas">coal seam gas</a> is likely to increase. We might speculate that the changes are a deliberate strategy of investing in programs that are likely to impress the government and head off any more future cuts. But is that in Australia’s best interests in the long run?</p>
<h2>Australia already lags behind</h2>
<p>Research and development (R&D) is important to countries’ economies. In tough economic times, R&D can bring new innovations that can support emerging sectors. </p>
<p>Yet Australia invests relatively little in R&D compared with other developed countries. At 0.5% of GDP, Australia’s government spends less than the <a href="http://www.keepeek.com/Digital-Asset-Management/oecd/science-and-technology/oecd-science-technology-and-industry-scoreboard-2013_sti_scoreboard-2013-en#page155">OECD average of 0.8%, and much less than Finland, Denmark, South Korea (all 1.1%) and the United States (0.9%)</a>.</p>
<p>CSIRO has a mandate to do R&D that <a href="https://theconversation.com/csiro-cuts-will-rob-australian-industry-of-research-expertise-26759">benefits Australian industry</a>, helping to bridge the gap between new research ideas and commercialisation.</p>
<p>It is a world-class institution with an outstanding publication record, and has developed many innovations that are used globally – most notably <a href="https://theconversation.com/topics/wifi">Wi-Fi</a>, but also polymer banknotes and the <a href="https://www.powerhousemuseum.com/australia_innovates/?behaviour=view_article&Section_id=1000&article_id=10002">buffalo fly trap</a> to name just a few. (CSIRO’s inventiveness has even earned its own Twitter hashtag, <a href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/thankcsiroforthat?src=hash">#thankcsiroforthat</a>.)</p>
<p>Given its past successes, it certainly seems short-sighted to cut CSIRO’s funding. But it is not a surprising move by a government that favours reducing spending and taxes to create a supposedly more efficient economy. </p>
<p>A more intriguing question is why CSIRO has responded by opting to cut funding to clean energy and climate change programs. We don’t know what the actual strategy is, but CSIRO is mostly publicly funded and we can assume that it will strategically orientate its research objectives to maximise its chances of maintaining government funding without any more cuts. </p>
<p>So perhaps we can’t blame CSIRO for scaling back its climate change and renewable energy programs. It may just be holding up a mirror to the federal government’s apparent reluctance to engage on climate change, with its pledge to repeal the current carbon legislation in favour of a A$2.55 billion <a href="https://theconversation.com/topics/direct-action-plan">direct action plan</a>, despite <a href="https://theconversation.com/direct-action-policy-still-leaves-loopholes-open-for-big-polluters-25918">many analysts saying it will be less effective</a>.</p>
<h2>Backing the wrong horse?</h2>
<p>The problem with this strategy is that the technologies that most need government support are those that are still emerging or which don’t have the backing of big companies with a vested interest. </p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-geothermal-energy-12913">Hot rock geothermal</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/topics/concentrated-solar-thermal">concentrated solar thermal</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-are-biofuels-12907">liquid biofuels</a> are all technologies that have the potential to be competitive, but which are currently too expensive for investment companies to get on board. </p>
<p>While <a href="https://theconversation.com/topics/carbon-capture-and-storage">carbon capture and storage (CCS)</a> is a very worthwhile technology to pursue, the reduction in CSIRO’s funding for CCS research is probably a sensible move. Successful demonstration of CCS will benefit existing billion-dollar companies with interests in coal mining and coal-fired power generation, which should be able to fund their own R&D.</p>
<p>CCS is hugely expensive, because it needs to operate at large scales and is a complex process with several steps – capture, compression, liquefaction, transport, and storage. The initial capital outlay for a demonstration plant will be vast. But if huge coal companies want to save their business, they should invest in CCS themselves.</p>
<p>Removing government funding for <a href="https://theconversation.com/topics/coal-seam-gas">coal seam gas</a> would also be the right thing to do for the same reason – but here CSIRO has apparently fallen into line with government policy. It is not yet clear if the optimal pathway to very low emissions is via gas – although many, <a href="http://www.worldenergyoutlook.org/goldenrules/">including the International Energy Agency</a>, believe it is. </p>
<p>Committing to using fossil gas <a href="http://reneweconomy.com.au/2014/gas-price-surge-sends-wrecking-ball-through-energy-markets-19541">exposes us to the risk of increasing gas prices</a> that are likely with the expansion of the liquefied natural gas export industry. This will result in Australians paying the high international price for gas. And while gas has lower greenhouse emissions than coal, it is still a fossil fuel that emits significant amounts of carbon dioxide.</p>
<p>CSIRO is supposed to be investing in new technologies that, with any luck, will impress the corporate sector enough for them to start investing in more sustainable energy. CSIRO is at the mercy of government funding, and it appears that the government is forcing CSIRO’s hand towards options that are not in our long-term best interests.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/27275/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Roger Dargaville receives funding from the Australian Renewable Energy Agency (ARENA) and has previously received funding from CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research.</span></em></p>What happens to CSIRO when the federal government decides to strip away A$111 million over four years from its A$733 million annual contribution to the organisation’s budget? We are beginning to find out…Roger Dargaville, Research Fellow, Energy Research Institute, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/193172013-10-22T05:20:58Z2013-10-22T05:20:58ZUnderground water heat will aid bid to hit renewable targets<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/33264/original/r4jnsk7c-1382103405.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Deep underground the coal is off - but the heat is still on.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ashley Dace</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Solar and wind power rightly receive a lot of attention as we struggle to ramp up renewable electricity and move away from fossil fuels. But in a damp, blustery island such as ours, generating heat is as much a priority as electricity. This is especially the case in fuel poor homes where affordable warmth (as opposed to fewer carbon emissions) is the pressing priority. In this case, district heating systems can play an important role in making heat cheaper, while also reducing carbon emissions.</p>
<p>The importance of renewable heat has been recognised in the <a href="http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Topics/Environment/climatechange/scotlands-action/climatechangeact">Climate Change Act (Scotland)</a>, which requires 11% of Scotland’s heat to come from renewable sources by 2020. However, as of last year it’s estimated that less than 3% of demand for heat not being supplied by electricity is from renewables.</p>
<p>There is an exciting renewable resource right under our feet that lends itself well to district-level heating solutions, however: warm water lying in abandoned mine workings, which varies between 11°C and 14°C. There is a <a href="http://www.mine-exploration.co.uk/">vast network</a> of abandoned pits in the former mining areas across Britain where coal and ironstone were extracted. Many of these seams are found very close to the surface, extending down to a few hundred metres, which makes the water now occupying these voids relatively accessible.</p>
<p>The geology is such that many of these coal seams, and therefore the mine workings, are interconnected through faults and layers of permeable rock. This means that in many cases the water can move freely and could be considered as one large, albeit rather complex, reservoir. For this reason the thermal energy stored in the mine water should be considered a truly renewable energy sources, since any water extracted from a mine will be recharged by water percolating through from the surroundings.</p>
<p>The heat stored in these waters is vast. In Glasgow alone the stored heat is in excess of 2,000 GWh per square kilometre. While the temperature of the water might appear low, modern heat pump technologies are at such efficiencies that even a few degree difference between the air and water temperatures is adequate to harvest the heat. This would therefore means that the mineworkings below Glasgow are able to heat more than 80,000 homes per square kilometre. </p>
<p>British Geological Survey (BGS) scientists have interpreted more than 50,000 borehole records from the Glasgow area and records of abandoned mines dating back to 1839. These have been brought together with data from other sources to create <a href="http://www.bgs.ac.uk/research/energy/geothermal/expertiseHeatEnergyGlasgow.html">detailed 3D geological models</a>, enabling researchers to predict the geology and depth of mines anywhere below the city’s centre.</p>
<p>Using mine water to provide heating has been demonstrated already, in two housing association estates in Glasgow and Fife, in Scotland. These projects have run for over ten years, providing reliable heating to residents for a very low cost. For example, the average heating costs in Shettleston, Glasgow which uses heat from mineworkings is £150 per year plus £10/month for maintenance, compared to the national average of £800-1000 per year for gas heating.</p>
<p>These systems can be very easily reversed to provide cooling if required. Given its moderate levels of temperature (11-14°C) the water could be directly pumped into buildings as chilled water for air conditioning. Scotland’s temperate climate may not require it often, but large buildings such as universities, hospitals and offices require cooling year round due to the heat given off from running lots of electrical equipment and extensive lighting throughout.</p>
<p>Research at the Glasgow Caledonian University is focusing on how to exploit this significant heat resource. The aim is to create a resource map that outlines potential hotspots for development that would be appropriate for mine water heating systems. This map will consider heat demand across the Glasgow, with the intention of mapping those who use lots of heat with potential nearby sources. The research will also analyse different heat pump and ground loop configurations and their relative suitability for residential, commercial, or light industrial sites.</p>
<p>Monitoring the temperature and chemistry of mine water at a number of sites across Glasgow is another focus, with a view to providing insights to the general condition and characteristics of mine water in this area. To develop the business case, it will also consider the economic aspects to the installation and running costs, as well as length of time to recoup the investment and government incentives on offer.</p>
<p>An separate but related initiative is to work with <a href="http://www.spt.co.uk/">Strathclyde Partnership for Transport</a> (SPT) to transform the water that enters Glasgow’s underground system into a sustainable heat source. Ultimately the aim of these projects is to raise awareness of this renewable heat resource and build confidence in the technology that could put it to use throughout the UK.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/19317/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rohinton Emmanuel receives funding from the Technology Strategy Board and Scottish Power.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Emma Church receives funding from TSB and Scottish Power.
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nick Hytiris receives funding from Scottish Power and through the Scottish Government's Knowledge Transfer Partnership.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bjorn Aaen does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Solar and wind power rightly receive a lot of attention as we struggle to ramp up renewable electricity and move away from fossil fuels. But in a damp, blustery island such as ours, generating heat is…Rohinton Emmanuel, Professor of Sustainable Design & Construction, Glasgow Caledonian UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/164952013-07-31T05:35:04Z2013-07-31T05:35:04ZTapping into the energy that lies deep underground<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/28289/original/9vrd8rss-1375123289.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Champagne Pool at Wai-O-Tapu, New Zealand: hot water for free.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Rebecca Naden/PA</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Geothermal energy is derived from heat produced by the decay of radioactive elements within the Earth’s molten core, where temperatures reach 6000°C around 6000km below the ground. This heat naturally dissipates upwards towards the earth’s surface. </p>
<p>Geothermal energy is usually associated with countries that have active volcanoes, for example <a href="http://www.nea.is/geothermal">Iceland</a>, where, geothermal energy provides two thirds of the country’s primary energy, mainly used for heating homes, and 25% of its electricity generation. </p>
<p>In volcanically active regions of the globe, geothermal power is produced from water or steam at temperatures in excess of 220°C that is used to drive turbines to make electricity, with heat being produced as a valuable by-product. These systems are referred to as high temperature geothermal systems.</p>
<p>While the UK does not possess any active volcanoes it does have several geological features at depths of between 2-4km that are potential geothermal targets, albeit with lower temperatures of around 60-80°C. For example, in Southampton a geothermal heating plant operated by <a href="http://www.cofely-gdfsuez.co.uk/solutions/district-energy/">Cofely District Energy</a> has supplied homes and businesses with heat for the past 25 years. This is built around a borehole that extends 1.8km into water-bearing sandstone that supplies water at around 60°C to a district heating network.</p>
<p>In response to the oil crisis of the late 1970s, the British Geological Survey mapped the geothermal potential of the whole of the UK. The conclusion was that there were significant geothermal resources that could meet the entire UK’s heat demand, and potentially generate power too. Despite this the Southampton scheme remains the only system in the country.</p>
<p>Cheaper gas prices in the 1980s and early 1990s did not provide favourable economics for more widespread deep geothermal exploitation in the UK. However more recent concerns relating to climate change, carbon emissions and energy security, and advances in drilling and electricity generation technology, has led to renewed interest. The economic case for geothermal energy is even better with combined heat and power generation, but this depends upon the temperature of the resource being sufficient (at least 70°C). The temperature is governed by depth, which in turn has implications on drilling costs that increase with depth. Where the resource is located in relation to those who will use it also determines its usefulness, especially if it is used solely for direct heat, which is easily lost.</p>
<p>Geothermal energy is accessed by drilling a deep well into the target area. For those that contain water, hot geothermal fluids are pumped to the surface where heat is removed and the cooled water returned below ground, usually through another borehole. Dry wells have fluid circulated through the well to be heated before carrying the heat to the surface. Geothermal fluids can either be used directly with a heat exchanger for hot water production, or passed through a power plant to produce electricity if temperatures are sufficient.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.britgeothermal.org.uk">BritGeothermal</a>, a research collaboration between the Universities of Durham, Glasgow and Newcastle and the British Geological Survey, has been set up to promote the potential of deep geothermal energy to the UK government, industry and society. Areas of interest the group is studying include the potential use of hot water produced as a by-product from oil extraction, or the geothermal potential of granites, geological faults and sedimentary basins deep underground at several locations throughout the UK. The group has also examined the potential for water within abandoned mineworkings as a <a href="http://www.heraldscotland.com/news/home-news/abandoned-coal-mines-could-hold-key-to-heat-up-glasgow.20199339">heat source</a> for cities and towns above. So far, deep geothermal boreholes have been drilled at Eastgate, County Durham and also in central Newcastle upon Tyne, and the group is collaborating with other geothermal projects in India and Kenya.</p>
<p>The UK’s comparatively low temperature deep geothermal resources are best suited to heating. With the potential to provide a massive 100GW of heat, this could theoretically satisfy the entire space heating demand in the UK, saving carbon dioxide emissions of around 120 million tonnes - that’s something worth looking deeply into.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/16495/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Charlotte Adams is affiliated with BritGeothermal.</span></em></p>Geothermal energy is derived from heat produced by the decay of radioactive elements within the Earth’s molten core, where temperatures reach 6000°C around 6000km below the ground. This heat naturally…Charlotte Adams, Research Manager, BritGeothermal, Durham UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/129132013-04-30T05:01:47Z2013-04-30T05:01:47ZExplainer: what is geothermal energy?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/22772/original/699xsxrm-1366682058.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">With improvements in enhanced geothermal systems technology the earth's heat could become a major electricity generator.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Flickr/xavierbt</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Geothermal means, literally, “earth heat”. The temperature of the earth increases as we drill deeper towards its core. We can use that heat for energy by circulating water through hot subterranean reservoirs, bringing the hot water or steam to the surface. We can then convert the energy in the hot fluid to mechanical and electrical power at the surface using a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_engine">heat engine</a>. </p>
<p>The private investment in Australian geothermal power development slowed down after a very fast start ten years ago. This should pick up again as new developments bring commercial viability to enhanced geothermal systems. These have the potential to grow exponentially, promising abundant power for the world.</p>
<h2>Conventional geothermal systems</h2>
<p>In 2010, the world generated 20 terawatt hours (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilowatt_hour">TWh</a>) of geothermal electricity. All of this came from conventional resources. These are naturally occurring hot water or steam flows heated by magma and circulating through permeable rock. They are associated with volcanic systems and limited to regions with active or young volcanoes. </p>
<p>The use of conventional resources is not new. In 1904, <a href="http://geoheat.oit.edu/bulletin/bull25-3/art2.pdf">a plant was built in Larderello</a>, Italy, to generate electricity from geothermal steam. Since then, geothermal power installations have spread at a steady rate but have been limited to resources that are relatively easy to access.</p>
<h2>Enhanced geothermal systems</h2>
<p>There is another form of geothermal heat that is abundant and generally available around the globe. It is produced by the radioactive decay of potassium, uranium, and thorium isotopes found in some granite types. </p>
<p>In granites in the Cooper Basin, in South Australia, there are isotope concentrations at trace level. Heat is generated at a very low rate. At such a low rate, it would take almost one million years for a mass of granite to increase its temperature by 100°C. Through that time the rock has to remain well-insulated at great depth.</p>
<p>To access this deep heat, at least two wells must be drilled. Cold water is injected from one well, it is heated by the rock and is extracted from the other well. The two wells are typically 800 to 1000m apart. In such a system, the water will travel from one well to the other only if the rock between the wells is sufficiently permeable.</p>
<p>Natural rock permeability is not high enough but can be enhanced by well-established oil and gas engineering techniques. These systems are called Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS).</p>
<h2>Commercial EGS development</h2>
<p>Electricity from enhanced geothermal systems is not cost-competitive now because deep wells are expensive. To generate enough electricity to pay for the wells and for the surface equipment, the hot water has to be brought to the surface at rates close to 100kg/s. One of the best EGS flow rates in the world was achieved by the Australian company Geodynamics, and it was only a third of this target. Although this is a significant achievement, it is not enough to make EGS electricity commercially competitive.</p>
<p>It’s possible to compensate for these low flow rates if you can improve the efficiency of converting the energy into power. But improvements in this area have yet to see electricity production become cost-competitive.</p>
<p>EGS flow rates must be tripled before EGS electricity is commercially feasible. It was <a href="http://www.geothermal.uq.edu.au/04-March-2013">reported last December</a> that a promising technique for geothermal wells might have been developed by the US company AltaRock. If the reported results are substantiated by further testing, it will provide new breath for the EGS geothermal development around the world and in Australia.</p>
<h2>Other Australian geothermal resources</h2>
<p>The division between conventional and enhanced geothermal systems is artificial and the actual global geothermal resource covers a continuous spectrum extending from naturally occurring hot springs to enhanced geothermal systems. </p>
<p>Recent results show that although Australia is not a volcanic country, it has areas where magma gets close to the surface to produce hot water in sedimentary rock. The Australian geothermal industry calls these <a href="http://www.geothermal-energy.org/pdf/IGAstandard/SGW/2012/Corbel1.pdf">hot sedimentary aquifers</a>. They are expected to have natural permeabilities higher than EGS but maybe not as high as conventional geothermal systems. </p>
<p>Around the world, there has not been much work in this type of resource but there are new developments in Australia as well as other places like <a href="http://thinkgeoenergy.com/archives/15334">Turkey</a> and <a href="http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-04-11/geothermal-energy-expected-to-more-than-double-by-2030.html">South America</a> directed at such resources.</p>
<h2>Environmental impacts</h2>
<p>In accessing geothermal energy, the technologies involved can have slight effects on the immediate environment. As seen by the <a href="http://www.geothermal.uq.edu.au/25-July-2011">Paralana experience</a>, slight tremors may be felt on the surface but these do not constitute a significant risk. Geothermal energy does not use <a href="http://www.agea.org.au/news/2012/geothermal-energy-and-water-use/">any more water</a> than other renewable thermal power energy applications. Also the fracture stimulation used in the EGS projects does not pose a risk for surface aquifers because EGS reservoirs are very deep and the wells are sealed in steel casings. </p>
<p>In some volcanically-sourced conventional geothermal resources, the <a href="http://geo-energy.org/events/Air%20Emissions%20Comparison%20and%20Externality%20Analysis_Publication.pdf">dissolved gases released to the atmosphere</a> may affect the immediate environment. This is probably the most serious hazard associated with geothermal energy but it is limited only to some conventional resources (not relevant to Australia) and is easy to control.</p>
<h2>The future for geothermal</h2>
<p>The fundamentals for geothermal energy are strong. It is abundant – the resource underneath the Great Artesian basin is <a href="http://journals.ohiolink.edu/ejc/article.cgi?issn=01489062&issue=v32i0008&article=375a_ahdrgetsithv">estimated to be large enough</a> to deliver the current Australian annual energy consumption for 6000 years. It is one of the few renewable power sources that can completely replace coal as a baseload electricity generator. It also has a very low environmental impact. </p>
<p>The failure to achieve sufficient flow was hindering its commercial development but this problem may be solved in the near future. If that happens, geothermal power could become one of the leading renewable power technologies for the 2020s.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/12913/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hal Gurgenci is the Director of the Queensland Geothermal Energy Centre of Excellence. This is a University of Queensland research centre established in 2009 through a grant from the Queensland State Government.</span></em></p>Geothermal means, literally, “earth heat”. The temperature of the earth increases as we drill deeper towards its core. We can use that heat for energy by circulating water through hot subterranean reservoirs…Hal Gurgenci, Professor of Mechanical Engineering, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/100882012-11-21T03:17:11Z2012-11-21T03:17:11ZEarth’s most valuable resource is the space between the sand<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/17342/original/9bn6cmw3-1352266547.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The earth’s crust might be our most valuable resource yet.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">prawnpie/Flickr</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>For centuries, the shallow parts of the earth’s crust have provided us with fuels to burn in our fireplaces, foundries and generators. Now, as we try to break free from our reliance on some of the dirtier fuels <a href="https://theconversation.com/right-to-compensation-was-folly-from-the-start-9395">such as brown coal</a>, we have begun to develop a number of alternative or cleaner ways to extract energy from the earth.</p>
<p>Many of these new technologies have received a lot of good and bad press. They include energy extraction techniques such as <a href="https://theconversation.com/direct-geothermal-energy-could-be-key-to-our-clean-energy-future-285">geothermal</a>, <a href="http://www.dmp.wa.gov.au/12872.aspx">unconventional gas</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-coal-seam-gas-shale-gas-and-fracking-in-australia-2585">coal seam gas</a>, and coal liquefaction; as well as carbon pollution abatement techniques such as <a href="http://www.ga.gov.au/ghg.html">geological carbon storage</a>.</p>
<p>A number of these technologies show considerable promise. They have the potential to provide ongoing energy supplies with reduced CO<sub>2</sub> emissions. But the management and development of these opportunities is complicated. This is largely because many of them effectively utilise the same part of the earth’s crust - the space between the grains of sand within porous rocks, known to geologists as the pore-space.</p>
<p>The pore-space has typically been the preserve of the oil and gas industry, as perhaps the most valuable commodity contained within it are high-value natural hydrocarbon accumulations (crude oil and natural gas). As a result we have fantastic geological and geophysical data, gathered at huge expense, which allows us to model those areas that contain oil and gas reserves.</p>
<p>But as we begin to develop these new energy technologies we also need to stop believing that the commodity (the oil, gas, heat, water and coal for example) that we can extract and sell is the resource. Instead, we need to think of the pore-space itself as the resource.</p>
<p>The reason for this is that many of the uses for the pore-space described above have long lasting impacts on that part of the crust and the rocks surrounding it. In extreme cases, one use of a geological reservoir may in fact sterilise that part of the crust for alternative uses in the future (if for example a liquid waste gas is stored there it can’t be disturbed in the future).</p>
<p>The management issues that this throws up are considerable. Policy makers need to consider how one use of the rocks may affect the potential for other uses. They must weigh up the potential value of each of these use-cases to society (over decades at a minimum).</p>
<p>One of the challenges that we need to deal with now is how can we use science to meaningfully inform the policy decisions that will affect how sustainably these basins are used now and in the future. This includes modelling how activity in one may affect the others, and setting up monitoring systems that allow us to assess how our activities in the shallow crust are affecting the earth and the atmosphere.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/17304/original/mkt4vcm5-1352242910.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/17304/original/mkt4vcm5-1352242910.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=442&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/17304/original/mkt4vcm5-1352242910.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=442&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/17304/original/mkt4vcm5-1352242910.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=442&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/17304/original/mkt4vcm5-1352242910.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=555&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/17304/original/mkt4vcm5-1352242910.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=555&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/17304/original/mkt4vcm5-1352242910.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=555&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Geothermal is just one of many types of energy vying for space in the earth’s crust.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Geothermal Research Council</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It is critical that monitoring systems are in place long before new development begins in the regions. This would allow us to establish what the natural background levels are for a variety of things <a href="https://theconversation.com/revealing-cracks-in-seismology-406">such as seismicity</a> (earthquakes), atmospheric emissions from the earth and groundwater quality and flow.</p>
<p>Early monitoring of these systems will allow us to objectively assess our impact on the natural systems, both good and bad. For example, we currently don’t have a good idea of what the natural level of fugitive greenhouse gas emissions is from coal bearing basins (without any CSG or mining activity).</p>
<p>It’s possible that in some locations the natural background level of emissions of greenhouse gasses such as methane may be relatively high. The development of these fields and resulting reduction in fugitive emissions, could actually have a net benefit for both society (energy production) and the environment (reduced fugitive emissions). </p>
<p>On the other hand, there is also a genuine risk that some new technologies could be shutdown in response to misinterpreted natural activity or very minor “induced effect” interpreted out of context. A well-known example of this is the geothermal development in Basel, Switzerland. This <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/11/science/earth/11basel.html?_r=0">project was closed down</a> after a series of minor earthquakes were recorded following a reservoir stimulation program. </p>
<p>The ensuing panic resulted in the arrest of some of the technical personnel and the setting back of geothermal energy production in that part of the world by many years.</p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/17592/original/bk9g8zd8-1352852521.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/17592/original/bk9g8zd8-1352852521.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=901&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/17592/original/bk9g8zd8-1352852521.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=901&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/17592/original/bk9g8zd8-1352852521.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=901&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/17592/original/bk9g8zd8-1352852521.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1132&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/17592/original/bk9g8zd8-1352852521.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1132&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/17592/original/bk9g8zd8-1352852521.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1132&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Refineries extract the hydrocarbons in oil and turn them into the product we know as petroleum.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">AdamCohn/Flickr</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This is not to say that many, if not all of these new technologies can’t have an important place in Australia’s energy future. If history over the last hundred years has taught us anything, it’s that humans are ingenious engineers, and that when faced with a problem we’re very good at finding technological solutions to it. Take for example, the modifications to coal-fired power stations over the last 150 years. Such modifications have reduced the incidence of smog (low nitrogen oxide burners), lung disease (particulate removal) and acid rain pollution (wet sulphur dioxide scrubbers).</p>
<p>Australia is fortunate to be endowed with abundant hydrocarbons, unrealised geothermal resources, ground water and geological containers in which to store waste gasses from burning fossil fuels. We must remember though, that none of these resources are unlimited and neither is the pore-space that contains them.</p>
<p>Here lies the challenge of sustainable management of our use of the earth’s shallow crust. A challenge that will test the ability of today’s policy makers to make scientifically informed decisions that benefit not only our children, but also don’t harm the potential of our children’s children.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/10088/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tim Rawling is affiliated with the Australian Geophysical Observing System (AuScope) and the Melbourne Energy Institute.</span></em></p>For centuries, the shallow parts of the earth’s crust have provided us with fuels to burn in our fireplaces, foundries and generators. Now, as we try to break free from our reliance on some of the dirtier…Tim Rawling, Principal Research Fellow, School of Earth Sciences, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.