tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/gorillas-34087/articlesGorillas – The Conversation2023-05-15T15:01:07Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2051842023-05-15T15:01:07Z2023-05-15T15:01:07ZThriving in the face of adversity: Resilient gorillas reveal clues about overcoming childhood misfortune<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525949/original/file-20230512-23918-udbd4r.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=837%2C1234%2C5222%2C3305&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A lot of bad things can happen to young mountain gorillas in the wild.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>In 1974, an infant mountain gorilla was born in Volcanoes National Park in Rwanda. Researchers named him Titus. As is typical for young gorillas in the wild, Titus spent the first years of his life surrounded by his mother, father and siblings, as well as more distant relatives and unrelated gorillas that made up his social group.</p>
<p>In 1978, however, tragedy struck. Poachers killed Titus’ father and brother. In the chaos that followed, his younger sister was killed by another gorilla, and his mother and older sister fled the group. Juvenile Titus, who was at a developmental stage similar to that of an 8- or 9-year-old human, <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1922764/">experienced more tragedy</a> in his first four years of life than many animals do in a lifetime.</p>
<p>In people, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2017.09.027">a rough start in life</a> is often associated with significant problems later on. <a href="https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2015/03/02/387007941/take-the-ace-quiz-and-learn-what-it-does-and-doesnt-mean">Early life adversity</a> can take a wide variety of forms, including malnutrition, war and abuse. People who experience these kinds of traumas, assuming they survive the initial event, are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2011-2663">more likely to suffer health problems</a> and social dysfunction in adulthood and to have shorter life spans. Often, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.13928">these outcomes trace back at least in part</a> to what public health researchers call health risk behaviors – things like smoking, poor eating habits and a sedentary lifestyle.</p>
<p>But researchers have documented the same kinds of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1205340109">problems in adulthood in nonhuman animals</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2020.06.006">that experienced early life adversity</a>. For example, female baboons who have the hardest childhoods have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms11181">life spans that are on average only half as long</a> as their peers that have the easiest. Activities like smoking and unhealthy food choices can’t be the whole story, then, since animals don’t engage in typical human health risk behaviors.</p>
<p>Given the connection between adverse events while young and poor health later in life, one might expect that Titus’ unlucky early years would predict a short, unhealthy adulthood for him. However, there are interesting hints that things <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2023.04.051">might work differently in mountain gorillas</a>, which are one of humans’ closest living relatives.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525945/original/file-20230512-23-8omdyq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="juvenile gorilla seated" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525945/original/file-20230512-23-8omdyq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525945/original/file-20230512-23-8omdyq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525945/original/file-20230512-23-8omdyq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525945/original/file-20230512-23-8omdyq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525945/original/file-20230512-23-8omdyq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525945/original/file-20230512-23-8omdyq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525945/original/file-20230512-23-8omdyq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Researchers analyzed decades of observational data to determine how life turned out for young gorillas that had faced adversity.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund</span></span>
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<h2>Decades of gorilla observations</h2>
<p><a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=GxpHf-AAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">As scientists who have spent</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=1I9_QM0AAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">many years studying wild gorillas</a>, we have observed a wide variety of early life experiences and an equally wide variety of adult health outcomes in these great apes. Unlike other primates, mountain gorillas don’t appear to suffer any long-term negative effects of <a href="https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.62939">losing their mothers at an early age</a>, provided that they reach the age at which they are old enough to have finished nursing.</p>
<p>Losing your mother is only one of many bad things that can happen to a young gorilla, though. We wanted to investigate whether a pattern of resilience was more generalized. If so, could we gather any insight into the fundamental question of how early life experiences can have long-lasting effects?</p>
<p>To do this, we needed exceptionally detailed long-term data on wild gorillas across their lifetimes. This is no mean feat, given <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/sdata.2016.6">gorillas’ long life spans</a>. Primatologists know that males can survive into their late 30s and females into their mid-40s.</p>
<p>The best data in the world to conduct such a study comes from the <a href="https://gorillafund.org/">Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund</a>, which has been following individual mountain gorillas in Rwanda almost daily for 55 years. We conducted doctoral and postdoctoral research with the Fossey Fund and have collaborated with other scientists there for more than 20 years.</p>
<p>From their database, which stretches back to 1967, we extracted information on more than 250 gorillas tracked from the day they were born to the day they died or left the study area.</p>
<p>We used this data to identify six adverse events that gorillas younger than age 6 can endure: maternal loss, paternal loss, extreme violence, social isolation, social instability and sibling competition. These experiences are the gorilla equivalent of some kinds of adversity that are linked with long-term negative effects in humans and other animals.</p>
<p>Many young gorillas didn’t survive these challenges. This is a strong indication that these experiences were indeed adverse from the perspective of a gorilla.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525946/original/file-20230512-15-ldzmn2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Adult female gorilla seated tightly together with two young gorillas" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525946/original/file-20230512-15-ldzmn2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525946/original/file-20230512-15-ldzmn2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525946/original/file-20230512-15-ldzmn2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525946/original/file-20230512-15-ldzmn2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525946/original/file-20230512-15-ldzmn2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525946/original/file-20230512-15-ldzmn2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525946/original/file-20230512-15-ldzmn2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Ubufatanye experienced the loss of her mother and father and the disintegration of her family group before the age of 5. Now 20, she has become a successful mother, raising three offspring.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund</span></span>
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<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2023.04.051">We were surprised to discover</a>, however, that most of the repercussions of these hardships were confined to early life: animals that survived past the age of 6 did not have the shorter life spans commonly associated with early life adversity in other species.</p>
<p>In fact, gorillas that experienced three or more forms of adversity actually had better survival outcomes, with a 70% reduction in the risk of death across their adult years. Part of this hardiness, especially for males, may be due to a phenomenon called <a href="https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/viability#:%7E:text=Viability%20selection%20can%20be%20defined,on%20the%20road%20for%20it.">viability selection</a>: Only the strongest animals survive early adversity, and thus they are also the animals with the longest life spans.</p>
<p>While viability selection may be part of the story, the patterns in our data strongly suggest that as a species, mountain gorillas are also remarkably resilient to early adversity.</p>
<h2>Where do gorillas get their resilience?</h2>
<p>Although our findings corroborate previous research on maternal loss in gorillas, they contrast with other studies on <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/pag0000394">early adversity in humans</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2656.13785">other long-lived mammals</a>. Our study indicates that the negative later-life consequences of early adversity are not universal.</p>
<p>The absence of this connection in one of our closest relatives suggests there might be protective mechanisms that help build resiliency to early-life knocks. Gorillas may provide valuable clues to understand how early life experiences have such far-reaching effects and how people can potentially overcome them.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525944/original/file-20230512-20526-7wom64.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="two adult and one young gorilla seated together" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525944/original/file-20230512-20526-7wom64.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525944/original/file-20230512-20526-7wom64.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525944/original/file-20230512-20526-7wom64.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525944/original/file-20230512-20526-7wom64.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525944/original/file-20230512-20526-7wom64.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525944/original/file-20230512-20526-7wom64.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525944/original/file-20230512-20526-7wom64.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Young gorillas live with their parents as part of larger social groups.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund</span></span>
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<p>While there is still much left to explore, we suspect that gorillas’ food-rich habitat and cohesive social groups could underpin their resiliency. When young gorillas lose their mothers, <a href="https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.62939">other social group members fill in</a> the companionship hole she leaves behind. Something similar may happen for other types of early adversity as well. A supportive social network combined with plentiful food may help a young gorilla push through challenges.</p>
<p>This possibility underscores the importance of ensuring that human children who experience early adversity are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2016.1559">supported in multiple ways</a>: socially, but also economically, especially since early adversity is particularly prevalent among children living in poverty – itself a form of adversity.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525223/original/file-20230509-25-vqm6q4.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=436%2C0%2C3845%2C2702&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="large adult male gorilla against leafy background" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525223/original/file-20230509-25-vqm6q4.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=436%2C0%2C3845%2C2702&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525223/original/file-20230509-25-vqm6q4.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525223/original/file-20230509-25-vqm6q4.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525223/original/file-20230509-25-vqm6q4.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525223/original/file-20230509-25-vqm6q4.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525223/original/file-20230509-25-vqm6q4.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525223/original/file-20230509-25-vqm6q4.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Titus, pictured here as an adult, survived more adversity before age 4 than many animals confront in a lifetime.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund</span></span>
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<p><a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1922764/">And what became of Titus</a>? Despite his difficult start in life, Titus went on to lead his group for two decades, siring at least 13 offspring and surviving to his 35th birthday, making him one of the most successful gorillas the Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund has ever studied.</p>
<p>Though Titus’ story is only a single anecdote, it turns out that his resilience is not so unusual for a member of his species.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/205184/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stacy Rosenbaum receives funding from the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and the University of Michigan. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Robin Morrison receives funding from the Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund and the Swiss National Science Foundation. </span></em></p>In many animals, including humans, adverse events in youth have lasting negative health effects over the life span. But new research suggests something different is going on in mountain gorillas.Stacy Rosenbaum, Assistant Professor of Anthropology, University of MichiganRobin Morrison, Postdoctoral Fellow in Animal Behavior, University of ExeterLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1733852021-12-08T15:52:30Z2021-12-08T15:52:30ZWe’ve proved that wild primates suffer from tooth decay – and chimps are among the worst<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436405/original/file-20211208-21-1ieoopr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/big-smile-on-young-chimpanzees-face-409846009">Atiger/shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Nearly everyone at some point in their lives is affected by tooth decay. Indeed, half of you reading this article are likely to currently <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/oral-health">have it</a>. It’s common knowledge that a sugary diet can cause cavities, but <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0022034515590377">specific bacteria</a> living in our mouths are part of the process. They consume the sugary foods and release acids into the mouth as a by-product. If this happens frequently, the tissue that makes up a tooth – including enamel and dentine – decrease in mineral concentration. This is called demineralisation, and it ultimately causes cavities. </p>
<p>Apart from humans, some species kept as pets and in captivity (such as in zoos), can <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02382058">regularly display</a> tooth cavities. This is mostly due to being fed a diet containing processed sugars that differs from their natural foods.</p>
<p>But we might expect that wild animals wouldn’t suffer from the same dental issues as they are not eating processed foods. In fact, that isn’t the case. It turns out that tooth decay may be relatively common in some species, including in a wide range of mammals such as bats, primates, bears and some other carnivores.</p>
<h2>Cavities in primates</h2>
<p>Primates in particular have been observed to have cavities, including in a diverse range of <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0203307">prehistoric species</a>. But dental decay is still generally regarded as rare in wild primates living today, and there has been disagreement between specialists on whether deep cavities found within the front of their teeth are actually tooth decay caused by cavity-forming bacteria, or holes caused by factors other than tooth decay such as <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajpa.1330800210">enamel weakness</a>.</p>
<p>In a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.23349">recent study</a> we wanted to find out for sure whether primates get tooth cavities, and where in the mouth they were found.
To do this, we used a 3D-imaging technique known as micro-CT scans to look at 8,000 teeth from 11 diverse primate species.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/fossil-tooth-fractures-and-microscopic-detail-of-enamel-offer-new-clues-about-human-diet-and-evolution-163653">Fossil tooth fractures and microscopic detail of enamel offer new clues about human diet and evolution</a>
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<p>Nine out of the 11 species had at least some cavities. And several species had high levels of cavities on their front teeth, including chimpanzees, gorillas, Dent’s mona monkeys, blue monkeys and raffles’ banded langurs.</p>
<p>Crucially, we found that tooth decay causing bacteria had indeed been involved in the cavities we commonly observed on the front teeth, because demineralisation was evident deep below the surface of the tooth. Perhaps in hindsight this is not surprising since soft fruits are a staple of the diet in many primates, so they regularly chew foods with high levels of natural sugars.</p>
<p>And because we studied so many teeth, we were then able to assess variation in patterns of cavities – where they were on the teeth and how that differed in relation to diet and behaviour.</p>
<h2>Why front teeth in primates?</h2>
<p>In humans, including <a href="https://sajs.co.za/article/view/8705">our fossil ancestors</a> and relatives going back millions of years, it is the back teeth that are most commonly affected by tooth decay. The reason why, in living primates, the front teeth seem more susceptible to this disease is probably because of differences in their food, and also in the way they eat. </p>
<p>For example, chimpanzees undertake a <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02192634">behaviour called wadging</a>, where they hold chewed fruits in the front of the mouth and then suck out the sugary liquids. These fruits include figs, some of which have high concentrations of sugars. They have even been observed wadging honeycomb. Not surprisingly the front teeth of chimpanzees show extremely high rates of cavities.</p>
<p>Although other monkey and ape species might have different diets and eating behaviours, they all use their front teeth to process fruits and other plant parts that are high in natural sugars. In contrast, some baboons and macaques, which have a much more varied diet, don’t appear to have these tooth cavities.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/monkey-teeth-fossils-hint-several-extinct-species-crossed-the-atlantic-135961">Monkey teeth fossils hint several extinct species crossed the Atlantic</a>
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<p>Interestingly, female chimpanzees had considerably more decayed teeth than males – around 9% compared to only 2% in males. We do not yet know why, but it is likely to be caused by differences in their diet and behaviour, as well as other factors such as pregnancy, acidity of saliva, life history, and bacteria variations between the sexes.</p>
<p>So we humans are not alone in suffering from tooth decay. One other interesting point is that captive primates share our pattern of cavities, with back teeth regularly affected more than the front. This is mostly due to being fed a diet containing processed sugars that differ from their natural foods. </p>
<p>In short, primates’ cavity patterns seem to be a reliable indicator of food-processing behaviours and diet – and therefore, tooth decay has the potential to offer unique ecological insight into both extinct and living primate groups.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/173385/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ian Towle does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>We studied 8,000 primate teeth and finally confirmed that humans are not the only living primate to suffer from cavities. But there are interesting differences.Ian Towle, Postdoctoral researcher & teaching assistant, London South Bank UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1514672021-01-19T13:11:01Z2021-01-19T13:11:01ZIs COVID-19 infecting wild animals? We’re testing species from bats to seals to find out<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/378865/original/file-20210114-18-12l96pf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=213%2C261%2C4372%2C2790&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A wild mink in Utah was the first wild animal in the U.S. found with COVID-19.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neovison_vison#/media/Archivo:American_mink_geograph.co.uk_2083077.jpg">Peter Trimming via Wikipedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Over the course of the COVID-19 pandemic, researchers have found coronavirus infections in pet <a href="https://www.aphis.usda.gov/animal_health/one_health/downloads/sars-cov2-in-animals.pdf">cats and dogs</a> and in multiple zoo animals, including <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1128%2FmBio.02220-20">big cats</a> and <a href="https://zoo.sandiegozoo.org/pressroom/news-releases/gorilla-troop-san-diego-zoo-safari-park-test-positive-covid-19">gorillas</a>. These infections have even happened when staff were <a href="https://www.zooknoxville.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/028-Zoo-Knoxville-Tiger-Tests-Positive-for-SARS-CoV-2-.pdf?_ga=2.16313462.1707933573.1604353641-1319189766.1604071942">using personal protective equipment</a>. </p>
<p>More disturbing, in December the United States Department of Agriculture confirmed the first case of a <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/12/15/science/covid-wild-mink-utah.html">wild animal infected with SARS-CoV-2</a>, the virus that causes COVID-19. Researchers found an infected wild mink in Utah near a mink farm with its own COVID-19 outbreak. </p>
<p>Are humans transmitting this virus to wildlife? If so, what would this mean for wild animals – and people too?</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/378920/original/file-20210114-17-1paq4i9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A dog licking a young girl's face." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/378920/original/file-20210114-17-1paq4i9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/378920/original/file-20210114-17-1paq4i9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/378920/original/file-20210114-17-1paq4i9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/378920/original/file-20210114-17-1paq4i9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/378920/original/file-20210114-17-1paq4i9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/378920/original/file-20210114-17-1paq4i9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/378920/original/file-20210114-17-1paq4i9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Usually, viruses need extremely close contact to jump species.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/young-girl-with-dog-in-snowy-landscape-dog-licking-royalty-free-image/926873654?adppopup=true">Jenn Austin-Driver/Image Source via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How viruses hop between species</h2>
<p>We are <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=iAQr9XwAAAAJ">two scientists</a> who study <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=pgjLWAEAAAAJ">viruses in wildlife</a> and are currently <a href="https://sites.tufts.edu/CoVERS">running a study</a> investigating the potential for SARS-CoV-2 transmission from humans into domestic and wild animals.</p>
<p>When viruses move from one species into another, scientists call it spillover. Thankfully, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro.2017.45">spillover doesn’t occur easily</a>.</p>
<p>To infect a new species, a virus must be able to bind to a protein on a cell and enter the cell while dodging an immune system the virus hasn’t encountered before. Then, as a virus works to avoid <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coviro.2011.07.002">antibodies and other antiviral attackers</a>, it must replicate at a high enough volume to be transmitted on to the next animal. </p>
<p>This usually means that the more closely related two species are, the more likely they are to share viruses. Chimpanzees, the species most closely related to humans, <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2020/05/primatologists-work-keep-great-apes-safe-coronavirus">can catch and get sick from many human viruses</a>. Earlier this month, veterinarians at the San Diego Zoo announced that the zoo’s <a href="https://zoo.sandiegozoo.org/pressroom/news-releases/gorilla-troop-san-diego-zoo-safari-park-test-positive-covid-19">troop of gorillas was infected with SARS–CoV–2</a>. This indicated it is possible for this virus to jump from humans to our close relatives.</p>
<p>Some viruses tend to stay in a single species or in closely related species, while other viruses seem innately more capable of large species jumps. Influenza, for example, can infect a <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/flu/other/index.html">wide variety of animals, from sparrows to whales</a>. Similarly, coronaviruses are known to <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41579-018-0118-9">regularly jump between species</a>.</p>
<p>The question of how many and which species can be infected by SARS-CoV-2 – and which ones might be able to support continued circulation of the virus – is an important one. </p>
<h2>Searching for COVID-19 in wildlife</h2>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/378873/original/file-20210114-23-gwnpbt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A vet rehabilitating a bat by feeding it from a bottle." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/378873/original/file-20210114-23-gwnpbt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/378873/original/file-20210114-23-gwnpbt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/378873/original/file-20210114-23-gwnpbt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/378873/original/file-20210114-23-gwnpbt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/378873/original/file-20210114-23-gwnpbt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/378873/original/file-20210114-23-gwnpbt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/378873/original/file-20210114-23-gwnpbt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Wildlife veterinarians are uniquely well situated to look for signs of coronavirus infection in wild animals.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/baby-bat-drinking-bottle-royalty-free-image/1210674530?adppopup=true">F.J. Jimenez/Moment via Getty Images</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>For human-to-wildlife spillover of SARS-CoV-2 to occur, an animal needs to be exposed to a high-enough viral dose to become infected. </p>
<p>The highest-risk situations are during direct contact with humans, such as a <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/01/science/Covid-bats.html">veterinarian’s caring for an injured animal</a>. Contact between a sick person and a pet or farm animal also poses a risk, as the domestic animal could act as an intermediate host, eventually passing the virus to a wild animal.</p>
<p>Another way COVID-19 could spill over from humans into animals is through indirect infection, <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/can-marine-mammals-catch-covid-19-new-study-says-its-possible-180976471/">such as through wastewater</a>. COVID-19 and other pathogens can be detected in waste streams, many of which end up dumped, untreated, into environments where wildlife like marine mammals may be exposed. This is thought to be how <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0062259">elephant seals in California became infected with H1N1 influenza</a> during the swine flu pandemic in 2009. </p>
<p>To study whether spillover of SARS-CoV-2 is happening, our team at Tufts is partnering with veterinarians and licensed wildlife rehabilitators across the U.S. to collect samples from and test animals in their care. Through the project, we have tested nearly 300 wild animals from over 20 species. So far, none – from bats to seals to coyotes – have shown any evidence of COVID-19 by swab or antibody tests.</p>
<p>Other researchers have launched targeted surveillance of wild animals in places where captive animals have been infected. The first confirmed infection in a wild mink was found during <a href="https://promedmail.org/promed-post/?id=8015608">surveillance near an infected mink farm</a>. It’s not yet clear how this wild mink got the coronavirus, but the high density of infected minks and potentially infectious particles from them made it a high-risk location.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/379075/original/file-20210115-19-1wi7axu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A photo of a young gorilla with adult gorillas in the wild." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/379075/original/file-20210115-19-1wi7axu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/379075/original/file-20210115-19-1wi7axu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379075/original/file-20210115-19-1wi7axu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379075/original/file-20210115-19-1wi7axu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379075/original/file-20210115-19-1wi7axu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379075/original/file-20210115-19-1wi7axu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379075/original/file-20210115-19-1wi7axu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Gorillas have been affected by human viruses in the past and are susceptible to the coronavirus.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mountain_gorilla_(Gorilla_beringei_beringei)_11.jpg">Thomas Fuhrmann via Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Bad for animals, bad for humans</h2>
<p>When a virus infects a new species, it sometimes mutates, adapting to infect, replicate and transmit more efficiently in a new animal. This is called host adaptation. When a virus jumps to a new host and begins adapting, the results can be unpredictable. </p>
<p>In late 2020, when SARS-CoV-2 jumped into farmed mink in Denmark, <a href="https://www.who.int/csr/don/03-december-2020-mink-associated-sars-cov2-denmark/en/">it acquired mutations that were uncommon in humans</a>. Some of these mutations occurred in the part of the virus that most vaccines are designed to recognize. And it didn’t just happen once – these mutations <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abe5901">independently arose in mink farms multiple times</a>. While it’s not yet clear what impact, if any, these mutations may have on human disease or the vaccine, these are signs of host adaptation that could allow novel variants of the virus to persist and reemerge from animal hosts in the future.</p>
<p>Another risk is that SARS-CoV-2 could cause disease in animals. Ecologists are especially concerned about endangered species like the <a href="https://www.aaha.org/publications/newstat/articles/2020-12/endangered-black-footed-ferret-gets-experimental-covid-19-vaccine-in-colorado/">black-footed ferret</a>, which is closely related to minks and thought to be very susceptible to the virus. </p>
<p>Human-to-wildlife spillover has happened before. In the late 20th century, the Ebola virus jumped from humans into great apes and has resulted in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/543S56a">devastating consequences for these endangered animals</a>. More recently, a human respiratory virus has been <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10393-020-01506-8">detected in threatened mountain gorilla populations</a> and has caused deaths as well.</p>
<p>But perhaps the biggest risk to humans is that spillover could result in the coronavirus establishing a reservoir in new animals and regions. This could provide opportunities for reintroduction of COVID-19 into humans in the future. This month researchers published a paper showing that this had already happened on a small scale with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abe5901">human–to–mink–to–human transmission on mink farms</a> in Denmark. </p>
<p>While our team has found no evidence of COVID-19 in wild animals in the U.S. at this time, we have seen convincing evidence of regular spillover into dogs and cats and some zoo animals. The discovery of the infected wild mink confirmed our fears. Seeing the first wild animal with natural COVID-19 is alarming, but sadly, not surprising.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/151467/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jonathan Runstadler receives funding from NIH/NIAID.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kaitlin Sawatzki receives funding from the NIH/NIAID.</span></em></p>COVID-19 has been found in pets, zoo animals and in a wild mink in Utah. Monitoring wildlife for COVID-19 is important for animals and humans, both of whom face risks from a jumping virus.Jonathan Runstadler, Professor of Infectious Disease and Global Health, Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts UniversityKaitlin Sawatzki, Postdoctoral Infectious Disease Researcher, Tufts UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1532272021-01-14T14:31:38Z2021-01-14T14:31:38ZWhy rangers in the Congo’s Virunga national park are under attack<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/378761/original/file-20210114-18-1j28jph.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Rangers on patrol at Virunga National Park.
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Photo by Brent Stirton/Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Armed men have killed <a href="https://www.aa.com.tr/en/africa/armed-men-kill-6-park-rangers-in-dr-congo/2105379">at least</a> six rangers and wounded several others in an ambush in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo’s (DRC) Virunga national park. This park is a sanctuary for endangered mountain gorillas. Staff working in the park have often come under attack. Judith Verweijen and Esther Marijnen – experts on armed mobilisation and conservation in the DRC – explain why this happens and what must be done to protect them better.</em></p>
<p><strong>Why is Virunga national park so vital for conservation?</strong></p>
<p>Virunga national park is one of Africa’s <a href="https://virunga.org/">most biodiverse</a> protected areas and is home to one third of the world’s wild mountain gorillas. It is also special because it’s located in a zone of protracted violent conflict: eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo.</p>
<p>The conflict in this region defies easy explanation. It involves over <a href="https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/08/14/dr-congo-1900-civilians-killed-kivus-over-2-years">130 armed groups</a> and is driven by a complex range of factors. These include conflict over land and natural resources, struggles around local authority – for instance, <a href="https://riftvalley.net/publication/microcosm-militarization">about the succession of chiefs</a> – <a href="https://www.crisisgroup.org/africa/central-africa/democratic-republic-congo/b150-averting-proxy-wars-eastern-dr-congo-and-great-lakes">interference by neighbouring countries</a> and militarised political competition. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-history-matters-in-understanding-conflict-in-the-eastern-democratic-republic-of-congo-148546">Why history matters in understanding conflict in the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo</a>
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<p>Ongoing violence makes the protection of the park challenging, though park rangers are not the only group to face insecurity – the park, and its surroundings, are also very deadly for civilians. For example, earlier this month <a href="https://www.dw.com/en/dr-congo-at-least-20-killed-in-raid-on-village/a-56138421#:%7E:text=Local%20authorities%20said%20at%20least,Republic%20of%20Congo%20on%20Monday.&text=at%20least%2021.-,It%20was%20the%20second%20mass%20killing%20in%20a%20week,the%20Democratic%20Republic%20of%20Congo.">at least</a> 22 civilians were massacred during a raid attributed to a rebel group in a village bordering the park in Beni territory. </p>
<p><strong>What is the context within which attacks on rangers in Virunga national park occur?</strong></p>
<p>In general, the security situation in North-Kivu – where the park is located – shows <a href="https://reliefweb.int/report/democratic-republic-congo/midterm-report-group-experts-democratic-republic-congo-s20201283">no signs of improving</a>, as violence is ongoing.</p>
<p>Moreover, over the past five to seven years, the park guards have increasingly become a <a href="https://twitter.com/ethuin/status/1253759847109099520">specific target</a> of some of the numerous armed groups hiding and operating in the park. This can, in part, be explained by the rangers’ increasing efforts to halt illegal natural resources exploitation in the park, such as the <a href="https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/africaatlse/2019/03/25/virunga-charcoal-trade/">production of charcoal</a> and <a href="http://www.radiomoto.net/2019/08/16/vitshumbi-de-la-peche-illicite-a-la-baisse-de-la-production-halieutique-sur-le-lac-edouard">illegal fishing</a>, which are important sources of revenue for many armed groups. Some of these efforts entail close collaboration with the Congolese army, such as joint patrols, intelligence sharing and sometimes joint operations. For rebel groups, this is a reason to consider the park guards a threat to their spheres of influence, sources of revenue and even existence. </p>
<p>Armed groups also once <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-44086214">kidnapped tourists</a>, which was aimed at sabotaging the park’s tourism potential.</p>
<p>Another, more indirect reason why park guards are under attack relates to anti-park sentiments among parts of the local population. There are <a href="https://www.academia.edu/44756564/Conflicts_around_Virunga_National_Park_Grassroots_perspectives">numerous conflicts</a> between the park management and people living around the park, which relate, amongst others, to contestations around the boundaries of the park, grievances about land appropriation, and the regulation of the use of natural resources. Armed groups, often closely linked to the population due to family and other social ties, mobilise these conflicts to obtain a measure of support in the areas where they operate. This includes the groups operating around Nyamilima, where the most recent attack took place. There are strong <a href="https://www.radiookapi.net/2020/04/06/actualite/politique/rdc-un-depute-appelle-resoudre-le-conflit-entre-riverains-et-eco">tensions</a> in this area, as the park is aiming to erect an electric fence. This project is heavily disputed by the population, as they contest the park’s boundaries. </p>
<p>It’s important to stress that this doesn’t mean that people living in the area endorse the use of violence against park guards; in fact, many people <a href="https://www.politico.cd/encontinu/2020/05/05/accusee-de-collaboration-avec-les-groupes-armes-la-lucha-considere-la-declaration-de-larmee-de-dangereuse-et-irresponsable-en-plus-detre-mensongere.html/59999/">condemn</a> these acts and are committed to non-violent conflict resolution. Nevertheless, through our <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03066150.2016.1203307">work</a>, we’ve observed that attacks are more likely to take place in areas marked by intense conflicts.</p>
<p>Despite some recurring features, the context and circumstances of each attack are different. Attacks should therefore be investigated individually. This will help to hold perpetrators to account and create a better understanding of their motivations and objectives, which is important to avoid future attacks.</p>
<p><strong>What steps have been taken to protect the park and its rangers?</strong></p>
<p>Park guards receive sophisticated <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2015/10/151014-virunga-women-rangers-mountain-gorillas-congo/">military-style training</a>, including combat techniques, to defend themselves. They also have advanced logistical and communications equipment to allow for rapid movement and up-to-date information. </p>
<p>In addition, the park has developed an extensive system of <a href="https://www.fws.gov/international/pdf/FY17-AFR-project-summaries.pdf">aerial surveillance</a> to track the bases and movements of armed groups. Furthermore, to operate in the more dangerous areas, it has created a <a href="https://blog.kivusecurity.org/tag/qrf-2/">quick reaction force</a>, which is a more heavily armed unit deployed for robust operations. </p>
<p>Finally, in some areas, park guards operate jointly with the Congolese army, which has a much larger presence throughout the park.</p>
<p><strong>How effective is this strategy and what else can be done?</strong></p>
<p>The current response of increased military-style training and operations has led to inadvertent consequences, <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-fighting-fire-with-fire-in-drcs-virunga-park-isnt-helping-conservation-72295">setting off a vicious cycle of violence</a>. Increased pressure on armed groups and collaboration with the Congolese army leads almost inevitably to counterattacks. </p>
<p>Park guards – currently <a href="https://virunga.org/alliance/virunga-rangers/">around 689</a> – are outnumbered by the armed groups operating in the park and are a very vulnerable target. Efforts to increase the park guards’ protection have so far not proven to be very effective. Park guards themselves feel this very clearly. While they are consistently depicted as heroes and martyrs, many are very <a href="https://www.academia.edu/44756564/Conflicts_around_Virunga_National_Park_Grassroots_perspectives">afraid</a> – and reluctant – to lose their lives.</p>
<p>In addition, the current approach has <a href="https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/africaatlse/2019/07/05/virunga-national-park-law-conservation-drc/">worsened relations</a> between the park and local populations. During <a href="https://www.academia.edu/44756564/Conflicts_around_Virunga_National_Park_Grassroots_perspectives">our research</a> in the area, we found people fear and distrust the park guards. These tense relations are also regretted by the park guards we have spoken to. Some of them wish they were less expected to work as “soldiers” and more as conservationists. </p>
<p>We believe that the park guards’ security can be improved in two ways: </p>
<p>First, it is crucial to prioritise resolving conflicts with the people living around the park, and for the park to engage in more dialogue. In addition, the park should intensify efforts to protect the population against rampant insecurity. </p>
<p>Second, a comprehensive strategy needs to be developed for dealing with the armed groups operating in the park. Clearly, this is not the primary responsibility of the park, but of the Congolese government and the army, as well as politicians and community leaders.</p>
<p>Unfortunately, as ongoing insecurity testifies, there are limited signs that such a strategy is in the making, implying both park guards and the people living in the Virunga area will remain exposed to insecurity for the foreseeable future.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/153227/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Judith Verweijen receives funding from the Knowledge Platform Security and Rule of Law</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Esther Marijnen does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>To improve the security of park guards and other people, it is crucial to mitigate park-people conflicts and tackle armed groups.Judith Verweijen, Lecturer, University of SheffieldEsther Marijnen, Assistant professor, Ghent UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1447552020-09-11T10:05:27Z2020-09-11T10:05:27ZPrimates are facing an impending extinction crisis - but we know very little about what will actually protect them<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/357435/original/file-20200910-24-zzu4z1.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=30%2C14%2C1846%2C1235&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/animal-ape-care-cute-332153/">Nicholas Santasier/Pexels</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>From lemurs to orangutans, tarsiers to gorillas, primates are captivating and sometimes unnervingly similar to us. So it’s not surprising that this group of more than 500 species receives a great deal of research and conservation attention. </p>
<p>But despite this effort, more than 60% of primate species are <a href="https://theconversation.com/60-of-primate-species-now-threatened-with-extinction-says-major-new-study-71441">threatened with extinction</a> mainly due to human activities, such as habitat loss, hunting, illegal trade, climate change and disease.</p>
<p>This extinction crisis makes effective conservation actions vital.
There are many different possible conservation <a href="https://www.conservationevidence.com/data/index/?synopsis_id%255b%255d=21">actions for primates</a>, like anti-poaching patrols, relocating animals, publicising conservation issues and reintroducing primates into their habitats. But <a href="https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/advance-article/doi/10.1093/biosci/biaa082/5896003">our new study</a> shows that very little is known about what actually works to protect primates. </p>
<p>I’m part of a team of expert primatologists and conservationists from 21 countries who examined the evidence for 162 primate conservation actions to see if they actually work. We found there wasn’t any research published testing the effectiveness of more than half of the actions. This lack of evidence means it’s impossible to know whether these actions work or not. </p>
<p>Even when studies on the effectiveness of a conservation action have been published, we found it was still difficult to draw valid conclusions about whether the action worked, due to problems with the design of the studies. This was even true for some actions that have been studied 20 to 30 times.</p>
<p>These huge gaps in knowledge are worrying, because without adequate information, researchers can’t learn from experience and can’t prioritise efforts and funding to best protect our primate relatives. Indeed, without access to evidence, conservationists might apply actions that are ineffective or even damaging to the animals they seek to protect.</p>
<h2>Missing species</h2>
<p>The studies we reviewed only cover about 14% of the more than 500 primate species and just 12% of threatened primate species. And they mainly focus on the great apes and some of the larger monkey species. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Primates sitting on tree branch in front of river." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/357440/original/file-20200910-22-1ut18o1.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/357440/original/file-20200910-22-1ut18o1.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/357440/original/file-20200910-22-1ut18o1.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/357440/original/file-20200910-22-1ut18o1.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/357440/original/file-20200910-22-1ut18o1.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/357440/original/file-20200910-22-1ut18o1.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/357440/original/file-20200910-22-1ut18o1.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Primates are essential to tropical rainforests, pollinating trees and dispersing seeds across these vital carbon stores.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/@freestockpro">Pexels/VisionPic.net</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Worryingly, some whole families are completely left out of the studies we reviewed. There are, for example, no studies of the tarsiers of south-east Asia in our database, or of the night monkeys of Central and South America. This is a problem, because we can’t assume that an action that works for one primate species will work for another species, due to each species’ unique behaviour and ecology. </p>
<p>We also found that South America and Asia are underrepresented in current conservation research on primates. This is particularly worrying because both are home to a high number of threatened primate species.</p>
<h2>Why is this happening?</h2>
<p>Faced with limited budgets and time, competing priorities and the urgency of many conservation scenarios, it’s easy to understand why conservationists might not focus on evaluating their actions.</p>
<p>The question, “Does this conservation action improve the long-term future of a population?” may seem simple, but it’s particularly difficult to answer for many primates. This is because many primate species live in dense tropical forest, with poor visibility and difficult access, making it extremely tough to count them. If researchers can’t get a good idea of how many primates there are, they can’t find out if the numbers are decreasing, stable, or increasing. And without seeing the animals themselves, we can’t assess their wellbeing.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Group of primates in forest." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/357438/original/file-20200910-14-ett5vo.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/357438/original/file-20200910-14-ett5vo.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/357438/original/file-20200910-14-ett5vo.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/357438/original/file-20200910-14-ett5vo.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/357438/original/file-20200910-14-ett5vo.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/357438/original/file-20200910-14-ett5vo.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/357438/original/file-20200910-14-ett5vo.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Without action, the number of endangered primates will grow and more species will disappear forever.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/@tasveerwala">Pexels/Nitin Sharma</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Conservationists also need to monitor primates for a long time to measure the effect of any action taken, because they live a long time and reproduce very slowly. In a short study, for example, it might be easy to confuse the long life of the last few individuals with a persistent population. It’s also important to be confident that any effects seen are related to the specific conservation action taken, rather than coincidence. </p>
<p>Beyond these challenges, publishing a study is difficult. Worse, the pressure to publish in prestigious journals favours publication of success stories, rather than actions that didn’t work, meaning that published studies may give a biased picture of the real situation.</p>
<h2>Improving the evidence</h2>
<p>Now that the scale of the problem is known, the gaps need to be identified to ensure research focuses on threatened species and understudied regions, and that actions with insufficient evidence are evaluated. </p>
<p>Funding organisations should dedicate resources to evaluating conservation actions. Meanwhile, experts like the <a href="http://www.primate-sg.org/">Primate Specialist Group</a> can contribute by developing guidelines on how to test actions rigorously. </p>
<p>Academic scientists can also collaborate with conservationists to design appropriate studies. Evidence databases like the one <a href="https://www.conservationevidence.com/data/index/?synopsis_id%255b%255d=21">we assessed</a> provide easily-understood summaries of actions and their effectiveness, as well as a place to report findings – and partially address the problem of publication. </p>
<p>Conservationists also need to be cautious as it’s clear that in many instances it’s not yet known if an action is effective or not. This is important because primates and their habitats face ominous threats and urgent effective conservation measures are needed to protect them. But by adopting an evidence-based approach to the conservation of primates, we can ensure they continue to enchant us in the future.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/144755/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jo Setchell is affiliated with the IUCN Primate Specialist Group</span></em></p>Without adequate information, we can’t prioritise efforts and funding to best protect our primate relatives.Jo Setchell, Professor of Anthropology, Durham UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1340832020-03-24T14:07:13Z2020-03-24T14:07:13ZTransmission of diseases from humans to apes: why extra vigilance is now needed<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/322308/original/file-20200323-112657-1momyt5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Arend de Haas / African Conservation Foundation</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>With the current outbreak of the coronavirus disease, COVID-19, global attention has been drawn to the significant health risks posed by eating wild animals. As the number of infections from the coronavirus exploded in China, the outbreak was <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-00548-w">linked</a> to a live animal and seafood market in Jianghan District, Wuhan. The specific animal source and mode of initial transmission are not yet known.</p>
<p>The consumption of wild meat has been the root cause of several <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature05775">epidemics stemming from animal sources</a> in recent history. The current outbreak is the <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-chinas-bat-woman-hunted-down-viruses-from-sars-to-the-new-coronavirus1/">sixth one linked to bats</a> in the past 26 years. <a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.02.27.969006v1">Comparative genomic analyses</a> have shown that the SARS-CoV-2 virus, that causes COVID-19, is the result of a recombination between two different viruses, one close to a SARS-CoV-2 virus isolated from bats and the other closer to a virus present in pangolins; a <a href="https://theconversation.com/coronavirus-origins-genome-analysis-suggests-two-viruses-may-have-combined-134059">chimera</a> between two pre-existing viruses.</p>
<p>Viruses usually <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-dont-viruses-make-their-original-hosts-sick-5-questions-answered-131030">don’t make their original hosts sick</a>. This is because the two have evolved together and the host species has had time to build up resistance. But when viruses jump to a new host, they frequently cause more severely contagious diseases. </p>
<p>An example is disease transmission <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpubh.2019.00305/full">between humans and apes</a> which has been shown to be relatively easy. Research on great apes has shown that they are <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3970160/">extremely sensitive</a> to infection with human respiratory viruses. For example, the common cold virus, which is also a coronavirus, is known to infect gorillas and chimpanzees. </p>
<p>As a new strain of coronavirus, it’s still not known whether SARS-CoV-2 can cause a respiratory disease in animals like the great apes. But conservationists, zookeepers and rangers should beware of the risks. COVID-19 could potentially be harmful for endangered great apes like Mountain gorilla, lowland gorillas, critically endangered <a href="https://crossrivergorilla.org/">Cross River gorillas</a> and chimpanzees in Africa, as well as for orangutans in Asia.</p>
<p>Based on my research and experience with these species, I would advocate for a temporary stop on great ape trekking tours, research and habituation activities. Some have done so. This is despite the fact that ecotourism is vital to the long-term conservation of endangered animals. But in the longer term a ban would protect the great apes as well the ecotourism operations.</p>
<h2>A history of cross infection</h2>
<p>Acute and fatal respiratory illnesses known to have come from humans have occurred in habituated groups of wild chimpanzees with <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajp.20565">morbidity rates varying between 34% to 98% and mortality rates between 3% and 7%</a>. </p>
<p>Between 1990 and 2010, <a href="https://bioone.org/journals/Journal-of-Zoo-and-Wildlife-Medicine/volume-44/issue-4/2013-0014R.1/RESPIRATORY-DISEASE-IN-MOUNTAIN-GORILLAS-iGORILLA-BERINGEI-BERINGEI-i-IN/10.1638/2013-0014R.1.short">18 outbreaks of respiratory disease</a> occurred in human-habituated mountain gorillas. Other studies led to <a href="http://www.primate-sg.org/best_practice_tourism/">guidelines for best practice</a> and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3970160/">measures to reduce the threat of disease transmission</a> from humans to gorillas. But according to a study in Uganda the seven-meter distance rule was <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2020/02/200213175912.htm">violated in over 98%</a> of gorilla tours. Nearly 70% of gorilla observations took place at a distance less than seven metres.</p>
<p>Health officials emphasise that the virus is spread mainly by people who are already showing typical symptoms, such as fever, cough and sneezing. But the new SARS-CoV-2 spreads quickly and sometimes before people <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2020/03/200316143313.htm">have symptoms</a>. This means that people who feel well enough to take part in outdoor activities could be carrying the virus.</p>
<h2>Great ape reserves closing to tourists</h2>
<p>Pandemic human viruses already <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982208000171">contribute to the decline</a> of endangered great apes.</p>
<p>According to <a href="https://www.gorilladoctors.org/coronavirus-and-disease-how-you-can-help-protect-mountain-gorillas/">Gorilla Doctors</a>, an international veterinary team providing medical care to ill and injured gorillas, the most effective measure for the prevention of the introduction of SARS CoV-2 virus (or any pathogen) to human-habituated eastern (mountain and Grauer’s) gorillas in Rwanda, Uganda and DR Congo is to minimise direct and indirect contact between gorillas and infected people.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/321694/original/file-20200319-22614-19zwhkk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/321694/original/file-20200319-22614-19zwhkk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/321694/original/file-20200319-22614-19zwhkk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/321694/original/file-20200319-22614-19zwhkk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/321694/original/file-20200319-22614-19zwhkk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/321694/original/file-20200319-22614-19zwhkk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/321694/original/file-20200319-22614-19zwhkk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Great apes ecotourism in Rwanda.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Arend de Haas/ACF</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Gabon has already decided to <a href="https://www.france24.com/en/20200316-gabon-bans-tourists-from-seeing-gorillas-over-coronavirus-fears">halt great ape trekking</a>, fearing that humans could transmit the novel coronavirus to the animals. Rangers will be placed in quarantine for 14 days before being allowed to enter the forest. <a href="https://virunga.org/news/virunga-national-park-temporarily-closes-mountain-gorilla-tourism-due-to-covid-19">Virunga National Park</a> also decided to temporarily close Mountain gorilla tourism.</p>
<p>But the bigger problem is to ensure that the rampant wildlife industry is brought under control. Conservation organisations welcome China’s decision to temporarily ban all farming and consumption of <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2020/03/05/asia/china-coronavirus-wildlife-consumption-ban-intl-hnk/index.html">“terrestrial wildlife of important ecological, scientific and social value”</a>.</p>
<p>As an immediate result, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/feb/25/coronavirus-closures-reveal-vast-scale-of-chinas-secretive-wildlife-farm-industry">nearly 20,000 wildlife farms</a> raising various species like civet cats, porcupines, ostriches, wild geese and boar have been closed across China. Following China’s lead, <a href="http://www.nature.org.vn/en/2020/03/vietnam-to-ban-wildlife-trade/">Vietnam</a> is also looking to end the consumption and sale of wild animals.</p>
<p>Governments and intergovernmental organisations need to act more responsibly and proactively. COVID-19 is a <a href="https://medium.com/@carlsafina/covid-19-is-a-wake-up-call-dont-hit-snooze-9aa7de13aa9a">wake-up call</a>. To protect ecosystems, public health and economies, we need to prevent future viral outbreaks by banning the trade and consumption of wildlife permanently through demand and supply-side interventions, including enforcement and education. </p>
<p>For these to be successful, both the demand and supply-sides need to be managed consistently. Bans have worked for some species, such as <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Anna_Lavoie2/publication/282912535_Do_Wildlife_Trade_Bans_Enhance_or_Undermine_Conservation_Efforts/links/56225a7b08aed8dd1943f561/Do-Wildlife-Trade-Bans-Enhance-or-Undermine-Conservation-Efforts.pdf">parrots and other wild birds</a>. But in other cases, such as the illegal trade in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128155073000198">pangolins</a>, <a href="https://africanconservation.org/rhino-horn-must-become-a-socially-unacceptable-product-in-asia/">rhino horn</a> and <a href="https://wildaid.org/china-upholds-1993-ban/">tiger parts</a>, they have been less effective because they weren’t enforced on both sides.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/134083/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Arend de Haas is a director of the African Conservation Foundation and board member of the Institute for Biodiversity and Non-profit Studies. He is affiliated with True Nature Foundation and the Environmental and Rural Development Foundation. </span></em></p>COVID-19 could potentially be harmful for endangered great apes.Arend de Haas, Conservation Director, Wildlife Ecologist and Microbiologist at the African Conservation Foundation. Lecturer and board member at the Institute of Biodiversity and Non-Profit Studies, University of BueaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1039112018-10-16T05:28:58Z2018-10-16T05:28:58ZHow catching malaria gave me a new perspective on saving gorillas<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/240765/original/file-20181016-165903-xviq9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Mountain and lowland gorillas are vulnerable to malaria.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Zoos Victoria</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Conservationists are in a desperate fight to save the last of the world’s gorillas. Numbers of some subspecies are so low that organisations are literally saving the species <a href="http://www.gorilladoctors.org/">one gorilla at a time</a>.</p>
<p>A perhaps unlikely foe in this battle is <a href="http://www.gorilladoctors.org/saving-lives/gorilla-health-threats/infectious-disease/">human-borne disease</a>, including malaria, which has the potential for transmission from people to gorillas via bites from female <em>Anopheles</em> mosquitoes. Central Africa, the home of the gorillas, is highly susceptible to this disease, driving poverty and desperation amongst its communities.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-why-do-humans-not-have-fur-like-chimpanzees-and-gorillas-80320">Curious Kids: Why do humans not have fur like chimpanzees and gorillas?</a>
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<p>As human populations expand and deforestation increases, gorillas are brought into closer contact with people and the risk of disease transmission rises – with devastating effects.</p>
<h2>Malaria infects people and our great ape cousins</h2>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/240769/original/file-20181016-165885-17kp2ji.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/240769/original/file-20181016-165885-17kp2ji.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/240769/original/file-20181016-165885-17kp2ji.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/240769/original/file-20181016-165885-17kp2ji.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/240769/original/file-20181016-165885-17kp2ji.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/240769/original/file-20181016-165885-17kp2ji.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/240769/original/file-20181016-165885-17kp2ji.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/240769/original/file-20181016-165885-17kp2ji.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A male mountain gorilla in Virunga National Park.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Marissa Parrott/Zoos Victoria</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In 2012 and 2017, I was lucky to see the magnificent, gentle and intelligent gorillas up close in both Bwindi Impenetrable Forest in Uganda, and Virunga National Park in the Democratic Republic of Congo. </p>
<p>I learned about the vital work of <a href="https://www.zoo.org.au/fighting-extinction/our-fighting-extinction-goal">Zoos Victoria</a>’s partner, Gorilla Doctors, in the protection and veterinary treatment of gorillas. </p>
<p>Malaria is the <a href="https://www.nature.com/news/2002/021003/full/news021001-6.html">biggest disease killer of humans</a> of all time, having claimed billions of human lives. Roughly half of the world’s population is at risk, and around <a href="http://www.who.int/malaria/media/world-malaria-report-2017/en/">half a million people die</a> from the disease each year. </p>
<p>While the effects of malaria on human communities are horrifying, the effects of this and other human-borne diseases on gorillas, with so few remaining, pose the threat of extinction. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-drones-are-helping-in-the-fight-against-malaria-97197">How drones are helping in the fight against malaria</a>
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</em>
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<p>At least 10 species of malaria can infect gorillas, with three being the same or highly similar <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/107/4/1458">to those</a> <a href="http://www.parazitologie.cz/protozoologie/Personal%20homepages/Votypka/Malaria_gorillas_DSPA_2015.pdf">found in</a> <a href="https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/24/8/pdfs/18-0010.pdf">humans</a>. In one study, <a href="http://www.parazitologie.cz/protozoologie/Personal%20homepages/Votypka/Malaria_gorillas_DSPA_2015.pdf">more than 30% of gorillas</a> were infected with malaria parasites. However, difficulties in studying the often remote and critically endangered gorillas means potential transmission pathways remain unknown. More research is required to determine the effects of this disease and how to protect gorillas in the future. </p>
<h2>My own battle against malaria</h2>
<p>Despite never feeling or seeing a mosquito bite, I learned about these issues first-hand when I caught malaria myself. </p>
<p>During my PhD, I taught practical classes on malaria, and it was this knowledge that led me to believe I was in trouble in 2017.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/240767/original/file-20181016-165909-1652roy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/240767/original/file-20181016-165909-1652roy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/240767/original/file-20181016-165909-1652roy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=456&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/240767/original/file-20181016-165909-1652roy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=456&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/240767/original/file-20181016-165909-1652roy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=456&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/240767/original/file-20181016-165909-1652roy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=574&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/240767/original/file-20181016-165909-1652roy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=574&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/240767/original/file-20181016-165909-1652roy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=574&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The author wearing a face mask to protect gorillas in Virunga National Park.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Marissa Parrott/Zoos Victoria</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Despite taking malaria-prevention medication, I had encountered one of the few diseases found in both <a href="https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/24/8/pdfs/18-0010.pdf">humans and gorillas</a>: <em>Plasmodium ovale</em>, a parasite that appears to be growing a resistance to some medications.</p>
<p>My local Australian doctors had never encountered this species, and despite blood tests showing massive liver damage, I was not diagnosed for weeks. I spent a week in hospital, hooked to intravenous fluids, and left in a wheelchair.</p>
<p>The effects of malaria are horrific. <em>P. ovale</em> has a <a href="https://cmr.asm.org/content/cmr/18/3/570.full.pdf">49-hour life cycle</a>, bursting in their millions out of blood cells to infect and multiply. The first sign is nerve pain – every touch feels like sandpaper – followed by a loss of circulation to your arms and legs, then crippling fevers, sometimes over 41°C. You shake so violently and uncontrollably that you tear your muscles. In the aftermath, your blood pressure drops, in my case close to half of what it should have been.</p>
<p>Malaria is also called “Blackwater Disease”, because your urine turns the colour of Coca Cola while your body excretes all your destroyed blood cells. On one hand this was fascinating to see. On the other, it was terrifying. I really needed those blood cells.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-kenya-isnt-winning-the-war-against-malaria-in-some-counties-95101">Why Kenya isn't winning the war against malaria in some counties</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Twelve months on, I’ve been lucky with my recovery. We don’t know whether a gorilla infected with <em>P. ovale</em> would suffer the same symptoms, but I can’t fathom the fear a gorilla could feel with this crippling disease. Or the pain a mother could feel while watching her baby convulse with fevers. As with <a href="http://www.who.int/malaria/areas/high_risk_groups/children/en/">human children</a>, malaria and other diseases are often <a href="http://www.parazitologie.cz/protozoologie/Personal%20homepages/Votypka/Malaria_gorillas_DSPA_2015.pdf">most prevalent in younger gorillas</a>.</p>
<h2>To protect gorillas, you must protect people</h2>
<p>Thankfully, there is hope. <a href="http://www.gorilladoctors.org/">Gorilla Doctors</a> monitor Eastern Lowland and Mountain Gorilla families deep in the jungles for signs of illness and injury. They deliver hands-on treatment for viral, parasitic and bacterial diseases, often via darts, or in severe cases under anaesthetic. They also support research, with PhD students studying a variety of <a href="http://www.gorilladoctors.org/phd-candidate-alisa-kubala-conducts-research-malaria-eastern-gorillas/">diseases including malaria</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/240768/original/file-20181016-165905-1y3oh4l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/240768/original/file-20181016-165905-1y3oh4l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/240768/original/file-20181016-165905-1y3oh4l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=816&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/240768/original/file-20181016-165905-1y3oh4l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=816&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/240768/original/file-20181016-165905-1y3oh4l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=816&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/240768/original/file-20181016-165905-1y3oh4l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1026&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/240768/original/file-20181016-165905-1y3oh4l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1026&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/240768/original/file-20181016-165905-1y3oh4l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1026&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A young mountain gorilla in Virunga National Park.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">ZoosVictoria/Marissa Parrott</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>With such devastating diseases, the work of organisations to protect both local communities and gorillas is paramount. Ecotourism brings new people, and potentially new diseases in contact with gorillas. But it also brings crucial funding for the species and management of national parks. It is a delicate balancing act.</p>
<p>Studies suggest the greatest risk of disease transmission comes from local communities. Gorillas Doctors support <a href="http://www.gorilladoctors.org/saving-lives/one-health-medicine/">One Health Initiatives</a> for local communities and their domestic livestock. You cannot care for wildlife without caring for local communities and the health of staff who work in the national parks to protect the great apes.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-origin-of-us-what-we-know-so-far-about-where-we-humans-come-from-54385">The origin of 'us': what we know so far about where we humans come from</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Visiting national parks and supporting well-run ecotourism brings much-needed income and attention to these areas, although you should see your doctor for appropriate malaria prophylaxis. Zoos Victoria also supports Gorilla Doctors’ work in the wild through their mobile-phone recycling program “<a href="https://www.zoo.org.au/get-involved/act-for-wildlife/theyre-calling-on-you">They’re Calling on You</a>”.</p>
<p>Support organisations to protect gorillas and the people who care for and live beside them.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/103911/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marissa Parrott works for Zoos Victoria, a not-for-profit zoo-based conservation organisation.
Zoos Victoria raises funds via the collection of mobile phones for recycling through their 'They're Calling on You' campaign to Gorilla Doctors to support their work protecting gorillas in the field.</span></em></p>Malaria can be transmitted from humans to gorillas, with devastating effects.Marissa Parrott, Reproductive Biologist, Wildlife Conservation & Science, Zoos Victoria, and Honorary Research Associate, BioSciences, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/803202017-12-12T19:12:46Z2017-12-12T19:12:46ZCurious Kids: Why do humans not have fur like chimpanzees and gorillas?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/176352/original/file-20170630-21076-19mdgta.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Why do humans have fur only on their heads? </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>This is an article from <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/curious-kids-36782">Curious Kids</a>, a series for children. The Conversation is asking kids to send in questions they’d like an expert to answer. All questions are welcome – serious, weird or wacky!</em> </p>
<hr>
<blockquote>
<p><strong>Why do humans not have fur like chimpanzees and gorillas? – Thomas, age 4, Darlington, NSW.</strong></p>
</blockquote>
<p>We know that at one point humans <em>did</em> have fur! But we don’t know why we lost it, so we have to guess. </p>
<p>Scientists think that our ancestors (so think of your grandmother’s grandmother’s grandmother’s grandmother but over a million years ago) experienced a very big change in the climate. The world became much hotter, and that meant that people had to start travelling further and further to find food. </p>
<p>Dr <a href="http://anth.la.psu.edu/people/ngj2">Nina Jablonski</a>, an expert on ancient humans, <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-naked-truth/">thinks</a> that slightly less hairy people may have been in better shape to travel these distances because they would have been able to keep cool more easily.</p>
<p>So if you’re less hairy, it means you can travel a long way, which means you can eat more food. If you’re more hairy, it means you can only travel a short way before you get too hot, which means you find less food and go hungry.</p>
<p>That means the people with less hair were the ones who stayed alive long enough to have kids. And just like how you might have the same eye or hair colour as one of your parents, those kids also inherited having less hair from their parents. That’s why nowadays you won’t see very furry humans. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-where-does-the-oxygen-come-from-in-the-international-space-station-and-why-dont-they-run-out-of-air-82910">Curious Kids: Where does the oxygen come from in the International Space Station, and why don’t they run out of air?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>All mammals (warm-blooded animals) have body hair, which protects their skin from sunlight and means it won’t get cut or grazed as much, but every animal has different kinds of hair for different reasons, such as:</p>
<ul>
<li> The colour of hair can be very useful for animals like kangaroos and dingos because it can make the animal difficult to see. That makes it easier to hide from predators, and also easier for predators to stalk prey. </li>
</ul>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/196258/original/file-20171124-21795-1rc3fhy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/196258/original/file-20171124-21795-1rc3fhy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/196258/original/file-20171124-21795-1rc3fhy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/196258/original/file-20171124-21795-1rc3fhy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/196258/original/file-20171124-21795-1rc3fhy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/196258/original/file-20171124-21795-1rc3fhy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/196258/original/file-20171124-21795-1rc3fhy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/196258/original/file-20171124-21795-1rc3fhy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A lion’s fur blends in to its environment.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<ul>
<li><p>Most animals need hair for sun protection, but some animals, like naked mole rats which always live underground, have no fur because they don’t need any protection from the sun.</p></li>
<li><p>Whales and dolphins, mammals that live in the sea, have almost no hair because it is very difficult to swim if you are covered in fur.</p></li>
<li><p>Hair can help keep you very warm, which is helpful in a cold place. Sea otters have some of the warmest fur in the world because they live in freezing cold water next to the Arctic. </p></li>
<li><p>If you are a very small animal like a mouse you can get cold easily, so hair is very important. But if you are a big animal like an elephant you might not need the warmth of hair as much. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>Staying warm is easier for bigger animals, which may explain why smaller primates like monkeys tend to have thicker hair than bigger ones like chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans. (But that doesn’t explain why human hair is so fine and short… so there are still lots of questions that even scientists can’t always answer.)</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-how-do-x-rays-see-inside-you-85895">Curious Kids: How do x-rays see inside you?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Did you know?</h2>
<p>When we lost our hair it meant that nothing was protecting our skin against the sun. We think that we lost our hair at the same time as when people started getting darker skin (because darker skin protects you from the sun better than paler skin).</p>
<p>One person who studies genes (the instructions that your body gets from your parents) is geneticist Alan Rogers. He <a href="http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/381006">estimated</a> that the gene (or instruction) that makes dark skin is just over 1 million years old. So we think this is when our ancestors were also losing their fur.</p>
<p>I hope you aren’t disappointed that we can’t give you a simple answer. On the other hand, we still have an interesting mystery to solve.</p>
<p><em>Hello, curious kids! Have you got a question you’d like an expert to answer? Ask an adult to send your question to us. They can:</em></p>
<p><em>* Email your question to curiouskids@theconversation.edu.au
<br>
* Tell us on <a href="https://twitter.com/ConversationEDU">Twitter</a> by tagging <a href="https://twitter.com/ConversationEDU">@ConversationEDU</a> with the hashtag #curiouskids, or
<br>
* Tell us on <a href="http://www.facebook.com/conversationEDU">Facebook</a></em></p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/168011/original/file-20170505-21620-huq4lj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/168011/original/file-20170505-21620-huq4lj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/168011/original/file-20170505-21620-huq4lj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/168011/original/file-20170505-21620-huq4lj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/168011/original/file-20170505-21620-huq4lj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/168011/original/file-20170505-21620-huq4lj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/168011/original/file-20170505-21620-huq4lj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><em>Please tell us your name, age, and which city you live in. You can send an audio recording of your question too, if you want. Send as many questions as you like! We won’t be able to answer every question but we will do our best.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/80320/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark Elgar receives funding from the Australian Research Council, and the National Geographic Society. He is Field Chief Editor of Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution.
</span></em></p>Scientists say humans are pretty similar to chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans. So why don’t we have fur like they do?Mark Elgar, Professor of Evolutionary Biology, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/736952017-03-16T17:46:46Z2017-03-16T17:46:46ZEyes in the sky and on the ground are helping forest conservation in Cameroon<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/158982/original/image-20170301-5501-1e86jku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">In Cameroon efforts are underway to halt rainforest loss and develop opportunities with locals.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Arend de Haas</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The highland rainforests of South West Cameroon are among the oldest forests on the continent. They comprise the richest flora and fauna in continental tropical Africa. The area is one of the world’s most important biodiversity hotspots. The region encompasses high levels of unique, as well as endangered species. These include the <a href="http://www.crossrivergorilla.org/">Cross River gorilla</a>, Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzees and forest elephants. </p>
<p>But the region is also home to communities who rely on the land for their survival. Most of this unique forest is community land with no formal protected status. </p>
<p>The main driver of deforestation and forest degradation in this part of Cameroon, is <a href="http://www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-57.pdf">agriculture</a>. This can be in the form of large scale industrial agriculture, subsistence farming, particularly shifting slash and burn cultivation, and wood harvesting by the communities. Government initiatives like infrastructure development and industrial logging accelerate this process. </p>
<p>To curb the problem, a number of organisations including community-based groups, are working together to halt rainforest loss. At the same time, they are developing new livelihood opportunities with local people. These include the <a href="https://www.africanconservation.org/">African Conservation Foundation</a> and the <a href="http://www.erudef.org/">Environmental and Rural Development Foundation</a>.</p>
<p>The success and efficiency of conservation activities, like forest monitoring, law enforcement and management of protected areas, that are being established as part of this project, could be greatly improved by taking informed decisions based on up-to-date information, as close to real time as possible.</p>
<p>A new project has set out to do this. It facilitates information sharing between forest dependent communities – the eyes on the ground – and satellite images gathered by <a href="http://www.globalforestwatch.org/">Global Forest Watch</a> – the eyes in the sky. Local people help improve the accuracy of international monitoring instruments, by ground-truthing remote sensing data. This strengthens forest monitoring while immediate threats to critically endangered wildlife species are addressed through an early warning system indicating areas that have experienced recent forest loss.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/159022/original/image-20170301-5492-1o43u3i.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/159022/original/image-20170301-5492-1o43u3i.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159022/original/image-20170301-5492-1o43u3i.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159022/original/image-20170301-5492-1o43u3i.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159022/original/image-20170301-5492-1o43u3i.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159022/original/image-20170301-5492-1o43u3i.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159022/original/image-20170301-5492-1o43u3i.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Rainforest of Upper Bayang in the Cameroon Highlands.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Arend de Haas/ACF</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Eyes in the sky</h2>
<p>Global Forest Watch is run by the <a href="http://www.wri.org/">World Resources Institute</a> and uses satellite images to track tree cover loss in near-real time. It’s created <a href="http://www.globalforestwatch.org/map/3/15.00/27.00/ALL/grayscale/umd_as_it_happens?tab=countries-tab&begin=2015-01-01&end=2016-02-25">a system</a> that detects tree cover loss on an annual and weekly basis.</p>
<p>The initiative was developed by at <a href="http://www.glad.umd.edu/">a special lab</a> based at the University of Maryland in the US. It provides an unprecedented opportunity for understanding and monitoring the threats to forest ecosystems. The lab also provide tools to maximise the efficiency and effectiveness of on the ground monitoring.</p>
<p>But there was a need to bring the data from the satellite images to the ground. To do this, we started testing the <a href="http://www.janegoodall.org/2016/11/21/monitoring-forests-2/">Forest Watcher</a>, an Android app developed in collaboration between the <a href="http://www.janegoodall.org/2016/11/21/monitoring-forests-2/">Jane Goodall Institute</a>, Google and World Resources Institute. It enabled us to download the data, customise the types of information to be collected, and train community members to validate tree cover loss data in the field. </p>
<p>One of the challenges we faced was making satellite data available and accessible to communities who live in remote areas without electricity or internet and are not computer literate. </p>
<p>To make the data available and accessible to local communities spatial information was transformed into a format that communities can manage and develop themselves. To do this <a href="http://www.iapad.org/about/about-p3dm/">Participatory 3-Dimensional Modeling</a> was used. This is an interactive, visual tool that facilitates the gathering of information and places it into a physical 3-dimensional model of focal areas. It <a href="https://www.africanconservation.org/news/cameroon-s-first-participatory-3d-mapping-for-forest-monitoring-and-conservation-management">can also be used </a> to display and disseminate Global Forest Watch data about tree cover loss, concessions and other relevant information.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/159007/original/image-20170301-5497-4doxzg.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/159007/original/image-20170301-5497-4doxzg.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159007/original/image-20170301-5497-4doxzg.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159007/original/image-20170301-5497-4doxzg.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159007/original/image-20170301-5497-4doxzg.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159007/original/image-20170301-5497-4doxzg.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159007/original/image-20170301-5497-4doxzg.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">New forest monitoring tools bring different generations together.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Arend de Haas/ACF</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Eyes on the ground</h2>
<p>The physical 3D model of the landscape serves as a powerful tangible monitoring tool that’s available to community members who are able to gather and discuss the latest threats and developments in the highland rainforest. This means that they are able to take on a greater, more responsible role in protecting their natural heritage. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/159018/original/image-20170301-5540-saapx8.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/159018/original/image-20170301-5540-saapx8.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159018/original/image-20170301-5540-saapx8.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159018/original/image-20170301-5540-saapx8.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159018/original/image-20170301-5540-saapx8.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159018/original/image-20170301-5540-saapx8.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159018/original/image-20170301-5540-saapx8.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Participatory mapping using a modular 3D model of the project area.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Arend de Haas/ACF</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The project also brought out the knowledge of communities by engaging representatives of both genders and of all ages in the map making process. Local people said that they were losing the knowledge of the elders because they have no written history and information is no longer passed on to young people as they move to urban areas. This place-bound historical knowledge about natural resources and cultural or sacred sites, including their original names, is incredibly valuable and has not been documented before.</p>
<p>Hundreds of people have participated in forest mapping activities with great interest as chiefs, delighted with the information being provided, have mobilised their villages.</p>
<p>Communities are eager to embrace new technologies because they provide them with tools and skills that strengthens their position when dealing with the authorities and international stakeholders.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/73695/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Arend de Haas is a director of the African Conservation Foundation and board member of the Institute for Biodiversity and Non-profit Studies. He receives funding from Global Forest Watch as a Research and Conservation Programme coordinator in the Cameroon highland rainforest. </span></em></p>Combining new technologies, including Global Forest Watch, a Forest Monitoring App and Participatory 3D Modelling, brings out traditional knowledge of the elders.Arend de Haas, Conservation Director at the African Conservation Foundation and lecturer and board member at the Institute of Biodiversity and Non-Profit Studies, University of BueaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/693752016-12-08T13:27:44Z2016-12-08T13:27:44ZAfrica should be worried about the expanding tropics<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/149026/original/image-20161207-15334-wzgrxo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Tropic of Capricorn sign in Namibia. Expansion of the tropics will have huge implications for people and nature.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>In school, we learnt that the tropical zone is defined as the hot region of our planet – between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. But the more important <a href="https://www.seas.harvard.edu/climate/eli/research/equable/hadley.html">climatic boundary</a> between tropical and temperate climates is bounded by the slightly larger region covering about 30 degrees latitude either side of the Equator. </p>
<p>The tropics are characterised by warm to hot temperatures throughout the year. Importantly, <a href="http://thebritishgeographer.weebly.com/the-climate-of-tropical-regions.html">latitudinal changes in temperature are small</a> compared with regions outside the tropics. Rainfall is largely abundant but it becomes increasingly seasonal with distance from the equator.</p>
<p>The tropical zone is <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/wcc.251/abstract">expanding poleward</a> at a rate unprecedented in perhaps hundreds of thousands of years. This has been referred to as Earth’s <a href="http://www.nature.com/news/the-mystery-of-the-expanding-tropics-1.19271">bulging waistline</a>. </p>
<p>Relative to the 1979 baseline, the tropics have expanded poleward <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Hanh_Nguyen40/publication/259543617_The_expanding_tropics_A_critical_assessment_of_the_observational_and_modeling_studies/links/53e41f550cf25d674e94b648.pdf">56km to 111km per decade in each hemisphere</a>. If this rate continues then we may witness an expansion of 850km by 2100. This is roughly equivalent to the distance from <a href="http://www.nature.com/news/the-mystery-of-the-expanding-tropics-1.19271">Rome to London</a>.</p>
<p>Expansion of the tropics has massive implications for <a href="http://stateofthetropics.org/wp-content/uploads/Essay-5-Isaac-and-Turton.pdf">societies, economies and the natural world</a> as Earth’s climatic zones shift poleward. Both human and natural systems will be forced to adapt to new climatic conditions. In particular, there will be unprecedented heat for hundreds of millions of people in the tropics as global warming accelerates.</p>
<p>Africa has the largest tropical footprint among the continents and is, therefore, severely threatened by expanding tropics. Over 80% of the continent lies within the band 30 degrees either side of the equator. African nations will be particularly vulnerable due to their <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-africa-is-particularly-vulnerable-to-climate-change-41775">lower socioeconomic development</a>.</p>
<h2>The ripple effect</h2>
<p>The poleward edges of the expanding tropics contain a large region dominated by high pressure atmospheric systems throughout the year. This dry subtropical zone is associated with the <a href="http://www.mapsofworld.com/world-desert-map.htm">world’s warm deserts</a> and is also shifting poleward as the tropics grow.</p>
<p>There is growing concern about the poleward shift of this <a href="http://www.nature.com/news/the-mystery-of-the-expanding-tropics-1.19271">dry subtropical zone</a> into highly populated regions that have generally enjoyed a more temperate climate. Threatened regions include southern California, the Mediterranean Basin countries and southern parts of Africa and Australia.</p>
<p><a href="http://icesjms.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2011/02/03/icesjms.fsq198.short">A compelling study</a> found that the dry subtropics may expand by as much as 30% by 2100. This will have dire consequences for water security, food production and biodiversity in many adjacent temperate regions. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/149024/original/image-20161207-25746-1knscut.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/149024/original/image-20161207-25746-1knscut.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/149024/original/image-20161207-25746-1knscut.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=355&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/149024/original/image-20161207-25746-1knscut.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=355&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/149024/original/image-20161207-25746-1knscut.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=355&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/149024/original/image-20161207-25746-1knscut.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/149024/original/image-20161207-25746-1knscut.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/149024/original/image-20161207-25746-1knscut.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Mediterranean climates of the world are experiencing drying and warming as the edge of dry subtropical zone - located near 30N and 30S shifts poleward.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Steve Turton</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The effects of latitudinal shifts in climate zones will be most obvious in populated <a href="http://stateofthetropics.org/wp-content/uploads/Essay-5-Isaac-and-Turton.pdf">temperate regions outside the tropics</a>, such as southern Europe and southwestern parts of the US.</p>
<h2>Impact on climate and species</h2>
<p>The Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change’s <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg2/WGIIAR5-Chap22_FINAL.pdf">rainfall projections</a> for Africa this century are consistent with an expanding tropics. Projections include declining rainfall in the north and south – but particularly for the southwest of the continent. Regions nearer the equator and the Horn of Africa may expect more rainfall.</p>
<p>Africa’s <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg2/WGIIAR5-Chap22_FINAL.pdf">temperature projections</a> for this century are alarming, especially for the high “business as usual” emission scenario. The entire continent will warm up with marked temperature increases projected for the interior. Hundreds of millions of people will be subjected to unprecedented average temperatures and more prolonged heat waves.</p>
<p>For mega-cities located in the zone of maximum heat like Lagos in Nigeria and Kinshasa in the Democratic Republic of Congo, there are simply no existing <a href="https://www.climatechangeinaustralia.gov.au/en/climate-projections/climate-analogues/analogues-explorer/">climate analogues</a> of what their climate may be like by mid century.</p>
<p>Humans will not be the only ones being effected. Many plant and animal species are <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/333/6045/1024">moving poleward</a> in an attempt to stay within their preferred environmental conditions. A classic example is <a href="http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v399/n6736/full/399579a0.html">butterflies</a>.</p>
<p>However, many species – especially in the tropics – may not be able to keep pace with the changing climatic conditions and could experience <a href="http://stateofthetropics.org/wp-content/uploads/Essay-5-Isaac-and-Turton.pdf">population declines or extinction</a>. </p>
<p>Species surviving on high mountain tops <a href="https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/extinction-countdown/how-will-climate-change-affect-mountain-gorillas/">like gorillas for example</a> – where there is limited higher cooler space available – are particularly vulnerable to global warming. They also face an uncertain future.</p>
<h2>Running out of land</h2>
<p>As the tropics move poleward, the dry subtropical zone will begin to squeeze adjacent, wetter temperate zones in both northern and southern Africa. These are highly important population and agricultural areas and also contain two globally significant <a href="http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v403/n6772/full/403853a0.html">“biodiversity hotspots”</a> – the African part of the Mediterranean Basin and the <a href="http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1007">Cape Floristic Region</a> at the south-western extremity of South Africa. </p>
<p>For both these regions there are simply no suitable land areas for ecosystems and their species to move poleward to keep pace with projected warming and drying trends. The Mediterranean Sea to the north and <a href="http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/howmanyoceans.html">Southern Ocean</a> to the south, provide formidable boundaries for the future movement of many land species. In the case of the Cape Floristic Region, the next land stop is frigid Antarctica.</p>
<p>We desperately need to work out ways to drastically reduce our global greenhouse gas emissions. If we are to slow, or preferably reverse, the expansion of the tropics and overheating of low latitude regions, we need to act or there will be serious consequences for all.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/69375/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Steve Turton has previously received funding from the Australian Government.</span></em></p>The tropics are expanding at an unprecedented rate. This will have massive implications for societies, economies and the natural world.Steve Turton, Adjunct Professor of Environmental Geography, CQUniversity AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.